BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BOLOGY: Biology (Bios: life; logos : to discourse) is the science that studies living organisms. The term Biology was coined by Lamarck and Traviranus (1802). Biology has two main branches; Botany( Plant) and Zoology(Animals). Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle, is known as father of botany. Aristotle is called father of zoology as we as father of Biology.

LIVING THINGS :- Living things are complex organisation of chemicals that are undergoing actions resulting in growth, development, reproduction and reactivity. These are characterised by the following features: a) Organization: Living things are having a definite biological organization. Atoms in the body of an organism forms simple and complex molecules which than arrange themselves to form cells, tissues, organs. b) Metabolism: It is sum total of biochemical reactions involved in the release and utilization of energy within the organism. It can be either anabolism, in which complex substances are formed from simpler substances resulting, or, catabolism, consisting of chemical reactions that break down complex substances resulting in the release of energy. Nutrition, respiration and excretion are all different types of metabolic activities that are carried on by living organisms. c) Growth: is an irreversible increase in weight, size or volume of an organism. d) Reproduction: Formation of replica for continuation of life. The charateristcs of offsprings are similar to their parents. Organisms tend to perpetuate their kind through reproduction. e) Responsiveness: Respoding to external or internal stimuli a fuction of coordinating system. f) Adaptation : Structural, physiological or behavioural changes in any organism which enable them to take advantage of their environment to increase survivability is called adaptation. g) Differentiation: The process by which the cells become recognizably distinct in structure and function, both from their neighbours as well as cells from which they arise. BRNCHES OF BIOLOGY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Morphology: Study of form and external structure. Anatomy: Study of internal structure after dissection the organism is called anatony. Histology: Study of tissues. with the help of microscope. Cytology: Study of cell structure is called cytology. Cell Biology: Studies different aspects of cells and their components like structure, organisation, chemistry, functions, genetics and development. 6. Physiology: Study of various body functions of organism. 7. Ecology: Study of inter- relationship between living organisms and their environment. 8. Taxonomy: Study of classification, nomenclature and identification of organisms.

9. Classification: Arranging organisms in groups on the basis of similarities, differences and relationships. 10. Nomenclature: System of providing distinct and proper names to organisms. Bi-nomial nomenclature developed by Linnaeus is used for organisms. 11. Identification: is finding the correct name and place of an organism in a system of classification with the help of keys. 12. Evolution: Study of origin of life, variations and formation of new species from pre-existing ones. 13. Embryology: Study of fertilization and development of a zygote into an embryo, larva or a miniature adult. 14. Developmental Biology: Study of processes by which an organism undergoes progressive and orderly changes in structure of 15. Palaeontology or palaeobiology: Stdudy of fossils, their formation & distribution in rocks of various ages. It has two branches: Palaeozoology (animal fossils) and Palaeobotany ( plant fossils). 16. Exobiology : Study of possibility of life in the outer space. 17. Genetics : Study of variations and transmission of characters from parents to young ones. 18. Microbiology: Study of structure, life cycle and activities of micro-organisms (viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoas) with a size of less than 1 mm. Medical microbiology and industrial microbiology are two important applied divisions. 19. Pathology : Study of diseases, effects, causal agents, transmission and other activities of pathogens is called pathology. 20. Molecular Biology: Study of nature, organisation, synthesis, working and interaction of biomolecules or molecules that constitute the body of living organisms. 21. Euthenics : Study of factors connected with impairment or improvement of a race. 22. Eugenics : Study of environmental conditions that contribute to the improvement of intellect and other traits of human beings. 23. Euphenics : Treatment of defective heredity through genetic engineering. 24. Genetic Engineering: Manipulation of genes in order to improve or create organisms with newer combination of genes. 25. Cryobiology: Study of effects of low temperature on organisms including their preservation. 26. Biogeography : Distribution of different organisms in various parts of the world. It is of two types (i) Zoogeography : Distribution of animals on earth (ii) Phytogeography : Distribution of plants on earth. SOME IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Concept of Evolution - Ampedocles (495-425 B.C.) Medicine - Hippocrates (460-375 B.C.) Biology, Embryology and Zoology - Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Botany and Ecology - Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.) Anatomy - Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) Comparative Anatomy - George Cuvier ( 1769-1832) Microscopic Anatomy - Morcello Malpighi (1628- 1694)

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. BIOPYRACY:

Plant Anatomy - N.Grew(1641-1712) Histology - Francois Bichat (1771-1802) Modern Botany - K. Bauhin (1560-1624) Cytology - Robert Hooke (1635-1703) Modern Cytology - Swanson Taxonomy and Nomenclature Linnaeus- Caroleus (Carl von) (17071778) Embryology - C.F. Wolff( 1738-1794) Modern Embryology - Von Baer (1792-1876) Immunology - Edward Jenner (1749-1823) Epidemiology - John Snow Biochemistry - Liebig Plant Physiology - Stephen Hales (1677-1761) Experimental Physiology - Galen Mycology - Micheli Bryology - Hedwig Plant Pathology - De Bary Antiseptic Surgery - Joseph Lister Bacteriology - Koch Microbiology - Pasteur Palynology - Erdtrnan Endocrinology - Thomas Addison Stress Physiology - Hans Selye Conditioned Reflexes - Pavlov ECG - Einthoven Gerontology - Korenchevsk Palaeontology - Leonard de Vinci Modern Palaeontology - Cuvier Ethology Konrad Lorentz Antibiotics - Alexander Fleming (188 1- 1955) Blood Circulation - William Harvey (1578- I 657) Blood Groups Landsteiner Chernotheraphy - Paul Ehlrich Genetics - Gregor Johann Mendel Modern Genetics - Bateson Polygenic Inheritance - Kolreuter Eugenics - Francis Galton Biochemical/Human Genetics - Archibald Garrod Experimental Genetics - T.H. Morgan Genetic Engineering - Paul Berg DNA Finger Printing - Alec Jeffreys Microscopy (Protozoology - Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723 ) Micrbiology, Bacteriology)

Misuses of various biological phenomenon by various agencies against the human race.

A. Amniocentesis: A biological technique in which amniotic fluid in examined to know about the development of foetus.The test could reveal the sex of the foetus, the patients go or are forced to go for an abortion if the expected child is a female. B. Bio-weapons: These are developed by using biological techniques. These bio-weapons are antibiotic-resistant microrganisms with increased infectivity such as Bacillus anthracis, which is a spore-forming bacterium causing infectious disease known as anthrax. CHAPTER 2:

CYTOLOGY
The cell is structural & functional unit of organisms. Organisms made up of one cell are called unicellular organisms, e.g. amoeba, chalamydomonas, bacteria, and many fungi; while the organisms made up of many cells called multicellular organisms. e.g.algal, fungal forms & other organisms. TYPES OF CELLS The living organisms have two types of cells. (1) Prokaryotic Cells (Pro = primitive; karyon= nucleus): The cells without a well defined nucleus. They have a single membrane the plasma membrane and have no nucleus cells. They are generally very small and unicellular. They are the earliest and still most abundant life forms. Example: Bacteria, Archaebacteria, & Cyanobacteria (blue green algae). (2) Eukaryotic Cells: (Greek-Gr. Eu=good or well; karyon= nucleus): The cells have a well organised nucleus with a definite nuclear membrane surrounding the genetic material and membrane bound cell such as mitochondria, Iysosomes, chloroplasts, etc., that perform different functions. These are typically larger and structurally complex than prokaryotic cells. Example: animals, plants, fungi and protists .

PROKARYOTIC

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS S.No. Character I Nuclear body 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Prokaryotic Cell Lack of organised nucleus nuclear membrane absent Mitosis No mitosis DNA arrangement Single closed loop (histones absent) Respiratory system Part of plasma membrane (mitochondria absent) Chlorophyll When present, dissolved in cytoplasm (chloroplasts absent) Golgi bodies, Absent Chloroplast, Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, Lysosome Ribosomes only of 70S types Eukaryotic Cell Nucleus well-organised nuclear membrane present Mitosis found Multiple chromosomes histones present in( chromosome) In mitochondria When present chloroplasts Present contained in

7.

Ribosomes in 80S (in cytoplasm) and 70S(in organalles) types in

8. 9. 10.

Cell wall Flagella

Cytoplasmic movements 11. Vacuoles 12. Lysosome 13. Capsule. 14. Pili STRUCTURE OF CELL :

plant cells + 80S +55S types in animals) Generally present, complex Present in some types, simple chemical composition chemical composition Simple, made up of olaglin and Flagella specialized and show 9 + 3 + 2 organisation is absent 2 organisation Cytoplasmic streaming rare or Cytoplasmic streaming often Absent occurs Absent Present Absent Present May be present Always absent Different kinds of pili present Pili absent

1. CELL WALL (EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX): Cell wall is the second layer of the cell envelope below the glycocalyx. This layer determines the shape of the cell and provides a kind of strong structural support to prevent the bacterium from bursting or collapsing in a hypotonic solution. Plant cells are characterized by the presence of a rigid cell wall on the basis of which they can be differentiated from animal cells. In many cases it is an extension of outer membrane. This wall may be absent in some lower plants and cells taking part in reproduction. Robert Hooke (1665) used the term cell for the first time in a thin slice of cork. Cell wall is a secretary product of protoplasm. It protects the cell from unfavourbale conditions, separates one cell from the other, provides strength and definite shape to the cell. Thus the cell wall constitutes a kind of exoskeleton. At the time of cell division when the nucleus divides into two, cytokinesis starts. In this process vesicles of Golgi complex become aligned at the equatorial plater By some physical and chemical changes in this plate, an intercellular amorphous substance functions as cementing material between two cells. It is made up of calcium and magnesium pectate. This layer is called middle lamella. The characteristic softening of fruits during ripening is mainly due to increase in the solubility of middle lamella. The cell plate-spindle fibre complex is known as phragmoplast. Protoplasm deposits some substances on the middle lamella due to which a soft, delicate, plastic wall is formed. This is called primary cell wall. This wall is made up of pectic substances (compound of galacturonic acid), hemicellulose (compound of glucose, xylose, man nose, glucuronic acid) and a loose network of cellulose microfibrills which have dispersed texture to the long axis of the cell and are embedded in the matrix formed by pectic substances and hemicellulose and some proteins. The quantity of hemicellulose is more than that of pectic substances. The proteins present in the cell wall are with high concentration of proline and hydroxyproline. At the time of cell growth when large vacuoles appear, this wall is very much stretched. In due course of time additional thickenings develop on the inner surface of primary wall. Although secondary wall produced in the beginning has some pectose also, but it is made up of hemicellulose and cellulose mainly. These thickenings may be homogeneous

(as in sieve tubes) or localized (as in xylem traceids and tracheae). A tertiary wall made up of pure cellulose is soon laid down against secondary wall. The secondary wall and tertiary walls cannot however be always distinguished and are together known as secondary thickenings. The cell wall becomes much less flexible and finally almost inelastic. In most cells, secondary wall is three-layered (inner layer, middle layer and outer layer), the layers differing in physical and chemical properties of which middle one is thickest. Additional substances do not accumulate on each part of the middle lamella but some spaces are left here and there. These spaces are called primary pit fields. Fibrills of protoplasm called plasmodesmata passthrough these pits from one cell to another. 2. Cell Membrane (Plasma membrane): The outer living, ultra thin, porous, semi-permeable membranous covering of cell, which separates its contents from the surounding medium. It provides mechanical support and external form to the propoplasm and acts as a efficient barrier from exterior and allows selective permeability to necessary materials to and from the cell. (A) PROTOPLASM. All the components of a cell internal to the cell membrane constitute protoplasm. The portion of protoplasm without the nucleus is called cytoplasm. It contains a number of specialized structures called the cell organelles and chemical compounds known as cell inclusions. Living protoplasm is a colourless, semi-transparent, slightly viscous matter with lustrous appearance. Structures and Functions of Different Parts of Protoplasm Protoplasm has two main parts:(I) Cytoplasm, and (II) Nucleus

I. CYTOPLASM: It surrounds the nucleus and is itself surrounded by dead cell wall. It can be divided into the following parts: (a) Plasmalemma (b) Tonoplast, and (c) Portion of cytoplasm enclosed by plasmalemma and tonoplast. The cytoplasm contains specialised structures called organelles on and in which many of the cell's activities take place. A. CELL ORGANELLES: These are discrete membrane bound well-organized protoplasrnic structures in which many of the metabolic processes of the cells occur. There are different cell organelles bound by membranes such as chloroplasts, mitochondria, dictyosome, etc. Metabolically Active Cell Organelles 1. Plastids: Schimper (1885) has proposed the term "plastid". These are flat, circular, protoplasmic structures, scattered in the cytoplasm. These found only in plant cells , and are made up of lipids and proteins. These are semi- autonomous organelles (as they have their

own ribosome & DNA) surrounded by double membrane envelope. Plastids synthesize fats, proteins, and starch. These are of three different kinds: a. Leucoplasts: These are colourless, occur in sex cells and in storage cells or roots and underground stems. They form starch grains. Leucoplasts are of three types: i. Amyloplast: store large amounts of starch and occur in roots. ii. Elaioplasts: store fats and are found in seeds iii. Proteinoplasts: store porteins and are found in seeds. b. Chromoplast: They carry pigments that colour parts of plants. c. Chloroplast: It contain chlorophyll, the green substance that converts carbon dioxide and water into sugar in sunlight. It also imparts green colour to the plant. Chloroplast is made up of two membranes - the inner and the outer membrane expanded into flat, baggy structures called thylakoids. Several of which pile up and form a functional unit called granum (plural - grana). A chloroplast contains several such grana which are interconnected contain chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments to trap the sunlight. The matrix of the chloroplast is known as stroma. Chlorophyll molecule has a complex porhyrin ring to which is attached a long hydrophobic phytol (C28H39) chain. Chlorophylls are of following types: Chlorophyll 'a' (C55 H72 O5, N4 Mg): (it has CH3 group), found in all photosynthetic organisms (75%) except photosynthetic bacteria. Chlorophyll 'b' (C55H70O6N4 Mg): found in all higher plants (75%) in green algae and are not present in algae of other groups. (it has CHO group) . Chlorophyll C35O3205N4Mg) Found in brown algae (Phaeophyceae) . Chlorophyll 'd' (C54H70O6N4Mg) : Found in red algae (Phaeophyceae). Bacteriochlorophyll (C55H7406N4Mg) is present in purple whereas in greeen photosynthentic bacteria, chlorobium chlorophyll is found. In chloroplasts, other pigments carotenoids such as carotene (C4oH56), xanthophylls (C40 H56 02). 2. Mitochondria: The term was introduced by Benda. These are double membrane, rod-like or spherical. extremely small organelles. The outer membrane of a mitochondria is smooth whereas the inner membranes show many infoldings called cristae. Mitochondria are the sites of energy release (in the form of ATP) for all the cellular purposes and hence are also known as the 'power houses' of the cell. It is also semi autonomous as it is having its own ribosome & DNA. It also perform in fatty acid chain elongation & storage of Ca 2+. 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): It is a highly convoluted infoldings of the cell membrane in the cytoplasm. ER can be in continuation with the nuclear membrane. The outer surface of the ER is either smooth (SER) or rough (RER) due to the presence of ribosomes on its surface. ERs are involved in secretory processes, SER in lipid & RER in protein secretion. Special ER is present in animal muscles are called sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) perform in Ca2+ balance during muscle contraction.

4. Ribosomes: Ribosomes were discovered by Robinson and Brown (1953) in plant cells and Pa1ade (1955) in animal cells. These are granular masses either associated with RER, or dispersed freely in the cytoplasm. These are naked ribonucleoproteinious (i.e, RNA + Protein) body and are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell. These are consists of 2 subunits, larger & smaller subunits. The 2 subunits attaches together like old age telephones. Magnesium ion (Mg2+) is essential for binding the ribosome. Ribosomes are of three types: a) 70S Ribosome:(50S+30S) Smaller in size and are found in bacteria and chloroplast. b) 80S Ribsome: (60S+40S) Found in higher plants and animals. c) 55S Ribosome:(40S+30S) Found in chloroplast & mitochondria. 5. Golgi Bodies: The Golgi apparatus consists of an irregular network or rod-like, globular, or granular bodies in animal cells, often concentrated around the nucleus. These occurs in abundance in gland and nerve cells, but little in muscle cells. There chief function in gland cells is collecting protein secretions from the endoplasmic reticulum and passing them outside the cell. Golgi bodies add carbohydrates to these secretions (Glycosylation) to stiffen them into matrerial called zymogen granules. The Golgi apparatus in plants is known as dictysome. Golgi apparatus is present in all eukaryotic cells except RBC and sieve tube elements. It is also absent in prokaryotes and sperm cells of seedless embryophytes. 6. Centrosomes: The centrosome, found in most of the animals cells is a rather dense area of protoplasm, lies close to the nucleus. In the middle of the centrosome are two small dot-like, rod -shaped, or V -shaped bodies called centrioles.They play an important part in cell division, species lacking them include amoebae, unicellular red algae, pines and the flowering plants. 7. Cilia and Flagella: Cilia and flagella are specialized surface structures made up of microtubules. These help in movements of the cell. When they are very short and numerous, they are termed as cilia and when longer and fewer, they are termed as flagella. They are projections from the cell. 8. Lysosomes: These are vacuole-like bodies that secrete enzymes to digest food substances. These are involved in various other functions like, in defence against bacteria and viruses, in destroying old and worn out organelles and often resulting in programmed cell death (Apoptosis). Thus referred as suicide bags of the cell. These exhibit polymorphism as they occur as primary lyosome, secondary lysosome, residual bodies &, autophagoome. These are formed from ER & Golgi body. 9. Spherosomes: These are single membrane-covered small spherical organelles which synthesise and store fat. 10. Lomasomes: These are vesicular and membranous structures usually present between cell wall and plasmalemma of plant cells. Probably they help in cell wall elaboration. They are mainly found in fungi and were termed so by Moore and McAlear. 11. Microbodies: These are single membrane covered small cell organelles which take part in oxidation reactions other than those of respiration.These are of two types a) Peroxisomes: Microbodies have enzymes for peroxide (H2O2) biosynthesis. They occur in most of the animals and plants but are more common in photosynthetic cells.

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b) Glyocisomes / Glyoxysomes: Microbodies occur only in fat of plant cells where they take part in oxidation of fats and perform glyoxylate cycle. Glyoxisomes possess catalase. 12. Vacuoles: These are non-cytoplasmic areas present inside the cytoplasm. They are supposed to be greatly expanded endoplasmic recticulum. The vacuoles of plant cells are bound by a single, semi-permeable membrane called tonoplast, whereas the vacuoles of animals cells are bounded by a lipo proteinaceous membrane. The vacuoles are classified into four types depending upon the contents and function they perform. (i) Sapvacules : Store and concentrate mineral salts & nutrients (ii) Contractile Vacuoles: takes part in osmo-regulation and excretion (iii) Food Vacuoles: Contain digestive enzymes which help the digestion of nutrients. (iv) Air Vacuoles,' Present only in prokaryotes, they not only store metabolic gases but also help in buoyancy of cells. Metabolically inactive cell inclusions: The non-living substances are produced in cells are called organic bodies. These may be present in soluble or insoluble state, can be organic or inorganic in nature. These can be of three types:A. Reserve Materials: a. Carbohydrates: Compounds having the general formula type (CH20)n, were n is any number. These are hydroxyhydrocarbon with either aldehyde (-CHO) or ketone(-CO-) as functional group. These have suffix ose. Carbohydrates are generally divided into 3 main classes: i. Monosaccharides: These are having one monomer. Examples: Hexoses (Glucose, fructose, galactose), Pentose (ribose, deoxyribose, ribulose), etc. ii. Disaccharides: These have 2 monomers linked with a glycosidic bond. Examples: sucrose (glucose+fructose), lactose (glucose+galactose), etc. iii. Polysaccharides: These are having many monomers linked with glycosidic bonds. Examples: cellulose (n- glucose), starch(amylase+amylopectene), chitin(Nitro-glucose), glycogen(n-glucose) etc. Carbohydrates are both stores of energy and structural elements in living systems; plants having typically 15% carbohydrate and animals about I % carbohydrate. The body is able to build up polysaccharides from simple units or break the larger units down to more simple units for releasing energy. b. Lipids: These are made by esterification of fatty acids (long chain carboxylic acids) by alcohol. These are group of substances in cells insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ether and benzene. These can simple (fatty acid+alcohol) as fats, oils & waxes, or complex (simple+3rd molecules) as phosholipid, glycolipid, protiolipid, or derived as steroids, sterols, cholesterol. They perform following biological roles; Energy storage

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Forming the membranes round our cells Phospholipids are the major building blocks of cells. Hormones and Vitamines. Lipids are also used as hormones that play a role in regulating our physiology. c. Proteins: Proteins are polypeptides as they are made up of amino acid molecules joined together by peptide links.These are one of the large number of substances that are important in the structure and function of all living organisms. About 22 amino acids are present in proteins. i. Simple protiens contain only amino acids. ii. Conjugated proteins, the amino acids are joined to other groups. iii. Primary structure of a protein is the particular sequence of amino acids present. iv. Secondary structure is the way in which this chain is arranged; for example, coiled in a alpha helix or held in beta- pleated sheets. The secondary structure is held by hydrogen bonds. v. Tertiary structure of the protein is the way in which the protein chain is folded. This may be held by cystine bonds and by attractive forces between atoms. (B) Secretary Products a. Latex: A crystallo-colloid fluid secreted by latex tubes or laticifers viz, latex cells (non articulated laticifers, e.g., Banyan, Calotropis, Oleander) and latex vessels (articulated laticifers. e.g., Poppy, Rubber plant, Sonchus). Latex can be watery (e.g., Banana), milky (e.g. Banyan) or co loured (e.g., Popy). Latex of Hevea Brasiliensis yields rubber, that of Poppy forms opium while latex of Papaya contains protein digesting enzyme papain, b. Gums: Degradation product of cell wall, e.g., gum arabic (Acacia senegal) c. Gum-Resin: Mixture of gum and resin. e.g., root of Ferula asafoetida (asafoetida) d. Resins: Acidic oxidation products of essential oils which are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol or turpentine. An example of hard resin is shellac. Pine resin and Canada Balsam are oleo-resins (resins with associated essential oils). e. Tannins: Astringent, acidic, phenolic compounds related to glucosides found in leaves (e.g., Tea), bark (e.g., Acacia nilotica, Walnut or juglans regia), fruit (e.g., Caesalpinia, Betel Nut). Dyes related to tannins are cutch (heart wood of Acacia catechu) and haematoxylin (heartwood of Haemataxylon). f. Alkaloids: Bitter nitrogenous byproducts, often poisonous and with medicinal properties, e.g. Quinine (bark of cinchona officianatis), atropine (leaves and tops of Atropa belladona), nicotine (leaves of Nicotiana lobacum); morphine (latex of Papaver somniferum), reserpine (roots of Rauvolfia serpentina), colchicine (corns of Colchicum autumnale), then (Tea leaves). g. Glucosides: Aromatic compounds having glucose or carbohydrates, e.g., saponin, digitoxin, digitalin, amygdalin. Many of them are medicinal. h. Essential Oils: Volatile aromatic oils secreted by special glands, e.g., Lavender, Rosemary oils, Menthol, Eucalyptus oil. i. Nectar: Sugary secretion of parts of flowers for attracting insects and other animals for pollination. Nectar contains glucose, fructose and sucrose. II. NUCLEUS: The programming centre of the cell located mostly at the center of cytoplasm. There is generally one nucleus, though some kinds of cells possess two or more. The nucleus is usually round confining a watery fluid, the nucleoplasm, bounded by porous double

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i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

membrane (nuclear membrane) often continue with the endoplasmic reticulum. The nucleoplasm contains the substance called chromatin, which carries the genes, or determiners of heredity. Chromatid is composed of nucleoproteins - that is combinations of proteins and nuleic acids - DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). The various cellular activities are controlled by the nucleus through its chromosomes. The nucleus perform by following processes: Replication: The process of formation of new DNA from old DNA is called replication. It occurs when new DNA required. It is semiconservative process as only one strand of new DNA is new. Transcription: Synthesis of RNA polynucleotides using the base sequence along only one of the two deoxyribonucleotide helics of DNA producing a temporary RNA - DNA hybrid and resulting in the release of a single complementary polyribonucleotide chain in which the base uracil occurs in place of thymine. This process is called transcription. Translation: The m-RNA formed during transcription moves out of the nucleus and on reaching the cytoplasm is lodged on the surface of ribosomes. Here it participates in protein synthesis. This process is completed with the participation of t - RNA, amino-Acids, ATP and an enzyme. This process of protein synthesis is called translation Reverse Transcription : DNA is the genetic material which controls heredity of the cell.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology: During 1960's to early 1970's the central Dogma of molecular biology was orderely and unidirectional flow of information encoded in the base sequences of cells, DNA to RNA and then to protein. In tumor virus (Rous Sarcoma Virus) DNA is formed from RNA; i.e., RNA provides the template for DNA synthesis. This process was discovered by Temin and Baltimore in 1975. This is called Reverse Transcription. A. Chromosomes (chrom = colour, soma = body) are not visible by light microscope or electron miscroscope. During this phase there is a reticulum of threads like structures made up of the chromatin material. This region is called chromatin reticulum. Chromatin reticulum is made up of large number of interwinded thread-like structures. Some portions of chromatin take a darker stain during interphase and lighter stain during cell division. This region is called heterochromatin. At the time of cell division these thread-like structures of chromatin reticuium become visible as small independent structures. These thread-like dark stained structures were called chromosomes by Waldeyer in 1888. Chromosomes range, on the average, from 0.5 to 30um in length and from 0.2 to 3um in diameter. Major exceptions include several insects whose giant chromosomes may reach a length of nearly 300um and a width of 1O m, Lampbrush chromosomes of Triturus viridiscens oocyte have an average length of 350800 m. At metaphase when the chromosomes become most distinct each chromosome shows two chromatids (chromonemata, sing. chromonema). Both the chromatids are held together at a point called Kinetochore or centromere or primary constriction. Kinetochore divides the chromosomes into two equal or unequal parts. It is at this point that tractile fibres are attached at metaphase. At the end of metaphase centromere divides into two parts. Thus at the end of metaphase there are two independent chromatids,

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i.e., new chromosomes but at anaphase there is only one chromatid in one chromosomers, Chromonernata have serially arranged swellings called chromomeres. According to Belling (1928), these are genes or group of genes, but modern scientists do not agree with this thinking. At a spectific region of chromsome is attached a nucleolus; this region is called nucleolar organizer. One or both the arms of a chromosome may have secondary constrictions. The smaller part of chromosome separated by secondary constriction is called Satellite. Chromosomes in which satellite is present are called SAT- chromosomes. On the basis of the presence or absence and position of centromers, chromosomes are of the following five types: a) Acentric: If centromere is absent the chromosome is called acentric chromosome. b) Telocentric: When the centromere is situated at one end of the chromosome, the chromosome is called telocentric. c) Acrocentric: When the chromosome is divided into a very small segment at one end and a very large segment on the other end, it is called acrocentric. d) Submetacentrlc : When the chromosome is divided into two unequal segments, one of which is slightly larger than the other forming L or J-shaped chromosomes, it is called submetacentric e) Metacentric : When the two segments are equal or are almost forming V-shaped struotures because the centromere is situated in the centre, it is called metacentric. In Eukaryotes, on the basis of sex-characters and other characters, the chromosomes are classified as follows: (a) Autosomes : The number of these chromosomes is more than that of sex chromosomes. They do not participate in determination of sex of the individual. (b) Sex Chromosomes (Heterosomes or Allosomes): These chromosomes determine the sex of the offspring. Usually these are called X and Y chromosomes. Special Types of Chromosomes (a) Lampbrush Chromosomes: In the developing oocytes of the vertebrates who possess a yolky egg, chromosomes undergo a remarkable change specially characterized by an enormous increase in length and the appearance of radiating hairs or side loops which appear to organize themselves from chromomeres. Such chromosomes are called lampbrush chromosomes. Such chromosomes attain a length of 800-1000 urn. These chromosomes contain a central main axis formed of DNA. The loop axis (which is again made up of DNA) is surrounded by protien combined with RNA. (b) Polytene Chromosomes: Balbiani (1881) first discovered the giant chromosomes in salivary glands of dipteran species. They measure up to 2000 um in Drosophila melanogaster. These chromosomes reveal a distinct pattern of transverse banding (dark and light bands). Dark bands have euchromatin and light bands have heterochromatin. The chromosomes show puffing and thus form loops attached to dark bands; these loops are called Balbiani rings. It is at these places that m-RNA is synthesized.

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Counting of Chromosomes 1. Genome: A haploid set of chromosomes is called genome (i.e., number of chromosomes in a gamete), e.g., if a pollen grain of an angiospermic plant has 8 chromosomes and the stem, leaf and root cells have 16 chromosomes, its genome will be 8. 2. Karyotype: When the morphology of chromosomes of a species is considered as a whole, it is called karyotype. The karyotype include a. b. c. d. e. number of chromosomes, Diameter and length of each chromosome, Total length of chromosomes, Ratio of short and long arms, Contribution of each chromosome in the total length of chromosomes.

3. Idiogram: When the karyotype of any species are represented by a diagram then such diagrams are called idiograms. In man there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes (in woman XX and in man XY). Thus total chromosomes in man are 44-XY and in woman 44-XX. Roundworm Ascaris megalocephala has a haploid number of one and a plant of Asteraceae can have as high as 1262 and 1600 in Aulacantha, a protozoan. The chromosomes are found in pairs and are called homologous (paired) chromosomes. This double number is called diploid (2n) number of chromosomes. At the time of sexual reproduction when reduction division (meiosis) takes place, the homologous chromosomes separate apart and move to daughter cells. Therefore, in these cells the number of chromosomes is reduced to half which is called haploid (n) number. Minute segments of chromosomes (in fact DNA) which carry the hereditary characters from one generation to another are called' genes'. Chromosomes are made up of nucleoproteins (36.5% DNA, 9.6% RNA, 37.5% histones and 10.4% other proteins). Differences between a Plant and an Animal Cell Plant Cell Animal Cell 1. A non-living cellulose cell wall is present 1. The cell wall is absent and only an outer outer to the cell-membrane covering cell-membrane or plasma membrane is present. 2. There are present spherical or discoidal bodies 2. The plastids are absent. called plastids. 3. There are present small sized balloon like 3. The vacuoles are wanting in animal cells. space or vacuoles in young plant cells which However, in the cells of lower animals such as grow bigger in size as the cell also grows bigger. protozoans, one or two small vacuoles are present 4. Golgi bodies in plant cells are represented by 4. The presence of golgi bodies is a characteristic dictyosomes. feature. 5. Centrosomes, centrioles and aster rays are 5. Centrosome is present and divides into two lacking. centrioles at the time of cell division. Any array of aster rays radiates out from the centrioles

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during cell division.

CELL DIVISION:To divide and duplicate is one of the fundamental properties of cells. In fact, the growth and development of all organisms are dependent upon the enlargement and division of their cells. Plants and animals are usually composed of millions of cells when they are fully grown, yet they all begin life from only one cell: a fertilized egg cell or zygote. The zygote divides over and over again, producing 'daughter' cells which eventually become specialized into all the body tissues. There are two major types of cell division mitosis and meiosis. Each of these is divided into two eventsnuclear division (Karyokinesis) which is followed by the division of the cytoplasm (Cytokinesis). 1. MITOSIS. In cells with nuclei, an important step in cell division is the division of the nucleus. The nucleus (except in sex cell) divides by the process called mitosis. Through mitosis, each new cell receives a copy ofthe parent cell's genetic material. Mitosis occurs in four successive stages; prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. There are no sharp dividing lines separating the various stages, and the events of each stage vary somewhat in different organism. The four stages are preceded by a resting stage, called interphase. Interphase & Mitosis A. Interphase : The cell is engaged in metabolic activity and performing its prepare for mitosis (the next four phases that lead up to and include nuclear division). Chromosomes are not clearly discerned in the nucleus, although a dark spot called the nucleoulus may be visible. The cell may contain a pair of centrioles (or microtubule organizing centers in plants) both of which are organizational sites for microtubules. B. Prophase : Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible in the light microscope as chromosomes. Then nucleolus disappears. Centrioles begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fibers extend from the centromeres, Some fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle. Prometaphase: The nuclear membrane dissolves, marking the beginning of prometaphase. Proteins attach to the centromeres creating the kinetochores. Microtubules attach at the kinetochroes and the chromosomes begin moving. C. Metaphase: Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell nucleus. This line is referred to as the metaphase plate. This organization helps to ensure that in the next phase, when the chromosomes are separated, each new nucleus will receive one copy of each chromosome. D. Anaphase : The paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and move to opposite sides of the cell. Motion results from a combination of kinetochore movements along the spindle microtubules and through the physical interaction of polar microtubules. E. Telophase : Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, and new membranes form around the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and are no longer visible under the light microscope.

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The spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis or the partitioning of the cell may also begin during this stage. F. Cytokinesis : In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fiber ring composed of a protein called actin around the center of the cell contracts pinching the cell into two daughter cells, each with one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid wall requires that a cell plate be synthesized between the two daughter cells. Mitosis is important for growth and multiplication of cells. It ensures that the two daughter cells inherit the same number of chromosomes, and hence the same characteristics as the parent cell. It maintains the continuity of metabolism by transmitting to the daughter cells, exactly the same information as is coded in the DNA of the parent cell. It plays a significant role in wound healing, regeneration of damaged parts (as in tail of lizard) and the replacement of cells lost during normal wear and tear (e.g., skin surface). It may give rise to tumour or cancerous growth if the process goes out of control. 2. MEIOSIS: (Gr., melourn-to diminish) occurs in cells that produce gametes in sexually reproducing organisms. In these organisms, the fusion of an egg and a sperm cell produces a zygote, which develops into a new organism. Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis 1. It occurs in all cells. 2. Number of chromosomes remains the same 3.The complete process involves five phases. 4.No exchange of chromosome material takes place. 5.Daughter cell and parent cell have identical Chromosomes 6.No genetic variation occurs between generations. Meiosis 1 .It occurs only in sex cells. 2. Number of chromosomes is halved. 3. The complete process occurs in two division stages, each of four or five phases 4. Chromosomal material chromatin) having genes has crossed over 5. Daughter or son cell has chromosomal material derived in part from the mother cell and in part from the father cell 6. Variation in gene combination is seen

Most of the cells of an organism are diploid (2n)-that is they contain pairs of similar chromosomes, known as homologous pairs. One member of each pair was inherited from the mother by the egg cell and one from the father by the sperm cell. Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes. Human cells, for example, have a diploid number of 46 or 23 pairs of chromosomes. The essence of meiosis is that it produces gametes that are haploid (n) that is, they have only half the number of chromosomes found in the other cells of the parent organism. Haploid cells contain only one representative of each type of chromosomes instead of a pair. Because meiosis halves the number of chromosomes, it is some times called reduction division.

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Meiosis also occurs in stages. Like mitosis it is preceded by the duplication of the chromosomes during interphase but this duplication is followed by two successive cell divisions, designated as Meiosis I and Meiosis II, rather than single division of mitosis. the result is four daughter cells, each being haploid.

CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF ORGANISMS The complexity of living organisms increases as we proceed from simple primitive forms to the more advanced. Even the protozoan can hardly be called a simple organism. This becomes evident when we compare it with the specialized cells in the bodies of multi-cellular, or many-celled, animals. In the latter, each type of specialized cell forms a different organ. The organs like mouth, stomach, intestine and liver together from the digestive system. This level is called the organ system. In protozoans, all these activities occur within the tiny bob of protoplasm of which its body consists. Some of these processes take place in special structures called organelles. The specialized cells of multicellular animals have no independent life of their own. The protozoan is completely self-sufficient. PLANT ANATOMY: A group of similar cells specialized for a particular function is called a tissue. Tissues in plants are classified into two major groups- meristematic tissues and permanent tissues. 1. Meristematic Tissues: (Meristems) These tissues consist of cells that are capable of active and repeated division. The cells are closely packed and so there are no intercellular spaces. The cell walls are thin, and the cytoplasm dense and without vacuoles. The cells are spherical or polygonal in shape with large nuclei. Meristematic tissue is found mostly at the tips of roots and sterns where there is active growth. 2. Permanent Tissues. These consist of cells that have lost their capacity for division. Though derived from meristematic tissues, they assume different permanent shapes; and, depending upon their structure, permanent tissues are classified into simple or complex tissues. In herbaceous plants, providing mechanical support. A. Simple Permanent Tissue: i.) Parenchyma: It is a living tissue consisting of round or oval thin walled cells with intercellular spaces, and constitutes bulk o the plant body. The main fuctions are manufacture and storage of food, depeding upon plastid contain. When parenchyma contains large air space it is called as aerenchyma, as in aquatic plants. When it contains chloroplast it is called chlorenchyma. ii.) Collenchyma: It is consist of fairly elongated living cells that thicken particularly along the corners. The cllwall are made of mixture of cellulose & pactine. These are mostly in herbaceous plants, providing mechanical support. iii.) Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow, fibre like cells, pointed at both ends and with thick lignified walls that gradually lose protoplasm and so are dead when fully formed. Sclerenchymatous cells are usually found in patches and provide mechanical strength. The fibres of commercial importance derived from jute and coconut are sclerenchymatous cells. Oval or round sclerenchymatous cells found in fruits like the pear are called stone cells or sclereids. B. Complex Permanent Tissues: A complex tissue is made up of different types of cells, but working together as a unit. Xylem and phloem are the two complex tissues, both are concerned with the transportation of materials besides the epidermal tissue.

