4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantitythat expresses the internal forces that neighboring particlesof a continuous material exert on each other. For example, when a solid vertical bar is supporting aweight, each particle in the bar pulls on the particles immediately above and below it. When a liquid is under pressure, each particle gets pushed inwards by all the surrounding particles, and, in reaction, pushes them outwards. These forces are actually the average of a very large number ofintermolecular forcesand collisionsbetween themolecules in those particles. Stress inside a body may arise by various mechanisms, such as reaction to external forces applied to the bulk material (likegravity) or to its surface (like contact forces, external pressure, or friction). Any strain (deformation) of a solid material generates an internalelastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of aspring, that tends to restore the material to its original undeformed state. In liquids and gases, only deformations that change the volume generate persistent elastic stress. However, if the deformation is gradually changing with time, even in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change. Elastic and viscous stresses are usually combined under the namemechanical stress. Significant stress may exist even when deformation is negligible (a common assumption when modeling the flow of water) or non-existent. Stress may exist in the absence of external forces; suchbuilt-in stress is important, for example, inprestressed concreteand tempered glass. Stress may also be imposed on a material without the application of net forces, for example by changes in temperature orchemicalcomposition, or by externalelectromagnetic fields (as inpiezoelectric andmagnetostrictivematerials). Quantitatively, the stress is expressed by the Cauchy traction vector Tdefined as the traction force Fbetween adjacent parts of the material across an imaginary separating surface S, divided by the area ofS.[1]:p.4150 In a fluidat rest the force is perpendicular to the surface, and is the familiar pressure. In asolid, or in a flow of viscous liquid, the force F may not be perpendicular to S; hence the stress across a surface must be regarded a vector quantity, not a scalar. Moreover, the direction and magnitude generally depend on the orientation of S. Thus the stress state of the material must be described by tensor, called the (Cauchy) stress tensor; which is a linear function that relates the normal vector n of a surfaceS to the stress Tacross S. With respect to any chosen coordinate system, the Cauchy stress tensor can be represented as asymmetric matrix of 3x3 real numbers. Even within a homogeneous body, the stress tensor may vary from place to place, and may change over time; therefore, the stress within a material is, in general, a timevarying tensor field.

The relation between mechanical stress, deformation, and therate of change of deformation can be quite complicated, although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough. Stress that exceeds certainstrength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such asplastic flow, fracture,cavitation) or even change its crystal structure andchemical composition.

The stress across a surface element (yellow disk) is the force that the material on one side (top ball) exerts on the material on the other side (bottom ball), divided by the area of the surface.

In some branches ofengineering, the termstress is occasionally used in a looser sense as a synonym of "internal force". For example, in the analysis of trusses, it may refer to the total traction or compression force acting on a beam, rather than the force divided by the area of its cross-section.
Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Overview 3 Simple stresses 4 General stress
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics) 1/10

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

5 Stress analysis 6 Theoretical background 7 Alternative measures of stress 8 See also 9 Further reading 10 References

History
Since ancient times humans have been consciously aware of stress inside materials. Until the 17th century the understanding of stress was largely intuitive and empirical; and yet it resulted in some surprisingly sophisticated technology, like thecomposite bow andglass blowing. Over several millennia, architects and builders, in particular, learned how to put together carefully shaped wood beams and stone blocks to withstand, transmit, and distribute stress in the most effective manner, with ingenious devices such as the capitals,arches, cupolas,trusses and the flying buttresses of gothic cathedrals.
A Roman-era bridge in Sw itzerland.

[edit]

Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple formulas to compute the proper sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific understanding of stress became possible only after the the necessary tools were invented in the 17th and 18th centuries: Galileo's rigorous experimental method, Descartes'scoordinates andanalytic geometry, Inca suspension bridge on the Apurimac River. and Newton's laws of motion and equilibrium andcalculus of infinitesimals. With those tools, Cauchywas able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for stress in a homogeneous medium. Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary surface was a linear function of its normal vector; and, moreover, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum). The understanding of stress in liquids started with Newton himself, who provided a differential formula for friction forces (shear stress) in laminar parallel flow.

