Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE International Conference on Networking, Sensing & Control Taipei, Taiwan, March 21-23.

2004

An Ant Algorithm for Cell Assignment in PCS Networks

S.J. Shyu
Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering Ming Chuan University, Taiwan sjshyu@mcu.edu.tw

. B e r t r a n d M.T. Lin Department of Information Management National Chi Nan University, Taiwan mtlin@,ncnu.edu.tw

T.S. Hsiao
Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering Ming Chuan University, Taiwan

Abstract - Even though signiifcant improvemeni io communicaiions infrastructure has been atiained in the personal communication service industry, the issues concerning the assignment of cells io switches in order io minimize the cabling and handoff costs in a reasonable time remain challenging and need io be resolved. In this paper, we propose an algorithm based upon the Ani Coloq Optimization (ACO) approach to solve this cell assignment problem, which is alreo& known to be A@ hard. ACO is a metaheuristic inspired by the foraging behaviors of ani colonies. We model the cell assignment problem as a form of mulching problem in a compleie bipartite graph so ihai our artifcia2 ants can construct their tours on the graph. Experimental resulis demonshate that the proposed ACO algoriihm is an effective and promising approach in composing better approximaie assignments f o r the cell assignmeni problem as compared with some . exisiing heuristics and metaheuristics. The time needed by the ACO algorithm is also praciically reasonable. Keywords: Cell assignment, ant colony optimization, metaheuristic, multi-agent.

1 Introduction
Since the last decade, there have been significant advances in the development of mobile communication systems. Mobile networks in the next few years could he efficiently migrated to broadband services based on highspeed wireless access technologies (Cheng, Rajagopalan, Chang, Pollini and Barton, 1997). The backbone networks that are fostering current research include the public land mobile networks (PLMN), mobile Internet protocol networks, wireless asynchronous transfer mode (WATM) networks, and low e a r t h orbit satellite networks (Akyildiz, McNair, Ha, Uzunalioglu and Wan& 1998). Even though significant improvement to communications infrastructure has been attained in the personal communication service industry, the issues concerning the assignment of cells to switches in order to minimize the cabling and handoff costs in a reasonable time remain challenging and need to he resolved. In this paper, we address one of the critical problems concerning how to assign cells to switches to minimize the cost that is usually considered by the designers of such mobile communication services or personal communication services (PCS).

In PCS networks, each cell has an antenna that is used to communicate with subscribers over some preassigned radio frequencies. Groups of cells are connected to a switch, through which the cells are then routed to the terrestrial (PLMN, ATM, Internet) or satellite networks. Consider the example where cells A and B are connected to switch sIwhile cells C and D are connected to switch sz. Suppose that a subscriber is currently talking to sonleone and this call is transmitted through cell B and switch SI. If the subscriber moves from cell B to cell A , switch sIwill perform a handoff for this call. This call does not mgger any location update in the database that records the position of the subscriber. Besides, the handoff does not entail any network entity other than switch s,. Suppose that the subscriber moves from cell B to cell C. Then the handoff involves not only the modification of the location of the subscriber in the database but also the execution of a fairly complicated protocol between switches sI and SZ. Therefore, there are two types of handoffs, one involves only one switch and the other involves two switches. The latter is relatively more difficult and costly than the former. For a more comprehensive description of handoffs, the reader is referred to Yacoub (1993) and Merchant and Sengupta (1995). Obviously, the cells among which the handoff frequency is high should be assigned to the same switch (if possible) to reduce the handoff cost. Incorporating the cabling cost that occurs when a call is connected between a cell and a switch, we have an optimization problem, called the cell assignment problem (Merchant and Sengupta, 1995), of assigning the cells to switches such that the total hybrid cost is minimized under the constraint of call handling capacity.
Heuristic approaches to solving the cell assignment problem have been proposed in the literature since the middle of 1990s. For example, Merchant and Sengupta (1995) proposed a heuristic based upon a greedy strategy (denoted as H). More heuristics (H-11 and H-IV) and experiments could be found in Bhattacharjee, Saha and Mukherjee (1999). Bhattacharjee, Saha and Mukherjee (1999) designed experiments and the results show that 1 1or H-IV outperforms other heuristics in the heuristics H cases where the number of cells ranges from 25 to 484. Approaches based upon metaheuristics for resolving the cell assignment problem can also be found in the literature, including simulated annealing (SA) (Demirkol, Ersoy, Caglayan and Delic, 2001), tabu search (TQ

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(Pierre and Houeto, 2002a; Pierre and Houeto, 2002b) or genetic and memetic algorithms (Auintero and Pierre, 2002). It is beyond the scope of this paper to go into detail of these metaheuristics. The readers might refer the above-mentioned papers.