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(i) Xylem. Commonly called wood, it conducts water and raw materials from the roots to the leaves and consists of two major cell types, tracheids and vessels, both of which are dead. Tracheids are elongated cells with chisel like, tapering ends. Their walls are variously thickened. However, the walls remain thin in certain regions called pits through which water can pass' across. The xylem vessels are made of cells placed end to end like drain pipes; the partition in between the cells dissolves, forming long pipelines. The walls of these are also variously thickened. (ii) Pholem. This tissue transports manufactured food from the leaves to all other parts of the plant and consists chiefly of sieve tubes and companion cells, both of which are living. Sieve tubes cells are long and cylindrical and are placed end to end, and the end walls in between the cells are perforated and are therefore called sieve plates. These cells are without nuclei. Associated with the sieve tubes are companion cells with prominent nuclei, and dense cytoplasm. They help in the conduction of food by sieve tubes. Along with other distinct cells types, the xylem and phloem occur as prominent patches called vascular bundles. (iii) Epidermal Tissue: Present all over the surface of the plant body the epidermis consists of ordinary cells, trichomes, hairs and/or stomata. The outer walls, of cells are usually impregnated with fatty substances such as cutin and wax. The epidermis helps in protection of the inner parts, exchange of gases and moisture from the atmosphere, and in special instances, even in the digestion of food. MORPHOLOGY of ROOTS, STEMS, LEAVES Tissues in turn are combined to form organs. There are three kinds of organs in plants-roots, stems, and leaves. The reproductive structures-cones and flowers-of higher plants are sometimes referred to as separate organs. Actually they are specialized stems. The bodies of practically all seed plants consist of stems, roots, leaves, and cones or flowers. One or more of these parts may be absent in a few species. For example, the asparagus plant and certain parasitic flowering plants lack leaves. In asparagus, the functions of leaves have been taken over by small, green stem branches. Roots, stems, and leaves are called vegetative organs. 1. Root Systems. The first root to develop in a plant is the primary root. It arises from the embryo contained in the seed. When the seed germinates, the tiny rootlet emerges and penetrates the soil. Within a few days it begins to put out branches from the tissues at the back of its growing point. These branches in turn give rise to other ones. All the roots that come from the primary root that pushes its way into the soil has several distinct regions. At the very tip is a protective covering called the root cap. This serves as a buffer when the rootlet pushes forward between and around jagged and sharpedged soil particles. Immediately behind the root cap is a zone of actively dividing cells. Next comes a zone of cell elongation, in which the cells grow chiefly in length. Finally there is a zone of maturation. Here the different tissues found in mature roots are formed, tiny layer-the epidermis - of this zone. A root hair is simply an elongated part of a cell in the epidermis. The two outermost zones of the young root the epidermis and the cortex gradually disintergrate. The cork cells then form an outer bark like layer. Roots of following kinds in most trees. As the roots develop, they form a more or less complicated network. Generally speaking, the root systems of seed plants fall into two classes-fibrous and taproot. In the fibrous system, there are many branches that are about equal in diameter. A system of this kind may be very extensive. Taproot system: The primary root that develops from the embryo grows faster than the branches that arise from, it. It becomes a main root that grows down through the soil, with much smaller roots branching from it. Roots anchor the plant body firmly in the soil. They absorb water and mineral nutrients from the soil, conduct these materials upward into stems, and transport food downward from stems. Many roots store food produced during the growing season. This is especially true in certain biennial, or two-year plants, such as carrots and beets. In these, food is accumulated in the roots during the first year, flowers and seeds are produced in the second.

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Adventitious roots: Certain roots arise neither from primary nor secondary roots but from stems or leaves. They are called adventitious roots. A new plant can develop from the bulb of the tulip plant because adventitious roots grow from it. This is called vegetative propagation. The stems of certain plants, such as the banyan tree, bear aerial roots. These grow downward until they go to the ground. They then penetrate the soil and firmly establish themselves. They are called prop roots. Mangrove trees, which grow along ocean shores in tropical regions, also put forth prop roots. They reach the water and penetrate the sandy bed. The aerial roots of orchids play an important part in the life of the plant. For one thing, they serve to anchor the orchid to the tree or other supports on which the orchid grows. They also absorb water from the moisture in the air or from the rain. Food materials from the orchids are drawn from the debris that collects around the roots, An orchid that grows on a living plant is not a parasite, because it does not obtain its food from the host plant. The stilt roots of maize and sugarcane are also for support., 2. Shoot System: the shoot system is consist of following parts a. Stems. The first stem develops from the embryo of the seed. A miniature stem emerges as the seed germinates. Generally; it makes its way upward through the soil and into the air. As long as its growing point remains alive, it becomes longer. In time, branches develop. If the growing point is killed or removed, one or more growing point may be formed below the cut end. Stems that grow above the ground in this way are called aerial stems. Stems show various kinds of growth patterns. They differ in size, in their method of branching, and in length of life. It is customary to divide them into two classes - herbaceous and woody Herbaceous stems are generally slender, greenish, and comparatively soft. They are annual; that is, they live through only one growing season. In some plants, such as sweet peas and squash, the roots are also annual. The entire plant dies at the end of the growing season. The hollyhock, hibiscus, and certain other plants have annual stems but perennial roots. The stems die at the end of the first year. The next year, new stems are called herbs. Woody stems are taller, thicker, and harder than herbaceous stems. When they are matured, their surface is made up of bark. Plants with woody stems may be either trees or shrubs. A tree ususally has a thick main stem, called a trunk, which branches only at some distance above the ground. In a shrub, there 'are a number of comparatively slender main stems, which branch abundantly. Trees grow taller than shrubs. Actually there is no hard and fast distinction between trees and shrubs. A plant in one place may grow as a tree. In another, it will be a shrub. A number of forest trees are large and tall on the lower slopes of mountains. In the timberline area they grow as shrubs. The actively growing stem has a number of buds. These are particularly conspicuous in trees or shrubs that lose their leaves after the growing season has come to an end. Some buds are formed in the leaf axil the acute angle formed where the leaf stalk joins the stem. These are called lateral, (side) buds. Generally each stem also has a bud at its tip-a terminal bud. Terminal buds continue the grow in length of a stem. Lateral buds give rise to new leaf-bearing twigs. Certain buds, called floral buds, develop into flowers. Some stems do not look like stems at all. The climbing organs called tendrils are sometimes modified stems. We find them in such plants as grape and Boston ivy. A twiner is a stem that spirals around a solid support. The morning-glory shows such an arrangement. Some green stems, including those of various cacti, look like leaves. They manufacture food, just as leaves do. The stems called runners, or stolons, grow horizontally just above the surface of the soil. They serve to spread and propagate the plant. The runners of strawberry plants, for example, develop new plants at their joints, or nodes, if these touch the grounds.

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The underground stems known as rhizomes look a good deal like roots. In fact, the name comes from a Greek word meaning "mass of roots". Buds roots, and leaves arise at each node of a rhizome and form new plants. Ginger, turmeric and arrow root are rhizomes which store food. In certain plants, such as potatoes, we find fleshy, thickened undergroud stems known as tubers. They develop buds - "eyes" of potatoes. Generally the rhizomes connecting the tuber to the main stem of a plant die after the growing season. The tubers remain alive, and in the next growing season they put forth shoots. A bulb is very short underground stem that bears a cluster of thick, overlapping leaves. These leaves store food. Onions, tulips, lilies, and other familiar plants develop bulbs, each of which can give rise to a new plant.Gladiolus, crocus, and various other plants form underground stems called corms. These resemble bulbs somewhat. However, the stems are much more prominent and the leaves are generally smaller and thinner than those of bulbs. The xylem that makes up the central core of mature woody stems is called wood. The name "bark" is given to the rest of the tissues: phloem, peri cycle, inner cortex, cork cambium and cork. The cork layer is often called the outer bark; the other bark tissues make up the inner bark, both the wood and bark increase in girth as new layers of xylem and phloem are added. The bark, however, does not exceed five centimeters, while the central core of wood may have a diameter of 60 centimeters or more. Secondry Growth: The cambium layer, which forms new xylem and phloem cells, is not equally active throughout the year in regions where cold and warm seasons alternate. There is one active period each year. During this period the cambium forms a new layer of xylem and one of phloem. So little phloem is produced, comparatively speaking, that it is hard to make out the different layers laid down over a period of years. Much more xylem is produced. Generally the layers formed each year make up a distinct series of concentric rings called annual rings. By counting the number of such rings in the cross-section of log, we can tell how old the tree was when it was felled. Trees in regions where rainy and dry seasons alternate may also show distinct annual rings. It is generally hard to make out rings in tropical trees that grow more or less uniformly throughout the year. The annual rings of a tree are not uniform throughout the year. Their width will depend on the type of weather that prevailed when the rings were formed. Most monocots have herbaceous stems. Those of monocots such as grasses, lilies, and orchids generally have no cambium tissue. The xylem and phloem always occur in vascular bundles. Often these are scattered at random throughout the stem, with supporting tissue between the bundles. In the grasses and their relatives, such as the bamboo, the vascular bundles and their supporting tissues are arranged in a circle. The stem is hollow, except for solid sections at the joints, or nodes. Since there is no cambium in monocot herbaceous stems, these stems can increase in diameter only as existing cells increase in size. Like roots, stems serve several purposes. They produce and support leaves, which are the food-making centres of plants. They provide passage ways along which various substances are transported within the plant. Stems also serve as a storage place for foods. And in certain cases, parts of stems propagate plants. b. Leaves. The stem and leaves constitute the shoot system of the plant. Leaves are perhaps the most important vegetative organ of the plants. Generally a leaf consists of a leaf stalk, 0: petiole, and the leaf proper, called a blade. In some leaves there are small projections, called stipiles, at the point where the petiole meets the stem. The petiole contains xylem and phloem and forms part of the conducting system of the plant. Certain leaves have no petioles; the blade grows out from the stem. The framework of all blades is made up of a network of veins, In many trees, each leaf consists of a single blade and petiole. In other trees the leaf blade is divided into several leaflets each attached to the same petioles. The latter is called complex, and the former, simple leaf.

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The leaves of most plants have a similar microscopic structure. There is a surface layer of cells, the epidermis, covered on the outside with a waxy coating or cuticle. The hairs found on some leaves are outgrowths of epidermal cells. The epidermis has various openings, or pores, known as stomata (singular, "stoma"). Gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapour pass in or out through these pores. Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of cells called guard cells. Both sides of a leaf contain an epidermal layer. The upper epidermis has fewer stomata than the lower one and its cuticle is thicker. The cell tissue between the upper and lower epidermis is known as mesophyll. It is made up of two distinct layers. The palisade layer, which is beneath the upper epidermis, consists of relatively long, narrow cells. These are compactly arranged, with the long axis vertical to the leaf surface. Under the palisade cells is a spongy layer. Its cells are loosely packed and there are many air spaces between them. Leaves serve many purposes in addition to food making. The bud scales of woody plants are leaves that furnish protection to the tender tissues they enclose. Tendrils are sometimes modified leaves. Part of the leaves of the sweet pea are broad leaflets, the rest are tendrils, which attach the plants firmly to a support. Most plant spines, such as those of the cactus plant, are modified leaves or leaf stipules. They serve to protect plants against excessive browsing by animals. Bulb leaves serve as food storage organs. The leaves of carnivorous plants trap, hold, digest insects and other small animals. Carnivorous plants are found cheifly in bogs, sandy areas, and tropical rain forests. In such areas nitrogen and various other essential food elements are likely to be present only in small amounts. Such elements are provided by animals trapped in leaves. (Flowers, fruits and seeds will be considered in the section on reproduction in plants. IMPORTANT FACTS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Leafless roots: Bryophyllum and Bigonia. Rootless plant : Wolffia (smallest angiosperm) and Utricularia, (a submerged hydro phyphyte) Plants that are all roots: Podostemon (a hydrophyte) Smallest angiosperm: Wolffia Largest angiosperm (Tallest plant) : Eucalyptus regnaus with height of more than I 14 m. Sequoia sempervirens (Red wood Tree) is the most massive plant which is over 111 m tall and more than 24 m in girth. 7. Largest bud - Cabbage 8. Broadest leaf : Victoria amazonica 9. Longest leaf : Raphia vinifera 10. Plant with two leaves only: Welwitschia (a gymnosperum) 11. Plant with single leaf: Monophyllea 12. Smallest flower: Wolffia arrhiza 13. Study of flowers: Anthology

ANIMALS ANATOMY AND MOPHOLOGY: In multicellular animals (including humans) cells undergo differentiation and each type of cells is specialised for a limited number of specific functions. In the multi-cellular organism, cells coordinate their activities, support one another, exchange nutrients, metabolities and provide information. They influence and modify each other's 'performance and even replace dead or lost cells. The existence of a multi-cellular organism depends on such cooperative and integrated activities of all the constituent cells, even though they maintain their individuality for many basic biological processes. One or more types of specialised cells are set in specific extra-cellular material to constitute a tissue. An organ as for example,

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stomach, liver, pancreas, or urinary bladder, is made up of different types of tissues. Each organ performs specific functions, which depend on the collective and integrated activities of its issues. Several organs constitute an organ system. Organs of a system function in a coordinated manner to carry out a major life process. ANIMAL TISSUES: Animal tissues are divided into four major classes on the basis of their functions. 1. Epithelial Tissues. It consists of closely-packed cells that form a continuous layer covering the surface of organs or lining the cavities of the body. Since the cells are closely packed, there is very little space between them; the absence of intercellular space is characteristic of epithelial tissues. The cells in this tissue remain attached to the basement membrane that separates it from the other tissues that lie beneath. Though, the primary function of the epithelium is protection, it may be sensory or may be concerned with absorption, secretion, or reproduction. Depending on the shape and arrangement of cells, and their functions, epithelia are classified into following types: a) Squamous Eptltelium: It is consists of a single layer of flattened cells with central nuclei. These cells can be compared to tiles on a floor. The inner lining of the cheek and the membranes lining the body cavities are examples of this epithelium. b) Cuboidal Epithelium: The cells of this epithelium are cube- shaped. The walls of ducts and glands are examples of this epithelium. c) Columnar Epithelium: The cells of this tissue are cylindrical and tall, the height of each being greater than its width. The nuclei are oval-shaped and are usually found at the base of the cells. The inner lining of the intestine is an example. d) Ciliated Epithelium: At their free margins the cells bear a number of fine protoplasmic projections called cilia. The wind- pipe or trachea is internally lined by ciliated epithelium, which removes the dust particles by the vibration of the cilia. e) Stratified Epithelium: If a number of layers of cells are found one over the other, the epithelial tissue is said to be stratified. The skin is a good example of this kind of epithelium. f) Sensory Epithelium: Some epithelium cells are modified to pick up stimulations and they form sense organs. Thus the olfactory epithelium that lines the nasal cavity contains sense organs of smell. g) Glandular Epithelium: Some epithelial cells may produce substances that are useful to the body and thus may become secretory in function. The glands may be unicellular, tubular, sac-like or modification of these. Gastric glands in the stomach and salivary glands are examples. h) Germinal Epithelium: This kind of epithelium is modified to produce the reproductive cells, the sperms and ova, for the propagation of the species'. The outer covering of the ovary and the inner lining of the minute tubes that make up the testis are examples of germinal epithelium. 2. Connective Tissues. The connective tissues include a variety of tissues that are specialized to connect and bind the various parts of the body together and to provide support. The presence of a matrix composed of intercellular material secreted by the cells is a characteristic feature of connective tissues. The cells which secrete the matrix lie scattered and embedded in it. The matrix may be soft or hard and mayor may not be traversed by fibers that increase the mechanical strength of the tissue. There are five distinct types of connective tissues: areolar tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone and blood. (a) Areolar Tissue. This consists of irregular cells scattered in a soft matrix traversed by elastic yellow fibres and bundles of tough white fibres. The sub-cutaneous connective tissue below the skin is a good example of areolar tissue. It binds the skin with the underlying parts. (b) Adipose Tissue. This is a connective tissue modified for storing up fat. The matrix is less conspicuous. The cells are generally large, and are round or oval in shape, with prominent

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central vacuoles that push the cytoplasm and the nuclei to the periphery of the cells. The vacuoles in the cells contain fat. Adipose tissue is found between the internal organs and below the skin. The yellow bone marrow is also an example of adipose tissue. (c) Cartilage. This is a supporting tissue. The intercellular material or matrix is slightly hardened by the depostiion of inorganic salts, chiefly those of calcium. The rounded cells lie mostly in groups within special spaces called lacunae. The matrix may be traversed by elastic fibres, or white fibres, or by both, and accordingly it comes to have different textures. The bridge of the nose and the external ears are supported by cartilage. (d) Bone. This is another, perhaps more familiar, supporting tissue, which is characterized by its hard matrix impregnated with large quantities of inorganic salts of calcium and phosphorus. Long bones have large central cavities containing the yellow marrow that stores fat. At the ends of these bones are several small spaces containing the red marrow where red blood cells are produced. The hard and solid part ofthe bone is the bone tissue. It is traversed by several long microscopic canals called Haversian canals. Arranged around these canals are concentric circles of irregular spaces called lacunae that contain the living bone cells. The hard matrix of the bone, secreted by the bone cells, consists of several layers or lame lie (sheets). The blood vessels in the Haversian canals reach the bone cells in the lacunae through fine radiating canals called cananliculi. The Haversian canal, the concentric circles of lacunae around it, the lamellae and the cananliculi together constitute, a Haversian system. Hundreds of such Haversian systems make up the bone. It may be noted that in the bone tissue about two thirds is non-l iving matter composed of mineral salts. The laminated construction of the Haversian systems, which are the structural units of bone, considerably increase the mechanical strength of this supporting tissue. The bones are covered by a tough, fibrous covering called periosteum to which the muscles and tendons remain attached. (e) Blood. This is a connective tissue with a liquid matrix adapted for the transportation of nutritive materials, respiratory gases, excretory materials and other substances from one part of the body to another. This tissue not only connects the different parts but also establishes a continuity within the body. It consists of55% plasma and 45% blood cells. The plasma is a straw-coloured, watery part containing about 90% water, the remainder being solids, like salts and proteins, in solution. Fibrinogen, a soluble protein of plasma, precipitates into fibrin threads when the blood clots. The blood cells are of three kinds-red blood cells, white blood cells, and blood platelets. The red blood cells (erythrocytes) form the vast majority. The blood contains about 5 million of them per cubic millimetre. Each red cell is a circular, bioconcave disc without a nucleus. It contains haemoglobin, the respiratory pigment that chiefly carries oxygen from the lungs to the other parts of the body. The nucleated white blood cells (leucocytes), numbering about 9000 per cubic millimetre, are shapeless and contain no pigment. They are the 'police force' of the body and protect it from disease-producing organisms. The blood platelets (thrombocytes), the smallest of the blood cells, are responsible for the clotting of the blood when blood vessels are damaged. 3. Muscular Tissues. Muscles constitute nearly half the weight of the body, and are composed of elongated cells adapted for contraction and relaxation and thereby cause movement. Since muscle cells are drawn out into long structures they are also known as muscle fibres. These are ofthree kinds: non-striated muscle, striated muscle, and cardiac muscles. a) Non-striated Muscle: This consists of spindle-shaped cells, each with a centrally-located long nucleus. The cells are arranged to form a sheet of muscular tissue, commonly found in the wall of the digestive tract, urinary bladder and other internal organs. Since one is not aware of their contraction, they are also called involuntary muscles. b) Striated Muscle: Since these muscles are attached to the skeleton they are also called skeletal muscles. Each cell in this muscle is a long cylindrical structure with longitudinal (i.e. lengthwise) and cross striations and has a number of nuclei placed along the periphery. The cells are bundled up and enclosed by connective tissue sheaths. These sheaths continue as the tendon that connects

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muscles with the bones. Since their contraction is under conscious control, they are also called voluntary muscles. c) Cardiac Muscle: These are found only in the heart and are capable of rhythmical contractions. The cells, arranged end to end, branch and unite in such a way as to form a continuous network. Each cell has a single centrally located nucleus and a striated appearance. 4. Nervous Tissues. This is composed of highly specialized cells called neurons that are capable of receiving stimuli, conducting impulses from one part of the body to another, and discharging these impulses. Each neuron has a cell body with a central nucleus and two sets of fibres called dendrites which carry the message towards the cell body, and a single long fibre called axon which carries the message away from the cell body. Axons may be naked or insulated by a fatty substance. Thus the bodies of plants and animals are composed of a variety of distinct cell groups and these perform varied functions. Each cell groups or tissue has its own special structural features to perform its functions most efficiently. In fact the body of an organism is a co-operative enterprise of these cell groups with varied 'talents' all arranged in such a way as to provide for the welfare of the whole body . CHAPTER 4 PHYSIOLOGY 1. PHYSIOLOGY OF NUTRITION: Food is any substance used by a living body to aid growth, maintain and repair body tissues, regulate body processes, and supply energy. Nutrition is the process by which food is taken in and used by body. Nutrition may also be defined as the science concerned with the study of food and its relation to health. TYPES OF FOODSTUFFS A living organism consists largely of compounds of carbon plus water. About 60% of most animals and over 90% of most plants is water. The carbon compounds of which organisms are made are called organic compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and vitamins). An organism also contains small amounts of inorganic matter like mineral salts. (i) CARBOHYDRATES. These are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and have general formula Cx(H20)y: x and y can have any value, but there are always twice as' many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms. This is the same ratio as in a water molecule (H20). Some common sources of carbohydrates are rice, wheat, maize, potato, banana, sugar etc. Carbohydrates are divided into three main groups: Monosaccharides are simple sugars consisting of three or more carbon atoms. Examples - Ribose, deoxyribose, (pentoses); glucose, fructose and galactose (hexoses.) Disaccharides are formed by the union of two monosacchadrides. Examples - Maltose (malt sugar) = glucose + glucose, lactose (milk sugar) = glucose + galactose, sucrose (cane sugar) = glucose + fructose. Polysaccharides are made up large number (300 to over 1000) of monosa tharides units. Example starch and cellulose are common in plants; glycogen and chitin are common in animals. (ii) FATS. Though these are also compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the amount of oxygen present is much less than that in the carbohydrates molecule, as is shown by the formula for a fat, which is C57H110O8' A molecule of fat consists of fatty acids and glycerol. Fats contain twice as much energy as carbohydrates, and so are best suited for storing energy. This explains why the body converts excess carbohydrates into fats. Apart from being an important source of energy, fat alsoprovide important structural components. Vegetable oils, fatty meat, nuts, butter and milk are natural sources of fat. Plants are the ultimate source of some of the essential fatty acids.

25

(iii) PROTEINS. In addition to the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are present also in carbohydrates and fats, proteins contain nitrogen with or without phosphorus and sulphur. Proteins are extremely complex compounds formed from simple units called amino acids. About twenty different amino acids are found in living organisms. Though proteins can yield the same amount of energy as carbohydrates, they provide mostly the building materials for the synthesis of protoplasm. After water, proteins are the main constituents of protoplasm. Enzymes which control, the life processes in a cell are proteins. Proteins can be used for respiration when carbohydrates and lipids are not available. The natural sources of protein are lean meat, egg, milk butter and pulses like beans and peas.

Types of Proteins Enzymes' Transport proteins Contractile roteins Hormones Structural proteins Protective proteins

Functions Catalyse or help in biochemical reaction Carry different substances in the blood to different tissues Help contraction of muscles and other cells Regulate many body functions For structural elements of cells and tissues Help fight infections

(iv) MINERALS. Although needed in very small quantities, mineral salts of various kinds are essential for the proper functioning of the body. They yield no energy but are important constituents of certain tissues, besides playing a major role in the regulation of metabolic activities. Calcium is the principal component of the skeleton. Blood contains about 0.9 percent salt, most of which is sodium chloride. Certain Summary of Mineral salts and their Importance. Importance Sources Essential for the formation of haemoglobin Meat,e ggs, green vegetable Milk, eggs, greenvegetables. Milk, eggs

Mineral I. Iron

Requireme nt 18mg

2. Calcium

Principal component of skeleton, and teeth;essential for contraction of heart muscle, and blood coagulation 3.Phosphorous Essential for the formation of bone and teeth; also for muscular contraction; for nucleic acids and phospholipids synthesis; to maintain blood Ph 4. Sodium Important constituent of body fluids (blood and lymph); transmission of nerve impulses 5. Potassium Intracellular osmotic pressure; transmission of nerve impulses 6. Iodine Essential for the formation of thyroxine 7. Magnesium 8. Sulphur Activates certain enzymes Constituent of hair, nails and corneous layers of

1200mg

1200mg

Common salt, milk Meat, vegetables Sea foods, common salt. Green-vegetables, meat Meat, fish, eggs

3500mg lOOOmg O.15mg 400mg

26

9. Chloroine 10. Fluorine

skin Essential for maintaining osmotic pressure of body fluids. Helps in enamel formation of teeth

Common salt, milk Drinking water, milk

3500mg

minerals salts play an important role in the regulation of the osmotic pressure, both within the cells and in the body fluids that surround them; others are important for muscular contraction; other for transmission of nerve impulses; others for the formation of bones and teeth; others for the formation of respiratory pigments; and others for the formation of hormones. In fact, they are extremelyessential for life. Meat, eggs, milk, cheese and vegetables are important sources of minerals, and usually, the body gets adequate amounts of them from a normal diet. (v) VITAMINS. Though these are needed in very small quentitles, they are essential to life, as they form a part of various enzymes and act as catalyst.vitamins are simple organic compounds.In genral,the animal body can not manufacture vitamins, and therefore they must be present in the diet. Plants are our ultimate source of vitamins. Vitamins are divided into two main groups; Fat-soluble vitamins A,D,E & K. Water soluble vitamin B complex and C. Vitamin-A (Ratinol) : Known as anti-infective vitamin, strengthens the integrity of skin, mucus membranes, epithelial cells.Essential for the formation of visual Rods and Cones of the ratina of the eyes. It also helps in the growth and formation for teeth and bone; so is more essential for children and nursing mothers. Carotene is the pro-vitamin of Vitamin-A and the conversion takes place in the liver. Sources: Animal oils such as liver oils of certain fish, egg yolks, green and yellow vegetables. Deficiency Symptoms: Night blindness, Xerophthalmia, abnormal changes in various epithelial membranes, retarded growth. Vitamin-B, (Thiamine) : It is the first vitamin to be discovered by Eijkman. Essential for healthy nerves and mucous membranes: Essential daily intake is around 1.5 mg. It is easily lost into heat. Source: Cereal grains, especially the outer seed coats, meats, yeast, green vegetable, lever etc. Deficiency Symptoms: Beri-Beri (nerve paralysis, weakness, staggering gait, nerve-pain), Polyneurities, loss of appetite and weight, etc. Vitamin-B. (Riboflovin) : It is essential for normal growth and healthy cornea. The essential daily intake is around 2 mg. Sources: Associated with B, and other members ofB-complex found in milk products, egg, lever, yeast and green vegetables.Deficiency Symptoms: Cataract, defective skin patches around mouth and tongue (Ariboflavinosis), slow metabolism and retarded growth. Vitamin-B, (Pyridoxin) : Essential for protein metabolism and blood formation. Deficiency is rare because it is found in most of the food. Sources : Meats, eggs, nuts and cereals Deficiency Symptoms : Mild anaemia atrophied lymph tissue, insufficient leucosytes and antibodies, low resistance to infection. Vitamin B'2 (Cytamine/Cobalamin) : Essential for the development of red blood cells-RBC Source: Liver Deficiency Symptoms: Pernicious anaemia (acute form of anaemia) also known as Megaloblastic anaemia. Vitamin-P-P (Niacin) : Essential for healthy digestive tracks. Essential daily intake is of 17 mg. Source: Part ofB-complex Deficiency Symptom, :' Pellagra, dirrahoea Vitamin-C (Ascorbic Acid) : This is the most abundant vitamin found in nature. Animal foods are generally deficient in vitamin-C. Plants are rich in it but is easily lost due to heat and storage. Fresh potato contains vitamin-C. It pi vides the collagen which binds the cell together and helps in keeping the skin elastic and supple. Deficiency leads to leakage of blood within the body. Essential for quick healing of wounds and for proper absorption of ions in the body. Essential daily intake is of 30-50 mg.

27

Source: Citrus fruits like lemons, oranges, gooseberry, cabbage, leafy vegetables etc. Milk is deficient in it. Deficiency Symptoms: Scurvy (spongy gum), retarded growth. Vitamin-D (Calcipherol) : Essential for absorption of calcium and phosphates in the body, so it regulates the bone and teeth formation. It is more needed by the children and nursing mother. It can also be produced in the human body. Ergosterd is the pro-vitamin of calcipherol. Ergosterd is the co louring matter found in sub-cutinous fat and covered in vitamin-D by kidney in presence of ultra-violet rays. Sources: Animal oils, butter, milk, fish-liver, solar ultra-violet rays etc. Deficiency Symptoms: Degenerate calcium metabolism, rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Slow growth. Vitamin-E (Tocopherol) : Anti-sterility vitamin Sources: Unpolished grain, animal & vegetable oil, wheat Deficiency Symptoms: Sterility in Rats (not in man), muscular paralysis. Vitamin-K : Vitamin K occurs in two forms-K, and K2, the former occuring in many plants and the latter in fish meal. The vitamin has a role in photosynthesis. It helps in coagulation of blood in higher animals by the release of Piothrombin into the lood. 'K' stands for Kgulation or coagulation Essential for manufacturing of protein Prothrombin. It can be absorbed in body only in presence of bile and can be synthesised by intestinal bacteria. Sources: Leafy vegetable Deficiency Symptoms : Improper coagulation of blood, slow growth. Lathyrism: This disease is caused by a water soluble neurotoxin, which is consumed with Kesari dal (Lathyrus sativus) common symptoms are lesions on the lower spinal segments followed by paralysis of legs.

LIST OF VITAMINES & THERE FUNCTION

VITAMINES Vitamine A CHEMICAL NAME Retinol SOURCES FUNCTION DEFICIENCY DISEASES Xeropthalmia ( night blindness) keratomalacia . Rickets (childhood) , Ostiomalacia (women) Reversible sterility. Haemorrhage

Vitamine- D

Caciferol

Vitamine E Vitamine K Vitamine C

Tocopherol

Liver oil, Egg, Milk, Butter, green vegetables, Carrot Liver oil , formed in human skin in presence of UV ray Vegetable oil, green vegetables Green leafy vegetables, intestinal tract Citrus fruits, green veg, green pepper

Night vision

Calcium Phosphorus balance Prevents oxidative breakdown of vitamines Prothrombin formation Teeth & gums development , capillary wall development Thiamine pyrophosphate coenzyme synthesis & energy generation Energy generation

Phylloquinone

Ascorbic acid

Scurvy

Vitamine- B1

Thiamine

Grains, yeast, green veg , meat, egg

Beri-beri

Vitamine-B2

Riboflavin

Milk, meat, green veg

Chelosis, Glossitis, Keratitis

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Vitamine- B3 Vitamine-B5 Vitamine-B6 VitamineB7(H)

Pantothenic Acid Niacin Pyridoxine Biotin

Liver, meat, green veg Yeast, meat, green veg Liver, kidney ,veg, cereals, egg Liver, milk, egg, veg, fruits Green veg, intestinal bacteria Liver, egg, kidney, milk , fish

Coenzyme A synthesis Energy generation Glycogen synthesis Carboxylation & decarboxylation Formation & maturation of RBC Facilitates vit b9

Early aging Pellagra Dermatitis, Convulsion Dermatitis, muscular pain , growth failure. Macrocyctic anaemia Pernicious anaemia

VitamineB9 VitamineB12

Folic Acid Cyanocobalamine

(vi) WATER. We may live for days without food, but not without water. It is an essential constituent of protoplasm and the body fluids. Water is indispensable for digestion, for metabolic processes, for removal of metabolic wastes, for the distribution and regulation of body heat, and for keeping the body cool. The water requirements of the body are met by drinking water and other liquid foods. Even solid foods contain a good amount of water. A. NUTRITION IN PLANTS Modes of Plant Nutrition. All organisms need a regular supply of elements to sustain their growth and meet energy requirements. The green plants are autotrophic, i.e., they manufacture their own food from simple inorganic materials in the presence of sunlight.On the other hand, the Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and a few specialized non-green flowering plants derive their nourishment and energy from complex organic substances available in the environment.Thus nutrition which involves dependance on performed organic substances is termed heterotrophism. The heterotrophic organisms are commonly of three types -saprophytic, parasitic and symbiotic. The saprophytes (e.g. Rhizopus) live on dead bodies or organic remains of plants and animals, food products, excrement, and so on. The parasites (e.g. Cuscuta) however, thrive on or inside another living organism which is designated as the host. They obtain their nourishment from the host and may damage or even kill it in this process. The symbiotic organisms, (e.g., Lichens, Rhizobium) are however, dependent on each other for their nutrition. Some autotrophs supplement their nutritional requirements by trapping and digesting insects and other small animals. Such plants are called carnivorous or insectivorous plants. The best known examples of insectivorous plants are the pitcher plants (Nepenthes), the sundew (Drosera), venus fly trap (Dionaea) and the bladderwort (Utricularia). Essential Minerals for Plants. The following are the criteria of essentiality of minerals. (i) the mineral must be absolutely necessary for supporting normal growth and reproduction, (ii) the requirement of the mineral must be specific and not replaceable by another element; (iii) the mineral must be directly involved in the nutrition of the plant. The essential minerals are divided into two categories based on the quantity in which they are required by plants: macro-elements (which are needed in large quantities) and micro- elements (which are needed in minute quantities). Macro-Elements. Examples, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron are some of the essential macro-elements. The elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus are the main building blocks of the plant body. The cell walls are composed of C, Hand 0; so also fats and carbohydrates. Proteins are made up mainly ofC, H, 0 and N;

29

and nucleic acids have P in addition. Sulphur is a constituent of a few amino acidswhich ultimately form proteins. Without these amino acids, many important proteins cannot be synthesized, thus affecting metabolic processes. Nitrogen is also an essential constituent of different proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and many other organic molecules. It is available in the form of nitrate or amino salts. Deficiency of these substances causes pale leaves (chlorosis), rapid leaf fall, stunted growth and inhibitation of cell division and respiration. Some of the Macro-nutrients are as follows :i. Nitrogen (N) : N, deficiency in the plants leads to decrease in angle between stem and leaf. In cereals and many other grasses, tomato and potato, the leaves assume a more erect position than usual due to nitrogen deficiency. Chlorophyll, synthesis is retarded and leaves turn yellow. This yellowing is rather more pronounced in older leaves. Nitrogen deficiency in wheat leads to formation of longer roots. ii. Phosphorus (P) : Its deficiency is reflected by abnormal colour of leaf, generally these symptoms appear in older leaves. In cereals, phosphorus deficiency is similar to those of nitrogen i.e. lessened leaf angle, reduced fillering, prolonged dormancy, premature leaf fall, and decreased numbers and size of flower. Often, phosphorus deficiency leads to accumulation of carbohydrates and reduction of nitrogen fractions. iii. Calcium (Ca) : Calcium is the chief constituent of plants as calciumpectate of middle lamella of cell .wall. The deficiency of calcium appears in the young leaves and near the growing points of stem and root. In its deficiency, margins of leaves, often appear irregular in form or often show brown scorching or spotting effects. It also leads to impaired development of lateral roots and nuclear division. Sometimes root hairs of calcium deficient plants become bulbous. Fresh supply of calcium helps in greater production of nuts in groundnut. iv. Iron (Fe) : It acts as a catalyst and electron carrier in respiration. In extreme deficiency conditions scorching of leaf margins and tips may occur. In mild deficiency it produces a mottled pattern or leaf may show complete bleaching. In deficiency, chlorosis of the leaves occurs and young leaves are severely affected. Principal veins may remain green. v. Manganese (Mn) : It is metallic cofactor for some respiratory enzymes such as malic dehydrogenase. It also serves as an activator for enzyme connected with reduction of nitrate. Mn influences absorption of other elements such as K and Ca. Its efficiency leads to chloroplast disintegration. In its deficiency the root system is often poorly developed and badly affected. vi. Zinc {Zn) : It is also found in soils in very small quantities and largely it results from concentration and addition from growing plants and added residue. Zinc deficiency symptoms in citrus are widespread where it causes the condition known as mottle leaf vii. Boron (B) : It favours the absorption of calcium. It is essential for translocation of sugars and is involved in reproduction and germination of pollens. Its deficiency is responsible for several diseases such as Heart rot of sugar beet and marigold, hard fruits of citrus and top sickness of tobacco. Micro-Elements: Manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron and chlorine have been established as essential microelements. It has been shown that a few other clements such as cobalt, vanadium, silicon and nickel may be essential for certain plants. Experimental evidences indicate that if the above macro and micro elements are supplied in appropriate quantities, the plants remain healthy. The vigorous growth of the plants depends upon proper soil conditions, including its physical (pH, pore size, etc.) and chemical (presence of minerals salts) status. This is why fertilizers are regularly added to the soil to maintain a proper balance of nutrients. PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Photosynthesis is the only process on earth by which solar energy is trapped by autotrophic organisms and converted into food for the rest of the organisms. About 170 million tonnes of dry matter are produced by this process anually, 90% of it in the oceans. No other chemical process on

30

earth can match this output. Curiously, only 0.2% of the light energy incident on earth is utilised by photosynthetic organisms, yet this amount of trapped energy meets the food requirements of all other heterotrophs. In addition, people use plants for fodder, firewood, timber, fibres and many other purposes.Fossil fuels such as coal,petroleum and natural gas are also products of Photosynthetic organisms which lived millions of years ago. Importantly, photosynthesis is the only natural process by which oxygen is liberated for use by other organisms. Chemistry of Photosynthesis. Here, in very brief form, is what happens during photosynthesis: I. Light reaches the cells that contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and changes it into chemical energy. Water molecules in the cells break up. The oxygen from the water is set free. The hydrogen from the water molecules combines with carbon dioxide from the environment to form glucose, a simple sugar. The glucose molecule is held together by the chemical energy. In other words, the energy is trapped within the glucose molecule. The simplified equation for the overall reactions of the photosynthesis can be given as follows:
Light energy absorbed by Chlorophyll

6CO2+ 12H2 C6H1206 + 6H2 + 602 Photosynthesis takes place in the plant cells containing chlorophyll. The simplest plants that contain chlorophyll are one-celled algae, in which the whole plant is photosynthetic. In contrast, higher plants-mosses, liverworts, ferns, and seed plants have specialized tissues. These tissues are composed of millions of cells of different types. The cells in certain plant parts especially in stems and leaves, arc full of chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll. Higher plants contain two redominant types of chlorophyll, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll (primary pigments). In addition there are other pigments also present namely the carotenes and the xanthophyll (accessory pigments). All these pigments including chlorophyll are collectively called the photosynthetic pigments. However out of these pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are the ones that actually participate in the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy, while the carotenes and xanthophyll absorb light energy and transfer it to chlorophyll. Electron microscopes have shown that within the chloroplast, the molecules of chlorophyll are arranged in definite layers,called lamellae or thy/akoids. Other coloured molecules, called pigments, which aid chlorophyll in its task, also form part of the lamellae. In the chloroplasts of most plants, the lamellae form orderly bundles called grana which are scattered in the stroma of the chloroplast. The complex process of photosynthesis consists of two steps: (i) Light reaction or Hill reaction - light is essential. (ii) Dark reaction - does not requires light. (i) Light Reaction. Light reactions are initiated with the absorption of light energy by the Photosynthetic pigments located in the thylakoid membranes. Besides the chlorophyll and accessory pigments there are also present special types of chlorophyll molecule P6KO and P700 (P stands for pigments and the Figures, for the wavelength of light at which these molecules absorb). PnKO and P7IJO form the reaction centre or photocentre. The photosynthetic pigments pass on the absorbed light to Role of Mineral Elements in Plants Regions of Plants in which Functions required Everywhere particularly in Constituent of, meristematic tissues. proteins nucleic acids, vitamins, hormones, coenzymes, ATP ch lorophyll Younger tissues, withdrawn from Constituent of cell

Element Nitrogen

Deficiency Symptoms Stunted growth; chlorosis

Phosphorus

Poor growth, leaves

31

older metabollically less active cells.