Overview
Definition

[edit] [edit]

Stress is defined as the average force per unit area that some particle of a body exerts on an adjacent particle, across an imaginary surface that separates them.[2]:p.4671 Being derived from a fundamental physical quantity (force) and a purely geometrical quantity (area), stress is also a fundamental quantity, like velocity,torque or energy, that can be quantified and analyzed without explicit consideration of the nature of the material or of its physical causes. Following the basic premises of continuum mechanics, stress is a macroscopicconcept. Namely, the particles considered in its definition and analysis should be just small enough to be treated as homogeneous in composition and state, but still large enough to ignorequantum effects and the detailed motions of molecules. Thus, the force between two particles is actually the average of a very large number of atomic forces between their molecules; and physical quantities like mass, velocity, and forces that act through the bulk of three-dimensional bodies, like gravity, are assumed to be smoothly distributed over them.[3]:p.90106Depending on the context, one may also assume that the particles are large enough to allow the averaging out of other microscopic features, like
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics) 2/10

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

the grains of ametal rod or the fibersof a piece of wood.

Normal and shear stress

Further information:compression (physical) and Shear stress

[edit]

In general, the stress T that a particle Papplies on another particle Q across a surface S can have any direction relative to S. The vector Tmay be regarded as the sum of two components: thenormal stress(Compression orTension) perpendicular to the surface, and theshear stress that is parallel to it. If the normal unit vector n of the surface (pointing fromQ towards P) is assumed fixed, the normal component can be expressed by a single number, thedot product Tn. This number will be positive if P is "pulling" on Q(tensile stress), and negative if P is "pushing" against Q(compressive stress) The shear component is then the vector T (Tn)n.

Units

[edit]

The dimension of stress is that ofpressure, and therefore its coordinates are commonly measured in the same units as pressure: namely,pascals (Pa, that is,newtons per square metre) in theInternational System, or pounds per square inch (psi) in theImperial system.

Causes and effects

Stress in a material body may be due to multiple physical causes, including external influences and internal physical processes. Some of these agents (like gravity, changes intemperature andphase, and electromagnetic fields) act on the bulk of the material, varying continuously with position and time. Other agents (like external loads and friction, ambient pressure, and contact forces) may create stresses and forces that are concentrated on certain surfaces, lines, or points; and possibly also on very short time intervals (as in the impulsesdue to collisions). In general, the stress distribution in the body is expressed as a piecewisecontinuous function of space and time. Conversely, stress is usually correlated with various effects on the material, possibly including changes in physical properties like birefringence,polarization, andpermeability. The imposition of stress by an external agent usually creates somestrain (deformation) in the material, even if it is too small to be detected. In a solid material, such strain will in turn generate an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a stretched spring, tending to restore the material to its original undeformed state. Fluid materials (liquids, gases andplasmas) by definition can only oppose deformations that would change their volume. However, if the deformation is changing with time, even in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change.

[edit]

Glass vase w ith the craqueleffect. The cracks are the result of brief but intense stress created w hen the semi-molten piece is briefly dipped in w ater.[4]

The relation between stress and its effects and causes, including deformation and rate of change of deformation, can be quite complicated (although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough). Stress that exceeds certainstrength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such asplastic flow, fracture,cavitation) or even change its crystal structure andchemical composition.

Simple stresses

[edit]

In some situations, the stress within a body may adequately described by a single number, or by a single vector (a number and a direction). Three suchsimple stresssituations, that are often encountered in engineering design, are the uniaxial normal stress , thesimple shear stress , and the isotropic normal stress .[5]

Uniaxial normal stress

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)

[edit]
3/10

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A common situation with a simple stress pattern is when a straight rod, with uniform material and cross section, is subjected to tensionby opposite forces of magnitude along its axis. If the system is in equilibrium and not changing with time, and the weight of the bar can be neglected, then through each transversal section of the bar the top part must pull on the bottom part with the same force FTherefore the stress throughout the bar, across any horizontalsurface, can be described by the number = F/ A , where A is the area of the cross-section. On the other hand, if one imagines the bar being cut along its length, parallel to the axis, there will be no force (hence no stress) between the two halves across the cut.