The goal of this paper is to solve the cell assignment problem by applying the Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) approach to explore the possibility of composing better solutions. ACO utilizes a nature metaphor originating from the food seeking behaviors of ant colonies. It has been successfidly applied to cope with several classical optimization problems. In this paper, we shall design an ACO algorithm and conduct experiments to study its effectiveness in solving the cell assignment problem.

Consider a cell assignment problem instance P with n cells and m switches. Let C denote the set of the n cells and S denote the set of the m switches in P . We may use a complete bipartite graph G = (V, E ) with weights ,C associated with nodes to represent P,where V = CU S n S = 0 and weights on nodes i a C denote the call volume of cell i, while weights on nodes k S denote the capacity of switch k. As a way, a feasible assignment A corresponds to a sub-bipartite graph G = (CU S,E) c G, where E ={(vl. v2) I v1 E C and v2 E S) L E with the constraints: (1) if edges el = (a, b), e2 = (c. d)E, then a f c and IEI = n, and (2) the constraint on switch capacity should be satisfied. Note that each vertex in C should appear as an end vertex of exactly one edge in E. An edge (vl,vz) ~Eindicates the assignment of cell v, to switch v2. Although the structure of G can dictate a feasible assignment of P, the edges in G are not necessarily connected so as to form a tour. Thus it is not easy for our artificial ants to traverse it out of G. A move of an ant from cell i to switch k corresponds to the assignment of cell i to switch k. However, once arriving switch k, this ant has to decide which cell to move on next to continue the remaining cell-to-switch assignment. We thus append edges E c E in G for our ants to move from the switches to the cells where E ={(vz, vI) 1 V]E C and v 2 S~ }LE with the constraint that if el = (a, b) and e2= (c. d) belong to E, then b t d and I E I = n-1. As a result, a subgraph G = (CIJ S ,EU E) of G, where E: E L E that satisfies the above-mentioned constraint would be suitable for our ants to traverse in G to consbuct the corresponding feasible assignment. In fact, a femiibfe assignment could be interpreted as a tour of a sequence of 2n-1 alternating edges in G ( 3 s4 ( s4 ), ( c,, , sb,
13
9

2. ACO Design for Cell Assignment

Ant algorithms were first proposed by Dorigo and his colleagues (Dorigo, Manieuo and Colomi, 1991; Dorigo, 1992) as a multi-agent approach to solving difficult combinatorial optimization problems such as the traveling salesperson problem and the quadratic assignment problem. ACO was inspired by some observations on real ant colonies. While walking from their colony to food sources back and forth, ants deposit pheromone on the ground forming a pheromone trail. A shorter path would accumulate more pheromone than longer ones. Ants thus prefer in probability to follow a path with more pheromone. As a positive feedback mechanism, more ants traverse through a shorter path and in turn this path will accumulate more pheromone. As a way, without visual cues ants are capable of finding the shortest path leading to food sources by exploiting pheromone information. The utilization of pheromone in the meantime reflects the adaptive memory mechanism (Taillard, Gambardella, Gendreau and Potvin, 2001). Due to the attractiveness about ant behaviors and simplicity in implementations, ACO has been gaining more and more research attention since the early 1990s. In our study, we transform the original cell assignment problem into a structure that is suitable for ants to search for solutions. In the literature, graphs have been widely adopted as such intrinsic structures. To name a few as examples, Dorigo and Gambardella (1997a; 199%) used a directed graph with weighted edges to represent TSP and a cycle in the graph corresponds to a feasible solution to TSP; Shyu, Yin, Lin and Haouari (2002) modeled the GMST as a undirected weighted graph with weighted edges and a tree could be a feasible solution to GMST. We shall model the cell assignment problem by a complete bipartite graph with weighted nodes as described in the following.