Potassium

Meristematic tissues; buds, leaves, root tips.

Calcium

Meristematic and differentiating tissues; accumulates in older leaves.

Magnesium

Leaves; withdrawn from ageing leaves and exported to developing seeds.

Sulphur

Stem and root tips; young leaves; remobilised during senescence.

Iron

Everywhere; collects along leaf veins.

Manganese(trace)

Leaves and seeds.

Molybdenum(trace) Everywhere, MO3+ particularly in roots

membrane; certain proteins; all nucleic acids and nucleotides; required for all phosphorylation reactions Helps determine anion-cation balance in cells; involved in protein synthesis; involved in formation of cell membrane and in opening and closing of stomata; increases hardness; activates enzymes and helps in maintenance of turgidity of cells Involved in selective permeability of cell membranes; activates certain enzymes; required for development of stem and root apex, and as calcium pectate in the middle lamella of the cell wall. Activates enzymes in phosphate metabolism; constituent of chlorophyll; maintains ribosome structure. Constituent of certain proteins. vitamins (thiamine, biotin, CaA) and ferredoxin. Constituent of ferredoxin and cytochromes; activates catalase; required for syntehsis of chlorophyll. Activates certain enzymes (carboxylases). Activates certain enzymes in nitrogen

dull green

Yellow edges of leaves; premature death

Stunted growth

Chlorosis

Chlorosis

Chlorosis

Chlorosis; grey spots on leaves Slight retardation of growth

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metabolism. Boron (trace) Leaves and seeds. Required for uptake Brown heart disease and utilisation of calcium, pollen germination and cell differentiation, carbohydrates translocation. Copper (trace) Everywhere Activates certain Dieback of shoots enzymes Zinc (trace) Everywhere Activates various Malformed leaves enzymes, especially carboxylases, part of carbonic anhydrase and various dehydrogenases; needed for auxin synthesis. Chlorine Everywhere With Na', K+ helps determine solute concentration and anion-cation balance in cells; essential for oxygen evolution in photosynthesis. these photocentres. The cluster of pigment molecules which transfer their energy to P 680 absorb at or below the wavelength of 680nm and form the photosystem II or PS II. Similarly P 700forms photosystem I or P680 along with the pigment molecules which absorb at or below 700nm. P680 after acquiring sufficient quantum of energy, emits an electron with high potential energy, which moves down an electron transport chain. During this process ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) is formed from ADP (Adenosine disphosphate). The electron lost from P 680 is ultimately accepted by P700 which transfers in to ferredoxin which in turn transfers it to NADP (Nicotinamide adenine diphosphate) to generate reduced NADPH. The oxidised P 680 regains its electron by photolysis of water into 2H+, 2e- and oxygen. Oxygen is given out by photosynthesising plants. The electron accepted by P700 from P680 is passed on to NADP along with protons (H+) generated by the splitting of water and thus NADPH is formed. As synthesis of ATP occurs in light and the process is not cyclic, the process is called non-cyclic photophosphorylation. A second electron transfer mechanism occurs, starting with P700; the ultimate acceptor of the deenergised electron is also P700 Thus the process is cyclic. It generates ATP and is therefore, known as cyclic photophosphorylation. The ATP and NADPH generated in light reaction is used in the dark reaction to reduce carbon dioxide to carbohydrate, a process called carbon dioxide fixation. (ii) Dark Reaction. The dark reaction was worked out by an American scientist Melvin Calvin in 1954. This reaction occurs in the stroma by series of enzyme catalysed steps. In this process three molecues of CO2 combine with three molecules of ribulose biphosphate (RuBP), a 5-carbon compound to form an unstable 6-carbon compound which immediately breaks down to produce six molecules of a 3-carbon compound- phosphoglyceric acid (PGA).

33

This is the first stable intermediate product of photosynthesis. In the presence of ATP and NADPH, PGA molecules get reduced to form a 3-carbon compound- phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). PGAL being higly reactive, two of its 3-carbon molecules combine immediately to form a 6- carbon sugarglucose. This is the final product of photosynthesis. In this process RuBP is regenerated and thus the process is a cyclic one and is known as Calvin Cycle. Depending on the first stable product of dark reactions the Calvin cycle are of two types : (i) C3 pathway of CO2 fixation-the first stable product is 3 carbon compound (3-phosphoglyceric acid) and the plants are called C3 plants (e.g. sugar cane). (ii) C4 pathway of CO2 fixation-the first product is a 4- carbon compound (oxaloacetic acid) and plants are called C4 plants. Factors effect Photosynthesis. The external factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis are intensity and quality of light, carbon dioxide, water and temperature. The age of leaf, chlorophyll content and the histology of the leaf are the major internal factors which control the rate of photosynthesis. Translocation of Photosynthesis. The carbohydrates manufactured in the leaves of higher plants are distributed to roots and storage organs (tubers, bulbs, roots, fruits etc.) along the phloem. This long distance movement of organic compounds is called translocation. Sucrose is the principal form in which the carbohydrates are translocated. Sieve elements which are living (chiefly sieve tubemembers in seed plants) are the channels of transport. Metabolic energy is used in the process and rates upto 100 cm/hr have been recorded. The mechanism by which carbohydrates and other organic molecules are translocated within vascular plants is not yet fully understood. The mass flow hypothesis, the most widely accepted theory envisages a pressure gradient between the source (leaves) and the sink (storage organ). The difference in hydrostatic pressure between these is the driving force which moves the sugar solution. NUTRITION IN ANIMALS Almost all the animals are heterotrophs. They do not manufacture their foods but depend for their nutrition either on plants (herbivores) or on other animals (carnivores or predators), or on both (omnivores). Very few of animals, e.g., the protozoans - Euglena, Volvox - which contain chlorophyll have retained autorophic mode of nutrition as well. The heterotrophs are usually free living and have holozoic mode of nutrition, i.e., feed on solid organic matter. A few other animals e.g., the protozoans Chilomonas have saporozoic mode of nutrition. They abosorb dead organic matter (rendered in the form of solution) by osmosis through their body surface. Feeding Mechanism. Animals obtain their food in various ways as discussed below. a) Diffusion. This method is adopted by most ofthe protozoan parasites and tapeworms in which the dissolved organic matter in their surrounding is absorbed through their body surface. b) Pinocytosis. This is the process in which dissolved food in the form of droplets is taken into a cell by invagination of the cell membrane at the point of contact of it with the droplets, to form a vesicle, which is then pinched off and migrates into the cells as in amoeba. c) Suction. Leeches suck the blood by cutting the body surface. Mosquitoes, bugs and aphids suck plant juices or blood by piercing their mouth parts. The particle feeder are classified as follows: a) Microphagous animals. They feed on particles too small to be captured individually. Their mode offeeding is filter feeding using different kinds of filtering devices like pseudopodia, cilia or flagella in some protozoans and sponges, sheets of mucus in many snails, groups of setae in many crustaceans etc. As water passes through the filters, the contained particles of food and other materials are retained. b) Macrophagous animals. They feed on particles large enough to be captured individually. For example amoeba catches and engulfs its prey by means of pseudopodia, the mechanism being called phagocytosis. The earthworm swallows earth, to procure nutrients present therein and

34

ejects rests. The hydra catches its prey by tentacles and transfers it to the mouth. Most of the fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds get hold to food by jaws, tongue or beak and ingest without chewing. Special structures for seizing and masticating are present in other animals. c) Digestion. In multicellular animals all organs which are concerned with ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion constitute the digestive system. Digestion is the process by which food is dissolved and chemically converted so that it can be absorbed by the cells of an organism and used to maintain vital body functions. Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides and starches), fats, and proteins must be converted into simpler compounds before they can be assimilated into the body cells. During digestion, these organic compounds are reduced by hydrolytic enzymes, which split the long molecular chains by adding water molecules. Vacuolar digestive systems, found mostly in unicellular organisms, are the simplest forms of digestion. Food is ingested and passed through a cell in bubble like chambers called vacuoles. Enzyme organelles, or lysosomes, fuse with the vacuoles, and the enzymes convert the food into simpler compounds that can be assimilated into cellular material. After a vacuole has crossed the cell, it is expelled along with any undigested matter. Digestive Action Site of Substrate Action

Secretion its source

and

Enzymes

Producs Medium Neutral Acidic Acidic maltose (disaccharide) peptones Paracasein

Saliva;salivary Salivary amylase mouth starch glands Gastric juice pepsinogen (inactive)+ stomach protein gastric Glands HCI-->pepsin(active) -doMilkproteincasein prorennin(inactive)+ H+->rennin (active) lipase -dolight fat Pancreatic juice; Pancreas amylase Maltase Lactase Sucrose Lipase trypsinogen + enterokinase (from duodenal mucosa) trypsin '(inactive) chymotrypsinogen+ inactive) trypsin---> chymotrypsin(active) carboxipeptidase small intestine -do-do-do-do-d--> starch Maltose Lactose Sucrose Fat Protein

Acidic

fatty acid glycerol Alkaline maltose Alkaline Alkaline Alkaline Alkaline Alkaline

and

Glucose glucose+galactose glucose+fructose fattyacids+glycerol polypeptides

-do-

Protein

Alkaline

-do-

-do-

polypeptide

Alkaline amino acid

35

Bile; liver

(salts,notenzymes,activate small lipase, emulsify fats and intestine renderfat-soluble substanceswater-soluble). Intestinal juice; Erepsin -dopolypeptides and Intestinalglands short pepides Maltase -domaltose Lactase Sucrose lipase -do-do-dolactose sucrose fat

Alkaline

Alkaline amino acids Alkaline glucose Alkaline glucose+ galactose Alkaline glucose + fructose Alkaline fattyacid+ glycerol

The simplest multicellular animals-the sponges have slightly more elaborate digestive processes called channel network systems. For example in hydra digestion takes place in the gastrovascular cavity. The digestion takes place in two stages. In the first stage the digestion occurs in the cavity outside gastrodermis and is called extracellular digestion. During the second stage the food is completely broken down within the vacuoles of gastrodermal cells and is called intracellular digestion. Most higher animals, including all vertebrates, have digestive tracts, or alimentary canals, through which food passes. DIGESTION IN HUMANS Digestive Organs and Their Functions. The human digestive system consists of (1) the digestive tract, or the series of structures and organs through which food passes during its processing into forms absorbable into the bloodstream and also the structures through which solid wastes pass in the process of elimination, and (2) other organs that contribute juices necessary for the digestive process. 1. Digestive tract (Alimentary Canal): The digestive tract begins at the lips and ends at the anus. A. The Mouth: Ingestion and mastication, or chewing, takes place in the mouth (buccal cavity) with the help of teeth. The tongue helps to work the food into a ball or bolus so that it can be swallowed. When food is swallowed the soft palate closes the opening to the nasal cavity and the epiglottis closes the opening to the trachea. The bolus is pushed along the oesophagus to the stomach by peristalsis. B. The Stomach: The stomach is a muscular bag in which a meal is temporarily stored. Its contents are passed on gradually to the small intestine. Peristalsis (type of movement) helps to mix the food with gastric juice, and so turn it into a watery paste called chyme. The mucous helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions of hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Some absorption of small molecules such as glucose, salt, alcohol takes place in the stomach. C. The Small Intestine: The first, slightly wider part of the small intestine is called the duodenum. The rest, called the ileum, is the longest part of the gut. The later stages of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The walls of the ileum produce intestinal juice, and the digestive processes of the duodenum continue for a time in the ileum. Bile is also emptied into the small intestine. Nearly all the absorption of digested materials takes place through the wall of the ileum through the villi. D. Large Intestine or Colon: After passing through the ileum, the contents of the intestine contain a high proportion of water. The walls of the large intestine absorb much of this water, so it is not lost from the body. The semi-solids which remain are called faeces. They are stored in large intestine and passed out at intervals through the anus. Faeces is a mixture of substances which include undigested food, mainly the cellulose cell wall of plants and dead bacteria and mucous and dead cells from the gut

36

walls. The cells lining the gut have a limited life. They are constantly dying or wearing away and being renewed. Surplus bile and other secretions colour the faeces. The walls of the colon absorb vitamin K which is synthesised by some intestinal bacteria. Function of Liver. The liver is found only in vertebrates. Newly-absorbed food materials pass through the liver before being transported round the body. An exception is the emulsified fat in the lacteals which bypasses the liver. The liver stores carbohydrate as glycogen, lipids, mineral salts, vitamins A, D, and B12 The liver helps to keeps the blood sugar (glucose) level constant, which in turn helps to keep the osmotic pressure of the blood constant. The liver manufactures a wide variety of products. These include most of the plasma proteins and bile. Bile is stored in the gall bladder and passed into the duodenum to help in digestion. Bile contains salts which help in emulsification of fats and absorption of food. The liver converts toxins into harmless substances. Many of the toxic by-products of the body's own metabolism are made harmless in the liver. Example: the conversion of nitrogenous waste products to urea. Over J 00 chemical reactions continually go on in the liver. They produce a significant amount of heat, which contributes to the maintenance of a constant body temperature in homiothermic animals. Glands contributing digestive juices include the salivary glands, the gastric glands in the stomach lining, the pancreas, and liver and its adjuncts - the gall bladder and bile ducts. Absorption. About 90 per cent of digested food and 10 per cent of water and minerals are absorbed by the small intestine. In order to enhance the absorption capacity of the small intestine its epithilial lining is thrown into a number of folds called villi. The membrane of each villus is further folded into a number of smaller microvilli. The villi have a rich supply of blood capillaries. Simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed, through the intestinal wall into the blood capillaries. These are then carried by the portal vein to the liver before release into general circulation. The glycerides and fatty acids are transported usually, via the lymph vessels (Lacteals) and thoracic duct to the blood. Absorption in stomach occurs only to a limited extent. The large intestine absorbs much of the residual water from the undigested food which passes through it. ENZYMES An enzyme is a protein which acts as a catalyst in the metabolism of an organism. Characteristics. (i) All enzymes are proteins and share common properties. They form colloidal solution and are of high molecular weight; (ii) Enzymes catalyse every chemical reaction that occurs in the living system; (iii) Enzymes generally accelerate biochemical reaction by reducing the energy requirement (activation energy); (iv) Enzymes do not alter the amount or nature of the product; (v) Enzymes do not affect the amount of energy released or absorbed during the reaction; (vi) Enzymes retain their identity at the end of the reaction, as at the beginning. However, a given molecule of an enzyme cannot be used indefinitely because it is readily inactivated by heat or action of acid; (vii) Extremely small amounts of enzymes are able to bring about measurable changes; (viii) Enzymes catalyze biochemical reaction at significantly lower temperatures, most enzymes show their maximum activity at body temperatures (37C) called the optimal temperature; (ix) Enzymes are sensitive to change in pH in the reactions medium; (x) Enzymes are specific in their action; (xi) Many enzymes cannot act on their own and require the help of some substances called activators for their activation; (xii) Certain substances called inhibitors slow down the rate of enzymatic reaction; (xiii) most enzymes can work in either direction.

37

Human Digestive Enzymes & Their Action Parts Mouth Stomach Digestive Saliva Gastric Juice Enzyme present Ptylin (a) Pepsi+HCl (b) Rennin (c) Gastric Lipase No enzyme (a) Trypsin (b) Amylase (c) Pancreatic (a) Peptidases (b) Invertase (c) Lipase (d) Maltase (e) Lactase Enzyme acts on Starch Proteins Milk Fat Changed into Dextrin Maltose SimplerPolypeptides Curdled intoCashein Fatty acids andGlycerol

Liver Pancreas

Bilejuice Pancreatic Juice

SimplerPolypeptides Starch Emulsified fat

Small Intestine

Succus Entericus

Tri, Di & Mono peptides Maltose Fatty acids & Glycerol Poly, Tri & Di-peptides Amino acids Sucrose Glucose & fructose Fat emulsions Fatty acids andglycerol Maltose Glucose Lactose Glucose + Galactose

NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS A. Protein Calorie Malnutrition (PCM) : Inadequate supply of protein leads to PCM which resutls into following disorders. a. Kwashiorkor. This deficiency disease is prevalent amongchildren up to the age of five years, who instead of their mother's milk (protein diet), take mainly a carbohydrate diet. Kwashiorkor is characterized by discoloured hair and skin, bloated belly due to fluid imbalance and thin legs. The children become irritable, cease to grow, loose weight. Brain development and mental capacities are retarded. Their liver too is damaged and the child often dies. b. Marasmus. Infants below the age of one year suffer from this deficiency disease. when breast feeding is replaced by less nutritive food, low in proteins and calories. this is characterised by thinning of limbs and of the abdominal wall, wrinkled skin and sunken eyes. The ribs become more prominent. Brain weight and body weight are lowered. B. Mineral Deficiency Diseases a. Anaemia is caused due to iron deficiency in the diet. Anaemia is characterised by deficiency of haemoglobin in the red blood corpuscles. Since haemoglobin plays a vital role in the transport of oxygen, enough oxygen is not made available to cells to meet the metabolic requirements, i.e oxidation of nutrients and production of energy and hence the anaemic persons look pale, lose appetite and get fatigued easily. b. Hypokaelemia is characterised by rise in heart beat rate;kidney damage, polyuria, weakness and paralysis of muscles. This is caused by severe loss of potassium in the body due to excessive secretion of hormones of the adrenal cortex or in the course of severe vomitting and acute diarrhoea. c. Hyponatremia is caused by increased loss of sodium from the body after intense vomitting and diarrhoea which leads to dehydration, low blood pressure and even loss of body weight. Simple Goitre is caused by deficiency of iodine which regulates the secretion of thyroxine (hormone) from the thyriod gland. The low level of thyroxine steps up the production of thyroid stimulating

38

hormone (TSH) by the anterior pituitary. The increasing level of TSH brings about enlargement of thyroid known as goitre. C. Vitamin Deficiency Diseases a. Vitamin A. This is necessary for the maintenance of the epithelial cells of the eye, the skin, and the digestive and respiratory tracts. Dryness of the conjunctiva (xerophthalmia) and night blindness or inability to see in dim light are consequences of a lack of this vitamin. Cabbage, carrot, mango, papaya, orange and animal products, such as butter, eggs and fish-liver oils, are rich natural sources of this vitamin. b. Vitamin B-complex. It consists of a number of related vitamins, mainly thiamine, riboflavin and nicotinic acid. Thiamine (Vit. B) is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates: Its absence results in a deficiency disease called beriberi which is characterized by degenerative changes of the nerves and wasting away of the muscles, resulting, in paralysis. The outer layers of cereals and pulses, and milk and liver are important sources of this vitamin. Riboflavin (Vit.Bl) is important for cellular oxidation. Its absence results in the appearance of fissures in the corners of the mouth, blurred vision, burning and soreness of eyes and tongue. The disorder is called pellagra, characterized by inflammation of the tongue, mouth and gums, urethral, vaginal mucus membranes. Skin on hands, feet, elbows, wrists and knees also become red and itchy and is peeled off causing pigmentation in patches. Cyanocobalmin (Vit BI) adversely affects the formation of RBe in bone marrow and thus results in megaloblastic or pernicious anaemia. c. Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid). This vitamin is essential for the healthy maintenance of connective tissue .. Lack of it causes a disease called scurvy, characterized by bleeding of the gums and other parts of the body. This is because capillaries become fragile. Citrus fruits, such as oranges and lemons, as well as guavas and Indian gooseberry, are rich in this vitamin. Since cooking destroys this vitamin, they must be taken fresh. d. Vitamin D (Calciferol). It plays an important role in the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. Lack of this vitamin causes rickets, a deficiency disease characterized by weak, pliable and distorted bones, especially of the legs. This is found in liver oils, yolks of eggs, milk and butter. It can also be produced in the skin under the influence of sunlight on ergosterol. e. Vitamin E (tocopherol). Absence of this vitamin causes sterility. It is present in green vegetables and animal oils. f. Vitamin K. It plays an important role in the normal clotting of blood. Absence of this vitamin delays the clotting. It is present in a variety of foods and is also manufactured by the bacteria in the human intestines. Obesity. Overeating (dietary excesses) insufficient exercise or sometimes hormonal imbalances lead to obesity. Regulated food, exercise and medical help can check this disease.

2. PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION
RESPIRATION: Breathing is a mechanical process of taking in atmospheric air (inspiration) into the respiratory organs, say lungs, and giving out carbon dioxide from them (expiration). Respiration is the chemical breakdown of food to release the energy essential for life. Respiration takes place inside the cells and tissues of the body.Most organisms require a constant supply of oxygen to respire. When this oxygen reaches the cells it combines with glucose sugar into which food has been converted. Energy is released together with the waste products of carbon dioxide and water.

39

C6HI206 +602 6H20+6C02 + energy

glucose oxygen water

carbon
dioxide

The reaction takes place in stages, each controlled by its own enzyme. At each stage a little energy is released and becomes temporarily attached to a chemical called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP seems to be present in all cell When a cell needs energy, its ATP readily provides the appropriate amount. The earliest stages of the respiratory reaction do not require oxygen.They take place in the cytoplasm, and result in the formation of acompound with a three-carbon molecule, called pyruvic acid. The remaining stages, in which pyruvic acid is broken down to carbon dioxide and water,do requireoxygen. Most of the energy of respiration is released during these later stages which, in plant and animal cells, take place in the mitochondria. Types of respiration a. AEROBIC: Respiration which uses oxygen is called aerobic respiration. b. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION Under certain circumstances energy can be released from food without oxygen. This process is called anaerobic respiration. Very little energy is released during anaerobic respiration because glucose is not completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water, it is changed into chemicals such as alcohol and lactic acid. Most plant and animal tissues can respire anaerobically for a time. They must, however get rid of the waste products of the reaction, because these become toxic if they accumulate in cells. c. Fermentation. Micro-organisms which respire anaerobically are used in a number of industrial processes. Example: in brewing, sugars are broken down by yeast to produce alcohol (ethanol). The carbon dioxide gas given off as the yeast respires causes the sugar solution to bubble, as if it were boiling. The process is commonly called fermentation (from the Latin meaning 'to boil'). A. RESPIRATION IN PLANTS Plants require much less energy than most animals, and respire more slowly. They do not breathe; diffusion provides sufficient oxygen for their respiratory needs. Atmospheric air moves in and out by simple diffusion, through the stomata of the leaves and the surface tissues in general. Subsequent, the gases enter the inter-cellular spaces. Oxygen is absorbed by the individual cells for use in the energy yielding reactions. As oxygen is utilized, more of it diffuses into the plant to take its place. Since carbon dioxide is being continuously formed, its concentration in tissue becomes higher than in the surrounding air. Consequently, it diffuses out of the plant, especially when it is not being used for photosynthesis. Besides leaves, other parts of the plants, such as stems, roots, fruits and seeds, also respire. The respiratory rates of root and shoot apices and germinating seeds are, however, higher since they are actively growing and therefore require much more energy. It is interesting to note that respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis. Respiration releases energy from foods, whereas photosynthesis stores energy in food. The products of respiration are carbon dioxide and water. The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. Respiration, however, occurs in all living cells and occurs in both light and dark. Photosynthesis takes place only in green cells and only in light. Leaves and other green parts of plants carryon both photosynthesis and respiration during the day, when they receive light. Under these conditions, photosynthesis proceeds more rapidly than respiration. The plant draws in much more carbon dioxide than it releases, and much less oxygen than it releases. The result, therefore, is that the plant gives off oxygen during the daytime. At night, with the disappearance of light, photosynthesis comes to an end. Respiration, however, continues, since it is independent of light. The result is that the plant gets oxygen from the atmosphere. It releases carbon dioxide (an end product of respiration) to the atmosphere, but does not release oxygen. At night, therefore, plants deplete the supply of oxygen and add to the supply of carbon dioxide. B. RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS

40

Single-celled organisms (e.g. amoebas) have no organs for respiration: they simply exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen across their cell membranes. Higher ;nimals, however have special respiratory mechanisms. Insects have a network of tubes (tracheae) that open to the outside and bring oxygen into the body. Fish and several aquatic invertebrates have gills, which permit the exchange of gases with the surrounding water; a pumping mechanism then carries the oxygenated blood through the animal's body. Some fishes and amphibians use their thin, moist, vascular skin for respiratory exchange. Land-dwelling vertebrates have lungs that vary in complexity. The lungs are inflated by various types of pumping mechanisms, which cause oxygen to enter in response to a change in air pressure. Oxygen is transported throughout the body by bonding with haemoglobin pigments in red blood cells. Haemoglobin also acts to carry carbon dioxide from body tissues back to the lungs where it is exhaled. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM In human beings lungs are the respiratory organs (pulmonary respiration). Lun~s communicate with the atmospheric air through nostrils, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice- box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi and bronchioles. These bronchioles terminate into millions of tiny sacs like structures called alveoli. The thin walls of alveoli are lined with a network of blood capillaries. Alveoli have a far larger surface area than the total skin surface and consequently provide for greater respiratory exchanges. Lungs are located in the thorax cavity. Diaphragm and the intercostal muscles, help in contraction and expansion of the lungs during breathing. Respiratory gases are exchanged between the alveolar air and the blood in alveolar capillaries. Partial Pressures (mm Hg) of Respiratory Gases Gas Oxygen Carbon dioxide Inspired air 158 0.3 Alveolar air 100 40 Venous blood 40 46 Arterial blood 95 40 Expired air 116 32

From the values of partial pressure of respiratory gases mentioned in table we see that oxygen diffuses from the alveolar air to the alveolar capillary blood as the alveolar partial pressure of oxygen (POz) is higher than the POz of the venous blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the reverse direction because the venous PCOz exceeds the alveolar PCOr Most of the oxygen entering the blood combines with heamoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin and is thus transported in RBC. The high POl and low PCOl in the alveoli haemoglobin takes up large volumes of oxygen in the lungs. On reaching the tissue capillaries, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release oxygen; the low POz and high PCOz in the tissue enhances this release of oxygen. This oxygen released in the tissue is then utilised in breakdown of food, releasing energy and waste products - COz and HzO. Carbondioxide enters the blood from the tissues. !t is carried mainly as bicarbonates in plasma and RBC and partly as carbaminohaemoglobin (formed by combination of COz with deoxyhaemoglobin). On reaching the lungs, oxygenation of blood causes release of carbon dioxide from both bicarbonate and carbaminohaemoglobin. Carbon dioxide is released from the lungs into the atmosphere during expiration. The approximate percentages of gases in inhaled air (atmosphere) and exhaled air for humans are: Gas Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water vapour trace Nitrogen ill inhaled air (%) 21 0.4 Varies 79 in exhaled air (%) 16 4 1 79

41

The following terms describe lung capacities: Tidal air: volume of air entering and leaving the lungs during normal breathing (0.5 litres). Vital capacity: maximum volume of air which can enter and leave the lungs during forced breathing (3.5 litres). Residual air : volume of air which remains in 'the lungs, no matter how hard you breathe out (1.5 litres). (Approximate values in litres for an adult man are given in brackets. The total lung capacity is about 5.0 litres). RESPIRATORY DISORDERS (a) Bronchitis: It is the inflammation of the bronchi, which is characterized by hypertrophy and hyperplasia of sero- mucous gland and globlet cells lining the bronchi. The symptom is regular coughing, with thick greenish yellow sputum that indicates the underlying infection, resulting into excessive secretion of mucous. It may also be caused by cigarette smoking and exposure to air pollutants like carbon monoxide. Prevention ami Cure: Avoiding exposure to the cause, i.e. smoke, chemicals and pollutants, can prevent Bronchitis. The underlying infection of the disease is treated with suitable antibiotics. Bronchodilator drugs (for widening the constriction of bronchial passage by relaxing the smooth muscles) provide symptomatic relief. (b) Bronchial Asthma: This is characterised by the spasm of the smooth muscles present in the walls of the bronchiole. It is generally caused due to the hypersensitivity of the bronchiole to the foreign substances present in the air passing through it. The symptoms of the disease may be coughing, or difficulty in breathing mainly during expiration. The mucous membranes on the wall of the air passage start secreting excess amount of mucous, which may clog the bronchi, as well as bronchiole. Prevention and Cure: It is an allergic disease hence, avoiding exposure to the foreign substance or allergens is the best preventive measure. In case the patient is sensitive to a very few number of allergens, then hyposensitisation (by exposing small doses of the specific allergen) is the other preventive measure. Treatment of the disease includes antibiotic therapy for removing the infection, and use of bronchodilator drugs, as well as inhalers for symptomatic relief. (c) Emphysema: It is an inflation or abnormal distension of the bronchiole or alveolar sac, which results into the loss of elasticity of these parts. As a result, the alveolar sac remains filled with air even after expiration, and ultimately, the lung size increases. The reason for such a condition can be assigned to cigarette smoking and chronic bronchitis. Prevention ami Cure: Emphysema is a chronic obstructive disease of lung, causing irreversible distension and loss of elasticity of alveoli. Hence, it cannot be cured permanently. However treatment may retard the progression of the disease.Its treatment is also symptomatic. Bronchodilators, antibiotics and oxygen therapy are used. This disease is preventable if chronic exposure to smoke (cigarette and others) and pollutants is avoided. (d) Pneumonia: It is an acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the lung. This disease is caused mainly due to infection of the bacteria (Streptococcus pneumoniae). Sometimes, other bacteria or fungi, protozoan, viruses and mycoplasma may also be responsible. Infants, elderly persons and immune compromised individuals are susceptible to it. In this disease, most of the air space of the alveolar sac is occupied by the fluid with dead WBC. Uptake of oxygen is adversely affected in the inflammed alveoli, as a result of which, the oxygen level of the blood falls. Prevention and Cure: Since infection is the main cause of pneumonia, use of antibiotics to remove the infection cures it. Patient may require symptomatic treatment like bronchodilator drugs. In case of immunocompromised individuals, the disease can be prevented by proper and timely vaccination. (e) Occupational Lung Disease: It is caused because of the exposure of potentially harmful substances, such as gas, fumes or dusts, present in the environment where a person works. Silicosis and asbestosis are the common examples, which occur due to chronic exposure of silica and asbestos dust in the mining

42

industry. It is characterised by fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous connective tissue) of upper part of lung, causing inflammation. ! Prevention and Cure: Almost all the occupational lung diseases, express symptoms after chronic exposure, i.e. 10-15 years or even more. Not only this, diseases like silicosis and asbestosis are incurable. Hence, the person likely to be exposed to such irritants, should adopt all possible preventive measures, These measures include: (i) Minimising the exposure of harmful dust at the work place. (ii) Workers should be well-informed about the harms of the exposure of such dusts. (iii) Use of protective gears and clothing by the workers at the work place. (iv) Regular health check-up. (v) Holiday from duty at short intervals for the workers In such areas.The patient may be provided with symptomatic treatment, like bronchodilators and antibiotics, to remove underlying secondary infection.