Idealized stress in a straight bar w ith uniform cross-section.

This type of stress may be called (simple ) normal stress or uniaxial stress; specifically, (uniaxial, simple , etc.) tensile stress.[5] If the load is compression on the bar, rather than stretching it, the analysis is the same except that the forceF and the stress change sign, and the stress is calledcompressive stress. This analysis assumes the stress is evenly distributed over the entire cross-section. In practice, depending on how the bar is attached at the ends and how it was manufactured, this assumption may not be valid. In that case, the value = F/A will be only the average stress, calledengineering stressor nominal stress. However, if the bar's length L is many times its diameter D, and it has no gross defects or built-in stress, then the stress can be assumed to be uniformly distributed over any cross-section that is more than a few times Dfrom both ends. (This observation is known as the Saint-Venant's principle). Normal stress occurs in many other situations besides axial tension and compression. If an elastic bar with uniform and symmetric cross-section is bent in one of its planes of symmetry, The ratio may be only an the resulting bending stress will still be normal (perpendicular to average stress. The stress may be unevenly distributed over the cross section ( mm), the cross-section), but will vary over the cross section: the outer especially near the the attachment points ( nn). part will be under tensile stress, while the inner part will be compressed. Another variant of normal stress is thehoop stress that occurs on the walls of a cylindrical pipe orvessel filled with pressurized fluid.

Simple shear stress

Another simple type of stress occurs when an uniformly thick layer of elastic material like glue or rubber is firmly attached to two stiff bodies that are pulled in opposite directions by forces parallel to the layer; or a section of a soft metal bar that is being cut by the jaws of ascissors-like tool. LetF be the magnitude of those forces, and Mbe the midplane of that layer. Just as in the normal stress case, the part of the layer on one side ofM must pull the other part with the same force F. Assuming that the direction of the forces is known, the stress across Mcan be expressed by the single number = F/A, where F is the magnitude of those forces and A is the area of the layer.

[edit]

Shear stress in a horizontal bar loaded by tw o offset blocks.

However, unlike normal stress, this simple shear stressis directed parallel to the cross-section considered, rather than perpendicular to it.[5] For any plane Sthat is perpendicular to the layer, the net internal force across S, and
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics) 4/10

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

hence the stress, will be zero. As in the case of an axially loaded bar, in practice the shear stress may not be uniformly distributed over the layer; so, as before, the ratio F/Awill only be an average ("nominal", "engineering") stress. However, that average is often sufficient for practical purposes.[6]:p.292Shear stress is observed also when a cyindrical bar such as a shaft is subjected to opposite torques at its ends. In that case, the shear stress on each cross-section is parallel to the cross-section, but oriented tangentially relative to the axis, and increases with distance from the axis. Significant shear stress occurs in the middle plate (the "web") of I-beamsunder bending loads, due to the web constraining the end plates ("flanges").

Isotropic stress
Another simple type of stress occurs when the material body is under equal compression or tension in all directions. This is the case, for example, in a portion of liquid or gas at rest, whether enclosed in some container or as part of a larger mass of fluid; or inside a cube of elastic material that is being pressed or pulled on all six faces by equal perpendicular forces provided, in both cases, that the material is homogeneous, without built-in stress, and that the effect of gravity and other external forces can be neglected. In these situations, the stress across any imaginary internal surface turns out to be equal in magnitude and always directed perpendicularly to the surface independently of the surface's orientation. This type of stress may be calledisotropic normal or just isotropic; if it is compressive, it is called hydrostatic pressure or justpressure . Gases by definition cannot withstand tensile stresses, but liquids may withstand very small amounts of isotropic tensile stress.