1 9

1 su, vS n. To minimize the total cost, the above tour shall be the one that minimize

where

determines whether cell a, and cell a , are

assigned to the same switch 0, i f b , = bj; 1, othenvie. Since each cell should be assigned to some switch exactly once in the cell assignment problem, we provide a short-term memory, called tabu, for our artificial ants to keep track of the celkalready assigned. While multiple cells might be assigned to a switch if the capacity
fOjOj

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constraint is not violated, we afford each ant another short-term memory, called few, to reflect the availability of switches. To find solutions to the cell assignment problem, an ant, say u, at cell i confronts two successive decisions to make: (1) which switch to move on (namely, which switch kcfeas" cell i will be assigned to), and (2) which cell to move on from the selected switch (namely, which cell ;E tabu" to continue). We call it a step for an ant to make these two decisions in sequence to assign a certain cell to some switch. After n steps with the exception that the nth step makes only decision (I), the ant could construct a tour, which corresponds to a feasible assignment of the original problem. Such an n-step process is called an iteration. In the following, we describe our detail design, including state transition rules and pheromone updating N I ~ , for our ants to make their two decisions in each step in the following.
1. State Transition Rules In general, while constructing a solution using the ACO heuristic, an ant moves on relying on the information given hy pheromone intensify and dynamic heuristicfunction. An ant at some cell i has to make two successive decisions in each step. The two decisions refer to different knowledge with respect to the problem status. Therefore, we employ different greedy heuristic functions and define two pheromone trails to constitute the corresponding state transition rules for our ants to stochastically make their decisions. Suppose that ant u is currently positioned at cell i. Our state transition rules for the above two decisions are:

We use the inverse value of the partial cost g,,b, during the first r steps as our heuristic function
7 ] &

in

step r of some iteration. Then, the probability for ant u at cell i to move to switch k (i.e., assigning cell i to switch k) in the r-th step of this iteration is defined as follows.

1,

i f q < q o a n d k = a r g may { r j 3 x ( q j s ) ~ ) ; E /ea-

SE f e r n y

0,
where

othenvise(k d &as"),

r,k denotes the amount of pheromone on edge (i, k), qo ( 0 9 0 5 1) is the relative preference for exploitation or exploration, p ( 0 t 0) is the relative importance

between pheromone density and heuristic value, andfeas" denotes the feasible set of switches that the cells can be assigned to without violating the capacity constraints for ant u. Ant u at cell i picks up a pseudo random number q (OS q 5 1) to make its move in step r: if q< qo, it moves to switch k through edge (i, k) that achieves the maximum value of r,k(q,k)' ; if q>qo, it moves to switch k in a probabilistic way, which provides a biased exploration to avoid stagnation and to find better solutions. It is easy to see that we prefer a switch k from cell i via an edge with a higher pheromone density (more accumulated knowledge) and a higher heuristic value (lower partial cost by a greedy approach) to construct a solution path. Tuning the values of q0 allows us to have an adaptive degree of exploration, Le., whether to exploit the steps that seem to be the most promising or to explore the search space probabilistically.

Once the ant chooses an edge to move from a cell to a certain switch in the r-th step of some iteration, a partial cost incurred during the first r steps could be computed. We employ the partial cost built in the first r steps as the basis of our heuristic. Let cell a, denote the cell on which ant u is and b, denote the switch to which cell a, is assigned in step r, 1 I r 2 n. Thus cell a, is the starting cell of ant u. Let garb, denote the partial cost incurred when ant u moves from cell a, to switch 6, after step r. The partial cost gOrb, can be calculated by

(2) Following an edge from switch k to an un-visited cell; We employ a greedy heuristic for ants to choose a cell not yet assigned to move on. The cell with the most heavy call volume is considered first in each step. Ant u memorizes the cells that have been traversed in the current iteration in tabu".
We define heuristic function 0 ; as the inverse value of the call volume of cell J , which does not belong to tabu" for ant u, i.e., rj, = ( A , ) . ' . Once ant u arrives at cell
j from switch k, it deposits some pheromone, defined as T & , to communicate its experience about this edge with

ifr=l;

0, ifb, = bl;

other ants. We use the following probability function

1, otherwise,

where the value of

11a,4

depends on whether cell a,(the

for ant u at switch k to make its choice.

cell visited by ant u in step I, l < k ) and cell a, (the cell on which ant u is) are assigned to a same switch.