Important Facts
Human right lung has 3 lobes while the left lung has only 2 lobes. Lung tissues are elastic, porous and spongy, so float in water. Diaphragm is not the part of respiratory system but helps in expansion and contraction of lungs. Vagus: the 10th cranial nerve control the blood vessels and bronchi of lungs Asphyxia : Choking of lungs and absence of gaseous exchange leading to death. Rate of respiration is 114 of the heart beat but in new borns it is high (40), at the age of I year it is 30/mt, 2 to 5 years it is 24/mt and in adult 18/mt

3. PHYSIOLOGY OF TRANSPORTATION
A. TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS Land plants need to transport water and mineral salts from the soil to the leaves, and organic materials, e.g. sugars and amino acids, from the leaves and storage organs to parts which need them. In order to understand the process of transportation one should first be familiar with the following terms. Diffusion: The movement of molecules, from the regions of greater concentration to the regions of lesser concentration, is known as diffusion. Osmosis: Osmosis is a special case of diffusion. It involves the passage of water molecules from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration through the differentially or semi-permeable membrane till a state of equilibrium is reached. Osmosis is of two kinds: endosmosis and exosmosis. Imbibition : The phenomenon of absorption of water by both living and dead tissues of the plant when soaked in water is termed as imbibition. Cyclosis: Rotation or circulation movements of the protoplasm inside the cell is known as cyclosis. Absorption. Higher plants obtain inorganic nutrients in the form of liquid or gas.They should, therefore have an efficient system for the absorption of water and exchange of gases.Substances are transported from one part of a plant to another through extremely narrow tubes in the root, stem, and leaves.Tubes called xylem vessels transport water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves. Tubes called phloem tubes transport sugar made by photosynthesis from the leaves to growing area of the plant and to food storage areas. Plant roots take in water and dissolved minerals from the soil through root hairs. Root hairs take in water through a combination of diffusion, osmosis and active absorption because their cell sap is a stronger solution than soil water.But as root hairs take up water their cell sap is diluted and soon

43

becomes a weaker solution than the sap of cells deeper inside the root hairs. Water entering root hairs by osmosis gradually flows further into the root from cell to cell and eventually reaches the root xylem vessels. Water flows into root xylem vessels with sufficient force to push it up into the stem xylem. Root hairs take in dissolved minerals by active absorption(i.e, transport of molecules against concentration gradient) which requires expenditure of energy (ATP) by the cells. Conduction. Liquids generally flow from a higher place to a lower one because they are drawn by the force of gravity. In the stem, however, water drawn from the soil rises, sometimes for 90 to 100 metre or more apparently in defiance of gravity and therefore, requires strong push and pull forces against gravity. According to modern belief the rise of sap is due to osmosis, capillary action, root pressure and the pull exerted as the result of transpiration. The salts are more highly concentrated in the sap within the root hairs than in the soil solution. Therefore,'water passes from the soil into the cell by the process of osmosis. Dissolved minerals, in the form of ions, also pass from the soil solution, through the cells membranes and into the cells. This passage may be by simple diffusion or by absorption, whereby the cells exert energy in order to "trap"the ions. The cells swell and become turgid. The water concentration is now higher within them than it is in the cells next in line. Hence the sap passes into these adjacent cells and from these to the next ones. The root pressure brought about in this way is great enough to force sap some distance through the xylem. It is believed that capillary action is also involved to some extent in the rise of sap. The tracheids and vessels of xylem are very thin tubes, and the water will rise in them just as it does in a thin glass tube. This force could account only for a part of the total rise of sap. Transpiration, or evaporation of water is chiefly responsible for the rise of sap. Large quantities of water evaporate from the leaves. This results in high concentration of the solutes in the cell sap of the mesophyll cells of a leaf. This results in withdrawing water into the living cells from the dilute solutions (sap) in the xylem of veins. Accordingly, a pull is exerted on the upper end of the water column and the conducting elements and the entire sap stream is raised. Now, in order to maintain a continuous column of water from leaf to root and that these water columns have sufficient tensile strength to hold themselves intact, there seems to be two reasonable explanations. (i) water molecules possess strong attractive force between themselves, called cohesive. force, which prevent these molecules from spliting apart and (ii) the water molecules also show an attraction towards the walls of {he xylem vessels called adhesive force. It is due to these forces that water molecules maintain a continuous column and can withstand the tension of 10 to 20 atmosphere/rn' sufficient to raise a column of water upto a height of 105 m. Translocation. The carbohydrates manufactured in the leaves of higher plants are distributed to different locations through the phloem. TRANSPIRATION About 98 per cent of water absorbed by land plants evaporates from the aerial parts of the plants and diffuses into the atmosphere. Water may be transpired directly through the cuticle, a waxy layer covering the leaf surface, by diffusion of water vapour (cuticular transpiration), or through a large number of microscopic openings called stomata (stomatal transpiration).Sunken stomata reduce water loss. Water is also lost through lenticels, small openings in the corky tissue covering stem and twigs (lenticular transpiration). Since most of the water loss occurs through stomata, their structure, frequency, distribution and opening and closing greatly influence the rate of transpiration. Several other factors such as relative humidity of the atmosphere, velocity of wind,light intensity, temperature and soil conditions also affect transpiration. Besides these environmental factors, the structural features (known as internal factors), habit and habitat of the plant also influence the rate of transpiration. Decrease in leaf surface, rolling of leaves during drought, absence of leaves, and presence of epidermal hairs and sunken stomata decrease, restrict or prevent transpiration. Transpiration is considered to be a necessary evi I. It accounts for the absorption and conduction of water and minerals from the soil, is responsible for maintaining cell turgidity and thus helps in growth, has a cooling effect on the plants and maintains proper temperatures for other physiological activities. In addition to transpiration, plants also lose excess water in the form of

44

liquids. This loss of water in the form of liquid or droplets along the margins of the leaf through special structure, called hydathodes, is known as guttation.Wilting. It results from the loss of turgidity of the softer parts of the plant, when the rate of transpiration exceeds the rate of absorption of water from the soil, as generally happens on a warm afternoon. The leaves of the plant droop under these conditions. Wilting can be permanent or temporary. Temporary wilting occurs in the afternoon when the rate of transpiration is much higher than the rate of water absorption. Plants normally recover in the evening when the leaves and young stems regain their turgidity because the rate of transpiration is decreased. Permanent wilting takes place when the soil is deficient in water. It usually kills the plant unless the soil is watered soon after the appearance of the first symptoms of wilting. B. TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS: CIRCULATION Circulation is the process by which nutrients, respiratory gases, and metabolic products are transported throughout a living organism. In uni-cellular and small multi-cellular organisms, simple diffusion across the cell membranes is often sufficient to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, and a streaming movement of the cell substance (cytoplasm), called cyclosis, is sufficient to conduct larger molecules like sugars, fats, proteins to different parts of the cell. In more complex organisms, however, specialized systems have been developed to provide adequate circulation to all tissues.In simple multicellular organisms like sponges and coelenterates (e.g. jellyfish and hydras) water circulates from the surrounding medium through certian channels in their bodies. Cells in contact with the water take up food and oxygen directly from it. In the flatworm, which has true circulatory system, a fluid carrying nutrients bathes the animal tissues while moving passively through the spaces between its component cells. Oxygen is taken up directly from the environment at the animal's surface. The annelids are far more complex in organisms. The earthworm, for example, has a well developed circulatory system. It consists of a network of blood vessel which is in contact with almost all cells of the body. Blood is the fluid flowing through this closed system of tubes, being confined to it all the time. The blood plasma of the earthworms consists of mainly water with dissolved substances and a pigment called haemoglobin, which helps in transport of oxygen and nutrients. A true circulatory system consists of organised vessels which the circulatory fluid, or blood, moves, of a pump (the heart) that propels the fluid through the vessels and specialised exchange sites where the blood vessels break up into a network of small vessels, the capillaries. The insects such as cockroach have an open circulatory system. The blood pumped by a many chambered heart, passes through a closed vessel, the aorta, only for a part of its circulation. For the rest it flows through the body cavity, the haemocoel and tissue spaces. The blood lacks respiratory pigment and is more or less colourless. The blood therefore does not carry oxygen and carbon dioxide, instead there is a separate tubular system called tracheal system for these functions. Other invertebrates with a true circulatory system have a closed circulation, as do all vertebrates. In a closed system, blood remains within a network of vessels. It is carried away from the heart through the arteries. The large arteries that exit the heart then branch into progressively smaller channels, ultimately reaching a network of microscopic vessels called the capillaries, across the walls of which exchange of nutrients and waste takes place. The capillaries then coalesce into veins, vessels that return the blood to the heart. All vertebrate embryos display the same basic circulatory system. Among the adult vertebrates, the basic circulatory model is progressively modified to meet respiratory requirements. In the fishes the four embryonic heart chambers remain intact. Blood is pumped out through the arteries to the gills, where oxygen is taken up and carbon dioxide given off in a rich capillary bed, and then to the rest of the body. Modern lungfishes show adaptations of the basic fish circulation that are believed to parallel the adaptations of the ancestors of the land vertebrates. Lungfishes have adapted the vascular system to increase absorption of oxygen from the air bladder. The air bladder, buoyant organ used to provide flotation in many fishes, has evolved into a respiratory organ in lungfishes. The lungfishes have a separate pulmonary vein that carries blood directly from the air bladder to the heart. Blood coming from

45

the air bladder is partially separated from the deoxygenated blood returning to the heart, from the rest of the body. Thus the lung-fishes have a dual circulation consisting of the systemic circulation, which carries oxygenated blood to the body tissues and returns deoxygenrated blood to the heart, and pulmonary circulation, which pumps deoxygenated blood to the air bladder and returns oxygenated blood to the heart. Adult amphibians, like lungfishes, have a dual circulation. Within the amphibian heart the atrium is partitioned by a wall, but the ventricle is not physically divided and some mixing of the pulmonary and systemic circulation takes place. But because most adult amphibians exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide through their moist skin as well as through their lungs, respiratory exchange takes place in both the pulmonary and systemic circulation. As a result, there is less need to avoid mixing of the blood in the heart. Reptiles rely exclusively on lungs for respiratory exchange and therefore have a more complete separation of the pulmonary and systemic circulation than is found in amphibians. In both birds and mammals there is a complete separation of both ventricle and atrium into a two-sided heart. The conus arteriosus is absent, and only two vessels leave the heart: the aorta from the left ventricle, supplying fresh blood to the rest of the body (systemic circulation) and the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle, carrying spent blood to the lung for oxygenation (pulmonary circulation). The sinus venosus is also eliminated, and blood returns directly to the atria. In mammals when the auricles (both left and right) contract, blood is emptied into the respective ventricles. When ventricles contract deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle moves into the lungs for oxygenation from where it is brought back to the left auricle. This is termed as pulmonary circulation. At the same time oxygenated blood from the left ventricle is pumped into aorta (major artery) which gives off branches to almost all parts of the body. As blood passes through the intestinal wall, it takes up absorbed food. Through the kidneys it is filtered and cleansed of the excretory roducts. While passing through the tissues; it gives cell's oxygen and takes up carbondioxide and waste products. Several veins from different organs collect blood and unite and reunite to form two large veins - the superior vena cava bringing back all the blood (deoxygenated) from the head region and the inferior vena cava, returning blood (deoxygenated) from the rest of the body. The two venae cavae empty their contents into the right auricle. This is the systemic circulation. In man the heart beats about 72 times per minute. The total volume of blood in the human system is about 5 litres. Approximately 5 Iitres of blood is pumped out by the heart every minute. HUMAN BLOOD AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Blood is the circulatory fluid of the circulatory system. It is a specialized connective tissue which performs the following vital functions : (a) in respiration, transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and of carbondioxide from the issues to the lungs. (b) in nutrition, transport of absorbed food substances to the cells; (c) in excretion, transport of metabolic wastes to the kidneys, skin and intestine for their removal; (d) in regulation of metabolism, transport of hormones from their site of production to that of their action; (e) in other regulatory mechanisms, maintenance of body temperature, osmo-regulation, and acid-base balance; (f) in clotting of blood. Blood and its Composition. Blood is a red sticky fluid, slightly alkaline in nature. It is composed of a fluid portion, the plasma (50-55% of the volume) and three types of corpuscles (45-50% of the blood volume) namely erythrocytes (red blood corpuscles, RBC), leucocytes (white blood corpuscles or WBC) and blood platelets. The corpuscles are embedded in the plasma. i. Plasma is light yellow fluid with 90-92% water, 6-9% proteins and 1 % of dissolved substances. Plasma acts in blood clotting and in defence of the body against diseases.

46

Human Blood Plasma 1. Water 2. Proteins (Albumen, Globulin, Properdin, Prothrombin, Fibrinogen) 3. Inorganic Salts (Cations are Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe and Mn. Anions are chloride, bicarbonate and phosphate) 4. Others (i) Food Materials (Glucose, Amino Acids, Fatty Acids, Triglycerides) (ii) Waste Materials (Urea, Uric Acid and Creatinine) (iii) Regulatory Substances (Hormones, Vitamins, Enzymes) (iv) Anticoagulants (Heparin) (v) Cholesterol (vi) Antibodies (vii) Dissolved Gases (02, CO2, N2) ii. 90-92% 6-8% 1-2%

1-2%

RBC or red blood cells or erythrocytes number about 5 million per cu mm of blood in man. RBC are in the form of discs, both sides of which are concave. These cells are devoid of nuclei. RBC mainly consist of haemoglobin, a pigment which transports oxygen. These cells are formed in the bone marrow. Their average life span is 110 to 120 days. Worn out cells are destroyed by the spleen. iii. WBC or white blood cells or leucocytes, are larger, fewer-about 5 to 9 thousand cells per cu mm of blood and contain one nucleus each. They are irregular shaped cells. They are of five different types namely-neutrophylls, lympocytes, basophils, eosinophils and monocytes. Their major function is to provide immunity to the body. The WBCs have a life span of less than 2 weeks and they are produced in the red bone narrow. An overproduction of WBCs results into a disease called leukemia. iv. Platelets or thrombocytes are small spherical bodies numbering about 300,000 per cu mm of blood. They play an important role in the formation of a solid plug called clot at the site of injury to a blood vessel, so as to prevent further loss of blood. Blood platelets are enucleated. They live for only a few hours. Blood Clotting. In case of injury the blood loss occurs. To prevent this loss, animals have evolved an elaborate mechanism which results in the clotting or coagulation of blood. During this process a series of chemical reactions take place resulting in the formation of a clot that plugs a broken vessel. When injury occurs, the damaged tissues and blood platelets release a substance called thromboplastin. On exposure to air the platelets disintegrate. In the presence of calcium ions thromboplastin converts the inactive enzyme prothrombin (present in the plasma) to an active enzyme, thrombin. Thrombin finally converts the soluble fibrinogen of plasma into insoluble fibres of fibrin. The fibrin entangles the blood cells and microbes to form a clot.Human blood escaping from the body normally clots within 3 to 4 minutes. The blood does not clot within the blood vessels because of the presence of an enzyme, antihrombin (heparin) in it. Blood Groups. The four types of blood are called blood groups, and are known by the letters A,B,AB and O. Before the blood transfusion can take place it is necessary to make sure that the donor's and recipient's blood will mix together without agglutination. Blood groups which mix without agglutination are said to be compatible .Blood compatibility depends upon chemicals called

47

agglutinogen or antigens on the surface of the red cells, and chemicals called agglutinin or antibodies in the plasma. There are two types of antigens: A and B; and two types of antibodies: anti-A and anti-B. Blood group A has A antigen on its red cells and anti-B antibody in its plasma. Blood group B has B antigen on its red cells and anti-A antibody in its plasma. Blood group AB has A and B antigens on its red cells and no antibodies in its plasma. Blood group 0 has no antigens on its red cells but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in its plasma. Blood Transfusion. Anti-A plasma agglutinates A red cells,and anti-B plasma agglutinates B red cells. So these combinations of plasma and red cell are incompatible as far as blood transfusion is concerned. These facts have given rise to a rule for blood transfusions: the donor's red cells must be compatible with the recipient's plasma. Thus blood can be safely transfused as follows: Blood Can be Transfused into Can Receive Blood Group from A A and AB A and 0 B Band AB Band 0 AB AB only All groups O All groups O only People with Group 0 blood are called universal donors.Their red cells have no antigens and so cannot be agglutinated by blood of any other group. People with Group AB are called universal cipients. Their plasma has no antibodies therefore it does not agglutinate blood from the other groups. Rhesus Factor. About 85% of humans have an antigen on their red cells called the Rhesus factor. People with the Rhesus factors are called Rhesus positive (Rh") and those without it are called Rhesus negative (Rh), Rh- patients can receive one transfusion of Rh+ blood without harm because their plasma does not have an antibody to react with the incoming red cells.Subsequent transfusion, however,may be dangerous because Rh+ blood stimulates the body of the Rh- recipient into producing a plasma antibody which agglutinates Rh+ blood. Such recipients are then said to be sensitized to Rh + blood and will agglutinate any which is transfused into them. Rh- blood can be transfused into Rh" people any number of times without harm. A Rh+ father and Rh mother could have a Rh+ child. During pregnancy the developing child's red cells may enter the mother's blood, perhaps through a fault in the placenta. The mother's body will then produce an antibody which destroys Rh+ cells. This anti-body will not harm her first child but if she has a second Rh+ child and its red cells enter her blood, she will produce more antibody and there is a danger that this will reach the embryo, destroy its red cells, a condition known as erythroblastosis joetalis which may cause serious blood disorders or death. This danger can now be avoided. A Rh - mother with a new born Rh" child can be injected with chemicals which stop her body producing the Rhesus antibody. Heart:- The heart, the pumping station of the system, is a muscular organ, about as large as the closed fist. Its average weight is about 340 grams in men and 255 grams in women.Normally it lies somewhat to the left in the chest. Completely enclosing the heart is a double sac-the pericardium. A wall, called the septum, divides the heart into a left half and a right half which thus prevents the mixing of deoxygenated and oxygenated blood of the heart. Each half, in turn, is divided into an upper chamber-the auricle, or atrium and a lower chamber- the ventricle. The auricles receive blood from the veins. The ventricles pump blood into the arteries. There is an opening, between the auricle and the corresponding ventricle on each side of the heart. The two openings are guarded by auriculoventricular valves (AV), made up of thin, membranous flaps. The valve between the right auricle and right ventricle has three flaps. It is

48

called the tricuspid valve. There are only two flaps in the valve between the left auricle and left ventricle. This is called the bicuspid valve. It is also known as the mitral valve. (See the figure for structure of the heart). The left and right ventricles pump blood respectively into the aorta and the pulmonary artery, both openings being guarded by semi-lunar valves to prevent back-flow of blood from the arteries to the ventricles. Aorta or the big artery carries the oxygenated blood to every part of the body. The ulmonary artery, carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. Each pumping action of the heart or cardiac cycle consists of events in the heart repeated cyclically during each heart beat.Contraction and relaxation of cardiac chambers (auricles or ventricles) are respectively called Systole and diastole. When the atrium contracts, the ventricle is still in diastole and the blood collected in the atrium is pumped into the relaxing ventricle. Then the atrium starts relaxing and the ventricle starts its systole. The AY valve immediately closes producing the first heart sound "lubb' and prevents the back-flow of blood from the contracting ventricle to the relaxing atrium. The rise of pressure in the contracting ventricle pushes the semilunar valves to open and blood is ejected from the ventricle to the great artery. Simultaneously, the atrium is in diastole and blood . continues flowing into it from the great veins. When the ventricle ends its systole and starts relaxing (ventricular diastole), the artia are also continuing their diastole. This condition is called joint diastole. With the onset of ventricular diastole, the semilunar valves close sharply to prevent back-flow of blood from the great artery into the ventricle. This produces the second heart sound 'dup '. With the ventricle in diastole, the AY valve opens again and the blood again starts flowing from the atrium to the ventricle. Blood Circulation. Humans and all other mammals have a double circulatory system: the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation.The blood vessels associated with the liver and kidney are as follows : The liver receives its blood supply through the hepatic artery, a small branch of the aorta. Blood from the intestine is also brought to the liver where excess of certain nutrients is converted into suitable forms for storage. The blood vessel that carries the blood from the intestine to the liver is called the hepatic portal vein (A vein that begins and ends in capillaries is called a portal vein). Blood from the liver is carried by the hepatic vein that joins the inferior vena cava. / Renal arteries arising from the dorsal aorta supply the blood the kidneys and renal veins that join the inferior vena cava carry the blood away from the kidneys. Blood Vessels. The blood vessels constitute the pipelines through which the blood from the heart is carried to the different parts of the body and again brought back to it. There are three distinct types of blood vessels : (i) Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart except the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs for oxygenation. (ii) Veins: Carry the deoxygenated blood from the tissues to the heart except the pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. (iii) Capillaries. Between the arteries and the veins are a network of capillaries. An exchange of materials between the blood and the cells of the tissues takes place through these thin walls of the capillaries. Heart Beat. They arise in a small bundle of tissues, called the sinoauricular node, or sino-atrial node (SA node) which is located in the upper part of the right auricle. The impulses sent out by this node form what is called a wave of excitation. This spreads through the right and left auricles, causing their muscles fibres to contract. The wave of excitation reaches a second node-the auriculo-ventricular, or atrioventricular, node- in the upper part of the wall between the two ventricles. The impulses are then relayed by way of a bundle of tissues to a fibre network, known as the Purkinje system. This network transmits the impulses to the muscle fibres of the ventricle and causes them to contract, releasing blood to the arteries. The SA node is called the pacemaker of the heart because it originates the cardiac impulse and, consequently, determines the rate of heart beats.

49

Blood Pressure. As blood is ejected from the left ventricle into the aorta, there is an increase in blood pressure-that is, the pressure of the blood upon the walls of the blood vessels. After the ventricle has started to relax, the pressure falls. The highest point in the pressure range is called the systolic pressure. The lowest point in the pressure is called the diastolic pressure. In the young adult, the average systolic pressure is 120 mrn. Hg. The average diastolic pressure is 80 mm. Hg. There are, however, pretty wide variations in blood pressure among healthy persons. Any systolic pressure over 140 or diastolic pressure over 100 is considered abnormal. This condition is called hypertension, or high blood pressure. In some persons, the blood pressure is lower than normal. Such persons are said to have low blood pressure, or hypotension. The Lymphatic System. The lymphatic system includes the lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes and Iymp sinuses. The lymph is a colourless or yellowish fluid identical in composition with blood except for the absence of erythrocytes, blood platelets but lymphocytes are in abundance. Lymph is formed as tissue fluid inside the organs by the filtration of blood. It acts as a medium for the exchange of material between cells and blood. It also helps in fighting against germs. Tissue fluid is collected by narrow tubes called lymph capillaries. Lymph capillaries are similar to blood capillaries except that they arise blindly. Lymph capillaries communicate with large lymph vessels. Lymph vessels are thin-walled tubes which have numerous valves (like veins) for regulating flow. All the lymph vessels form two main trunks, right lymphatic and thoracic. Right lymphatic duct is shorter and collects lymph from the right side of the head, neck, chest and upper extermity. It empties into the right subclavian vein. The left thoracic duct collects lymph from the remaining parts of the body and opens into the left subclavian vein. Each lymph vessel bears a number of small swellings called lymph nodes. The vessel breaks up into finer branches in the lymph node. It is a device for filtering out solid particles and pathogenic organisms. WBC, antibodies and some plasma proteins are produced in the lymph nodes. Lymph nodes concentrate at some places in the body e.g., groin, ann-pit, neck, chest and are in front and below the ear. Pain in these regions is often due to the swelling of lymph nodes after an infection. Tonsils and adenoids also result from infective swelling. The lymph system plays as important part in the spread of cancer throughout the body, carrying cancerous tissue from a malignant growth to a different spot in the body. For this reason lymph nodes near a cancerous growth are often removed when ancer surgery is performed. Normal Values of Physiological Variables Variable Haemoglobin (Hb) Packed Cell Volume (PCV) RBC WBC (TLC) DLC Neutrophil Lymphocytes Monocytes Eosinophils Basophils ESR(ErythrocyteSedimentation Rate) Coagulation time Heart Rate Blood Pressure (systldiast) Unit gm/1OOml % Million/mm2 /mm2 Man 162 475 5.40.8 4300 Woman 142 422 4.80.6 10800

% % % % % mmfall min rnrn Hg

34-75 20-40 3-15 1-3 0-1 0-9 3-6 72 120/80

34-75 20-40 3-15 1-3 0-1 3-20 3-6 120/80

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4. PHYSIOLOGY OF EXCRETION
Excretion is the process by which an organism gets rid of the waste products of its metabolism. Most waste products become toxic, ifallowed to accumulate in an organism, and may kill it in time. Therefore every living thing has some means of getting rid of its waste products. These mechanisms may also be used to get rid of other unwanted substances such as superfluous water, and salts, so as to aid in osmoregulation. The three terms, excretion, secretion and egestion all describe the passing out of substances from organisms or cells.Excretion is used when the substances are waste products of metabolism. Secretion is used only for useful products, e.g. the hormones manufactured by endocrine glands. Egestion (or defection) is used for faeces passed out from the alimentary canal of an animal. Waste Products. The major waste product in all organisms includes carbondioxide produced by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates. Urine is composed of water (95%), urea (2%) uric acid (0.05%). Amount of urine secreted per day is 1.5 to 2 litres. Protein metabolism results in nitrogenous wastes such as ammonia, urea and uric acid. While the carbon dioxide is eliminated by the respiratory system, the nitrogenous materials are taken care of by the specialized excretory organs. Abnormal Constituents of Urine 1. Glucose: in diabetes mellitus 2. Blood: in case of bleeding, tumour on infection in the kidneys 3. Excessive water in Urine: In diabetes inspiridus 4. Acetone and Auto Acetic Acid : During fasting or starvation. In such cases proteins are used as a source of energy. A. EXCRETION IN PLANTS In simpler forms such as Spirogyra, the metabolic by- products simply permeate out into the surroundings. In higher plants, carbon dioxide, water and oxygen diffuse out through the epidermis (as in roots) and stomata of the leaves, and lenticels of the stems and the minerals besides water through the hydathodes by guttation. The surplus salts are secreted in the form of calcium oxalate crystals in pith and cortex of roots and stems (grapevine, eucalyptus) or fruits (tomato) or as calcium carbonate in the lithocyts of certain leaves (Indian rubber tree). Tannins, resins, mucilage and latex are some other excretory materials stored in plants. Ammonia and other nitrogenous substances are utilized for the synthesis of new compounds. Some roots are also known to excrete mineral salts, sugar, amino acids and hydrolytic enzymes. B. EXCRETION IN ANIMALS The mechanisms that evolved to carry out excretory functions differ greatly in various organisms and environments. An animal living in a desert must be able to conserve water in its body, while a freshwater fish needs the capacity to rid itself of large amounts of water. The primary excretory Product is ammonia. Since ammonia is highly toxic, it must be eliminated quickly and efficiently. This poses no problem in small aquatic animals; ammonia is very soluble and passes into the surrounding water by diffusion. In terrestrial animals (and large aquatic ones) ammonia must be converted to less toxic substances-urea in mammals and insoluble uric acid in insects, birds, and reptiles before being excreted. In protozoans an organelle called a contractile vacuole maintains osmotic pressure. itrogenous wastes are lost through diffusion. The vacuole appears as an internal sac which fills with clear liquid, discharges its contents outside the cell, then fills again.In flatworms, flame ce//s constitute the excretory system. The nephridia constitute the excretory organs of invertebrates like annelids (segmented worms). The excretory organ of molluscs is the renal gland. In insects disposal is through a bunch of long tubules called Malphigian tubules. Birds, like reptiles and insects, excrete uric acid into a continuation of the alimentary canal. Some marine birds have, in addition, salt glands (modified tear glands) which remove excess salt from their bodies and discharge the concentrated solution through the nostrils. Amphibians store large quantities of dilute urine in a large

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bladder which acts as a water reserve when the animal is on land. Freshwater fish must overcome the problem posed by water entering the body through osmosis and salts leaching out. To compensate, they produce large volumes of dilute urine and take in salts from the water through specialized cells in their gills. Nitrogenous wastes, for the most part, are diffused as ammonia through the skin. Marine fish, on the other hand, lose water through the skin and take in salt by osmosis. Types of Excretory Wastes Types of wastes A. Nitrogenous waste materials 1. Amino acids Formation Occurrence Hydrolysis of protein in Certain mollusks(e.g. Units) the gut echinoderms (e.g., Asterias). Oxidative deamination ofexcess of amino acids in the liver cells. Detoxification of ammonia by urea cycle in the liver cells. From ammonia andpurines of nucleic acids in theliver cells. From excess of dietry proteins. From glycine,arginine and methionine amino acids in liver cells. Combination of benzoic acid and ornithine in liver cells. Combination of benzoic acid and glycine. By cell respiration in the mitochondria.Mostly lost by special respiratory organs e.g. through lungs in man. Excess in the food. Protozoans,Sponges,coelenterate s, most of echoderms and bony fishes, Mammals, amphibians, fishes, etc. Birds, insects, terrestrial reptiles, etc.

2. Ammonia

3. Urea

4. Uric Acid

5.Trimethylamine oxide 6. Creatinine

Some marine teleosts In urine of mammals including man. In certain birds.

7. Ornithinic acid

8. Hippuric acid B. Non-nitrogenous Waste material 1. CO2

In urine of mammals including man. In all aerobes.

2. Minerals(Na+, K+, Ca++, . Mg ++ , etc.) 3. Pigments

In urine, sweat and faeces,

4. Water

With food (e.g. beet) or drugs (vitaminB-complex) or Hb of dead RBCs e.g. Urochrome. Food or drinking water or metabolic water.

In urine

In urine, sweat, expired air, etc.

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Excretory organ 1. Kidneys

2. Liver 3. Sweat glands of skin

4. Oil glands of skin 5. Lungs 6. Intestine

Excretory Organs of Human Body Substances excreted (a) Excretion of nitrogenous wastes from protein and nucleic acid metabolism. (b) Osmoregulation and homeostasis. (c) Excess of acids or bases. (d) Regulation of mineral salts. (e) Vitamins, hormones, drugs, pigments, etc. (a) Formation of urea by ornithine, cycle (b) Formation of bile pigments. (a) Mineral salts. (b) Osmoregulation. (c) Small amounts of urea. Waxes, sterols and a number of hydrocarbons (sebum) (a) Carbon dioxide. (b) Water by evaporation. (a) Undigested food with bile pigments. (b) Salts like calcium phosphate.

Mode of Excretion in Some Animals S.No l. 2. 3. 4. Animal Group Protozoa (Amoeba) Porifera (Scypha) Coelenterate (Hydra) Platyhelminthes(Planaria, Fasciola. Taenia) Nematoda (Ascaris) Main Nitrogenous Waste Ammonia Ammonia Ammonia Ammonia, Fatty acids Eliminated By Diffusion through cell membrane. Diffusion via plasma membrane of individual cells. Diffusion across plasmalemma of all cells. Diffusion through body surface, other wastes and excess water by protonephridia or flame cells. Diffusion across body wall, other wastes and water and ionic regulation by excretory cells and excretorycanals. Protonephridia with solenocytes and metanephridia that may open outside or into the gut, also chloragogen cells. Metanephridia that may open outside or into the gut, also chloragogen cells. Metanephridia with multiple nephrostomes, forming ciliated organs. Metanephridia

5.

Ammonia

6.

Polychaeta (Nereis)

Ammonia

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Oligocheata (Earthworm) Hirudinea (Leech) Onychophora (Peripatus) Merostomata (King crab) Arachnida(Scorpion spider) Crustacea (Prawn)

Ammonia in all, urea also in land forms Ammonia, some urea -------Guanine,some xanthine and uric acid Ammonia

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13. 14. 15. 16.

Insecta (Insects) Chilopoda (Centipede) Diplopoda (Millipede) Mollusca (Mussel)

17.

Echinodermata (Starfish)

Uric acid in land and Nh3, in aquatic forms More NH3 than uricacid More NH3 than uricacid Ammonia in aquatic and uric acid in land forms Ammonia

18. 19. 20. 21.

Hemichordata(Balanoglossus) ----Urochordata (Herdmania) ----Cephalochordata(Branchiostoma) -----Vertebrata (Fishes, Amphibians, Ammonia, urea, uric Reptiles, Birds, Mammals) acid

Coxal glands Coxal glands and malpighian tubules, also nephrocytes and hepatopancreas. Gills, nephrocytes; antennary or maxillary glands regulate ions, fluid and other wastes. Malpighian tubules, nephrocytes, adipocytes Malpighian tubules Malpighian tubules Kidneys (metanephric systems). Papulae, podia, respiratory bursae, respiratory trees, coelomocytes. Proboscis gland (glomerulus) Neural gland Protonephridia with solenocytes. One pair of kidneys. Gills, lungs, liver, skin, intentine are accessory excretory organs.

HUMAN EXCRETORY OR URINARY SYSTEM The human excretory or urinary system is typical of that of all mammals. It consists of two kidneys where urine is produced by fiItration, secretion, and reabsorption; the ureter tubes that transport the urine; the bladder where the urine is stored; and the Urethra through which the urine is voided. In humans, kidneys are pairedbean-shaped organs about five inches long. Located in the abdominal cavity, one on either side of the vertebral column. The concave portion lies nearest the backbone and is deeply cleft by the hilus through which arteries, veins, nerves, and lymphatics enter the kidney sinus. A cross-section of the kidneys show them to be made up of a darker outer cortex and inner medulla composed of rough cones with apexes 'projecting into the sinus. The functional units of kidney are called nephrons, of which there are about a 1,000,000 in each kidney. Each nephron has Bowman s' capsule one end (a double-walled cup) and the rest part of the nephron is differentiated into a coiled proximal convoluted tubule, a 'U' shaped tin Henle s loops, and a distal convoluted tubule. Urine formation begins in Bowman's capsule which encloses a dense cluster of microscopic blood vessels, the glomerulus. Under the driving force of blood pressure, plasma filters from the blood. Proteins and about 80 percent of the water are held back in this process. The filtrate passes through the inner wall of the capsule and moves into the tubule. The proximal tubule passes from Bowman's capsule in the renal cortex into the medula and makes a U-turn (Henle's loop). The distal convoluted tubule then re-enters the cortex and joins with several other distal tubules to form a collecting tubule, which carries the urine to the renal pelvis and the ureters. The ureters move the urine to the bladder in peristaltic waves. The filtrate entering the tubule is different in composition from urine. In the proximal tubule almost all the water, salt and glucose are reabsorbed by the network of blood vessels surrounding it. Concentration is effected in the constricted loop of Henle. The distal tubule regulates water, electrolyte, and hydrogen ion content ofthe filtrate. Uric acid is actively secreted into the filtrate here. The two ureters (10-12 inches long) enter the hollow muscular bladder where urine collects until it is voided through the urethra in urination (or micturition). The urethra differs in males and females. In human males it is about eight inches long and is also the channel for semen in ejaculation. In women it is only one and two inches long and carries only urine.

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During storage, the muscle sphincter at the base of the urethra remains contracted. Accumulation of urine distends the bladder. A certain degree of muscular tension stimulates the sense organs in the wall of the bladder, and the resultant contraction of its muscles which expels the urine is essentially, a reflex action. However, normally, it is initiated by an effort of the will, except in infants where the process is purely a reflex action. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the excretory system, consisting chiefly of the kidneys, is a department of the body which is entrusted with the task (i) Of removing the toxic products of metabolism, which are mainly nitrogenous, and (ii) Of maintaining a proper osmotic pressure and pH of the internal environment, both of which are essential for the continued healthy functioning of cells. DISEASES OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM Malfunction of the excretory system can lead to dehydration or oedema, and the dangerous build up of waste and toxic substances. Acute renal failure is one of the primary diseases of the kidney. It is characterized by sudden failure of renal function so that little or no urine is produced, and water and waste products accumulate in the body. It may be caused by haemorrhage or shock leading to greatly decreased blood supply to the kidneys and resulting in renal necrosis (tissue death). A second cause is the accumulation of toxins in the kidney. Inflammatory diseases of kidney (pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis), high blood pressure, and obstruction of. the lower urinary tract can lead to chronic renal failure. In this disease there is progressive degeneration of the nephrons resulting in uranic poisoning from the accumulated wastes. Both acute and chronic renal failure may be treated by dialysis, an artificial filtration of the blood through semi- permeable membranes to remove urea and other wastes, or by transplantation of the another human kidney from a donor. The excretory tract is subject to benign and malignant tumours, infections and inflammations, and obstruction by calculi. The last are stones composed of inorganic substances, largely calcium phosphate, or oxalate or organic matter like uric acid. 5. THE SKELETON,MUSCLES AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MOVEMENT THE SKELETON A skeleton is any part of an animal which provides support for the rest of the body. Nearly every species of multi-cellular animal has a skeleton. Most are made of hard material e.g. bone, cartilage, chitin, or chalk. They are either exoskeletons on the outside of the body (Example: insect skeletons) or endoskeletons inside the body (Example: vertebrate skeletons). Some animals have a hydrostatic skeleton which consists of fluid under pressure e.g. earthworm. Bone is a very hard material, found only in vertebrates. It is made up of living cells, calcium phosphate (a mineral salt), and collagen (a protein). Cartilage or gristle is a second skeletal tissue of vertebrates. It is more plastic and resilient than bone, but not so hard. These properties make it a suitable covering for surfaces where bones meet (articular surfaces) at movable joints. Chitin is the hard substance of which insect exoskeletons are made. It is a type of polysaccharide. Functions of Skeleton. The skeleton helps to give body its shape, and provides a frame from which organs are suspended. The skeleton surrounds and protects soft parts of the body, e.g. in vertebrates, the skull protects the brain. In most animals the skeleton provides a system of levers which can be moved, and attachments for the muscles which move them. The Vertebrate Skeleton. All vertebrate skeletons are built on the same general plan which includes the following: (i) An axial skeleton, made up of the skull and vertebral column (ii) An appendicular skeleton, made up ofthe limb girdles and limbs or paired fins in fish. The skull consists of a thick cranium which protects the brain cavities to house the eyes, ears, and olfactory organs; an immovable upper jaw; and a movable lower jaw. The vertebral column

55

(backbone or spine) is made up of small bones called vertebrae. A rat has 46-50 and humans have 33 vertebrae. The vertebrae form a hollow tube (the neural canal) which contains and protects the spinal cord. The vertebrae are attached to each other by ligaments. This arrangement restricts movements between neighbouring vertebrae, but allows the column as a whole to bend easily. Thus the spine has strength with flexibility. All vertebrae are build on the same basic plan. Each consists of a centrum, i.e., a solid rod of bone; and a neural arch. The centrum and neural arch surround the neural canal, through which the spinal cord passes. Vertebrae from different parts of the vertebral column differ in their detailed structure, depending upon the work they do. The limb girdles comprise the pectoral gridle (shoulder girdle), to which the fore-limbs are attached, and the pelvic gridle (hip grid Ie) to which the hind-limbs are attached. Total bones in human endoskeleton are 206 (number of bones in newly born baby is 306). Summary of Total Bones ofa Human Body Number 29 (Cranial B + face 13 + Hyoid 1) 26 (5 sacra Is fused to form sacrum and 4 coccygeal bones fused to form coccyx) 24 (12 on each side) 1 (Breastbone) (Total number of bones in Axial skeleton is 80) 4 (Two in each pectoral girdle) 60 bones (the hand + wrist contain 54 separate bones) 6 (6 bones and floating in the throat I bone the Hyoid). 4 16 10 28 (Total number of bones in upper extremity is 64) 2 (one bone in each pelvic girdle) 60 (the ankle and feet contain 54 separate bones) (Total number of bones in lower extremity is 62) (Total number of bones in appendicular skeleton is 126) (Spinal 7 12 5 5 (into 1 sacrum) 4 to 5 small fused Vertebrae into I coccyx (tail bone)

Bone A. Axial Skeleton Skull Vertebrae Ribcage Sternum

B. Appendicular Skeleton Pectoral girdles Upper limbs Ears Lower arms Wrists Palms Fingers

Pelvic Girdles Lower Limbs

The vertebral column Column Backbone) Cervical (neck) Vertebone Thoracic Lumber Fused Vertebrae

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MOVEMENTS Animals possess two forms of movements-locomotion and movements of body parts. Locomotion transfers the animal to more favourable environments. Movements of body parts help to maintain body posture, to collect information, to carry out apprehension of food and to perform the activities of internal org~ns. Most animals have developed contractile muscle fibres for carrying out movements. In many animals, muscle contractions move bones of the skeleton like levers to produce body movements. But many invertebrates lack the skeletal system.In most multi-cellular animals movement is brought about by muscles. Muscles are tissues made of long, thin cells or fibres, which are capable of contracting (becoming shorter) or relaxing. Muscles can only contract or relax. They cannot lengthen by themselves, hence the need for antagonistic muscles at joints. Locomotion of Hydra consists of movement resulting from contraction of epitheliomuscular and nutritive muscular cells in its body wall. In earthworms and leeches, muscular movements push the blood in the direction of propagation. This movement of blood serves to move the animal forward. In star fishes, muscular contractions drive water from their water canals to their tube-feet which consequently move to carry the animal over a surface. MOVEMENT IN HIGHER ANIMALS In higher animals, the skeletal muscle cause the movement and locomotion of the body by contracting. At least two muscles are needed to move ajoint. One called theflexor muscle, contracts and bends a joint. On the opposite side of the joint there is an extensor muscle. This straightens the joint. Since flexer and extensor muscles pull a joint in opposite directions they are said to form an antagonistic system. Muscles are attached to bones by tough, inelastic fibres called tendons. Tendons have two main functions : (i) They protect muscle cells from wear, because they,are not the muscle cells pass over the movable ends of the bones and, (ii) They concentrate the pull of the muscle into a small area. The pectoral girdle is attached to the vertebral column by tendons, which gives it some mobility. Its acts as a shock absorber in vertebrates which spring (Example, leopards) or hop (Example, frogs). The bones of the pelvic girdle are fused to each other and to the sacrum (the fused sacral vertebrae). The whole makes up a very strong structure through which is transmitted the backward thrust of the hind-legs against the ground. Joints. Joints occur wherever two or more bones touch. Some joints are immovable and are calledfLXedjoillts, Example- those in the skull. Some joints are slightly movable, example vertebrae can move slightly against the discs of cartilage in between them and other joints are freely movable called synovial joints, example the limb joints. The bones of freely movable joints are held in place and yet allowed to move freely by bands of fibres called ligaments. In hinge joints, movement occurs in one plane only. Examples : the knee and the elbow joints. In ball-and-socket joints, movement occurs in three planes. Examples : the hip, the shoulder. In pivot joints one bone twists againstanother, A pivot joint occurs where a peg on the axis vertebra fits into a socket in the atlas vertebra. In a sliding or gliding joint the surfaces which rub together are flat. Example: the vertebrae joint. IMPORTANT FACTS Cheek prominences are formed due to zygomatic or molar bones. Stapes is the smallest bone of human body, while femur is the longest bone of human body. Ribs of birds and mammals are double-headed, while those of reptiles are mono-headed. There are no ribs in fishes and amphibians. Tibula : Thinnest bone of human body. Patella (knee cap) : A sesamoid bone present on front side of knee joint and provides additional strength.