[edit]

Cylinder stresses

[edit]

Isotropic tensile stress. Top left: Each face of a cube of homogeneous material is pulled by a force w ith magnitude F, applied evenly over the entire face w hose area is A. The force across any section S of the cube must balance the forces applied below the section. In the three sections show n, the forces are F (top right), F (bottom left), and F and the area of S is A, A (bottom right); and A ,

Parts with rotational symmetry, such as wheels, axles, pipes, and pillars, are very common in engineering. Often the stress patterns that occur in such parts have rotational or even cylindrical symmetry. The analysis of suchcylinder stresses can take advantage of the symmetry to reduce the dimension of the domain and/or of the stress tensor.

respectively. So the stress across S is F/A in all three cases.

General stress

[edit]

Often, mechanical bodies experience more than one type of stress at the same time; this is calledcombined stress. In normal and shear stress, the magnitude of the stress is maximum for surfaces that are perpendicular to a certain direction , and zero across any surfaces that are parallel to . When the stress is zero only across surfaces that are perpendicular to one particular direction, the stress is called biaxial, and can be viewed as the sum of two normal or shear stresses. In the most general case, called triaxial stress, the stress is nonzero across every surface element.

The Cauchy stress tensor

[edit]

Combined stresses cannot be described by a single vector. Even if the material is stressed in the same way throughout the volume of the body, the stress across any imaginary surface will depend on the orientation of that surface, in a non-trivial way. However, Cauchy observed that the stress vector
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)

across a surface will always be a linear function of the

5/10

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

surface's normal vector , the unit-length vector that is perpendicular to it. That is, , where the function satisfies

for any vectors

and any real numbers

. The function

now called the(Cauchy) stress tensor, completely describes the stress state of a uniformly stressed body. (Today, any linear connection between two physical vector quantities is called atensor, reflecting Cauchy's original use to describe the "tensions" (stresses) in a material.) Intensor calculus, is classified as second-order tensor of type (0,2). Like any linear map between vectors, the stress tensor can be represented in any chosen Cartesian coordinate system by a 33 matrix of real numbers. Depending on whether the coordinates are numbered or named , the matrix may be written as
Illustration of typical stresses (arrow s) across various surface elements on the boundary of a particle (sphere), in a homogeneous material under uniform (but not isotropic) triaxial stress. The normal stresses on the principal axes are +5, +2, and 3 units.

or

The stress vector matrix product

across a surface with normal vector , that is

with coordinates

is then a

The linear relation between and follows from the fundamental laws ofconservation of linear momentum and static equilibrium of forces, and is therefore mathematically exact, for any material and any stress situation. The components of the Cauchy stress tensor at every point in a material satisfy the equilibrium equations (Cauchys equations of motionfor zero acceleration). Moreover, the principle ofconservation of angular momentumimplies that the stress tensor is symmetric, that is , , and . Therefore, the stress state of the medium at any point and instant can be specified by only six independent parameters, rather than nine. These may be written

where the elements system), and

are called theorthogonal normal stresses (relative to the chosen coordinate the orthogonal shear stresses. [edit]

Change of coordinates

The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the system of coordinates. A graphical representation of this transformation law is the Mohr's circle of stress distribution. As a symmetric 33 real matrix, the stress tensor has three mutually orthogonal unit-lengtheigenvectors and three real eigenvalues , such that . Threfore, in a coordinate system with axes , the stress tensor is a diagonal matrix, and has only the three normal components theprincipal stresses. If the three eigenvalues are equal, the stress is an isotropiccompression or
6/10

tension, always perpendicular to any surface; there is no shear stress, and the tensor is a diagonal matrix in any
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

coordinate frame.

Stress as a tensor field

[edit]

In general, stress is not uniformly distributed over a material body, and may vary with time. Therefore the stress tensor must be defined for each point and each moment, by considering aninfinitesimal particle of the medium surrounding that point, and taking the average stresses in that particle as being the stresses at the point.

Stress in thin plates

Man-made objects are often made from stock plates of various materials by operations that do not change their essentially twodimensional character, like cutting, drilling, gentle bending and welding along the edges. The description of stress in such bodies can be simplified by modeling those parts as two-dimensional surfaces rather than three-dimensional bodies.