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I,

if q < qb and J = arg max

sefobu

{rh&P};

from cell i to switch k (or from switch k to cell J ] , the application of local updating rule makes the corresponding pheromone trail rik (or r& ) decreased. This is to make the visited edges less attractive and indirectly favors the exploration of the not-yet-visited edges. Ants therefore tend not to converge to a common path. 3. Local Search Whenever a new global-best solution is derived at the end of some iteration, we employ a local search to improve the currently global-best cell-to-switch assignments until a local optimum is reached. Our local search is a greedy approach.

srtobu

0,

otherwise ( J E tabu),

where qb (O< qb 5 1) is the relative preference for exploitation or exploration, 0( p t 0) is the relative importance of the pheromone density and heuristic value, and tabu denotes the set of cells that have been visited by ant u. 2. Pheromone Updating Rules At the end of each iteration, we undertake a global (off-line)pheromone trail update on the edges in the best tour derived in the most recent iteration. For simplicity, we call such a tour the iteration-best tour. Let f denote the iteration-best tour and Q denote the cost of T .The global pheromone updating rule is defined as follows:
= ( l - P b # k +&r&-,

3. Experiments
To test the effectiveness of ACO in solving the largesize cell assignment problems, we implement heuristics including H proposed in Merchant and Sengupta (1995) and Bhakcharjee, Saha and Mukherjee, (1999), H-rI and H-rV in Bhattacbarjee, Saha and Mukhejee (1999); also metaheuristics including SA in Demirkol et al. (2001), TS in Pierre and Houeto (2002a; 2002b), M A using TS as local searcb in Auintero and Pierre (2002) and compare their results with those of ACO. The parameters involved in the metaheuristics have been tested in advance to get high performances. The testing cases of the cell assignment problem are set to n = 50, 100, 150, 200 or 250 and m = 5 , 7 , IO or 15. Two more large-size problem instances n = 350 or 500, and m = 20 are also tested. Ten problem instances are randomly generated for each pair of n and m and the results are averaged. From the results shown in Table 1 and Table 2, we find that the metaheuristics, i.e., SA, TS, M A and ACO demonstrate better performances than H , H-Il and H-rV at the expense of more computation time. It is commonly recognized that the performance of a metabeuristic is highly dependent on specific parameter settings. Therefore, the statistics of our experiments does not imply the absolute superiority over other approaches. However, the statistics resulted from our extensive experiments may suggest that the features incorporated in our ACO algorithm deliver satisfactory solutions to the cell assignment problem.

2k

Arrk =

otherwise,

and

rk

= (I - p)rb

+ p;i.b,

Arb =

(e-)., i f ( k , j ) e p ;
0,
otherwise,

where p (O< p 2 1) is the pheromone evaporation coefficient. Therefore, the pheromone density on the edges of the iteration-hest tour will increase to guide the search session of other ants. Evaporation of pheromone on edges reflects the natural phenomenon and will make the unvisited edges less attractive as the time is going on. The coordination between Artk ( Ark ) and p will be discussed in the following section. To keep away from stagnation or early converge, a situation in which all the ants reconstruct the same solution and stop exploring new possibilities before the optimal solution is found, we perform a local (on-line) pheromone trail updating rule to facilitate the emergence of other solutions than the best one attained as far. The local pheromone trail updating rule is defined as:
rrk = (1 - VIr& + pro,

if (i.k) has been selected by some ant and r & = ( l - p ) r k + pro, if (kj]has been selected by some ant, where p (O<p S 1) is the parameter controlling the degree of pheromone decay. The value of ro is set to be the same as the initial value of the pheromone trails and it is tentatively set as r,, = n / 100. Whenever an ant moves

4. Conclusions
Cell assignment is essential to the development of PCS or global communication services. In this paper, we have developed an ACO algorithm to solve the cell assignment problem. We have modeled the cell assignment problem in a form of matching problem in a complete bipartite graph so that OUT artificial ants can construct their tours on the graph. Numerical results of the

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experiments have demonstrated the effectiveness and scalability of our ACO algorithm in coping with the cell assignment problem. Although ACO takes a longer time than the three heuristics H, H-ll and H-rV, it finds much better approximate solutions. When compared with other mctaheuristics, ACO requires less time and also delivers better solutions. Moreover the experimental results demonstrate the scalability and robustness of ACO. The time needed by ACO is reasonable when compared with that needed to derive an optimal solution. The concern of solution quality against temporal issue is a trade-off for PCS designers. For the cell assignment problem, ACO is an excellent and promising approach to delivering good solution quality within reasonable computational time.