57

Arthrology: Study of joints. Ball and socket joints are called enarthroses; hinge joints as gingulum; angular joints as ellipsoidal or, cotyloid joints; pivot or rotatory joints; while gliding joints are called arthrodials. Stapes is modified hyomandibular. Shin bone: Tibia. At birth, human skeleton is made up of275 bones. As the body matures, some of these bones fuse together leaving only 206 bones in adult body. There are two major systems of bone-the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is comprised of 80 bones in the skull, ribs and sternum. The appendicular skeleton has 126 bones from the shoulder,pelvis & attached limbs. Each bone is comprised of three major sections, the compact bone, the soft bone-marrow and the sponge bone. Red blood cells are produced in soft bone marow .

6. PHYSIOLOGY OF COORDINATION
Though the different organ systems of the body are entrusted with different functions, they do not work in isolation.Their functions are controlled and co-ordinated by two systems in the body the nervous system and the endocrine system. A. NERVOUS SYSTEM: The nervous system, in anatomy, is an organized group of cells specialized for the conduction of a stimulus impulse from a sensory receptor through a nerve cell network to the site at which the response occurs. The nervous system enables a multi-cellular animals to respond to changes in their external and internal environment. Nerve tissue is composed primarily of cells called neurons. A typical vertebrate neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. The dendrites generate nerve impulses in response to stimulation from a sense receptor or from another neuron and carry impulses towards the cell body, which contains the cell's nucleus. The axon carries an impulse transmitted to it by the cell body to another neuron or to an effector muscle or gland. There are three general types of neurons: sensory, which relay information from the senses; motor, which carry impulses to effectors; and association, which transmit impulses between sensory and motor neurons. A synapse is the junction between two neurons. In mammals these neurons comprise two types of nervous systems : (I) Central nervous system including the brain and spinal cord; and (2) Peripheral nervous system consisting of nerve cells and fibres which link the brain and spinal cord with other parts of the body. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM(CNS): (i) Brain. In man it is located in the skull called cranium.It is made up of a central core of tissue, the brain stem, and two outgrowths the cerebellum and the cerebrum. The portion of the brain stem nearest to the spinal cord is called medulla oblongata. This region is mainly concerned with the control of respiration and circulation. Located just above the medulla are the pons and the mid brain. Pons aid in the regulation of the respiration. Anterior to the midbrain are two important areas of grey matter the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus sorts out sensory information such as pain, temperature, pressure and touch. The hypothalamus regulates hunger, water balance and body temperature. It also regulates pituitary hormones and menstrual cycle. The cerebellum situated dorsal to the brain stem consists of two cerebellar hemispheres. Its main function is coordination of muscular movement. It also coordinates activities associated with the balance and equilibrium of the body. The cerebrum forming the largest bulk of the brain is composed of right and left cerebral hemispheres. It has an outer layer of grey matter called cerebral cortex which is folded having ridges and depressions. The major activities associated with the cerebral cortex are :

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the mental activities involved in memory, intelligence, sense of responsibility, thinking, reasoning and learning; (ii) sensory perception which includes the perception of pain, temperature, touch and special senses of sight, hearing, taste and smell; and (iii) the initiation and control of the contraction of voluntary muscles. Spinal Cord: It is a long narrow tubular structure that extends from the brain to the bottom edge of the first lumbar vertebra. It is covered by the same meninges as the brain and is housed in the neural canal within the vertebral column. Dorsal and ventral grooves divide the cord into the right and left halves. Running through the centre of the spinal cord is the central canal which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. A cross-section of the spinal cord reveals an outer region of white matter and inner region of grey matter. The spinal cord has a two fold function: it conducts impulses to and from the brain, and acts as a reflex centre. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) (i) Spinal Nerves. are those nerves that emerge from the spinal cord. There are 3 I pairs of spinalnerves, all of which are mixed nerves (nerve consisting of both sensory and motor neurons). Each spinal nerve originates in two roots-dorsal root containing sensory neurons and a ventral root containing motor neurons which join together to form the spinal nerve. (ii) Cranial Nerves. are those nerves that emerge from the brain. There, are twelve pairs of them - some are sensory, some are motor and some are mixed nerves. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM(ANS): This is organised into two distinct regions along the central nervous system forming the sympathetic and para-sympathetic system. These two systems act opposite to each other in their action to the muscles and glands they control (i.e. if one speeds up the action, the other retards it). The autonomic nervous system controls the functions of the internal organs of the body automatically and unconsiously. It mainly controls: (i) The rate and force of the heart beat; (ii) The secretion of the glands of the alimentary canal; (iii) The contraction of involuntary muscle; and (iv) The size of pupils of the eye. Reflex Action. If you accidentally pick up a very hot object,you drop it. If you see or smell one of your favourite dishes, your salivary glands cause your mouth to water. If someone suddenly moves his hand past your face, you blink your eyes. No deliberate effort on your part is involved in any of these actions. A II these are examples of reflex actions. A reflex action is defined as an involuntary action in response to an external or an internal stimulus. It is an inborn automatic response to a stimulus, and is the functional unit of the nervous system. In fact, most of our activities in our day-to-day lives are the result of reflex action. These are effected in split second and in many cases have a survival value. The path through which a stimulus passes is called a reflex arc. It consists of five distinct parts: (i) A receptor (sense organ) that receives the stimulus, (ii) A sensory neuron that conducts the impulse from the receptor to the spinal cord or the hindbrain, (iii) An association neuron which transmits the impulse from the sensory neuron to (iv) A motor neuron through which the impulse passes on to (v) An effector where the action in response to the stimulus takes place. Any part of the central nervous system can act as a reflex centre. However, the higher centres of the brain situated within the cerebrum are not involved in the process. This explains why reflex actions are unconscious actions. Reflex actions involving the spinal cord are called spinal reflexes and those involving the brain are called cranial reflexes. Nerves

(i)

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Cranial Nerves Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal Abducen Facial

Auditory Glossopharyngeal Vagus Accessory Hypoglossal

Distribution Mucus membrane of nose Retina 4 out of six eye muscles Eye muscles Mucus membrane of head and Skin Eye muscles Various parts of the face like neck, salivary gland, taste buds etc Internal ear Tongue, Pharynx Wind pipe, thoracic and visceral organs Visceral organs Tongue

Functions Smell Vision Movement of eye Movement of eye Collection of stimuli from these regions Movement of eye Movement of neck, perceiving taste, salivation. Hearing and balancing Swallowing taste and salivation Visceral reflexes Visceral retlexes Movement of the tongue

B. SENSE ORGANS There are five special sense organs which communicate the external stimulus to the brain. The senses and the special organs that are involved in perceiving them are: sight-the eyes; hearing and balancing body - the ears; smell - the nose; taste - the tongue; and touch and pressure-the skin. (i) The Eye: The eyes are the organs of sight and are stimulated by light. Light waves reflected from the surface of objects pass through the pupil of the eye, forming an image on the retina. Each of the retina's 13,000,000 cells is sensitive to light. Some of the cells of the retina, called the cones, are sensitive to colour. The rod cells are not sensitive to colour, but they respond to very little light. In near darkness, only the rod cells respond. A thin transparent membrane called the conjunctiva lines the inner walls of the eye lids as well as the front of the eye. Tear glands situated in the outer region of the upper eyelid produce secretions to keep the surface of the eye moist and lubricated. Cornea is non-vascular art of eye. So cornea is most easy part to be transplanted as it does not stimulate immune system. Nutrition to Cornea is provided by alkaline lacrymal secretion, It is differentiated into Bulbar conjuctiva (outside cornea) and palpabrel conjuctiva (inner to eye lids). It is a modified stratified epithelium. Largest eye ball is found in horse while smallest eye ball is found in monkey. Sharpest day vision is found in eagle while sharpest night vision is found in owls. Telescopic vision is found in birds Insects and crayfish also have colour vision, while cats have limited colour vision. (ii) Ear: The ears of mammals have two functions: (i) Hearing- ears are sensitive to vibrations in the air; and (ii) balance - part of the inner ear is sensitive to changes in animals position in space. The ear may be divided into three main parts: (i) the outer ear consisting of pinna and the outer ear canal whieh terminates at the tympanic membrane or ear drum; (ii) the middle ear having three minute bones called ear ossicles; and (iii) the internal ear which is filled with a fluid called the perilymph, and contains the receptor organs. The cochlea is sensitive to sound waves. The semi-circular canals-utriculus and sacculus are sensitive to the body's position in space.

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Ear Disorders Otolagia : Ear pain. Meniere's Disease: Loss of hearing due to defect in cochlea. Myringitis (Tympanitis) : Inflammation of ear drum. Otitis: Inflammation of ear. Eustachitis: Inflammation of eustachian tube. (ii) Nose: Smell receptors, or oflactory organs, are sensitive to chemicals in the air. These chemicals must first dissolve in a film of moisture which covers the receptors. (iii) Tongue: Taste receptors, or taste buds, in the tongue are also sensitive to chemicals. All taste buds look alike but in fact there are four different types: those which respond to salt, sweet, sour, and bitter tasting substances. Groups of each type of receptor are concentrated in certain areas of the tongue. The different flavours of food and drink are identified according to how much they stimulate these four types of receptors. (v) The Skin : There are at least five different types of sensory nerve endings in the skin. These and all other sensory nerve endings are called receptors. Touch: These receptors are located immediately below the epidermis, and are most numerous in the surface of the tongue and fingertips. Pressure: These receptors are situated beneath the dermis and are stimulated by heavy pressure. Pain: These receptors consist of branched nerve endings in the epidermis and dermis. Temperature: There appears to be separate 'heat' and 'cold' receptors in the skin. They are stimulated by sudden changes in temperature . C. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM In human body endocrine system consists of a number of endocrine glands in the head, neck and trunk. An endocrine gland (or ductless gland) is an organ which synthesises one or more hormones and secretes them directly into the blood stream. An endocrine gland is stimulated to secrete either by an impulse from a motor nerve, or by a secretion from another gland. A hormone is a substance which is synthesised in one part of an organism, and affects process in other parts of organism. The secretions of ducted glands or exocrine glands differ from hormones in acting near to where they are produced. Examples: Salivary amylase acts in the mouth, tears act on the eye's surface. Endocrine Glands, their Main Hormones and Functions Glands Hormones Secreted and Their Functions Notes Pituitary-has3 Anterior lobe secretes six hormones: Pituitary gland is sometimes parts:anterior (i)Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): called the 'master gland' lobe,middle lobe influences structure and secretory activity of because several of its and posterrior thyroid; (ii) Growth hormone (GH): hormones activate other lobe. stimulates growth of the body; (iii) Adreno- glands. However pituitary corticotrophic hormone (ACTH): influences depends for its own activity on the activities of the adrenal cortex only, and messages sent from the the production of corticosteroids which are hypothalamus. involved in defending the body against physiological stress; (iv) F ol/icle stimulating hormone (FSH): controls development and release of sperm, production of female sex hormones, oestrogen and development of follicles in the ovary;(v) Leutinizing hormone

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(LH): stimulates production of male sex hormone testosterone, release of ovum and oestrogen and formation of corpus luteum; (vi) Leutotrophic hormone (LTH) or Prolactin: maintains pregnancy, helps in secretion offemale sex hormone progesterone and stimulates secretion of milk from the mammary glands. Middle lobe secretes melanophore stimulating hormone (MSH): associated with growth and development of melanocytes which gives the skin its colour. Posterior lobe secretes: (i) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin: controls reabsorption of water from the kidneys; (ii) Oxytocin causes uternine contractions and active expulsion of milk during and after birth. Thyroxine contains iodine. A Thyroxine: stimulates respiratory enzymes lack of iodine in the diet may and therefore general metabolic rate. cause goitre or swelling of the gland. Parathormone is important in Parathormone: controls distribution of bone development. calcium and phosphates Adrenal Cortex secretes 2 types of corticosteroids: (i) Glucocorticolds: regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates,proteins and fats, help to overcome stress; (ii) Mineralocorticolds:prevents passage of sodium and water in the urine and increase potassium excretion. Stress is mainly, overcome by the elevation of blood glucose level. The sodium ions retained are helpful for the activity of certain enzymes and for normal functioning of central nervous system.

Thyroid

Paratyorid-these glands are 4 in number. Adrenals-are two in number seated at the top of each kidney. This gland consists of two parts- the outer part adrenal cortex and inner part adrenal medulla.

Adrenal Medulla secretes. (i)Adrenaline (epinerprine)and(ii)Noradrenaline (norepinephrine). These hormones functions in such way as to help the body in handling emergency situations of extreme danger.

Adrenaline increase the heart rate, breathing rate,blood flow to muscles, and rate of glucose production in the liver and thus helps in overcoming the stress of danger.

a-cells secrete glucagon hormone: It elevates Pancreas - bulk of blood glucose level. pancreas -cells secrete insulin hormone: helps to constitutes lower blood glucose level. exocrine part called pancreatic acid. Patches of

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cells of islets of Laugerhans is the endocrine part which consists of 2 types pf a-cells and P-cells.The exocrine part Male sex hormone, the testosterone: controls The testes and ovaries function produces digestive development and maintenance of male both as reproductive organs enzymes. secondary sex characteristics. producing gametes and as an docrine gland. Testes Female sex hormone,oestrogenand progesterone.Oestrogen controls the development of the female secondary sex characteristics, menstrual cycle. Progesterone Ovaries controls changes in pregnancy Desieases due to hyper & hypo hormone secretion: The Effects of Over-Secretion and Under-Secretion of a Few Hormones in Humans Hormone Gland Effects of Over-secretion Effects of under-Secretion growth hormone thyroxine Pituitary giagantism: nusually tall persons grows Dwarfism: person unusually small remains

Thyriod

increased metabolic rate, leading Simple goitre;In children, physical to loss of weight and inreased and mental development is heart rate. retarded, leading to cretinism. In adults, the metabolic Rate slows down, leading to mental and physical slowness and weight gain. This conditionis called as Myxoedema. Diabetes mellitus: blood sugar level becomes abnormally highhyperglycemia. Sugar is excreted in the urine. This condition is also referred as glycosuria

Insulin

Pancreas

Clucocorticoids Adernal and mineralocorticoids

Cushings Syndrome: High blood sugar,sugar in urine, obesity, wastingof limb muscles, rise in plasma sodium, fall in plasma potassium

Addison s disease: bronze like pigmentation of skin, low blood sugar, low plasma sodium and high plasma potassium,increased urinary sodium, nausea and diarrhoea.

7. PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION

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METHODS OF REPRODUCTION Reproduction or multiplication of an organism to produce, and propagate offspring of the same kind, is a universal characteristic of all living beings. The offspring always resemble the parents in certain essential ways. Reproduction is accomplished by two methods-asexual and sexual. A. Asexual Reproduction. Asexual reproduction gives rise to an offspring that is genetically identical to its single parent. The basic forms of asexual 'reproduction are vegetative reproduction and spore formation. (i) Vegetative Reproduction. It includes fission, budding and regeneration. a. Fission. This is the process by which unicellular organisms reproduce. A single cell divides to produce two (or more) daughter cells that are similar to the parent. First (the nucleus divides, followed by the cytoplasm. Paramaecium, amoeba and many bacteria undergo binary fission, in which two daughter cells are formed; plasmodium reproduces by multiple fission in which repeated divisions of the nucleus are followed by sub-division of the cytoplasm to produce many daughter cells. b. Budding. This is the method of producing a new individual as an outgrowth (bud) of the parent. The offspring remains attached to the parent during growth, usually separating eventually as an independent organism. Among animals (in which it is also called gemmation) it is common among coelenterates (e.g. Hydra) and sponges. In plants budding occurs in uni-cellular fungi, including the yeasts. c. Regeneration, This is the process whereby an organism can be divided into two or more pieces, each of which grows into a new individual. If a planarian is cut into pieces, each piece may become a whole organism. Regeneration also refers to the re-growth of parts of an organism lost through injury or other means. Very common in plants, lower animals too, possess this power to great extent. Crustaceans (e.g. crabs) and echinoderms (e.g. starfish) can regenerate new limbs and arms, respectively; amphibians can regenerate tails and limbs, and lizards can replace tails. Though higher plants generally reproduce sexually, asexual reproduction by regeneration is common in several cases. In vegetative propagation, as it is commonly called, portions of roots" stems or leaves of many plants give rise to new plants. Such cultivated seed plants like potato, pineapple, and sugarcane rarely produce seeds and are propagated only by regeneration. New plants are often produced from modified stems. These stems include surface runners or stolons, and underground rhizomes, tubers, bulbs and corns. Strawberry plants reproduce from runners that give out foliage at buds and then send down roots to become independent, many types of grasses grow from rhizomes. While potatoes are tubers, and sprout buds to reproduce the potato plant. Bulbs are planted for tulips, daffodils, and onion plants while bulb like cormas are used for gladioli and crocus plants. Certain plants can reproduce when their drooping branches are covered by soil. The branches then send down roots and form new plants. This process, called layering, is generally brought about by man, but it occasionally occurs in nature. Many plants are propagated from cuttings of branches, roots, or leaves. Branch cuttings, or slips, will propagate sugarcane, carnations, and geraniums. Leaf cuttings will propagate African violets, begonias, and gloxinias. Root- cuttings-are used to propagate horse-radish, blackberry, and raspberry plants. In grafting, the gardener takes a twig, or scion, from a plant that produces desirable fruit, flowers, or foliage, and inserts it in a cut in a related plant (called the stock) having strong root growth. The scion becomes part of the stock, but bears its own kind of leaves, fruit, and flowers. When a bud instead of a twig is grafted, the .process is called budding. (This type of budding has-no relation to the budding process described earlier.) Grafting is commonly used with apple and pear trees, budding with cherry and peach. (iii) Spore Formation. It is a method of reproduction that takes place in mushrooms, moulds and many other plants. The sporozoa, a class of protozoans, also reproduce by spore formation. A spore is generally produced by a single parent and consists of one or more

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cells, enclosed in a hard protective coating. Under favourable conditions, the coating is broken open and the cells inside develop into a new organism. B.Sexual reproduction involves in creation of a new individual through the union of special sex cells called gametes; Usually the gametes come from different parents. Gametes result from meiosis, a type of cell division that produces cells with half the number of chromosomes of the original cell (haploid). During fertilization, two haploid gametes unite to form a zygote, the first cell of a new organism. The zygote has the full number of chromosomes typical of the species (diploid). Sexual reproduction ensures that each offspring is genetically unique (except in cases of multiple offspring derived from divisions of one zygote). Most animals reproduce sexually; among. Vertebrates, it is the only form of reproduction. Higher plants also reproduce sexually, but among plants there is a regular alternation of sexual (gametophyte) and asexual (sporophyte) generations in the life cycle. The reproductive system of land vertebrates include elaborate, structures to assure union of the gametes and to nourish and protect the embryo as it develops. Fertilization is usually internal. The development of the embryo may occur primarily outside the female or within her body. In birds, for example, the new organism develops externally, sheltered in a hard shelled egg. In mammals the embryo grows inside the mother's body and, after birth is fed on milk from the mammaries. I) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS A. Gymnosperms. The gymnosperms have uncovered ovules (structures containing a single egg), which develop into exposed seeds after fertilization. The angiosperms have their ovules enclosed in an ovary, which enlarges into a fruit as the seeds develop within it. Gymnosperms are a numerically small group of plants, consisting chiefly of cone bearing trees such as the pine, fir, cedar, and spruce. They have male cones (which give rise to pollen grains, each containing a male gamete) and female cones (which contain female gametes). In some species, both kinds of cones are found on the same tree; in other, they are borne on separate trees. The pollen grains are carried by wind to female cones, where fertilization occurs. B. Angiosperms. In angiosperms sexual reproduction occurs in the flower, which is considered as a specially modified shoot. In a flower the sepals (or calyx) are generally green and protect the other floral organs. The petals (or corolla) are usually colourc d, showy and often fragrant and serve to attract pollinators. The stamens (or androecium) and carpels (or gynoecium) are the male and female reproductive structures respectively. In each stamen the another contains four microsporangia which produce a large number of microspore mother cells. Each of this cell by meiotic divisions give rise to four pollen grains. Each pollen grain on releasing produces two ma.e gametes or sperms. One gynoecium or pistil has three parts.. ovary basal swollen part), style and stigma. Inside the ovary are present a fixed number of ovules. Each ovule consists of a dome-shaped core called nucleus, surrounded by one or two envelopes , known as the integuments. The micropyle, a narrow canal, leads through the tips of the integuments and connects the ovarian cavity with the nucleus. One of the cells of nucleus acts as a megaspore mother cell and undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid megaspores. One of these megaspores survives and undergoes a series of three mitotic divisions to produce a eightnucleate gaemotophyte called embryo sac. An embryo sac has one egg and two synergids at the pole near the micropyle. At the opposite pole are three anti-podal cells. A large cell in between this is termed as central cell and contains two polar nuclei. The embryo sac represents the female gametophyte. The stage is now ready for pollination and fertilization. A flower having both pistil and stamen is called bisexual. while a flower with either pistil or stamen is called as unisexual. Pollination. The term pollination refers to the transfer and deposition of pollen on the stigmatic surface of the flower. Different types of pollination occur in plants. When a flower is pollinated by its own pollen, it is termed as self-pollination (china rose). When pollen from one flower are deposited on

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the stigma of another flower, the type of pollination is known as cross-pollination. Cross-pollination is generally brought about by abiotic (like wind, water) or biotic (like birds) agents. Pollination in grasses, acacia and mulberry is carried out by wind. To trap the wind borne pollen grains, the flowers have brush like or feathery stigmas. True hydrophily (water pollination) where the pollen grains are water-borne, is rare and occurs only in submerged plants like in Valisneria and Hydrilla. Insect pollinated plants such as rose, orchids, sunflower have large, showy flower parts and secrete nectar to attract insect. Nocturnal insects and bats too pollinate some trees having strong scent. Karelia is bat pollinated. Bird- pollinated plants have vividly colored flower producing copious amounts of nectar. Pollination is a pre-requisite for ensuring seed set and perpetuation of the species. Cross-pollination is also a means of bringing about genetic recombination and variation. Fertilization and Development of Seed. The pollen grains depositedon the stigma germinate to form pollen tubes which penetrate the style. One pollen tube enters the embryo sac and releases two male gametes. One male gamete fuses with egg to form the diploid zygote (syngamy) and the other fuses with the two polar nuclei in the middle to give rise to the endosperm. This is called double fertilization and occurs only in angiosperms. The ovule develops into a seed. The zygote forms the embryo, the endosperm stores food reserves and the integuments contribute to the formation of the seed coat. The ovary matures into the fruit. The size, shape and colour of fruits and seeds vary enormously and there are various strategies adopted by plants to disseminate them. Under favourable conditions the seed germinates. The embryo gives rise to the shoot and root system and the endosperm meets the initial food requirements of the new seedling. Fruit and Dispersal of Seeds. Botanically any ripe ovary is called a true fruit. whether it is cucumber, tomato, pea or coconut. However, other floral parts may also take part in fruit formation. For example, in apple and fig the main edible portion of the fruit is the fleshy receptacle. Such fruits are called false fruits. The wall of a true fruit is called pericarp. It is divisible into three zones. In the ripe mango, the outer skin is the epicarp. The sweet, edible flesh is the mesocarp and the innermost hard zone that encloses the seed is the endocarp. The nature of these three zones varies in different fruits. In dry fruits the pericarp is papery or woody and is not easily distinguishable into three zones. Some plants are able to form fruits without fertilization. Such fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits. Parthenocarpic fruits are either seedless or contain empty or non-viable seeds. Most cultivated varieties of banana are arthenocarpic. Seedless grapes, oranges, and water-melons have been developed by horticulturists. Fruits are a source of sugars, pectin, organic acids and minerals. Angiosperms exhibit a wide variety of fruits. Broadly, the fruit are classified into three kinds. A simple fruit is one in which ovary takes part in development. The fruit may be fleshy or dry or indehiscent (bean, mustard, mango, citrus). In an aggregate fruit each free carpel develops independently to form a bunch of fruits (michelia, strawberry, custard apple). A composite or multiple fruit develops from an inflorescence by the fusion of flowers and their parts (pine-apple). As seed contains the miniature but dormant future plant, their dissemination is crucial for the distribution and establishment of plants over a wide geographical area. Wind dispersed seeds usually have wings or tufts of hairs which make their movement in air easy. Some seeds and fruits are carried to long distances by water before they develop into new plants. Fruits are eaten by animals such as birds and the enclosed seeds may be taken to distant places before they are passed out in their excreta without any damage to the embryo. Some seeds possess spines or' hooks which enable them to stick to the body of animals and are' carried from one place to other. Finally, man himself is a great disseminator of seeds, especially of economically important plants. People have not only deliberately introduced seeds from one corner of the world to another but continue to buy choicest seeds from other countries. II) REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS Reproductive System. The male reproductive system consists of two testes each of which has two functional components:

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(i) semi-niferous tubules, and (ii) interstitial cells or leydig cells. suspended in the pouch of scrotum, a paired duct system consisting of epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and male urethra, and secondary sex organs including a prostrate, two seminal vesicles, two Cowper's glands and a penis. Testes form sperms and secrete testosterone; prostrate, seminal vesicles and Cowper's gland secrete fluids which mix with sperm to form semen; the duct syste/TI conducts the the semen to the exterior. Female Reproductive System. The female reproductive system consists of two ovaries, and a duct system of two fallopian tubes, and uterus and a vagina. Ovaries produce ova and secrete oestrogens and progesterone; the fallopian tubes conduct the ovum towards the uterus; the uterus lodges the growing foetus and opens to the exterior through the vagina. Gametogenesis. Gametogenesis is the formation of gametes for sexual reproduction. Gametogenesis is carried out in the gonads; spermatogenesis is the production of sperms in the testes, the oogenesis is the formation of ova in the ovary. Spermogenesis or transformation of spermatogonia (male germ cells present in seminiferous tubules) into spermatozoa occurs in seminiferous tubules in four stages: (i) Proliferation phase' In this stage the spermatogonial cells have diploid number of chromosomes (46 in man) which undergo several mitotic divisions to increase their number, (ii) Growth phase: The spermatogonia cells increase in the dimensions and are called primary, spermatocytes in this stage, (iii) Maturation phase; Primary spermatocytes undergoes first meiotic division to produce two smaller secondary spermatocytes and these two further divide to give four spermatids and; (iv) Transformation phase; The spermatid in this. final stage acquires a tail and anterior acrosomal cap (head cap) and is transformed into spermatozoan. Oogenesis is the transformation of oogonia (female germ cells) into ova. It takes place in the Graafian follicle of ovaries and is completed in the three stages: (i) Proliferation phase: The oogonia cells which have a diploid number of chromosomes undergo several mitotic divisions in the foetus upto six months; (ii) Growth phase: The oogonium increases in size and is transformed into a primary oocyte; and (iii) Maturation phase: The primary oocyte undergoes meiosis in two steps. The first reduction division leads to the formation of two unequal daughter cells-the larger constitute the secondary oocyte, whereas the smaller, consisting mainly of the nucleus, forms the first polar body, that subsequently degenerates. An ovum and a second polar body result from the second meiotic division or second maturation division prior to fertilization. Like the first, the second polar body.also disintegrates after some time. Thus, a single mature cell is produced from one primary oocyte. Menstrual Cycle. The reproductive cycle of human females and of the other higher primates differs from non- primates in two ways. First, the receptivity of the female is more or less continuous. Secondly, there is bleeding or menstruation phase which is not met within the non-primates. In human females, the duration of the menstrual cycle is about 28 days with inner variations. This cycle is divided into four following phases : . Menstrual Phase; It lasts for 3-5 days during which blood is discharged out. The bleeding is caused by the rapid regression of the uterine lining, rupturing of its blood vessels and sloughing away of portions of endometrium. The day of the beginning of menstruation is counted as the first day of the menstrual cycle. Proliferative Phase: During this phase, the uterine endometrium regenerates and becomes thickened-under the influence of the hormone, oestrogen. This process lasts for about 10 days and extends from 6th to 14th day of the cycle.

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Ovulatory Phase: This normally occurs on the 14th day of the menstrual cycle and lasts for only 6 hours. During this phase, an ovum is released from the Graafian follicle (ovulation) to make its entry into the Fallopian tube. Luteal Phase : After ovulation, the Graafian follicle is transformed into corpus luteum which secretes the hormone, progesterone. As a result, the uterine glands get active and endometrium becomes more thick for implantation of the fertilized ovum. In the absence of fertilization, the menstrual cycle begins afresh. Fertilization and Embryo Development: During sexual union, the sperms are discharged into the vagina. Each discharge of semen contains millions of sperms. However, only one of them fuses with the ovum to fertilize it. The sperms deposited in the vagina swim up to the uterus and further up through the fallopian tubes where if a sperm meets an ovum, it fuses with it resulting into the formation of a zygote. The zygote moves down the oviduct, reaches the uterus and gets embedded in the endometrium on the 24th day of the menstrual cycle. The totality of developmental events which transform a fertilised egg into an adult form is called embryonic development. The zygote divides repeatedly to form a large number of cells and is now called embryo. At first the embryo is nourished by the secretions of the uterus. But it soon implants itself into the uterine wall which has been prepared to receive it. The cells of the embryo now arrange themselves to form the three primary germs-layers, viz., the outer ectoderm, the middle mesoderm and the inner endoderm, which in course of time establish the different organs system of the body. The implanted embryo soon develops two membranous coverings, an outer chorion and an inner amnion. The embryo lies within a pool of watery fluid contained in the amnion, and is therefore well-protected. The chorion in combination with another membrane, called the allantois, forms finger like projection called embryonic vili, These fit into corresponding depressions in the soft wall of the uterus. The maternal and embryonic tissues that come into intimate contact thus establish an important organ called the placenta. It is through this organ that materials are exchanged between the maternal and embryonic blood. The edges of the amnion come together and form the umbilical cord, which is a tube that connects the placenta with the digestive tract of the embryo. The umbilical cord contains blood vessels that transport materials between the placenta and the embryo. In the placenta, the maternal blood, the embryonic blood do not mix. Exchange of materials between the maternal blood and the embryonic blood takes place chiefly by diffusion through the membranes that separate them. With the growth of the embryo, the placenta also grows. Apart from serving as the respiratory, nutritive and excretory organs of the embryo, the placenta also serves as an important but temporary endocrine gland. As a result of the development of the organs and organ system, the embryo comes to resemble a human being about two months after fertilization. From then until the time of birth, it is referred to as a foetus. The foetus gradually develops and grows further. The hips, knees and elbows of the foetus are bent and its arms and legs are crossed. With the growth of the foetus. the uterus also expands. The intra-uterine development of the foetus continues until it is ready to be born. The period of intra-uterine development, or the period of gestation as it is called, is about nine months or 280 days in human. During this period the fertilized egg, which is microscopic in size, is transformed into a new human being. At the end of the period of gestation, birth or parturition takes place . PARTHENOGENESIS Parthenogenesis is a special form of reproduction in some of the animals which normally carry out sexual reproduction. In this method of reproduction, an egg or a sperm develops into an embryo without being fertilized. The embryo in turn grows into a mature organism. Male parthenogenesis, in which a sperm develops into an adult, occurs in some species of algae. Female parthenogenesis, the more common form in which an unfertilized egg develops into an adult, in crustaceans, and in social insects, including ants, wasps and honeybee. PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH: GROWTH AND RESPONSES IN FLOWERING PLANTS

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GROWTH PATTERNS: The development of a seed into a mature plant is a remarkable process brought about by complex physiological processes accompanied by (a) An increase in cell volume, (b) An increase in the number of cells, and (c) A differentiation of the newly-formed cells. Under normal conditions, the anabolic phase of metabolism in a plant is always greater than the catabolic phase. This results in a net gain and an increase in the amount of protoplasm. The process of growth is irreversible and is associated with an increase in size; and weight. The fresh matter that is incorporated into the plant body during its growth is produced from the nutrients absorbed by and produced in that plant. It is interesting to note that the growth of a plant occurs throughout its life. In higher plants, growth is restricted, to certain regions called growing points, which consist of meristematic tissues where new cells may be formed as a result of repeated division. Apical meristems found at the tips of roots and stems bring about primary growth, as a result of which roots and stems increase in length. On the other hand,lateral meristem or cambium, as is found in the vascular bundle of a dicotyledonous stem, brings about secondary growth or growth in thickness. GROWTH HORMONES: The events in the growth of a plant are well-coordinated by growth regulators called plant harm ones. A plant hormone is defined as an organic substance produced by the plant, which acting in very small concentrations (e.g. I part per million) regulates its physiological process. These are produced by one tissue during its metabolism, and on migration to another tissue, they exert a profound influence on its physiological activities. Growth hormones are substances that affect the growth of plants. Auxines: The most important among plant hormones are auxins. These are produced by growing tips of roots and stems, from where they migrate to the region of longation, where they are needed for the process of elongation. The principle auxin produced by apical meristems of plants is indoleacetic acid (lAA). Auxins are also important in regulating the fall of leaves and fruits. Old leaves and mature fruits fall from the plant, by developing an abscission layer at the base of the petiole, or at the base of the stalk of the fruit, as the case may be. As long as the leaf blade or the fruit continues to produce adequate quantities of auxin, these remain firmly attached to the stem. As the production of auxin decreases, the stalk develops a weak point by the growth of the abscission layer, where they break off from the stem. The application of auxins is useful in preventing the preharvest drop of fruits, such as oranges, pears and apples. Synthetic organic compounds with the effect of hormones have now been produced. They may be used to induce the. formation of roots on cuttings, to induce parthenocarpy, to hasten fruit ripening and to increase fruit production. Synthetic auxin in higher concentrations (i.e. 100 parts per million) are also used for destroying weeds. Gibberellins: It causes elongation of stems of genetically dwarf plants. The major sites of gibberellin production are embryos, roots and young leaves. Gibberellins cause bolting of rosette plants and induce production of hydrolysing enzymes in germinating seeds. Gibberellins break bud dormancy, induce parthenocarpy and substitute for long day- requirements in long-day plants. Cytokinins: It promote cell division even in non-meristematic tissues. In association with auxin, Cytokinin controls cell differentiation and formation of shoot buds in callus tissues. Cytokinins are involved in the retardation senescence, induction of flowering and breaking of seed dormancy. Ethylene: It is a gaseous hormone implicated in abscission of organs and acceleration of fruit ripening. Abscisic Acid (ABA): It is a growth inhibitor. Prevention of cell division and dormancy of buds, tubers and seeds are attributed to ABA. Plant growth results from promotion and inhibition, mediated by the interaction of phytohormones. FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH Availability of water and oxygen and a suitable temperature are important requirements. As dormant seed imbibe water, their metabolic activities are initiated and reserve food materials are

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mobilized. In many seeds, germination is controlled by light. Red light stimulates germination and farred light retards it. In such seeds germination is under the control of the pigment phytochrome. Light requirement for germination can be substituted by gibberellins or cylokinins. Phytochrome plays an important role in flowering. Although some physiologists believe that a universal flowering hormone 'florigen' exists, it has not been isolated. The low temperature requirement for flowering is called vernalization. Flowering in plants is influenced by relative length of the day or photo period. The phenomenon of flowering of plants in response to the relative length of the day is known as photoperiodism and on this basis flowering plant can be classified into four kinds : (i) Short-day plants flower when day length is shorter than the critical period, e.g. chrysanthemum, cosmos, aster, dahila, rice, tobacco, sugarcane, strawberry, soyabean etc. (ii) Long-day plants flower when they receive long photoperiods or light hours which are above the critical period. If they are supplied with short photoperiods, they do not flower and remain in the vegetative phase. A few examples of long day plants are: wheat, maize, radish, spinach, henbane, lettuce etc. (iii) Intermediate plants flower within a definite range of light hours. They do not flower below or above this range, e.g., wild kidney bean, (iv) Day Neutral or Indeterminate plants can flower under a wide range of day lengths e.g., tomato, chilli, cotton, pea, sunflower etc. GROWTH MOVEMENTS Flowering plants show growth movements and turgor movements. Growth movements are so slow that they can be observed through time-lapse photography. Some growth movements are self-controlled e.g. mutation. Others are induced by external stimuli such as light, gravity or contact. Responses in higher plants are associated with growth, and hence these are called growth movements. A response to a stimulus in stationary organisms, such as plants, brought about by a growth movements is called a tropism. The stimulus is unilateral and the response is directional, with the part of the plant moving towards or away from the source of the stimulus. Since tropistic movements are caused by differential growth, tropisms are confined to actively growing portions of plants, such as the apex of stems and roots. A tropistic response invovles only a part of an organism, A tropism may be either positive or negative and depending on the type of stimulus in plants, it may be of the following types: Phototropism. Movement in response of the light is called phototropism. Stems of plants are positively phototropic, as they grow towards the source of light. This is a useful adaptation of the plant by which the leaves are exposed to light for photosynthesis. Leaves of plants also respond to the stimulus of light by an orientation of the leaf blade so also expose it at right angles to light rays. Though the roots of some plants show negative phototropism those of many species are indifferent to the stimulus of light. Geotropism. The orientation of a plant organ in response to the force of gravity is called geotropism. Primary roots are positively geotropic, whereas primary shoots are negatively geotropic. Other Tropisms. Plants respond to a variety of other stimulations as well. The roots of plants show positive hydrotropism by growing towards water, so that they can reach moist-soil to absorb water. The tendrils of plants are sensitive to touch. The growth movement of a plant organs in response to the stimulus of contact is termed thigmotropism. Responses to chemical stimulations are seen in the growth of the pollen tube. This is termed chemotropism. Turgor Movements. Turgor movements result from differential changes in turgor of some cells. The rolling of leaves of many grasses in dry weather is caused by the loss of the turgor and collapse of large thin walled bulliform cells on the surface. The movement in Mimosa pudica (touch-me-not) changes. CHAPTER 5 CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE The earth shows a remarkable variety of living organisms. Some sort of classification is needed when dealing with such diversity if we are to understand living things.