[edit]

In that view, one redefines a "particle" as being an infinitesimal patch of the plate's surface, so that the boundary between adjacent particles becomes an infinitesimal line element; both are implicitly A tank car made from bent and w elded steel extended in the third dimension, straight through the plate. "Stress" plates. is then redefined as being a measure of the internal forces between two adjacent "particles" across their common line element, divided by the length of that line. Some components of the stress tensor can be ignored, but since particles are not infinitesimal in the third dimension one can no longer ignore the torque that a particle applies on its neighbors. That torque is modeled as a bending stressthat tends to change the curvature of the plate. However, these simplifications may not hold at welds, at sharp bends and creases (where theradius of curvature is comparable to the thickness of the plate).

Stress in thin beams

The analysis of stress can be considerably simplified also for thin bars, beams or wires of uniform (or smoothly varying) composition and cross-section that are subjected to moderate bending and twisting. For those bodies may consider only cross-sections that are perpendicular to the bar's axis, and redefine a "particle" as being a piece of wire with infinitesimal length between two such cross sections. The ordinary stress is then reduced to a scalar (tension or compression of the bar), but one must take into account also a bending stress(that tries to change the bar's curvature, in some direction perpendicular to the axis) and a torsional stress (that tries to twist or un-twist it about its axis).

[edit]

Other descriptions of stress

[edit]

The Cauchy stress tensor is used for stress analysis of material bodies experiencing small deformations where the differences in stress distribution in most cases can be neglected. For large deformations, also called finite deformations, other measures of stress, such as the first and second PiolaKirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot stress tensor, and theKirchhoff stress tensor, are required.

Solids, liquids, and gases have stress fields. Static fluids support normal stress but will flow undershear stress. Movingviscous fluids can support shear stress (dynamic pressure). Solids can support both shear and normal stress, withductile materials failing under shear and brittle materials failing under normal stress. All materials have temperature dependent variations in stressrelated properties, and non-Newtonian materials have rate-dependent variations.

For stress modeling, a fishing pole may be considered onedimensional.

Stress analysis
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)

[edit]
7/10

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Stress analysis is a branch of applied physics that covers the determination of the internal distribution of stresses in solid objects. It is an essential tool inengineering for the study and design of structures such astunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and structural frames, under prescribed or expected loads. It is also important in many other disciplines; for example, in geology, to study phenomena like plate tectonics,vulcanism andavalanches; and inbiology, to understand theanatomy of living beings.

Goals and assumptions

[edit]

Stress analysis is generally concerned with objects and structures that can be assumed to be in macroscopic static equilibrium. ByNewton's laws of motion, any external forces are being applied to such a system must be balanced by internal reaction forces,[7]:p.97which are almost always surface contact forces between adjacent particles that is, as stress.[1] Since every particle needs to be in equilibrium, this reaction stress will generally propagate from particle, creating a stress distribution throughout the body. The typical problem in stress analysis is to determine these internal stresses, given the external forces that are acting on the system. The latter may be body forces (such as gravity or magnetic attraction), that act throughout the volume of a material;[8]:p.4281 or concentrated loads (such as friction between an axle and a bearing, or the weight of a train wheel on a rail), that are imagined to act over a two-dimensional area, or along a line, or at single point. In stress analysis one normally disregards the physical causes of the forces or the precise nature of the materials. Instead, one assumed that the stresses are related to deformation (and, in non-static problems, to the rate of deformation) of the material by knownconstitutive equations.[9]

Methods

[edit]