References
I.F. Akyildiz, J. McNair, J. Ho, H. Uzunalioglu, and W. Wang, Mobility management in current and hture communication networks, IEEE Network Magazine, August 1998. 2. Auintero, A. and Pierre, S., Evolutionary approach to optimize the assignment of cells to switches in personal communication networks, Submitted to Computer Communications. 3. P. S. Bhattacharjee, D. Saha and A. Mukherjee, Heuristics for assignment of cells to switches in a PCSN: A comparative study, ICPWC99;pp.331-334, 1999. 4. B. Bullnbeimer, R. F. Hart1 and C. Strauss, Applying the Ant System to the vehicle routing problem, In: S. VoD, S. Martello, I.H. Osman, C. Roucairol (Eds.), Metaheuristics: Advances and Trendr in Local Search Paradigms for Optimization, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA, pp. 285-296, 1999. 5. M. Cheng, S. Rajagopalan, L. F. Chang, G. P. Pollini, G. P. and M. Barton, PCS mobility support over fixed ATM networks, IEEE Communication Magazine, Vol. 35, pp. 82-92, 1997. 6. D. Costa and A. Hertz. Ants can color aaDhs. Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 48, pp. 295-305.1997. 7. Demirkol, C. Enoy, M. U. Caglayan and H. Delic, Location area planning in cellular networks using simulated annealing, INFOCOM 2001, pp.13-20. 8. G. Di Car0 and M. Dorigo, Mobile agents for adaptive routing, Proceedings of the 3/st Hawaii International Conference on System, IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA, 1998, pp. 74-83. 9. G. Di Caro and M. Dorigo, AntNet: Distributed stigmergetic control for communications networks, Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, Val. 9, 1998,pp. 317-365. IO. M. Dorigo, Optimization, Learning and Natural Algorithms. Ph.D. Thesis, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Politecnico di Milano, Italy (in Italian), 1992.
I.
1

11. M. Dorigo, V. Maniezzo and A. Colorni, Positive Feedback as a Search Stratea, Technical Report 91016, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Politecnico di Milano, Italy, 1991. 12. M. Dorigo and L. M. Gambardella, Ant colony system: A cooperative learning approach to the traveling salesman problem, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionaiy Computation, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 53-66, 199la. 13. M. Dorigo and L. M. Gamhardella, Ant colonies for the traveling salesman problem, BioSystems, Vol. 43, 1997h, pp. 73-81. 14. L. M. Gambardella, E. D. Taillard and G. Agazzi, M A C S - W T W : A multiple ant colony system for vehicle routing problems with time windows, In: D. Come, M. Dorigo, F. Glover (Eds.), New Ideas in Optimization, McGraw-Hill, London, UK, 1999, pp. 63-16. 15. V. Maniezzo and A. Colorni, The ant system applied to the quadratic assignment problem, IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 5, 1999, pp. 2063-2070. 16. P. R. McMullen, An ant colony optimization approach to addressing a JIT sequencing problem with multiple objectives, Artificial Intelligence in Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3,2001, pp. 309-317. 17. Merchant and B. Sengupta, Assignment of cells to switches in PCS network, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 3, No. 5, 1995, pp. 521-526. 18. S. Pierre and F. Houito, A tabu-search approach for assigning cells to switches in cellular mobile networks, Computer Communications, Vol. 25, No. 5, March 2002a, pp. 464-477. 19. S. Pierre and F. Houeto, Assigning cells to switches in cellular mobile networks using taboo search, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, And CyberneticsPart B: Cybernetics, Vol. 32, No. 3, June 2002b, pp. 351-356 20. R. Schoondenvoerd, 0. Holland, J. Bruten and L. Rothkrantz, Ant-based load balancing in telecommunications networks, Adaptive Behavior, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1997, pp. 169-207. 21. S. J. Shyu, P. Y. Yin and B. M. T. Lin, An ant colony optimization algorithm for the minimum weight vertex cover problem, accepted by Annals of Operations Research, May 2003. 22. S.J. Shyu, P.Y. Yin, B.M.T. Lin and M. Haouari, AntTree: An Ant Colony Optimization Approach to the Generalized Minimum Spanning Tree Problem, Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 15,No. 1 , 2 0 0 3 , ~ 103-112. ~. 23. E.D. Taillard, L. M., Gambardella, M. Gendreau, and J.-Y. Potvin, Adaptive memory programming: A unified view of metaheuristics, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 135, No. 1, 2001, pp. 116.