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History: Aristotle and other ancient Greeks (4th and 3rd century B.C.), possibly made the earliest serious efforts to classify living things in the world they knew as plants and animals. They identified a few thousands types. Charaka (first century A.D.) the father of Ayurveda listed the names of over 200 kinds of animals and about 340 kinds of plants in his book 'Charaka Samhita". John Ray, English naturalist of the late 17th century, who introduced the term species for anyone kind of living thing, listed many thousands of plant species collected from all over Europe. Carolus Linnaeus, the 18th century Swedish naturalist, developed the current scientific system of naming species with two names-that is Binomial System of nomenclature. He recognised about 5,900 species of plants in his book Species Plantarum (1753) and about 4,200 species of animals in his book Systema Naturae. Nomenclature : According to the binomial system of nomenclature, the names of the plants and animals consist of two parts. The first is the generic name which begins with a capital letter and the second is the species name which starts with a smaller letter. Both these names are italicized or underlined because these are invariably in Latin. For example Homo Sapiens is the complete scientific or technical name for the modern human species. Here homo is the genus to which the species belongs, and sapiens is the specific name which identifies the species. Sometimes the subgenus or subspecies or both are also given; this is called polynomial (many-term) nomenclature. The early systems of classification were artificial, i.e., based on one or a few arbitrarily chosen criteria such as size or colour. Theophrastus (373-287 B.C.) categorized all known plants on the basis of their form, life span and habitat. Linnaeus classified and named them according to their sexual characters. In the nineteenth century the artificial systems were replaced by natural systems which indicated overall-similarities and differences between the organisms. Charles Darwin's epochmaking theory of organic evolution induced biologists to devise systems of classification reflecting evolutionary and genetic relationships. MODERN SYSTEM of CLASSFICATION: In this system, each living thing belongs to a species, genus, family, order, class, phylum (or division, in plants), and kingdom. These groups are sometimes divided into subgroups. In this system, organisms which are alike and reproduce among themselves are considered to constitute a species. Similar and related species are grouped together into genera (singular genus), genera into families, families into order, orders into classes and classes into .divisions or phyla (singular phylum). Finally similar phyla are placed in a kingdom, the highest grouping. Such a classification is called hierarchical classification, which is illustrated in the following examples of the wheat plant and man. FIVE KINGDOMS Following the system of classification introduced by Linnaeus, all organisms were grouped into either the animal or the plant kingdom. The animal kingdom comprised unicellular protozoans and multicellular animals or metazoans. They were grouped on the basis of their holozoic nutrition (ingestion of food) and locomotion (mobility). The plant kingdom comprised all other organisms: prokaryotes (bacteria) and eucaryotes, photosynthetic plants and the non-photosynthetic fungi, unicellular forms and multicellular forms. Viruses and bactgeriophages, neither procaryote nor eukaryote, formed a special group of their own. The grouping of diverse organisms into only two kingdoms has appeared unsatisfactory to many biologists and therefore a new five-kingdom arrangement of organisms was introduced in 1969 by R.H. Whittaker. The three criteria for this arrangement are: (1) complexity of cell structure (procaryote or eucaryote); (2) complexity of the organism's body (unicellular and simple or multicellular and complex) and (3) mode of nutrition (photosynthesis, absorption or ingestion).

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The five kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae (plants) and Animalia (animals). (i) Monera. The Kingdom ofProcaryotes monera includes ll procaryotic organism, actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria) and photosynthetic cyanobacteria (such as blue-green algae). Monerans are autotrophs (photo or cherno-autotrophs) or heterotrophs. In the biosphere, they are important as decomposers, mineralizers and nitrogen fixers. (ii) Protista. Kingdom of unicellular Eucaryotes, the eucaryotic, primarily unicellular and chiefly aquatic organisms are grouped under Kingdom Protista. They have diverse lifestyles. Photosynthetic protista are the producers in the oceans. Others are predators and ingest food (the protozoans) and a few live as decomposers (slime moulds). (iii) Fungi. Kingdom Fungi includes the multi-cellular,heterotrophic organisms, the moulds and mushrooms, which obtain nutrition by extra-cellular digestion and absorption of organic matter. Many are parasitic on other multicellular forms. Yeasts are exceptional unicellular fungi. (iv) Plantae. Kingdom Plantae (plants) includes the multicellular, photosynthetic plants. These include, red, brown and green algae, mosses, liverworts, ferns and seedbearing plants with or without flowers. A few flowering plants have evolved into parasites. Plants are the major producers on land. (v) Animalia. The diverse multi-cellular consumers we regard as animals constitute Kingdom Animalia. Their principal mode of nutrition is the pursuit and ingestion of food. Their mobility is made possible by the development of muscle and nerve cells. The kingdom includes various groups (phyla)- sponges, en idarians, flat and round worms, annel ids, arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms (starfishes) and vertebrates (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) . Cytotaxonomy - (Alston and Turner) : Classification based on cytological studies. Chemo-taxonomy - (Heslop Harrison) : Classification based on chemical composition. Scientific Name of Some Animals Man Tiger Cat Frog Rabbit Cockroach Earthworm Dogfish Homo Sapiens Panthera tigiris Felis domestica Rana tigrina Oryctolagus Cuniculus Periplanata americana Pheretima posthuma Scoliodon domerillis Scientific Name of Some Common Plants Mango Wheat Rice Arhar Rose Sunflower Mangifera indica Triticum aestivum. Oryza sativa Cajanus cajan. Rosa indica Helianthus annuus.

Trinomial nomenclature was proposed by - Lamark 1 st name - Generic, 2nd name-specific, 3rd name of variety. e.g. China rose-Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ; Cauliflower-Brassica oleracea botrydis.

HIERARCHIES OF CLASSIFICATION

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1. 5. 9. 13. 17. 21. 25.

Kingdom Class Order Family Section Species Form

2. 6. 10. 14. 18. 22. 26.

Sub-kingdom Sub-class Sub-border Sub-family Sub-section Sub-species Sub-form

3. 7. 11. 15. 19. 23.

Phylum Coheret Tribe Series Genus Variety

4. 8. 12. 16. 20. 24.

Sub-phylum Sub-coheret Sub-tribe Sub-series Sub-genus Sub-variety

1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA) Bacteria are microscopic unicellular prokaryotic drganisms characterized by the lack of a membranebound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Once considered a part of the plant kingdom, bacteria were eventually placed in a separate kingdom, Monera. Bacteria fall into one of two groups, Archaebacteria (ancient forms thought to have evolved separately from other bacteria) and Eubacteria. A recenty proposed system classifies the Archaebacteria, or arshaea, and the Eubacteria as major groupings (sometimes called domains) above the kingdom level. Differences between Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotes Characteristlc Archaea Bacteria Predominantly multicellular No No Cell contains a nucleus and other No No membrane bound organelles Yes Yes DNA occurs in a circular form 70s 70s Ribosome size No (ether) Yes Membrane lipids ester-linked No Yes' Photosynthesis with chlorophyll Yes Yes Capable of growth at temperatures greater than 8<PC Yes No Histone proteins present in cell Yes No(formyl) Methionine used as t-RNA Initiator Yes Yes Operons present in DNA No Yes Interferon present in most genes No No Capping and poly-A tailing Of m-RNA Yes No Gas vesicles present Yes No Capable of Methanogenesis No Yes Sensitive to chloramphenicol, kanamycin and streptomycin No Yes Transcription factors required No Yes Capable of Nitrification Yes Yes Capable of Denitrification Yes Yes Capable of Nitrogen Fixation Yes Yes Capable of Chemolithotrophy

Eukaryotes Yes Yes No(Linear) 80s Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No No Yes No No No No

Bacteria were the only form of life on earth for 2 billion years. They were first observed by Antony van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century; bacteriology as an applied science began to develop in the late 19th

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century as a result of research in medicine and in fermentation processes, especially by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. The term bacteria was as coined by Ehrenberg. Bacteria are remarkably adaptable to diverse environmental conditions: they are found in the bodies of all living organisms and on all parts of the earth-in land terrains and ocean depths, in arctic ice and glaciers, in hot springs, and even in the stratosphere. Characteristics: Bacteria are grouped in a number of different ways. Most bacteria are of one of three typical shapes-rods-shaped (bacillus), round (coccus, e.g., streptococcus), and spiral (spirillum). An additional group, vibrios, appear as incomplete spiral. The cytoplasm and plasma membrane of most bacterial cells are surrounded by a cell wall; further classification of bacteria is based on cell wall characteristics. They can also be characterized by their patterns of growth, such as the chains formed by streptococci. Many bacteria, chiefly the bacillus and spirillum forms, are motile, swimming about by whiplike movments offlagella; other bacteria have rigid rodlike protuberances called pili that serve as tethers. Some bacteria (those known as aerobic forms) can function metabolically only in the presence offree or atmospheric oxygen; others (anaerobic bacteria) cannot grow in the presence of free oxygen but obtain oxygen from compounds. Facultative anaerobes can grow with or without free oxygen; obligate anaerobes are poisoned by oxygen. SHAPES AND SIZES Most bacteria are one-celled organisms of extremely small size. They rarely exceed 0.005 millimeter in their greatest dimension. Some average only 0.00015 millimetre. They are the smallest known living organisms (excluding viruses, which may or may not be living organisms) and microscopic. There are three common bacterial body forms: spherical or ovoid (coccus forms), rod-shaped or cylindrical (bacillus forms), and spiral or screw (spirillum forms). Some species of bacteria have much-branched, thread like bodies, but these species are few in comparison with those that take the form of spheres, rods,or spirals. . Bacteria that live in liquids often have long, threadlike processes called flagella. Rhythmic movements of its flagella propel a bacterium through the liquid, usually in a twisting fashion. The numbers and arrangement of flagella vary greatly in the different species of bacteria and are used as a basis for identification. A few speices of mobile bacteria lack flagella. They move about by snakelike, twisting movements of the entire cell. Main Features: Bacteria are ubiquitous i.e., found every where. Mesosomes are present in many bacteria that help in the formation of cell wall during binary fission and perhaps contain the enzymes for aerobic respiration. Plasmids are found in many bacteria as a double-stranded, smaIl and circular extragenomic DNA. CelIs are typically prokaryotic. They reproduce mainly by binary fission and endospore formation. Sexual reproduction is found only as recombination so also called parasexual reproduction. Some bacteria can fix nitrogen . Some Animal Pathogens Tuberculosis of poultry: Mycobacterium ovium Poultry diarrhoea : Salmonella pullorum Anthrax of cattles : Bacillus anthrasis Lumpy jaw of cattle: Clostridiumchanvei Some Plant Pathogens Citrus canker: Xanthomonas citri Fire blight of apple and pear: Erwinia amylovora Tundu disease of wheat: Corynebacterium tritici Bacterial blight of rice: Xanthomonas oryzae

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Black leg of cattle: Actinomyces bovis

Crown gall of apple:

BACTERIAL REPRODUCTION: Reproduction in bacteria is largely asexual by binary fission. This is a simple process of cell division, in which one bacterium splits into two new ones. Fission may occur with incredible rapidity - as often as every 15 or 20 minutes under particularly favourable conditions of temperature, moisture, and food supply. Some species e.g. Clostridium form very tiny structures called spores (one spore per bacterium). This method of reproduction is often, but not always, the consequence of certain environmental conditions, such as temperature extremes or inadequate food supply. Such conditions do not favour the active, vigorous growth and fission of bacteria. A spore is usually formed by the condensation of protoplasm within the bacterial cell into a spherical or egg- shaped body. Spores have a lower water content than active bacterial cells. Because of this, they are more resistant to unfavourable environmental conditions than are active bacteria. Pasteurizing milk for example kills most of the active bacteria present. But the bacterial spores in the milk survive the heat treatment. Fortunately, most of the bacteria that cause serious diseases in human beings do not form resistant spores. When bacteria spores encounter favourable conditions of temperature and food supply, they germinate, or sprout. Each spore then grows into an active bacteria. Since only one spore is produced per bacterium, no increase in the total number of bacteria results form the formation and germination of spores. Some bacteria are also known to exhibit a number of type of sexual reproductions. Members of certain species contain a virus like agent known as the fertlity or F factor. The cell containing this factor is designated P+ and called "male" The cell lacking it is designated F- and called "female". During a type of matting known as conjugation, male and female bacteria attach themselves by means of a bridge. The male then transfers the F factor to the female. The bacteria then separate and each undergoes fission. This unusual type of reproduction in bacteria permits a certain amount of recombination of hereditary material in bacteria. The bacteria that are produced after conjugation contain hereditary material from both the "parents". Nutrition: Most bacteria are unable to manufacture their own foods, Instead, they feed on organic compounds manufactures by other organisms, Such bacteria are heterotropic. Heterotrophic bacteria that derive their food from dead plants and animal bodies or from dung and other waste products of organisms are known as saprophytes. Other heterotrophic bacteria, called parasites, obtain food directly form the tissues ofliving plants or living animals. Many bacterial species are exclusively saprophytes. Others are exclusively parasites. Still others may live saprophytically or parasitically, depending upon the nature of the environment and the organic materials available to them. Like other organisms, bacteria produce regulatory chemicals called enzymes. These promote digestion-that is, the conversion of complex, water-insoluble foods into simple, water-soluble foods. A few bacterial species are able to manufacture foods from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide. Such bacteria are called autotrophic or self-nourishing. There are two kinds of autotrophic bacteria : chemosynthetic and photosynthetic. Chemosynthetic bacteria obtain the energy required for food manufacture by oxidising (combining with oxygen) various chemicals. Photosynthetic bacteria contain purple or greenish pigment that enable them to absorb and use light energy in food manufacture. This process of photosynthesis involves pigments somewhat different from the chlorophyll of higher plants. Photosynthetic bacteria do not use water in photosynthesis and do not evolve oxygen.The chemosynthetic bacteria are particularly important in the scheme of nature. Sulphur bacteria, for example, converts hydrogen sulphide, a product of protein decay, to sulphur and then to sui ph uric acid. The acid undergoes chemical reactions in soils

75

to form sulphates, which are the principal source of the sulphur needed by higher plants for normal growth and reproduction. Iron bacteria oxidize certain types of iron compounds into other compounds. Nitrifying bacteria are chemosynthetic bacteria that live in soils and that make nitrogen available to higher plants. Respiration: Bacteria resemble all other living organisms in their ability to carry on respiration. Most bacteria like most plants and animals, use free oxygen from the atmosphere in respiration and produce carbon dioxide and water as a result of the process. Such bacteria are called aerobic, which means "living in the presence of oxygen". They can live only when they have access to free oxygen - for example, in aerated soil and water, on the surface of other living organisms, or on the surface of foodstuffs. Other bacteria maintain respiration in the absence of free oxygen. They are called, anaerobic (living away from oxygen). They thrive in sealed, imperfectly sterilized cans of food, in the bodies of other organisms, and poorly aerated soils and water. The respiration of such bacteria is commonly called fermentation. IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA: Some bacteria are not only useful, but are essential to life. Organic fertilizers are broken down by bacteria into materials that can be used by plants. Decomposed vegetable and animal matter is thus transformed into nutrients that are absorbed through the roots of other plants. Many species of soil bacteria fix nitrogen; that is, they convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates, compounds that are readily absorbed by plants. Some of these bacteria live in colonies in the roots of legumes, such as peas, clover, and alfalfa. Various commercial processes depend on bacteria.Anaerobic bacteria that ferment certain substances are used in the production of vinegar and some drugs, and in the ageing process of cheese. Some bacteria produce waste products that are useful to humans. One such waste product is lactic acid, which is produced by intestinal bacteria and promotes digestion in humans. It is grown commercially and added to certain foods such as yogurt. Bacteria are also used to chemically break down the tough, woody tissues of flax, jute, hemp, and coconut. Modern methods of sewage disposal often make use of bacteria to decompose organic wastes. Some strains of bacteria are used in genetic engineering to manufacture drugs or other chemicals. Some Useful Bacteria Name Lactobacillus Rhizobium and Clostridium Streptomyces griseus Streptomyces venezuelae Streptomyces remosus Use Curding of milk Nitrogen fixation in soil Streptomycin Chloromycetin Terramycin

Certain bacteria rank high among our deadliest enemies. . These are the disease causing, or pathogenic, bacteria. They are responsible for such human diseases as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, some types of pneumonia, meningitis, tetanus, cholera, diphtheria, leprosy, several types of dysentery, and various wound infections. They cause diseases among the domesticated animals - tuberculosis, anthrax, fowl cholerapneumonia, and glanders, among others. They are responsible for various diseases of crop plants, such as fire blight of pears, citrus canker, tomato and potato wilts, potato black leg, and soft rot of celery. These diseases result in tremendous crop losses throughout the world's agricultural areas.

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Bacteria also ruin great quantities of food stuffs. They cause souring of milk, acidity of butter, an spoilage of both fresh and canned fruits and vegetables. The toxins, or poisons, of bacteria in certain spoiled foods may result in potamine poisoining, botulism, and other types of food poisoning. Fortunately there are various methods of preventing or at least reducing bacterial activity in foods. Heat sterilization, refrigeration, and deep freezing all are effective. So is desication or the drying of foods. Since bacteria usually require considerable quantities of water for their activity, they cannot grow, reproduce, and respire in dried foods. Food may also be protected against bacteria by adding chemicals that are harmless to human beings but poisonous to bacteria. Some bacteria cause the decomposition of fabrics, wood, and other products of organic origins. This is most common in tropical regions, where excessive heat is combined with high relative humidity. ANTIBIOTICS AND VACCINES Certain bacteria produce drugs that are extremely valuable in treating various diseases of human beings and other mammals. Among the important antibiotics produced by bacteria are streptomycin, which is especially effective in treating tuberculosis and tularemia; and aureomycin and terramycin, both highly effective in cases of intestinal, urinary, and other internal infections, and certain types of pneumonia and influenza. It should be noted that the most wildely publicized antibiotic, pencillin, is produced by a fungus, not by a bacterium. Some kinds of pathogenic bacteria are used to make vaccines and serums. These are then used to prevent or treat diseases caused by the same bacteria. A bacterial vaccine is a preparation of dead or weakend bacteria or bacterial products. It is injected into an animal body. The vaccine stimulates the animal to produce antibodies in its blood. If active bacteria of the same kind as the injected bacteria enter the body at the later date, they are held in check or destroyed by the antibodies. The antibodies may persist in the blood for long periods of time, conferring upon the animal a type of diseases resistance called immunity. This action is similar to that which occurs when an animal had a disease and has recovered from it. During its diseased state, the animal produces and accumulates antibodies, which then prevent the later development of bacteria of the same type in its body. Immunity following an attack of typhoid fever or cholera, for example, usually persists throughout the life of the individual. Bacterial vaccines are used chiefly in immunizing human beings and domesticated animals against such diseases as diphtheria, cholera, and typhoid fever. A serum is a preparation from the blood of an animal that has been inoculated with bacteria (or other disease producing agents) and has recovered from the disease that these bacteria or other agents cause. Blood is removed from the animal and is cleaned and sterilized; the serum is then separated. This contains anti-bodies that the animal formed as a consequence of the disease that attacked it. The serum, injected into another animal, confers immunity upon the animal, should disease bacteria enter it. Serums are especially effective in treating or preventing tetanus, diphtheria, meningitis, and some forms of pneumonia. Since the antibodies that develop in the blood following inoculation with vaccine are produced by the animal thus inoculated, the type of immunity that results is called active immunity. In the use of serums, the animal that receives the serum acquires its immunity from the antibodies produced in the blood of another animal. Immunity of this type is called passive immunity. DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA Causative agent Discoverer

Disease

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Leprosy (Hansen's Disease) Tetanus Whooping Cough Typhoid Fever Paratyphoid Fever Cholera Plague Tuberculosis Meningitis Bacterial Pneumonia Anthrax Botulism Bacterial Dysentry Diarrhoea Food Poisoning Gas Gangrene Syphilis Diphtheria Gonorrhoea H-I Influenza Typhus Fever Lyme Disease Tooth Decay Tooth Decay Tooth Decay Tooth Decay Scarlet Fever Tonsilitis Gasteroenteritis Food Poisoning Food Poisoning Food Poisoning Gasteroenter itis Peptic Ulcers

Mycobacterium leprae Clostridium tetani Bordetella pertussis Salmonella typhi Salmonella paratyphi Vibrio cholorae Yersinia pestis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Neisseria meningitidis Streptococcus pneumoniae Bacillus anthracis Clostridium botulinum Shigella dyenteriae Escherichai coli Salmonella enteriditis Clostridium perfringens Treponema pallidum Corynebacterium diphtheriae Neisseria gonorrhoeae Haemophilus influenzae Reckellsia prowazekii Borrelia burgdorferi Streptococcus mutans Streptococcus sobrinus Streptococcus sanguis Streptococcus mitis Streptococcus pyogenes Streptococcus pyogenes Escherichia coli Clostridium perJringens Bacillus cereus Staphylococcus aureus Camphylobacter spp. Helicobacter pylori

G.A. Hansen, 1873 A Nicolaier, 1884 J. Bordet and O.Gengou, 1906 C.J. Eberth, 1880 H. Schottrnuller, 1900 Koch, 1883 S.Kitasato, A.T.E. Yersin, 1894 R. Koch, 1882 A. Weicheslbaum, 1887 A' Fr aenkal, 1886 R. Koch, 1877 E.M.P. Van Ermengem, 1896 K. Shiga, 1898 T Escherich, 1885 AAH. Gaertner, 1888 W.H. Welch, 1892 F.R. Schaudinn and E. Hoffman, 1903 T.A.E. Klebs, 1883 AL.S. Neisser, 1879

Disease-producing bacteria, of course, may be' held in check by substances other than vaccines and serums. Sulfa drugs and antibiotics destroy many disease-carrying bacteria within animal bodies. Certain highly toxic chemicals, such as mercuric chloride, iodine, and carbolic acid, may be used on body surfaces to kill bacteria. Such chemicals cannot be taken internally because they are poisonous to body tissues. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

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Bacteria are microscopic organisms which are both useful and harmful: (i) Role of bacteria in agriculture in soil fertility : Ammonifying bacteria Ammonification Protein ________________________________ Amino Acid ________________________ Ammonia (H2O) decomposition Nitrification Nitrobactor Nitrosomas Bacteria Ammonia ________________________ N03 _________________ N02 ___________________________ (Nitrifying bacteria) (Nitrate) bacteria (Nitrite ) NH4 OH (ii) Role of bacteria in the formation of dairy products: Lactic Acid Bacteria _____________________________________________________ Milk Curd (lactose) (bacterium lactici acid) (Lactic Acid) (iii) Role of bacteria in different industries: (a) In vinegar industry mycodenna aceti ___________________________________________ Sugar Acetic Acid (Aerobic conditions) (b) In alcohol and acetone industry : Clostridium Sugar solution________________________________________ Alcohol+Acetone (c) In tea industry Micrococcus candisans ________________________________________ Tea leaves Tea (curing) (d) In tobacco industry Bacillus megatherium mycoccus Tobacco leaves ____________________________________________ Tobacco (Fermentation) (e) In retting of plant fibres: Clostridium bulyricum separate Corehorus capsularies (Jute)______________________________ Cannabis sativa (Hemp) Hydrolysis of middle lamella (iv) Importance of bacteria in manufacutre of medicine: (a) In manufacture of vitamins: Clostridium butyrieum Carbohydrates___________________________________ Riboflavin (ViI. B)

(b) In manufacutre of antibiotics : Name of antibiotic Bacteria used

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Chloromycetin Aureomycin Terramycin Streptomycin Subtilin

Streptomyces Venezuelae S. Aurefaciens S. ramosus S. Griseus Bacillus subtilis

(c) In manufacutre of vaccine: Bacteria are used on very large scale to produce antibiotic drugs. A bacterial vaccine is a preparation of dead or weakened bacteria. Vaccine of diptheria, pneumonia, cough, cholera, tetanus, etc. is prepared using bacteria. 2. KINGDOM FUNGI GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Fungus (pI. Fungi) is a Latin word, which means mushrooms. But the usage of this word has been expanded to include thallus-like, non-green plants such as moulds, yeasts and other similar organisms. Thus fungi are non-green, nucleated thallophytes. A thallus is a simple plant body that has no roots, stems, flower, and seed-structure, we commonly associate with the higher plants. STRUCTURE AND GROWTH Fungi have a thallus -like body, which is made up of branching threads called hyphae. The name mycelium is given to the sum total of the hyphae. The large surface provided by such filamentous growth allows intimate contact with the substratum on which it occurs. Fungal cells have a wall made up of chitin and/or cellulose and contain ucaryotic cell organelles except chloroplasts. During mitosis, the nuclear membrane doesn't disappear. Fungal hyphae may be aseptate or septate. Compact hypal tissues called pseudoparenchyma are produced in fruiting bodies. Fungi extract energy from their environment by the process'of extra-cellular (outside the cell) digestion and absorption of the digested material in the form of solution. Fungi have an 'assimilative or vegetative phase in which nutrients are taken up and mycelial growth in the substratum occurs. This phase is followed by reproductive phase, in which the mycelium grows aerially and produces fruiting structure 'and reproductive cells or spores. REPRODUCTION Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation or also reproduce by special vegetative cells called spores and condida. Fungi imperfecti reproduce only asexually. Fungi reproduce sexually in different ways. Lower fungi (aquatic forms) reproduce by fusion of gametes in water. Most terrestrial fungi have separate mating types (heterothallism). Two haploid hyphae of different-mating types fuse during sexual reproduction to produce sexual spores. A spore may also be produced asexually. Asexual spores are useful in dissemination of the fungus. Sexual spores produced by aquatic fungi may possess flagella for swimming and are called zoospores FOOD AND ENZYMES Fungi lack chlorophyll. Thus they cannot make their own food, but are dependent on other living things for nourishment. Some fungi exist as parasites. Other feed on dead organic matter, such as decaying leaves of dead wood, on which they grow. Such are called saprophytes. True fungi are unable to take in solid foods as animals do. They must change such foods before they can use them. They do this by secreting enzymes into their surroundings. The enzymes break down foods consisting of complex organic material into simpler substances that can be dissolved in water. When these substances are in dissolved form, the fungi can absorb them.

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Some species of fungi are very restricted in their choice of foods-that is, in the organic materials upon which their enzymes can act. One small fungus groups, for example, is known to occur only on the casts of horns and hooves of animals. Other species produce many different kinds of enzymes, which enable them to grow on a wide variety of substances. The enzymes-forming activities of fungi are a vital factor in the process of decay, a process upon which the very existence of life on earth depends. These activities convert the complex organic matter present in the dead bodies of plants and animalsinto simpler substances that plants can absorb. In the plants, these substances are used in the manufacture of food elements. Animals obtain these substances by eating plants or by devouring plant-eating animals. Human beings put the enzyme-forming activities of certain fungus species to work in brewing, baking, and cheese making. The enzymes of other species bring about the decay of a number of textiles and cause numerous diseases of animal and plants. A great many trees, shrubs, other seed plants have a remarkable relationship with certain fungi. The mycelium of these fungi invades the roots of the plants, but instead of harming the seed plants, it helps them. It assists in transporting water and minerals from the soil to the roots of the plants. The seed plant, in turn, supplies food '0 the fungi. Fungi of this kind are called mycorrhizal (fungus root). The relationship between root and fungus in this case is a good example of symbiosis--an association that is beneficial to both living partners. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI Fungi are classified on the basis of their life cycles and the way spores are produced--The ygomycetes fungus Rhizopus (black bread mould) reproduces asexually by the production of black spores. These are formed in sporangia born on sporangiophores produced by the nonseptate haploid hyphae. During sexual reproduction, fusion of two hyphae of opposite mating types (plus or minus) leads to zygospore formation. A zygospore, by meiosis, eventually produces a plus or minus haploid spore. In ascomycetes (Sac fungi) the haploid septate hyphae forms chains of conidia during asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, two hyphae of different mating types fuse to eventually form a saclike ascus containing 4 or 8 haploid ascospores. In cup fungi and morel, many asci are formed in a fruiting body called the ascocarp. Yeasts are unicellular ascomycetes, which normally reproduce asexually by budding. They are economically important in baking, brewing and industrial ethanol production. Penicillium produces the antibiotic pencillin. Some ascomycetes are plant pathogens. Candida, a yeast causes skin and respiratory diseases in man. Basidiomycetes (Club fungi) include mushrooms, bracket fungi and puff balls. In edible mushroom (Agarcius sp.) the assimilative mycelium grows in the soil or substratum. In sexual reproduction two haploid hyphae (monokaryon) of different mating types fuse to form a dikaryon. The mycelium grows as the dikaryon until the fruiting bodies of mushrooms are formed aerially. The mushroom consists of a cap on a stalk. The latter bears numerous club- shaped basidia on the underside. In each basidium, the two nuclei (dikaryon) fuse to form a 2n zygote which undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid basidiospores. These germinate to form monokaryon hyphae. Basidiomycetes are important wood decomposers. Some are edible; some produce hallucinogenic chemicals; and some are poisonoius. Some produce plant diseases like rusts and smuts. Deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi) includes mostly multi- cellular mycelial form reproducing asexually. This constitutes an artificial group containing diverse kinds of fungi known only by their asexual reproductive structures known as imperfect fungi due to apparent lack of sexual phase, the perfect stage. FUNGI AND THEIR IMPACT

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1. Downy Mildews - they produce a downy growth on the surface of infected plant parts usually on leaves. One of the best known downy mildews is the late blight of potatoes. they also cause other plant diseases, they attack tobacco,cabbage, cucumbers etc. 2. Black Bread Mould Group - usually called ml/cors.Most of them occurs as fluffy growth on bread, fruits, vegetables and preserved food. They are white at first but soon become dark as their spores mature in large number. It develops on bread. 3. Yeast - occurs wherever simple sugars are available like on fruits, in the sap from trees, in soil(particularly in orchards and vine yards). 4. Brewer's Yeast - has been bred for the alcoholic ferrnention; used in making beer, liquors, commercial alochol. 5. Bakers Yeast - if placed in bread dough, it causes the dough to rise or expand by producing CO2, Candia Albicans - responsible for thrust, a disease of mouth and throat. 6. Blue and Green Moulds Group - Aspergillus, (primary source of citric acid, used in flavouring candies & fruits) Penicillium (used for antibiotics) 7. Powdery Mildews - a powdery white substance on leaves. They are plant parasites, cause disease of crop plants and ornamentals, including grape, apple, rose. 8. Rusts and Smuts - parasitic, attack higher plants. Most common species in wheat barberry rust. 9. Mushrooms and Toadstools - The first is edible while the second one is poisonous. 10. Imperfect fungi - from the class' Deuteromycotina',parasitic. They are often very destructive to crop and ornamental plants and cause diseases in human beings responsible for ringworm. 11. Yeasts - one celled 12. Mushrooms - complex. LICHENS A lichen is a combination of a fungus and an algae. Most often, the fungus is a member of the sac fungi while the algae is a green of blue-green species. The thallus, of plant body, that results from the combination of the two is quite different from anything that could be producecd by the fungus of the algae growing alone. The lichen thalli are generally of three kinds crustose, foliose (e.g.Parmelia ) and fracticose (e.g. Usnea ) .. The hyphae of the fungus make up the framework of the plant body. The algal cells of filaments occur within this framework. The two organisms -fungus and algae live together in mutually beneficial relationship, or symbiosis. By the process of photosynthesis, the algae manufactures all the organic food that they both require. The fungus brings in water and minerals and offers protection to the algae. Lichens are most commonly found on trees. They also occur on rocks and on barren ground. They furnish fodder for reindeer and, in some places, for cattle. Certain kinds of lichens yield litmus, a dye used as chemical indicator. Lichens play an important role in soil formation. FUNGAL DISEASES S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4 5. 6.
7.

FUNGAL DISEASES IN PLANTS Disease Plant Late blight of Potato Potato Foot Rot of Papaya Papaya Downy mildew of grapes Grapevine & other species Down mildew of Pear millet Bajra White rust of crucifers Cabbage, mustard, etc Powdery mildew wheat Wheat, barley, oat, rice and many other grasses Loose Smut of Wheat Wheat

Name of Fungus Phylophthora infestans Phythium-alphanidermatur Plasmopara viticola. Sclerospora graminicola Albugo Candida Erysiphe graminis Ustilago Tillelia

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8. 9. 10 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19 20. 21. `

Karnal bunt Bunt of rice Smut of Bajra Covered smut of barley Black rust Brown rust Coffee rust Wilt of Pigeon pea Early blight of potato Ikki disease Wilt of cotton Red rot Ergot of bajra Foot rot of Paddy

Wheat Rice Bajra Barley Wheat Wheat Coffee Arhar Potato Groundnut Cotton Surgarcane Bajra Rice

Tilletia Indica Tilletia Ustilago nuda. Ustilago hordei Puccinia graminis tritici Punocinia recondita. Hemileia vastatrix Fusarium oxysporum Alternaria solani Cercospora arachidicola F Oxysporum var Colletotrichum falcatum Claviceps suiformis Fusarium moniliformas.

FUNGAL DISEASES IN HUMAN Disease Fungus Symptoms Ringworm Microsporum Direct contact from unbathed cats and dogs or objects Tinea handled by infected individuals Athlete's foot Trichophyton Bad foot hygiene where skin remains warm and moist for Madura foot Trichophyton long periods, fungi find optimum condition, invade dead Madurella mycetomi Dhobie itch outer layer of skin. Several different fungi Fungi gain entry through some minor injury to the skin. Direct contact through objects handled by infected person.