Stress analysis may be carried out experimentally, by applying loads to the actual artifact or to scale model, and measuring the resulting stresses, by any of several available methods. This approach is often used for safety certification and monitoring. However, most stress analysis is done by mathematical methods, especially during design. The basic stress analysis problem can be formulated byEuler's equations of motion for continuous bodies (which are consequences ofNewton's laws for conservation of linear momentum andangular momentum) and the EulerCauchy stress principle, together with the appropriate constitutive equations. Thus one obtains a system ofpartial differential equations involving the stress tensor field and the strain tensorfield, as unknown functions to be determined. The external body forces appear as the independent ("right-hand side") term in the differential equations, while the concentrated forces appear as boundary conditions. The basic stress analysis problem is therefore a boundary-value problem. Stress analysis forelastic structures is based on the theory of elasticity andinfinitesimal strain theory. When the applied loads cause permanent deformation, one must use more complicated constitutive equations, that can account for the physical processes involved (plastic flow,fracture, phase change, etc.). However, engineered structures are usually designed so that the maximum expected stresses are well within the range oflinear elasticity (the generalization ofHookes law for continuous media); that is, the deformations caused by internal stresses are linearly related to them. In this case the differential equations that define the stress tensor are linear, and the the problem becomes much easier. For one thing, the stress at any point will be a linear function of the loads, too. For small enough stresses, even non-linear systems can usually be assumed to be linear. Stress analysis is simplified when the physical dimensions and the distribution of loads allow the structure to be treated as one- or two-dimensional. In the analysis of trusses, for example, the stress field may be assumed to be uniform and uniaxial over each member. Then the differential equations reduce to a finite set of equations (usually linear) with finitely many unknowns. In other contexts one may be able to reduce the three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one, and/or replace the general stress and strain tensors by simpler models like uniaxial tension/compression, simple shear, etc.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics) 8/10

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Still, for two- or there-dimensional cases one must solve a partial differential equation problem. Anlytical or closed-form solutions to the differential equations can be obtained when the geometry, constitutive relations, and boundary conditions are simple enough. Otherwise one must generally resort to numerical approximations such as the finite element method, the finite difference method, and the boundary element method.

Theoretical background

[edit]

The mathematical description of stress is founded on Euler's laws for the motion of continuous bodies. They can be derived from Newton's laws, but may also be taken as axioms describing the motions of such bodies.[10]

Simplified model of a truss for stress analysis, assuming unidimensional elements under uniform axial tension or compression.

Alternative measures of stress

Main article:Stress measures

[edit]

Other useful stress measures include the first and secondPiolaKirchhoff stress tensors, theBiot stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress tensor.

PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor

[edit]

In the case of finite deformations, thePiolaKirchhoff stress tensors express the stress relative to the reference configuration. This is in contrast to theCauchy stress tensorwhich expresses the stress relative to the present configuration. For infinitesimal deformations or rotations, the Cauchy and PiolaKirchhoff tensors are identical. Whereas the Cauchy stress tensor, relates stresses in the current configuration, the deformationgradient and strain tensors are described by relating the motion to the reference configuration; thus not all tensors describing the state of the material are in either the reference or current configuration. Describing the stress, strain and deformation either in the reference or current configuration would make it easier to define constitutive models (for example, the Cauchy Stress tensor is variant to a pure rotation, while the deformation strain tensor is invariant; thus creating problems in defining a constitutive model that relates a varying tensor, in terms of an invariant one during pure rotation; as by definition constitutive models have to be invariant to pure rotations). The 1st Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor, is one possible solution to this problem. It defines a family of tensors, which describe the configuration of the body in either the current or the reference state. The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor, the reference("material") configuration. relates forces in the presentconfiguration with areas in

where

is thedeformation gradientand

is the Jacobiandeterminant.

In terms of components with respect to anorthonormal basis, the first PiolaKirchhoff stress is given by

Because it relates different coordinate systems, the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is a two-point tensor. In general, it is not symmetric. The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is the 3D generalization of the 1D concept ofengineering stress. If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor will vary with material orientation. The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is energy conjugate to the deformation gradient.

2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor

Whereas the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress relates forces in the current configuration to areas in the reference
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)

[edit]

9/10

4/10/13

Stress (mechanics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

configuration, the 2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor relates forces in the reference configuration to areas in the current configuration. The force in the reference configuration is obtained via a mapping that preserves the relative relationship between the force direction and the area normal in the current configuration.

In index notation with respect to an orthonormal basis,

This tensor is symmetric. If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of the 2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor remain constant, irrespective of material orientation. The 2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor is energy conjugate to theGreenLagrange finite strain tensor.

See also

[edit]

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)

10/10