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24. G.N. Varela and M.C. Sinclair, Ant colony optimisation for virtual-wavelength-path routing and wavelength allocation, Proceedings o f the Congress on Evolutionary Computation (CEC'99). Washington DC, USA, July 1999.

25. M.D. Yacoub, Foundafions of Mobile Radio Engineering, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1993.

Table 1. Relative deviation for different heuristics with respect to ACO

(n, m)

(H-11(H-aco)iaco ACO)/ACO
X I 0 0 (%)

aco)/Aco
x 100 (%)

(H-IV-

Aco)/aco ac0)laco
x

(sa-

(E-

aco)/aco
x

(Ma-

loo (%)

(503

(50,lO)
(50,W

(IOOS)
( I 00,lO)
( 100,15)

(150S)
( I 50,lO) (lSO,I5)

(200s) (200,lO) (200,15) 1250.5) (250.10) (250.15) (350.20) (500.20)

I
i l

~~

16.35 I7.89 14.96 12.40 22.73 20.83 30.72 30.31 26.80 21.67 39.92 46.87 25.91 23.74 32.66 37.48 38.01

18.34 25.83 25.59 16.23 21.63 29.21 16.30 30.73 27.79 13.42 29.15 33.26 19.07 16.79 31.60 30.98 32.50

18.71 26.13 23.78 19.43 21.65 25.50 12.63 28.77 29.23 12.03 24.20 33.41 11.74 17.55 26.05 32.07 31.18

LOO (%) 8.31 3.95 3.39 10.28 9.96 9.07 3.02 9.30
10.55

x 100 (%)

100 (%)

9.78

. 8.64
13.41 9.68 9.85 8.81 15.37 17.01

8.68 4.68 4.07 9.55 9.22 8.98 2.56 6.70 9.05 8.94 8.03 12.00 7.55 8.36 7.32 10.31 11.54

7.39 3.81 1.88 7.68 8.86 8.60 1.77 2.89 5.68 6.63 7.00 9.50 0.46 5.86 5.47 6.63 7.82
~

Table 2. CPU time (sec.) needed by different heuristics

(n. m)
(50S)

H-I1

H-IY

SA

TS

Ma

ACO

(50.7)
Cj0,'lO) (50.151

(100,5) (100,7)
1100.10) (100.15i (150S)

(iso,io)
(150.15)

(150.7)

(2003 (200,71 (200.10) . . . (200.15) (2503 (250.71

.

0.1 0.1 0. I 0.1 0.1 0.1

0.2
0.1

0.2
0.3

(k0,lO)

250.15 (350,20) (500,20)

1.3 3.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.2

9.1 9.9 12.4 8.3 32.9 34.8 37.2 42.5 65.7 84.4 80.2 92.6 138.9 140.5 139.0 169.9 86.8 228.0 234.6 254.1 1.1678.9 2.7886.9

0.9 1.3 2.3 1.8 5.6 6.2 7.1

10.0

18.5 19.4 22.2 17.9

110.1

116.9 115.7
115.8

19.3 21.0 25.8 40.2 28.2 42.3 60.0 62.4 42.3 73.4 97.2 15.7 1,108.9 2.357.6

728.4 750.4 747.0 751.8 2,696.8 2,733.6 2.807.0 2:SOS.S 7,748.1 7.813.0 7,437.0 7,930.1 90,018.1 145,210.6

1.3 1.7 2.7 4.7 5.4 8.2 2.5 23.6 13.3 19.4 35.4 49.0 24.6 35.4 66.1 117.4 43.7 68.0 100.0 191.6 744.5 1,684.8

(- denotes that the CPU time is less than 0.1 seconds.)

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