3. THE KINGDOM PLANTAE: The plant kingdom comprises the multicellular photosynthetic producers of the biosphere. They are primarily aquatic, often marine, red, brown and green algae, and the land plants. The land plants belong to two major divisions: the Bryophytes comprising the mosses and liverworts which survive only in moist places, and the large group Tracheophytes (Gk: trachia = windpipe, from a resemblance of vascular strands to the windpipe in animals; phyton = plant) or vascular plants. We have already discussed algae of all sorts earlier, grouping them separately for convenience. In this section we will deal with the other plants, their types and vital processes. A. ALGAE Algae are chiefly water plants, dwelling in oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers, ditches, and other bodies of water, large and small. Some species, however, are found on stones, the bark of trees, fences etc., generally the moist environments that are not subjected to direct sunlight. The algae are infinitely varied in size and shape. Some consist of individual microscopic cells. Others form flat sheets, narrow filaments, or immense stemlike structures that may be more than 30 meters long. Certain algae have growth that strikingly resemble the leaves of higher plants. These primitive organisms are divided into seven primary divisions--one division of the Kingdom Monera and six divisions of the Plant Kingdom. BLUE-GREEN ALGAE

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These slimy algae make up the moneran divison Cyanophycota. They contain a blue pigment, phycocyanin, in addition to chlorophyll and other pigments. Most have a dark blue colour, others' range from orange to black. The blue-green algae, reproduce only by asexual means. Blue-green algae are found wherever there is ample moisture, in almost all parts of the world. They often contaminate drinking water, causing a very disagreeable odour and taste. Curiously enough, they bring about the characteristic reddish colour of the Red Sea. Blue green algae are found in snows of the Arctic. Some species thrive in the digestive tract of human beings and the lower animals, apparently without causing ill-effects. Certain members of the group including Gloeocapsa and Nostoc, have formed a partnership with fungi, making up the separate group of organisms known as lichens. TRUE ALGAE Algae belonging to division Euglenophycota form colonies. These algae, which are considered by botanists to be plants, are often classified as one-celled animals, or protozoa, by Zoologists. The best known of the Euglenophycota is Euglena, which is found in stagnant ponds, swimming pools, and aquariums. This minute green organism has a single flagellum. It also has a minute red "eyespot", which seems to be sensitive to light. Euglena causes water to become greenish and cloudy and often imparts an unpleasant flavour. Water containing excessive quantities of this algae is considered to be undesirable for drinking or swimming purposes. The green algae, or chlorophyta, are chiefly found in fresh water, though there are some marine representatives of the group. Certain forms have adapted land life. They grow attached to moss, rocks, trees, and soil in places where the environment is not too dry. Occasionally these algae are found at high altitudes in patches of snow. Some species are one-celled. Others form colonies. Still others are multicellular in the form of filaments (sometimes with numerous branches) or flat sheets. The green algae reproduce in various ways: by cell division, fragmentation (breaking off into fragments), or sexual reproduction. Certain species combine with fungi to form lichens. The green algae have an important bearing upon our lives, both for good and for evil. In the course of their foodmaking activity they add oxygen to the water, thus making more of this essential gas available for fish and other organisms that form an important part of our food supply. They also serve as food for these creatures. On the debit side of the ledger, the green the like. They may impart unpleasant flavours and odours. If they grow too thickly, their respiration may seriously lower the oxygen content of the water. As a consequence, fish in the area may die of suffocation. Fortunately, it is possible to eradicate unwanted green algae from swimming pools and tanks by adding minute quantities of copper sulphate (CuSO4.) to water, generally one part of CuSO4 to several million parts of water suffices. Among the most interesting of the green algae is Chlamydomonas. It is very common in ditches, pools, and lakes, and is often so abundant that the water appears to be green. It has also been found in the Alps and the Arctic, where it covers entire snowbanks. The green scum seen on quiet pools, ponds, and lakes often consists largely of the green algae Spirogyra. This plant gets its name from the peculiar arrangement of its chlorophyll, which extends like a spirally twistedribbon from one end of the cell to the other. The characteristic colour of the brown algae, or Phacophyceae (division Chromophycota), is due to a brown pigment, flucoxanthin, which normally masks the green colour of the chlorophyll in the tissues. Almost all brown algae are marine plants. They show considerable variety of structure. Some are in the form of filaments. Others are sheetlike or ribbonlike. Certain members of the group have structures resembling the leaves and stems of higher plants. The brown algae are of considerable commercial importance to man. They are a source of food for fish and other animals I iving in the sea. When removed from the sea, they are sometimes used as cattle feed. Some species yield iodine. Others make excellent fertilizer. THe brown algae known as kelps include the largest members of the group. The giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, is reported to be the longest plant in the world. Thriving at ocean depths of 15 meters or more, often grows to be many metres wide and

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well over 30 meters in length. Gulf weed, or Sargassum, is a brown algae provided with berrylike bladders. It has leaflike growths set on stemlike structures that sometimes reach great lengths. Masses of Sargassum, torn away from their moorings, are often carried along by ocean currents and collect in floating mats. They are found particularly in an area of the Atlantic Ocean called Sargasso Sea. Diatoms have colours ranging from yellowish green to yellowish brown. The diatom cell wall contains silica. It is a glass like covering, consisting of two sections that fit together like the top and bottom parts of a box. The cell walls are beautifully and delicately sculptured. Some are round. Others are oval or triangular. Still others are simple bars with hundreds of cross-wise markings. When the diatoms die, the cell walls become skeletons that retain their shape for amazingly long periods of time. Some species of diatoms are able to move by swimming, gliding, or twisting. Diatoms generally reproduce by cell division. But in some species a simple form of sexual reproduction takes place. These tiny plants are found almost everywhere, where there is enough moisture and light: in.a sea, in lakes and ponds, in flowing streams, in pools, on moist rocks, and in cultivated soil. They are sometimes found even in purified drinking water: fortunately, they are harmless to m~U1. They often make up the bulk of the plankton, the passively floating or weakly swimming plant and animal life of the ocean. The. diatoms thus form a sort of ocean pasture on which countless sea animals feed. When diatoms die, their skeletons drop to the bottom of the sea or lake where they lived. Diatomaceous earth is used in different ways. It serves to filter and clarify many liquids. It is an excellent insulating material for boilers, blast furnaces, and refrigerators. It is also used as mild abrasive in polishes and scouring powders. Some Useful Algae Product Secreted by Iodin Laminaria (Brown Algae) Agar and Caragheen Red Algae Alginic Acid Brown Algae Soil fertilizer Blue Green Algae Edible forms Vulva porphyra, Chlorella etc. Red algae are chiefly found in ocean waters though some are to be found in cold swiftly flowing fresh water streams. Although called red algae, they actualy exhibit a wide range of colours including different shades of red, brown, and violet. Some red algae, such as genus Porphyra, are nearly black, as well, while others, such as genus Bangia, are almost without colour. The striking colouration of many species results from the presence of the blue pigment, phycocyanin, in varying proportion, in addition to phycoerythrin. These plants are multicellular. They occur in the form of filaments, ribbons, or sheets of fernlike or feather-like growths. Like other algal groups, the red algae supply abundant food for fish and other animals living in the sea. They also serve as food for humans, particularly in Europe and the Far East. Among the edible varieties are Irish moss and laver (several species of the genus Porphyra). Irish moss is also used for curing leather and for shoe polish, as well as an ingredient in the manufacture of creams and shampoos. Certain red algae, including Ceylon moss yields a gelatinous material known as agar-agar. This substance absorbs a great deal of water. When it sets, it has a consistency like that of gelatin. It is used by researchers as growth material for bacteria. It also serves to thicken soups and broths, as a sizing material for textiles, as a mild laxative, and to provide body for puddings, pastries, ice creams and other preparations. Some of the red algae secrete lime and therefore have helped to build numerous coral reefs in the Indian Ocean and in various other parts of the world. Red algae have contributed to reef building in the geological past, as well, probably dating back to Ordovician times.

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IMPORTANT FACTS The term algae, on the basis of microscopic features, was carried by A.L.Dejussien. Study of algae is called Phycology and Phycologists are those who study algae. Carolous Linnaeas first introduced the name algae. Algae is used in sewage treatment plants, e.g. Green filamentous algae. They are used in space research, e.g. Chlorella, Chlamydomeras and Acetabularia work as tools for solving fundamental biochemical and genetical problems.

B. BRYOPHYTES : Bryophytes comprise mosses and liverworts. In these, the plant body is gametophyte which is a flat, green thallus in liverworts (Ricci a, Marchantia), and leafy, erect structure in mosses (Funaria, Sphagnum). They are attached to the subtratum by means of hair-like outgrowths, the rhizoids. The gametangia are multicellular. The sporophyte (diploid stage) remains attached to the gametophyte (haploid stage) and is dependent on it for nutrition. Moss plants .are gametophytes which develop from haploid spores. A spore initially develops a protonema before growing into a moss plant. Female organ (archegonia) containing male gametes develop on gametophyte. Male gametes swim in water to archegonium to fertilize the egg within it. This fertilized egg or zygote grows on gametophyte to give a sporophyte consisting of a stalk and capsule. Haploid spores are formed in this capsule by meiosis, liverworts also reproduce similarly. Bryophytes have no vascular tissue for conduction of water and food. These materials are transported from cell to cell. In the absence of true roots, their cells absorb moisture directly from the ground or the atmosphere. Hence they can thrive only in moist places. Mosses bind soil and prevent erosion. The moss Sphagnum that generally occurs in bogs, can absorb large amounts of water (up to 18 times its weight). It is used by gardeners to keep cut-plant parts moist during transportation and propagation. Peat, a valuable fuel like coal, consists of moss and other marshy plants compacted and fossilized over thousands of years. Sterilized peat moss has been used for surgical dressings. C. TRACHEOPHYTES OR VASCULAR PLANTS Vascular plant dominate land with some of the largest and the longest-living forms-trees over 100 metres in height, and some nearly 6,000 years of age. Innumerable land animals and most fungi depend on vascular plants for sustenance directly or indirectly. Vascular plants, land animals and higher fungi have evolved influencing one another, resulting in the present enormous diversity of multi-cellular life. For man, the major sources of economically useful vegetable products are vascular plants. The characteristic organs of vascular plants are roots, stems and leaves. By definition, these organs have vascular tissue, xylem and phloem. It may be noted that bryophyte organs are referred to as leaflike and stem-like; this is because they do not have vascular tissue. Vascular plants are classified into three groups-ferns (vascular plant without seeds), gymnosperm (plants with seeds but no fruit), and angiosperms (flowering plants forming fruit and seed). Ferns. Ferns or Pteriodphytes (pteris = fern; phyton = plant) form the largest living group of primitive vascular plants, with over 10,000 species. Though mainly found in the humid tropics, many thrive even under sub-arctic conditions.

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Like the bryophytes, ferns exhibit alternation of generation with separate, multi-cellular spore forming (sporophyte) and gamete forming (gametophyte) stages in their life cycle. The diploid sporophyte constitute the dominant generation which is differentiated into root, stem and leaves. Gametophyte and the sporophyte are capable of growing independently. These plants do not produce seeds. The gametophyte requires the presence of water for fertilization. Special spore-bearing leaves-sporophylls produce sporangia in sori on their underside, where haploid spores are formed by meiosis. Some of these spores germinate to form independent small gametophyte, the prothallus, (flat, heart- shaped structures) which bears the male and female sex organs antheridia and archegonia respectively. Male gametes from antheridia, fertilize the female gametes egg cell from archegonia. Fertilization occurs in water. The fertilized egg cell (called zygote) then develops into the sporophyte fern. The stem of fern may be an underground rhizome or a trunk as the tree ferns, while roots are adventitious. The leaves have various shapes. Ferns are valued for their ornamental appearance. They are also used as packing material, young fronds (leaves of spore-bearing fern plants) of some varieties are used as food in Japan and hairlike scales of certain ferns are used as a filling for mattresses. D. Gymnosperms. This is a group of vascular plants, mostly of trees, which occupy a major portion of the world's mountain flora. Like the pteridophytes, their vascular bundle is composed of xylem and phloem, but due to the presence of cambium the trees can grow to huge size. Conifers (like pine) have one main axis of growth, with the trunk increasing in girth as the tree increases in height. Gymnosperms reproduce by forming seeds by a process which eliminates the need for external liquid water for fertilization. Ovules or megasporangia, formed on sporophylls, contain the egg cells. Pollen sacs or microsporangia produce pollens which form the male gametes within. Pollens carried by wind reach the ovule and grow into it where fertilization of egg by the male gamete occurs. The zygote developes into an embryo within the ovule which becomes the seed. Gymnosperms are further characterised by the presence of naked seeds, produced as cones. Leaves of conifers are adapted to dry conditions associated with a cold habitat. They are either needle-like as in the pine, small, flat and leathery as in araucarias, or scale-like as in thujas. They have thick cuticle (covering of cutin) and sunken stomata. These features help to reduce water loss by evaporation. The roots of conifers, like the pine, have mycorrhizae or fungal symbionts, which help to absorb water and minerals. Trees of flowering plants in cold regions normally shed leaves and become bare. Evergreen conifer trees photosynthesise throughout the year even when the days become short (as we go up north). Bare deciduous trees cannot do so from the time the leaves fall in autumn, till new ones reappear in spring. So conifers apear to have an advantage in such climates. Conifers provide enormous amounts of soft wood for construction, packing plywood, particle board and paper industries. Turpentine and resin are prepared from pine resin. Pine seeds are eaten by animals and man; for example chilgozas are the seeds of a species of pine (Pinus gerardiana). Ephedrine, a drug from Ephedra, is used for the relief of asthma and other respiratory ailments. E. Angiosperms. The most important groups of plants for animal life today, including man, are flowering plants or angiosperms. Angiosperm means 'enclosed seed' because seeds of these plants develop in as organ called the ovary in the flower. The reproductive organs are aggregated in a flower. There are over 25,000 species of angiosperms and they stand at the summit of plant evolution. Angiosperms may be annuals, biennials or perennials. Some survive for hundred of years, growing indefinitely. Their size may range from 1 mm (Wo/ffia) to 100 m (Eucalyptus). Angiosperm roots, stem and leaves may be modified for different functions. They may be adapted for growth in dry habitats (xerophytes), aquatic habitats (hydrophytes) or live in a wide range of intermediate conditions (mesophytes). Some have evolved as heterotrophic parasites (Cuscuta, Striga).

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Some have leaves modified to trap insects and small animals (insectivorous plants) as in the pitcher (Nepenthes) Plant. Monocots and Dicots. The angiosperms are classified as Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons plants. Monocotyledons have only one seed leaf in the embryo. Dicots have two seed leaves. Monocot flower parts are in threes or multiples of three. Dicots mostly have flower parts numbering five or multiples of five (sometimes in fours, very rarely in twos or threes). Monocot leaves are much longer than they are broad and have parallel venation of leaves. Dicots have veins forming a network in their leaves. The stems of rnonocots generally lack cambium and hence they increase little in girth. (The palms are a notable exception, though). In monocots the vascular bundles are scattered in stem while in dicots they are in a ring in stem. Monocots have adventitious roots while dicots have tap and adventitious roots. Over 200,000 dicot and 50,000 monocot species are known. Monocots of use to us include grasses, bamboo, sugar cane, cereals, bananas, palms, lilies and orchids. Dicots include almost all the hardwood tree species, pulses (dal), and most fruits, vegetables, spices, beverage crops and rnamental flowering plants. Our major food, fibre. spice and beverage crops are flowering plants. So are those that yield valuable hardwood as timber. Many are useful medicinal plants. Angiosperms are also responsible for the flavours of species; for latex products such as rubber, chicle, and gutta-percha; for essential oils used in perfumes, colognes, soaps, and cosmetics; for drugs such as quinine, digitalis, cocaine. and belladonna: and for tannins. and dyes. Angiosperms are beneficial to us ill less direct ways. Their roots check soil erosion and thus aid in preventing floods. They provide shelter and food for many wild an imals. They lend beauty to landscapes. All angiosperms have well-differentiated conducting, food- making, storage and strengthening structures. The typical angiosperm body consists of four major parts-roots, stems, leaves and flowers. 4. KINGDOM ANIMALIA: BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION Sub-Kingdoms. The animal kingdom is divided into two main sub-kingdoms- Protozoa and Metazoa. Protozoa are unicellular or acellular organisms. Metazoa are multicellular animals. The two major groups of metazoans are the non- chordates and the chordates. They derive these names from the absence or presence of the notochord. A notochord is present at some time in the life of a chordate. Non-chordates do not possess a notochord at any stage of their life (Notochord is a stiff and flexible rod of tissue lying ventral to the nerve cord, along the mid-dorsal of the body). Animals lacking a notochord will never show the presence of a backbone and can be termed as invertebrates (Protozoa to Echinodermata) while animals with a backbone are known as vertebrates. Diploblastic and Triploblastic Forms. The multicellular animals can be either diploblastic or triploblastic. If the two germinal layers-ectoderm and endoderm constitute the animal body wi.th the m~sogloea or matrix\in between the two, they are called diploblastic; for example, Coelenterates. If three germinal layers-ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm are present.e.g. in most Metazoan groups from Helminthes group onward up to Mammalia are triploblastic and these forms have a coelome or a body cavity present. In the diploblastic forms, the cavity enclosed by the two germinal layers is termed as coelenteron or gastrovascular cavity. Such organisms represent a hollow sac structural plan. Thus we find that animals can be grouped as diploblastic and triploblastic and also as acoelomates (or noncoelomates) and coelomates. GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ANIMAL GROUPS Non-Chordates. This group consists of the following phyla. 1. Protozoa. Protozoa are the most primitive, microscopic, unicellular organisms. They occur either singly or in colonies. They flourish in fresh or stagnant permanent ponds, in marshes, and in streams. Many inhabit mud, or moist soil. Many species live as parasites in the body cavities, tissues, and cells of

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animalsand plants. Some are able to make food. There are at least 15,000 to 20,000 protozoan species. They reproduce by fission, budding, b~PQres or sexually. They are classified on the basis of the presence or absence of locomotory structures. Examples: Amoeba and Entamoeba (with pseudopodia); Paramecium, Vorticella (with cilia); Plasmodium (no locomotory structure); Euglena and Trypanosoma (with flagella). 2. Porifera - the Sponges. Sponges (phylum porifera) are the most primitive of the multicellular animals. They are mostly sessile animals. They are mostly marine excepting one group which is freshwater in habitat. Currents of water are drawn into the body through small pores (ostia) and passed out througblarger pores (oscula), food particles being collected enroute. They reproduce sexually or asexually. Cells are loosely aggregated and are not differentiated into tissues. In most sponges the body is supported by a skeleton of lime, silica, or spongin (a collagen-like protein). The commercial sponge is only the porous skeleton. Examples: Euspongia (bath sponge), Sycon, Hyalonema (glass sponge) Spong ilia (fresh water sponge) are some examples of the sponges. 3. Cnidaria (Coelenterata). The phylum Cnidaria (the old name is Coelenterata and hence these animals are also known as coelenterates) includes about 9,000 species, mainly marine. The famous Hydra is a fresh water form. These are the first multicellular, radially symmetrical animals which possess tissues, a digestive cavity and 2 distinct germ layers-ectoderm and endoderm. Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms, the polyp and medusa. The polyp is sessile, and the body is hydralike; that is, a cylindrical stalk with mouth and tentacles facing upwards. It is either solitary or colonial and reproduces asexually. The medusa is a free-floating or swimming structure like the jelly fish. It is like a bell or an umbrella with mouth and tentacles facing downwards. It represents the sexual phase of the animal.The polyp and medusa forms regularly alternate in the life cycle. Corals consists of polyp colonies. Here each polyp lays down a chamber of calcium carbonate to protect its soft body. The skeletal chambers have a regular form, and as they are added, form, set geometric patterns varying with the species. Living corals are developed over dead corals below, giving rise to coral reefs. Coral reefs form stable marine ecosystems. Examples: Pysalia (Portuguese man of war), Aurelia (Common jelly fish), Metridium (Sea anemone) 4. Platyhelminthes(Flatworms). Flatworms have bilaterally symmetrical, flattened, thin and soft body with a ingle opening, the mouth anus being absent, they are acoelomate, triploblastic animals. Most of the animals are parasitic, some of course are free living, primarily aquatic animals. Examples: Dugesia (planarian) aquatic; Fasciola (liver fluke) and Taenia solium (tapeworm) both are parasites. 5. Nemathelminthes (Roundworms). Roundworms are either free living in soil or water or parasitic in plants and animals. They are mostly small or minute pseudocoelomate, triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical animals. The body is round, slender and tapering at the two ends: Sexes are usually seperate. Examples: Ascaris (roundworm); Oxyuris (pinworm); Ancylostoma (Hookworm); Wuchereria (filaria worm). All these are parasitic forms in human beings. 6. Annelida (Segmented Worms). Annelid worms have bodies made up of many similar segments. The boundaries of the segments are marked by external grooves around the body. Annelids include polychaetes, earthworms and leeches. They are bilaterally symmetric and contain a true coelom. A true, closed circulatory system with 'hearts' and oxygen carrying blood is noted for the first time in annelids in the evolutionary history of animals. Excretory organs are nephridia. The nervous system consists of a brain ganglion and a double ventral nerve cord. Annelids are either hermaphrodite or the sexes may be separate. Earthworms perform an important ecological function by their mode of feeding-they cultivate and aerate the soil. The earthworm activity is thus a basic necessity for fertile land. Though not all leech species are blood-suckers, some that are secrete a

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compound hirudin from their salivary glands which prevents blood-clotting. Examples: Pheretima (earthworm); Hirudinaria (leech); Nereis (c1amworm). 7. Mollusca. The phylum Molusca (Latin: molluscus = soft bodied) includes over 60,000 species. It is the second largest animal phylum after the arthropods. Molluscs are from an ancient groups; they have lived over 500 million years. Though soft-bodied, most moluscs have a protective hard shell. The body consists of a ventral foot with a dorsal hump containing the visceral organs. The many varieties of sea shells on a beach- conches, cowrie shells and the innumerable flat and spiral oneswere once the cover of such animals. The major moluscan groups are the gastropods, bivalves and cephalopods. The gastropods with a single, coiled shell, form the largest class of molluscas. This class includes marine and freshwater forms. Some, like gas exchange system, bivalves have two hinged shells and include oysters and clams; they are filter feeders. The cehalopods include shell-less octopuses and squids; some of these are the largest invertebrates. Their head and foot are fused. They have 8 to 10 tentacles with suction cups, a well developed brain with learning capacity and image-forming eyes. They are the apex of invertebrate evolution in terms of the learned behaviour they exhibit. The inner calcareous surface of several bivalve shells is iridescent and pearl-like (nacreous) in appearance. The pearl worn as jewellery is secreted in a similar manner by certain bivalves, often the pearl oysters. Natural pearl formation is induced by factors such as foreign substances, parasites or injuries. 8. Arthropods. The phylum Arthropods is the largest in the animal kingdom. It includes the classesArachnida, Crustacea, Myriapoda and Insecta. This phylum includes terrestrial or aquatic, free living, commensal or parasitic forms. The success of arthropods on land is due to their water- impermeable, light exoskeleton of chitinous cuticle. Arthropods are bilaterally symmetric, segmented animals with joint appendages serving as antennae, mouth parts, pincers or legs. The body is differentiated into head, thorax and abdomen. Sensory structures in arthropods include odour-perceiving antennae, simple and compound eyes, statocysts, receptors for taste or sound. Coelom is reduced, circulatory system is open and consists of dorsal heart. Excretion is either by coxal or green glands or by a few to many malphigian tubules joined to the gut. The sexes are separate and fertilization is internal in land arthropods. Arthropods are generally oviparous, a few are viviparous. Development may be direct, or indirect exhibiting metamorphosis as in many insects. The young grow by moulting. The arachnids include scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites. These animals have cephalothorax, abdomens and six parts of appendages. The first two pairs help in feeding and the last four are legs. They have no antennae. Crustaceans are predominantly aquatic arthropods with a protective carapace and compound eyes. Prawns, lobsters and crabs are economically important crustaceans. Myriapods include herbivorous millipedes and carnivorous centipedes. Millipedes have two pairs of legs per segment, while centipedes have one pair. They have simple eyes. Centipedes have poison claws. Insecta form the most important and the largest class of arthropods. They have one pair of antennae and compound eyes. The thorax of three segments bear three pairs of legs. The abdomen has no appendages. Most insects have two pairs of wings. Respiration is by malpighian tubules. Insects affect human life in many ways. 9. Enchinodermata. Enchinoderms are triloblastic, coelomate, marine, spiny skinned animals. Adult echinoderms (such as starfish and sea urchin) are radially symmetric, while larval forms are bilaterally symmetric. The echinoderms are characterised by a water-vascular system and tube feet, used for locomotion and capture of prey. The body lacks head. Body wall is covered with calcareous plates forming a rigid or flexible endoskeleton with external spines. They are all free living. Ecinodermata link invertebrate to chordates. Examples: Astropecten (starfish); Ehinus (sea urchin), Antedon (sea lily).

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10. Chordates. Phylum Chordates occupy the most important position in animal kingdom. The name Chordata refers to the notochord which these animals possess, either throughout or during early embryonic life. The other features of chordates are: a dorsal hollow nerve chord and paired gill slits on the sides of the pharyns. These features are always present either at some stage in early development, or throughout life. Chordates have a bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and segmented body with a complete digestive tract and a well- developed coelom. The animals with backbone (vertebral column) constitute the major subphylum. However, there are a few forms that lack the backbone and are, therefore; considered primitive protochordates. Based on these facts Chordata may be divided into two subphylums: Invertebrates and Vertebrates. A. Invertebrate Chordates. These are also known as protochordates. These forms are without a backbone but they do possess a notochord. Invertebrate chordates are further divided into following three superclasess. (i) Cephalochordata, In these forms the notochord stretch all along the length of the animal body. Example- Amphioxus. (ii) Hemichordata. The notochord is restricted to theinterior most part of the probosis. ExampleBelanoglossus. (iii) Urochordata. The notochord in these forms is present in highly reduced forms. ExampleHerdmania. B. Vertebrate. Vertebrates represent the largest group of the chordates. In vertebrates the notochord is present only during embryonic development. A series of vertebrae soon surround it and the dorsal nerve cord. This is the vertebral column or backbone. The gill slits remain functional only in gill-breathing fishes. In higher, lung breathing forms, it disappears during later development. Besides the three chordate features, vertebrates have a ventral heart with two, three or four chambers, and two pairs of lateral appendages-fins or limbs. These animals have a cranium or brain-box, hence the name craniata. This sub-phylum is further divided into two superclasess- Agnatha and Gnathostomata. (i) Agnatha. They are fish-like forms with no jaws and no scales. The skeleton is cartilaginous. All living members of this group are parasites on some fishes. Cyclostomes are the living vertebrates, representing a small group of marine and fresh water animals. They have numerous hook like teeth in a round, funnel-shaped mouth. Lamprey, a jaw less vertebrate attaches itself to some fishes and sucks blood from them. In some places they affect fish production. They are 'living fossils' of once numerous jawless vertebrates. Examples- Petromyzone (Sea lamprey), Myxine (Hag fish). (ii) Gnathostomata. These are the vertebrates with jawed mouth. This superclass is further subdivided into following five classes. These are the vertebrates which possess jaws, and include diverse animals such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The subphylum is thus divided into five classes. (a) Pisces: Being either fresh water or marine in habitat, the characteristic of these cold-blooded, jawed vertebrates are correlated with their life in water. The body is either fusiform or depressed. They have special appendages called fin with fin rays which may be median or paired, and aid in locomotion and balancing. The skin is usually slimy and covered with dermal scales. Heart is provided with one auricle and one ventricle. Respiration takes place with the help of gills. Fishes are broadly classified into two groups. Group A. Elasmobranchii (Ch ondrichthyes or Cartilaginous fish). These fishes have an endoskeleton exclusively made up of cartilage. Skin is tough and covered with minute placoid scales. Mouth is ventral in position. Cartilagionous fishes have 5 to 7 airs of gill slits which are not covered by gillcovers. Alimentary canal and urinogenital ducts open into a common aperture called cloaca. Unlike bony fishes, sharks do not have a swim bladder, the air sacs which regulate buoyancy. So they must swim constantly or they will sink to the bottom. Sharks are viviparous and bring forth their young alive. This group comprises Scoliodon (shark of dog fish), Torpedo (electric ray).

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Group B. Teleostomittlsteichthyes or Bony Fishes). They have a bony endoskeleton. The skin is either naked or covered with cycloid or c1enoid scales. Mouth is usually terminal in position. Four pairs of gills are present in a common chamber located below the operculum and their eyes lack eyelids. Anus and urinogenital apertures are usually distinct. They have lateral line sense organs to detect vibrations and electric fields. Fishes are oviparous and fertilisation is external. Some species exhibit parental care. They include freshwater forms such as Labeo (rohu), Mrigal (Catla). Popular marine forms are Pomfret, Bombay duck and Indian salmon. Bony fishes include diverse kinds of marine and fresh water forms. Most fishes used as food are bony fishes. (b) Amphibians. As their name indicates, most amphibians have two phases in their lives. In the larval stage (tadpole) they are fish-like, swimming in water using a tail and breathing through gills. They show metamorphosis as adults, they live on land, moving about on four limbs, while breathing through lungs and skin. So these cold-blooded animals though generally adapted to life on land, have to be near water to complete their life cycle. Amphibians include tail-less frogs and toads, tailed newts and salamanders and limbless forms. The skin is not covered by scales and is often kept moist for gas exchange. The heart is three-chambered. Fertilization is generally external and the eggs are laid in water or in the moist environment. Examples- Rana (Frog), Bufo (Toad), Salmandara (Salamander). (c) Reptilia. These cold-blooded animals form the first group among vertebrates adapted for life in dry places. Some forms are aquatic, both fresh water and marine. The reptiles have dry horny scales called scutes on their skin. Teeth are present in all reptiles except in tortoises and turtles. The respiration is through the lungs alone, which is improved. They have a three-chambered heart (crocodile has a fourchambered heart). Fertilisation is internal. The embryo is enclosed in amnion and this allows the development of the embryo in a terrestrial environment. Lizards are insectivores whereas snakes feed on small animals. Snakes are limbless, lack ears but have a keen sense of smell. Some possess poison fangs. Turtles and tortoises have a characteristic bony shell into which they can retract their head and limbs. Turtles are among the longest-lived animals. Crocodiles and alligators live in water or close to it and are generally fish eaters. The gharial is a unique Indian species with a thin snout. The giant reptiles dinosaurs are extinct today. (d) Aves. Birds are biped and are distinguished by feathers and a capacity to fly. A few birds are flightless. Birds have descended from reptiles. Their feathers are modified forelimbs and their eggs resemble reptilian eggs. The birds show several features adapted for an aerial mode of life. Birds maintain a high metabolic rate and a constant body temperature. Thus they are called 'warm-blooded'. The heart is four-chambered with separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. The beaks are adapted to many ways of feeding. The hind limbs are variously modified for working, hoping, grasping, perching, wading or swimming. Birds have a keen sense of sight and hearing, and are able to coordinate movement and balance. They exhibit courtship, nest building, parental care and migratory behaviour. The smallest birds are the humming birds (these occur in North and South America). Among the Indian birds the sun birds are probably the smallest. The largest are some condors and albatrosses, with a wing span of upto five metres. A few birds have either wholly or partly lost the ability to fly; Examples; emu, ostrich, cassowary. Other examples are - Corvus (crow), Columba (pigeon), Pavo (peacock), Psittacula (parrot), Struhio (ostrich) Bubo (owl). (e) Mammalia. Mammals are dominant animals that inhabit diverse environments. Their distinctive features are milk- producing mammary glands, hair on the body, sweat glands, external ear and a diaphragm. They produce two sets of teeth. They maintain a constant body temperature (warm blooded) and exhibit elaborate parental care. The heart is four-chambered. The brain is large with a wider range of intelligence. Mammals are viviparous with the exception of two egg laying mammals, the platypus and echidna.

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The mammals are classified into three groups: (i) egg- laying mammals (platypus), (ii) pouched mammals or marsupials (like the kangaroo) (iii) true-placental mammals which nourish their young in the womb through the placenta. Placental mammals include the several insectivore lines, the rodents and rabbits (Oryctolagus), whales (Balaena) and dolphins carnivores, the ungulates (hooved animals) and elephants. The primates which include monkeys (Macaca), apes and man have evolved from insectivores. Shrews, moles and hedgehogs are examples of insectivores. Many of them burrow and live underground. Bats are flying mammals and echo-locate their prey in darkness. Some bats feed on insects and others live on fruits. ANIMAL KINGDOMS: CLASSIFICATION Group Sub-group Phylum/Class Protozoa Typical Features Ex. : Amoeba, Monocystic, Trypanosoma Unicellular; uni or multi-nuclear; microscopic; no organs but cell organelles are present locomotion by pseudopodia; flagella or cilia; mode of nutrition holophytic holozoic; saprophytic or parasitic Porifera Ex. : Sycon, Euspongia Multi-cellular but without any tissue level of organisation; presence of flagellated cells(Choanocytes) is a characterisic feature; body with numerous pores called ostia which lead into series of canals to form canal system through which water flow in and out. Coelenterata Ex. : Hydra, Obelia, Auralia. Radially symmetrical, mouth usually surrounded by tentacles; gastrovascular cavity present but no anus; all aquatic, mostly marine, but some in fresh water, reproduction is asexual in the Polyp and sexual in medusa stage. Platyhelminthes Ex. : Planaria, Fasciola, Schistosoma, Taenia Body is bilaterally symmetrical; animals free living or, parasite; Suckers and Hooks are present in the parasitic forms; alimentary canal branched or, unbranched with only a single opening (mouth) or no alimentary canal (as seen in Tapeworm), no skeleton Aschehelminthes Ex. : Ascaris, Wucheyia, Ancyclostoma Bilaterally symmatrical, unsegmented; mostly small, some microscopic; body usually. worm like cylindrical or, flattened; blood vascular system absent. Annelida Ex. : Earthworm, Leech Segmented body, bilaterally symmetrical; body elongated and cylindrical; blood vascular system usually of closed type or harmocoel may be present; Excretion by nephridia. Mollusca Ex. : Fresh Water Mussel, Octopus, Cuttle fish Unsegmented, bilaterally symmterical; soft body surrounded by an epidermal fold called mentle; tentacles

Metazoa

Inverte brates

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Arthropoda

Vertebrates

Pisces

Amphibia

Reptilia

Mammalia

with well-developed eyes; ventrol muscular foot present; body covered by an external calcareous shell which may be one, two or more pieces,shell may be internal or absent. Ex. : Fresh water prawn, shrimps, silkworm, mosquitoes, crab, bedbug, honeybee, Scorpion, Spider. Bilaterally symmetrical; appenddages joint; body covered with an external skeleton made of chitin; blood vascular system of open type, haemocoel present; Respiration by trachea, gills, book lungs or body surface; central nervous system with brain and ganglionated ventral nerve cord; eyes compoudn or, simple; excretion by Malpighian tubules. Ex.Scoliodon (Dog fish), Torpedo (Electric ray) Lie in water; skin with placoid scales; skeleton cartilaginous, fins with cartilaginous rays; pelvis fins in male are provided with claspers; 5 to 7 pair of gills, nooperculum Ex. : Toad, Frog, Salamander, Hippopotamus.. Lives on both land or water; skin smooth and moist with mucous glands, chromatophors present; body with distinct head and neck, but no neck; larval stage tailed, mostly acquatic; three chambered heart; kidney metanephros type Ex. .Lizards, Crocodile, Gltarlals, Snakes, Turtles Body covered with horny epidermal scales; body usually divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail; paired pentadactyle limbs (absent in snakes) with clawed digits; kidney metanephros type; heart, generally 3-chambered, except, crocodile (4-chambered); right and left aortic arches present Ex. : Lion, Tiger, Cat, Elephant, Mall, Dog Body covered with hair; body divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail, in some tail is absent; presence of mammary glands; external ear is present; warm blooded, heart 4- chambered; higher mammals are viviparous, some primitive mammals are oviparous; foetus is nourished by the mother through a structure called placenta.

Whales and dolphins are aquatic mammals with forelimbs modified as flippers. They lack hindlimbs. As lung-breathers, they have to surface to breath. Blue whales are the largest animals. Dolphins are highly intelligent mammals. Rodents include rats, mice and squirrels. They have chisel- like incisors for gnawing and can be very destructive. Carnivores are flesh-eating mammals with large canines for tearing flesh. They include the tiger, lion, leopard, wolf, jackal, fox and bear. Seals are aquatic carnivores.

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The ungulates are herbivores. They may be even toed or odd-toed. Some examples of ungulates are cow, buffalo, goat deer and giraffe. Cow, buffalo and camel are examples of ruminants. Elephants are related mammals with padded feet instead of hooves. The primates include the prosimians (lemurs, tarsiers and lorises ) and the simians (old and new world monkeys), apes and man . The distinctive feature of primates is the grasping limb with opposable thumb. Indian monkeys include the rhesus and langurs. The great apes include the chimpanzee, gorilla and organ-utan. They can walk erect and swing on the trees. A large brain, bipedal gait, dietar habits, power of speech, unique memory and ability to make use of tools distinguish man from apes. CHAPTER 6 VIRUS: Viruses are the smallest known pathogenic entities which are non-cellular but nucleoproteinaceous in chemistry, are obligate intra-cellular parasites and multiply inside the host cell using later's cellular machinary. Viruses may be defined as non-cellular organisms whose genomes consist of nucleic acid, and which obligateIy replicate inside host cells using host metabolic machinery and ribosomes into particles called virions which serve to protect the genome and transfer it to other cells. Some of.their features are : 1. Viruses do not respire. 2. They do not display mitability 3. They do not move. 4. They do not grow 5. They do most certainly reproduce and may adapt to new hosts. Two viral diseases like-small pox and polio are known since pre-historic times, but their causative agents, the viruses were discovered only in 1892 by Russian Scientist Dimitri Ivanowski when he obtained an extract of diseased Tobacco plant and found it to have a filterable agent of disease. Virus is a Latin word meaning 'poisions'. Arboviruses - are Arthropod-borne viruses, i.e., which use arthropods as vector. e.g.-Dengue virus. Adenoviruses - viruses commonly found in respiratory tract of animals. (DNA viruses) Viral Size: Viruses are exceedingly small ranging from about 0.02 to 0.25 micron in diameter (1 micron 0.000039 inches) Smallest Plant Virus - Satellite Tobacco Necrosis Virus (STNV)-8 nm Largest Plant Virus - Citrus Tristeza virus - 2000 nm :- long Largest Animal Virus - Poz virus - 300x230 nm Smallest Animal Virus - Foot and mouth disease virus of cattles. Pox virus has a rectangular shape andis most complex virus known. Its genome is dumb-bell shaped double stranded DNA. Viral Composition: A virus has two main parts - a capsid (the protein coat) and genome (DNA or RNA). Capsid is made up of a definite number of protein units, called capsomeres. Viruses have three architectural forms based on arrangement of capsomeres. The virus is much like a gene in composition and strucutre. Some authorities consider a virus as a "gene without a cell". Viruses' can be transformed into ordinary looking crystals that resemble inorganic matter. The tobacco mosaic virus, responsible for a disease of tobacco plants, can be crystallized in this way. Yet these crystals can be dissolved and injected into a tobacco plant to cause the mosaic disease, many times over. Apparently, there are living things smaller than viruses called sub-viruses, they cause certain serious nerve diseases in man and lower animals. At present, very little is known about sub-viruses. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS: Viruses are living entities which are submicroscopic. These are acellular, that is, they do not have a cellular structure. They multiply only inside the living cells of plants and animals, and for this reasons,

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are called obligate parasites. They have a variety of shapes, sizes and complexities. They may be rodshaped, polygonal, spherical or cubical. For instance, polio virus is icosahedral; tobacco mosaic virus and influenza viruses are rod-shaped; and most bacteriophages are tadpole-like. In bacteriophages of T2 series the head is hexagonal and the tail is cylindrical and hollow. They are specialized in infecting a wide range of host cells. The viruses which infect bacteria are called bacteriophages and those infecting blue-green algae are called cyanophages. Several viruses infect plants other than bacteria and blue-green slgae. A large number of them infect man and cause diseases such as smallpox, measles, rabies, mumps and poliomyelitis. Viruses multiply only inside the living cells. So, they are also called intra-cellular parasites. Structurally, they contain a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) molecule and a protein coat. They are dead outside the cells, and can be even crystallized. They do not have organs of motility and do not respond to external stimuli. In animals, they move passively along the blood stream. In plants, they move in the phloem sap in the direction of the movement of food. During infection, only the nucleic acid of virus enters the host cell and its protein coat remains outside. However, if a complete virus enters the host cell (accidentally or otherwise), its protein coat dissolves very soon. Finally, complete viruses are synthesized because of the activity of viral nucleic acid. Viruses do not have enzymes of their own. They employ the host enzymes for their use. The only activity of viral nucleic acid inside the host cell is to multiply the virus. The first to be synthesized are the large numbers of nucleic acid molecules identical to the original viral nucleic acid. Next to be synthesized are viral coat proteins. Finally, nucleic acids and protein coats assemble to form complete viral particles. Increase in the number of viruses stops as soon as the protoplasmic contents of the host cell get exhausted. Rupture of the host cell finally release the viruses to repeat the same cycle after infecting new host cells. The last process is known as the lysis of the host cell. Viruses are generally considered of great negative economic importance as they cause serious human and animal diseases and vastly destructive plant diseases . VIRAL DISEASES Viral Diseases in Humans Disease Causative Pathogen
Variola virus Varicella virus Rhinovirus Orthomixo-virus Measles virus (Paramyxo virus) Mumps virus Encephalitis virus (arbovirus) Polio virus Rabies virus Dengue virus Herpes virus simpelx Herpes virus zoster Human T-cell (Leuke-

Mode of Transmission

Incubatio n
12 days 12-16 days 2-5 days 1-2 days 10-14 days 12-21 days 4-21 days 7-14 days 2-16 days 4-8 days 7-14 days'

SmallPox Chicken Pox Common Cold IntluenzaIFlu Measles Mumps ViralEncephalitis Poliomyelities Rabies Dengue fever Herpes simplex Herpes Zoster Acquired Immuno Deficiency

Direct contact (droplets), indirect by infected articles Direct contact (droplets), indirect by infected objects Contact Contact (droplets), virus transmitted through discharge from respiratory tracts of persons infected with disease Direct contact, virus transmitted through air by droplets during talking Coughing and sneezing. Direct contact, virus in saliva & secretion of nose invades salivary glands Some domestic animals-reservoir of virus, transmitted by mosquitobite to man. Contact, houseflies, fleas, food and water Bite of a mad (rabid) dog Mosquito (Aeds) bite Contact, Saliva, stools, contaminated articles. Contact droplets Via blood and sperm among homosexuals, heterosexuals,

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Syndrome (AIDS)

mia virus (HTLVII1), also called LAV

intravenous drug users, haemophiliacs, promiscuous individuals and prostitutes

Disease 1.Tabacco mosaic 2.Leafcurl 3.Carrot red leaf 4.Caulitlower mosaic 5.Bunchy top 6.Potato mosaic 7.Potato 1eafroll .

Viral Diseases in Plants Plant Virus

Tobacco, tomato Tobacco, tomato, Papaya Carrot Caulitlower Banana Potato Potato Tobacco mosaic virus Tobacco virus- 1 6 Carrot red leaf virus Cauliflower mosaic virus Banana virus- 1 Potato virus x. Solanum virus-14

Viral Diseases in Animals

Disease 1. African Horse Sickness 2. Blue tongue 3. Border disease 4. Hog cholera or swine fever 5. Cowpox 6. Bovine viral diarrhoea 7. Foot & mouth disease 8. Goat Pox 9. Louping ill 10. Pseudorabies or Aujeszky's disease 11.Rabies 12.Rinderpest 13.Canine distemper or Carre's disease 14.Infectious canine Hepatitis or Rubarth's disease 15.Equine encephalomyelitis or Blind staggers 16.Ranikhet disease or New castle disease or Doyle's disease 17.Avian Monocytosis / Pullet disease or Blue comb 18.Gumboro Disease Animal Horse, dog Sheep, cattle, goat Sheep Pig Cattle Cattle Cattle, sheep, goat, pig Cattle Sheep Pig Cattle, horse, sheep, goat,pig, man Cattle, Sheep, goat Cat, Dog Dog Horse, mules Fowl Fowl Fowl Virus Orbivirus Reoviridae Pestivirus Pestivirus Orthopox virus Pesti virus Aptho virus Capripo virus Flavi virus Alphaher-pesvirinae Lyssa virus Morbilli virus Pantropic virus Adeno virus Japanese B-encephalitis virus

STRANDS OF VIRUSES Virions. These are the viral particles present outside the host. Viroids. Discovered by Diener and Raymer, they 'are smallest infectious agents made up of only a small RNA molecule with only 300 nucleotides. These are obligate intra- cellular parasites. They cause plant diseases like, Potato Spindle tube, Cucumber pale fruit etc.

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Prions. Discovered by Prusiner, awarded Nobel Prize in 1997. These are the minute proteins that become infectious . They cause spongiform encephalopathies (disease resulting in nervous degeneration) in man and other animals e.g., Kuru disease (Laughing death) of man found in tribes of New Guinea. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) of man, Mad cow disease, Scrapie of sheeps. Virusoids. A virusoid is a very small linear or circular non- infectious RNA. Present inside the true RNA of the virus. This is necessary for the replication of original genomic RNA of the virus. CHAPTER 7 HEREDITY AND VARIATIONS THE SCIENCE OF HEREDITY: Heredity is the transmission of physical and mental traits rom parents to offspring through basic units called genes. The natural laws of heredity account for the fact that one generation of a particular plant or animal resembles preceding generation. People inherit some characteristics from their parents. For example, a child may inherit its hair and eye colour from one or other of its parents, together with features such as the shape of its nose, ears, mouth, its blood group, and certain disorders such as colour blindness. These are examples of hereditary characteristics. They are fixed from the moment when a sperm and an ovum fuse together to form a fertilized egg. This scientific study of how hereditary characteristics pass from parents to the young is called genetics. Features such as language, scars, skills, and habits are called acquired characteristics because they are acquired after birth. PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY : MENDELS EXPERIMENTS An Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), made the first truly scientific study of heredity and published his findings in 1866. Mendel's method was to crossbreed various kinds of garden peas that had opposing pairs of obvious traits. The principles he established-segregation and dominance, and independent assortment-became the basis for the science of genetics. Monohybrid Cross. In order to trace the inheritance of a single pair of contrasting characters, Mendel crossed pure-bred tall and dwarf pea plants (monohybrid cross), sowed the seeds obtained, and found that these produced all tall plants in the I st filial (F1) generation. However, a cross between two hybrids from the F1 generation produced seeds which developed into tall and dwarf plants in the ratio of 3 : 1in the 2nd filial (F2) generation. These results were explained as follows. The pure-bred tall pea plants possess a pair of factors referred to as 'IT for tallness whereas 'tt' represent the factors for dwarfness. For the character of tallness or dwarfness, both factors of the pair are similar in the pure-bred plants which are, therefore, said to be homozygous. When crossed, the gametes of the tall plant receive the factor 'T' and those from the dwarf plant inherit T. Their fusions produce hybrids of the genotype (hereditary constitution) "Tt.' Such plants, in which the factors of the pair are dissimilar, are called heterozygous. These plants turn out to be tall in their phenotype (visible expression of the genotype). Hence the character of tallness is dominant over that of dwarfness which is said to be recessive. The former expresses itself whereas the latter remains suppressed in the presence of the former. When "Tt ' hybrids from the F I generation are crossed with each other, their gametes receive either. 'T' or '1'. This means that the factors for tallness 'T' and dwarfness 't', simultaneously present in the hybrid, become segregated (separated from each other) and only one of these enters a gamete. As a result of the fusion of gametes containing T or '1' in different possible combinations, the offspring in the F 2 generation bears genotypic ratio 'TT' : 2 'Tt : 1 'tt', and phenotypic ratio 3 tall: 1 dwarf, which is also called the monohybrid ratio . Di-hybrid Cross. A cross to study the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters simultaneously (di-hybrid cross), was also made by Mendel. A cross between two pure- bred pea plants, one having round-yellow and the other wrinkled-green seeds, yielded plants having only round- yellow seeds in the F. generation. When two F, hybrids were crossed with each other, the plants appearing in the F 2

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generation had round-yellow, round-green, wrinkled-yellow and wrinkled-green seeds in the ratio of 9:3:3:1 (phenotypic dihybrid ratio). These results were explained as follows :The occurrence of plants having only round-yellow seeds in the F, generation suggests that round and yellow characters of the seeds are dominant, 'respectively, over-wrinkled and greeri which are recessive. Thus, the pea plants, homozygous for round-yellow, and wrinkled-green seeds, are respectively 'RRYY' and 'rryy' in their genotype. The gametes ofthe former receive the factors 'RY' whereas those of the latter inherit 'ry'. Their fusion results in F, hybrids 'RrYy (heterozygous) having round-yellow seeds. In a cross between two F j hybrids, the factors for the round and wrinkled seeds 'R' and 'r' as well as those for yellow and green seeds 'Y' and 'y' segregate and assort themselves independently, i.e., only one of the factors of each set from each hyrbid, independent of the other factor present therein, enters a gamete. Accordingly, the gametes possess the factors 'RY' or 'Ry' or 'rY' or 'ry'. If an 'Ry' gamates fuses with an 'Ry' or 'ry' gamete, the plants formed in the F2' generation bear roundgreen ('RRyy' or 'Rryy') seeds. Similarly, fusion of an 'rY' gamete with an 'rY' or 'ry' gamete yields plants with wrinkled-yellow ('rrYY' or 'rrYy') seeds. Thus, in the F2 generation, new combinations of characters of the seeds: round-green, and wrinkled-yellow, not previously existing in the parents, appear in addition to the usual round-yellow, and wrinkled green. The genotypic and phenotypic ratios of plants with different seeds characters in F2 generation are indicated in the box on the next page. On the basis of the conclusion of his experiments, Mendel in 1865 formulated the following principles of inheritance: 1. Law of Dominance. Out of a pair of contrasting characters brought together in a cross, only one of them expresses itself in the resulting hybrids. The character expressed is said to be dominant over the other which remains suppressed and is called recessive. 2. Law of Segregation. When the factors that determine a pair of contrasting characters are brought together in a hybrid, they do not intermix but maintain their individualities. When the hybrid forms gametes, the factors of the pair become separated from each other and enter separate gametes. 3. Law of Independent Assortment. In the inheritance of more than one pair of characters considered together in a cross, the factors responsible for each pair of characters are distributed independently to the gametes, i.e., assorted independent of those of the other pair. WORKING of HEREDITY: The factors considered responsible by Mendel for the expression of characters have been identified as genes. For each character or traits there is a pair of genes which are called alleles of one another. In most of the living organisms the genes are present along the length of the chromosomes, and are transferred from the parents to the offspring during reproduction. The mechanism of their transfer becomes obvious during cell division and fertilization. The somatic (body) cells of all organisms carry a number of paired homologous (similar) chromosomes. When a somatic cell divides, by process called mitosis, each chromosome duplicates, exact copies of the original going to each new cell. Thus, each new cell has the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Accordingly, the characters controlled by the genes in the parent cell are inherited by the daughter cells. In the sexually reproducing organisms, the germ cells divide by meiosis to form gametes. The number of chromosomes in each gamete is reduced to half of that in the parent cell. The genes present in the parent cell duplicate only once during meiosis, and are ubsequently distributed in equal number to the gametes. During fertilization, when male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote, the number of chromosomes in it is restored to the parental number. Hence, the new organism that develops from the zygote receives half the number of Chromosomes, with their contained genes, from each parent. VARIATIONS: Among the living organisms, variations are common, and may occur not only in their morphological or anatomical features, but also in physiological and biochemical characteristics. Changes

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taking place in the germplasrns of an organism are transmitted through the gametes to the offspring, and may be inherited further by the progeny. These are referred to as germinal variations. Most of these are rather small and continuous, i.e., they continue to occur as slight differences in size, colour or shape, among the members of a species in successive generations. Sometimes, they appear as large and sudden changes. Occurrence of albinism in barley, production of giant varieties of gram and groundnut and development of supernumerary fingers and toes in man are some examples. These changes are referred to as discontinuous variations. Mutation and Recombination of Genes: The chief factors that bring about variation are mutation and recombination of genes. Any change in the structure of a gene is called a mutation, and the changed gene is called a mutant. The mutant is an allele of the old form of the gene. Mutations occur spontaneously in nature from causes not fully understood. They have alro been produced artificially by exposing chromosomes to radiation or to certain chemicals. Some mutations in the gametes are lethal, causing the destruction of the offspring. Others are less harmful, or are beneficial to the new organism, and are passed on the next generation. In time, variation produced by mutation, as by chromosomal rearrangements, lead to new species and thus carryon the process of evolution. During sexual reproduction, the genes contained in the male gamete and the genes contained in the female gamete are pooled in the zygote. Therefore the genetic makeup of the offspring may differ from that of either parent. Thus the new DNA combination brought about through sexual reproduction introduces variation. LINKAGES AND CROSSING-OVER By chance, all the plants, with which Mendel experimented showed, in the F2 generation, traits resulting from independent assortment of genes. Later research by other genetics indicated that independent assortment does not always take place. in many cases the two pairs of genes are on the same pair of homologous chromosomes and stay together during sexual recombination. Such genes are said to be linked. Traits controlled by linked genes will appear together in the F2 generation, and frequently in successive generations. However, they do not always appear together because genes originally linked are sometimes separated during meiosis by a process called crossing-over. This separation occurs if parts of a homologous pair of chromosomes break during synapsis and exchange places. SEX DETERMINATION In animal and certain plants, there is an exception to the rule that chromosomes of somatic cells appear as homologous. The male and female of such species differ to some extent in chromosome structure and function. For, example, in human beings the male has only 22 paired homologous chromosome; he has two unpaired chromosomes, called X and Y. Each somatic cell of the female has 23 pairs, including a pair of X- chromosomes. Half the human male gametes contain X-chromosomes, and half contain Y chromosomes. At fertilization, if a male gamete containing an X-chromosome unites with a female gamete, a female organism is produced. If a male gamete containing a Y -chrornosome unites with a female gamete, the new organism will be male. The male parent, therefore, may be said to determine the sex of the offspring. This biological fact contradicts the traditional belief that the mother is responsible for the sex of her child. SEX LINKAGE Traits controlled by genes found on X and Y chromosomes are said to be sex-linked. Such traits may be exhibited in the successive generations in ways that differ from traits controlled by other genes. For example, recessive traits appear more frequently in males than in females, if the traits are carried on X-chromosomes. This higher frequency is due to the fact that the male organism receives only one X-chromosome, from the female parent. Since there is apt to be no allele on the Ychromosome to counteract the recessive gene found on the X-chromosome, the recessive trait will appear. A female will not exhibit the trait unless the recessive gene is on both her X- chromosomes. Such diseases and conditions as haemophilia (a disease of the blood), colour blindness, and muscular dystrophy are recessive sex-linked traits that are more common in men than in women. INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUPS

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The inheritance pattern of most blood groups is such that blood group tests of mother, child, and putative father can, at times, exclude paternity. No blood factor can occur in a child unless it is present in at least one of his parents. If both mother and putative father lack a factor that is present on the child's cells, it can be assumed that one of the two is not the real parent. Since maternity is usually not at issue, such findings are interpreted as an exclusion of paternity. Human blood groups are determined by three genes, called A, Band O. A and B are co-dominants while 0 is recessive to both. An individual inherits one of these genes from each parent. The genotypes possible in each blood group are given in the table. Blood Group (Phenotype) Genotype A AA,AO B BB,BO AB AB O OO HUMAN GENETICS a.) DNA - DNA is a molecule which encodes genetic information. It is a long, coiled, doublestranded chain of interlocking base-pairs called a double helix. There are four types of bases in DNA: A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine), and C (cytosine). The four nucleotide bases, the building blocks of every piece of DNA, are represented by the letters A, C, G, and T, which stand for their chemical names: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. The A on one strand always pairs with the T on the other, whereas C always pairs with G. The two strands are said to be complementary to each other. The order of the bases in a DNA strand, called the sequence, creates a code for information: the DNA code' ATC' has a different meaning than the code 'TCA,' and so on. Each cell is equipped with special machinery used to read the sequence and use the information encoded. All the genetic information in an organism is referred to collectively as a 'genome.' One copy of the human genome is about 3 billion bases long. b.) Genes A gene is a section of the DNA strand that carries the instructions for a specific function. For example, the 'globin' genes contain instructions for making the haemoglobin protein, which is the protein which allows our blood to carry oxygen throughout the body. Humans have about 50,000 different genes, which work together in complex ways to control much of what our bodies do. While we all have the same genes, there are different versions of many genes, called alleles. For example, while most people have genes which give them pigmented (coloured) eyes, there are multiple alleles for specific eye colors. Each person has particular combination of alleles for eye color, for hair color, etc., which makes him or her genetically unique. c.) Chromosomes - The 3 million bases of the human genome are not all in one continuous strand of DNA. Rather, the human genome is divided into 23 separate pieces of DNA, called chromosomes. Chromosomes are strands of DNA bundled together by proteins. Humans have 22 numbered chromosomes (also called autosomes, and conveniently named 1 to 22) and the X and Y sex chromosomes. A typical cell has 2 copies of each of the numbered chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father, and two sex chromosomes. Females have two X hromosomes, while males have an X and a Y. This results in a total of 46 chromosomes in each cell. The collection of chromosomes in an individual is called a karyotype. For example, the typical male Karyotype has 22 pairs of autosomes, one X and one Y chromosome. THE FUNCTIONS OF GENES Cells are the building blocks which make up the tissues of the body. For example, skin is a multilayered sheet of cells, and blood consists of a variety of cells floating in liquid. Inside each cell are the genes which give the cell information about how it is supposed to function. The chromosomes reside in a compartment of each cell called the nucleus.

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d.) RNA: Because DNA is stored in the nucleus of the cell,the first step in interpreting the information encoded by a gene is to make a copy of the information that can travel outside the nucleus. The process of making this copy is called transcription. The copy is called a 'messenger RNA' or 'mRNA. It is called a messenger, because it carries the information in the gene to other parts of the cell, and RNA is an information encoding molecule that is very similar to DNA, except that it is a single strand, and it uses a base called uracil (U) in the place of the thymine (T) in DNA. In the case of a few genes, the RNA copy of the gene has a function on its own, usually by folding into a distinctive shape. However, the majority of genes encode instructions for making specific proteins. Proteins are complex chemicals which perform most of the work in a cell (and therefore most of the work in the body). For example, proteins called enzymes direct the building of cell structures, allow our bodies to get energy from the food we eat, and perform any other functions. To make the protein encoded by a gene, the mRNA attaches to special machinery in the cell called a ribosome that can read the genetic code and make a protein, a process called translation. The progression from gene to protein is often referred to as 'the Central Dogma' of molecular biology. Dogma, DNA, and Enzymes The Central Dogma : Though it comes as no surprise that the composition of DNA between different organisms is different, it is not immediately obvious why the muscle cells, blood cells, and brain cells of anyone particular vertebrate are so different in their structure and composition when the DNA of every one of their cells is identical. This is the key to one of the most exciting areas of modern cell biology. In different cell types, different sets of the total number of genes (genome) are expressed. In other words, different regions of the DNA are "active" in the muscle cells, blood cells, and brain cells. To understand how this difference in DNA activity can lead to differences in cell structure and composition, it is necessary to consider what is often known as the central dogma of molecular biology: "DNA makes RNA makes protein." In molecular terms, a gene is that portion of DNA that encodes for a single protein. The dictum "one gene makes one protein" has required some modification with the discovery that some proteins are composed of several different polypeptide cha ins, but the "one gene makes one polypeptide" rule does hold. DNA Contains the Blueprint for all Cell Proteins: Messenger RNA is a precise copy (transcript) of the coded sequence of nucleic acid bases in DNA, and this message is translated into a unique protein molecule on specialist organelles (ribosomes) present in the cytoplasm of all cells. Proteins, which are largely made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (0), and nitrogen (N), are constructed from 20 different, common amino acids. The versatility of proteins, the workhorse molecules of the cell, stems from the immense variety of molecular shapes that can be created by linking amino acids together in different sequences. The smaller proteins consist of only a few dozen amino acids, whereas the larger ones may contain in excess of200 amino acids, all linked together in a linear chain by peptide bonds. As the proteins are released from the ribosome, they fold into unique shapes, under the influence of chemical forces that depend on the particular sequence of amino acids. So the protein primary sequence, encoded in the gene and faithfully transcribed and translated into an amino acid chain, determines the three-dimensional structure of the emerging molecule. The human body possesses some 30,000 different kinds of proteins and several million copies of many of these. Each plays a specific role - for example, haemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood, actin and myosin interact to generate muscle movement, and acetylcholine receptor molecules mediate chemical transmission between nerve and muscle cells. Monoclonal Antibody Technology : Substances foreign to the body, such as disease-causing bacteria and viruses and other infectious agents, known as antigens, are recognized by the body's immune system as invaders. Our natural defenses against these infectious agents are antibodies, proteins that seek out the antigens and help destroy them.

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Antibodies have two very useful characteristics. First, they are extremely specific; that is each anti-body binds to and attacks one particular antigen. Second, some antibodies, once activated by the occurrence of a disease, continue to confer resistance against that disease; classic examples are the anti-bodies to the childhood diseases chicken-pox and measles. The second characteristic of anti-bodies makes it possible to develop vaccines. A vaccine is a preparation of killed or weakened bacteria or viruses that, when introduced into the body, stimulates the production of antibodies against the antigens it contains. It is the first trait of antibodies, their specificity, that makes monoclonal antibody technology so valuable. Not only can anti-bodies be used therapeutically, to protect against disease; they can also help to diagnose a wide variety of illnesses, and can detect the presence of drugs, viral and bacterial products, and other unusual or abnormal substances in the blood. Given such a diversity of uses for these disease-fighting substances, their production in pure quantities has long been the focus of scientific investigation. The conventional method . was to inject a laboratory animal with an antigen and then, after antibodies had been formed, collect those antibodies from the blood serum (antibody-containing blood serum is called antiserum). There are two problems with this method: It yields antiserum that contains undesired substances, and it provides a very small amount of usable anti-body. Mono-clonal anti-body technology allows us to produce large amounts of pure antibodies in the following way: We can obtain- cells that produce antibodies naturally; we also have available a class of cells that can grow continually in cell culture. If we form a hybrid that combines the characteristic of "immortality" with the ability to produce the desired substance, we would have, in effect, a factory to produce antibodies that worked around the clock. In monoclonal antibody technology, tumour cells that can replicate endlessly are fused with mammalian cells that produce an antibody. The result of this cell fusion is a "hybridoma," which will continually produce antibodies. These anti-bodies are called monoclonal because they come from only one type of cell, the hybridoma cell; antibodies produced by conventional methods, on the other hand, are derived from preparations containing many kinds of cells, and hence are called polyclonal. An example of how monoclonal antibodies are derived is described below. A myeloma is a tumor of the bone marrow that can be adapted to grow permanently in cell culture. When myeloma cells were fused with antibody-producing mammalian spleen cells, it was found that the resulting hybrid cells, or hybndomas, produced large amounts of monoclonal antibody. This product of cell fusion combined the desired qualities of the two different types of cells: the ability to grow continually, and the ability to produce large amounts of pure antibody. Because selected hybrid cells produce only one specific antibody, they are more pure than the polyclonal antibodies produced by conventional techniques. They are potentially more effective than conventional drugs in fighting disease, since drugs attack not only the foreign substance but the body's own cells as well, sometimes producing undesirable side effects such as nausea and allergic reactions. Monoclonal antibodies attack the target molecule and only the target molecule, with no or greatly diminished side effects. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a powerful technique, which results in the rapid production of multiple copies of a target DNA sequence. The PCR technique has made it possible to analyze DNA fragments in samples that contain amounts of DNA that are either too small, or too degraded, to permit other types of nucleic acid analysis. As a result, it has now become possible to analyze and characterize DNA fragments found in minute quantities in places like a drop of blood at a crime scene or a cell from an extinct dinosaur. The PCR method is a cycling reaction in which template DNA is denatured by heating to separate the strands of the molecule. Primer (20- 30 base fragment of DNA complementary to a region of the template) is annealed to the single-stranded templates. The cycle ends as the primer molecules are elongated by the action of DNA polymerase to produce molecules that are identical copies of the original template. Because the products of one PCR cycle can act as templates for the next PCR cycle, the number of new identical molecules produce doubles with each repetition of the cycle. When first developed, multiple cycles of the PCR processes were cumbersome for two reasons. First, the DNA polymerases (Klenow

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fragment) available at the time were inactivated each time the temperature was raised to denature the template strand. This meant that polymerase had to be replenished with every repetition of the PCR cycle. Second, three water baths at three different temperatures were necessary, which meant that constant human attention was required: A technician had to keep moving the reaction vessel to the next water bath at one- minute intervals. This minute-by-minute change had to be repeated a minimum of thirty times Two developments were instrumental in the maturation of the PCR process. First was the purification of a heat-stable DNA polymerase (Taq DNA polymerase): This enzyme was originally isolated from a thermophillic bacterium, Thermus aquaticus, found in the hot springs of Yellowstone National Park in USA. Because Taq DNA polymerase is not inactivated by the higher temperatures of PCR, it only needs to be added to the sample one, rather than with every repeat of the cycle. The second development was the invention of a thermal cycler. The first automated PCR machine was invented by Cetus Instrument Systems and was originally dubbed "Mr. Cycle." It was fabricated by modifying a multi-channel automated liquid handler and two aluminum blocks. Currently, the market is flooded with more sophisticated thermal cyclers, which can meet researchers' needs. PCR technology is unique in its ability to locate and exponentially amplify a small quantity of a specific nucleotide sequence which is "lost" against a large background of total nucleic acid. This feature of PCR has made possible the development of a vast number of experimental and diagnostic molecular biology techniques, which were previously extremely time consuming or, in many cases, impossible to perform. In nature, most organisms copy their DNA in the same way. The PCR mimics this process, only it does it in a test tube. When any cell divides, enzymes called polymerases make a copy of all the DNA in each chromosome. The first step in this process is to "unzip" the two DNA chains of the double helix. As the two strands separate, DNA polymerase makes a copy using each strand as a template. To copy DNA, polymerase requires two other components: a supply of the four nucleotide bases and something called a primer. DNA polymerases, whether from humans, bacteria, or viruses, cannot copy a chain of DNA without a short sequence of nucleotides to "prime" the process, or get it started. So the cell has another enzyme called a primase that actually makes the first few nucleotides of the copy. This stretch of DNA is called a primer. Once the primer is made, the polymerase can take over making the rest of the new chain. ISOLATION OF GENES Human cells contain thousands of genes, so the key initial step is to isolate the gene. Rather than search through the mass of DNA in the human genome (only a fraction of which has been sequenced to date), Genetic engineers have turned to gene expression as a way to isolate specific genes using this method to isolate the insulin gene, human pancreas cells are examined to find the messenger RNA molecules that have been copied from that gene as part of the process of protein synthesis. There will be other kinds of RNAs as well as that coding for insulin, but already the scale of the problem is greatly reduced. Until recently, there was no way to connect the genetic information in mRNA back to DNA. It was then discovered that some viruses can do precisely this. The enzyme that achieves this is known as reverse transcriptase. Viruses consist simply of a core of genetic material wrapped in a protein coat, and are much smaller than bacterial cells. They can reproduce themselves only when they invade cells. Some viruses employ RNA as their genetic material, and in the case of retroviruses, reverse transciptase inside the virus is used to generate DNA. In this way retro-viruses convert their RNA 'genes' into a DNA form, and because of the universality of the genetic code, the host cell is deceived into replicating new viruses. Biotechnologists can adopt a similar strategy by mixing reverse transcriptase with human mRNAs in vitro, thereby producing the complementary or copy (cDNA) sequence for the required gene, e.g., insulin. Plasmids Help to Transfer Genes between Organisms: The insertion of genes is facilitated by bacterial plasm ids (small circles of DNA), which are smaller than the bacterial chromosomes. Some plasm ids can pass readily from one cell to another, even when the cells are clearly from different species far apart on the evolutionary scale. By inserting the human cDNA gene into the plasmid ring, it can be

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readily introduced into its microbial host for a biotechnological application. Plasmids used in this way are known as vectors and certain viruses can perform the same role. The stitching in place of, say, a human gene, is achieved by a family of remarkable 'cut-and-paste' enzymes, the restriction endonucleases and ligating enzymes. RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY(RDT): Recombinant DNA technology requires DNA extraction, purification, and fragmentation. This molecular dissection is achieved using specific 'restriction' enzymes and is followed by sorting and isolation of fragments containing a particular gene. This portion of the DNA is then coupled to a carrier molecule and the hybrid DNA is introduced into a chosen cell for reproduction and synthesis. Modern laboratories even have access to a DNA synthesizer (gene machine), which provides a desired DNA sequence. Recombinant DNA allows the genome to be manipulated much more readily than by classical breeding methods and can therefore circumvent incompatibility between species. Already human genes have been incorporated into bacteria, permitting large-scale synthesis of rare biochemicals, such as the hormone insulin and the natural anti-viral agent interferon. DNA is by now one of the simplest molecules in the cell to examine, and specific regions can be obtained in unlimited quantities. Sequencing of DNA can now be achieved at a rate of several hundred nucleotides per day. Such has been the progress in this field that this approach has superceded conventional methods for determining the amino acid sequence of proteins. It is this technology that is offering industry the possibility of large-scale production of protein hormones and vaccines at economically viable costs. Recombinant DNA technology is not a single technique - it is a combination of methods, some quite new, others borrowed from established microbial genetic procedures. Recombinant DNA techniques allow even the minor proteins in a cell to be studied. This is a major advance over conventional methods, which require several hundred grams of cells to purify even a major protein (i.e., one that makes up 1 % or more of the total cell protein). From such source material, conventional procedures (chromatographic and electrophoretic methods) would yield perhaps negligible quantities of pure protein. Since many of the chemicals that would be of great commercial value are present in small quantities in cells, it is instructive to follow the sequence of steps that enable purification using recombinant DNA technology. GENETIC ENGINEERING: Genetic engineering refers to the deliberate design of an entire organism. The process involves altering the genetic material of a single cell in a very small developing embryo, which then develops into an entire organism, with the altered genetic material in every cell. There are many questions raised by the possibility of genetic engineering in humans; for example, whether it is ethical to value some genetic traits over others and what those traits might be. There are also concerns about the consequences of altering a few select genes, since genes interact in very complex ways, and we may not be able to predict all the consequences of any specific manipulation. Genetically engineered plant products, which, for example, grow more quickly or are more resistant to diseases, are quite common today. However, plant cells are, not surprisingly, very different from those of humans. First, the nature of plant genetics makes it easier to insert and remove genes from the genome. In addition, plant seeds are accustomed to being exposed to harsh environmental conditions. Thus, plant cells can be relatively easily manipulated in the laboratory and then used to grow genetically modified crops. Genetic manipulation of some laboratory animals, such as flies and mice, is also routinely used in research. In contrast, the technology available to manipulate human genes and embryos is not well developed. The human genome is unusually resistant to manipulation, so we currently do not have technology which allows the efficient removal and insertion of genes in human cells. Also, if it were ever to be done, human genetic engineering would have to be carried out on a zygote or very small embryo in a laboratory. Because the normal environment of a developing human embryo in the womb is very sheltered and controlled, the embryos are extremely sensitive to any handling. Currently, very small human embryos are handled in infertility clinics and in limited cases of screening for genetic diseases.

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Even with the aid of powerful drugs and implantation of multiple embryos, the survival rates in these cases is still quite low. Given the difficulties in manipulation of human genes and the delicate nature of human embryos, our technology is far from being able to produce a genetically engineered human. Despite the limitations in our current .technical ability to manipulate embryos, the ethical and moral questions raised are both fascinating and important. If and when the technology to engineer human embryos becomes available, we hope to have explored the many possible ramifications, so that we can regulate and apply genetic engineering in a thoughtful and safe manner. GENE THERAPY: Gene therapy refers to the process of changing human genetic material to repair or compensate for the effects of amutation or abnormality. For example, a gene therapy for a single gene disorder might aim to replace the mutated copy of the gene with a normal one. Because gene therapy aims to alter only some cells in an individual (those affected by the genetic condition), and because it seeks primarily to relieve the suffering of disease, there are generally less ethical objections. Nonetheless, there are still questions about the possible consequences of manipulating a few genes which may interact in complex ways with many others. In addition, there may be detrimental effects of the method used to introduce the therapeutic genes. For example, modified viruses are common vectors used in experimental gene therapy. Although there is a great deal of research and experimentation in this area, there are, at this time, no cases of successful, lasting, gene therapy treatments. The main barriers to gene therapy are a) access to the affected tissues and b) as discussed above, the challenges of manipulating the human genome. We learned that human embryos do not react well to handling in the laboratory, and it is similarly difficult to manipulate other human tissues, because they generally cannot survive outside the body (nor can the body survive without them!). Even when this barrier can be overcome, as in the case of accessible cells like blood cells (e.g. for anaemia) and lung surfaces (e.g. for Cystic Fibrosis), it is a great challenge to make human cells accept engineered DNA. In some experimental cases, it has been possible to introduce genes into cells for therapy, but the effects have always been temporary, because the cells react by tearing off the altered genes or cutting them out of the genome. Research in gene therapy is moving forward, and there are many promising new approaches being investigated. They are all theoretical or experimental at this time, and have not been proven clinically. While the future will likely bring some successful ways of treating disease by fixing mutated genes or compensating for their dysfuntion, the lesson of years of research is that it is extremely difficult to alter human genetic information, even in very limited ways. In February of 1997, Ian Wilmut and his colleagues in Scotland reported the production of an organism using the DNA from an adult cell. The result was 'Dolly,' a sheep with the exact same genetic material as an adult sheep, from which the DNA was taken; essentially, a twin delayed in time, an achievement which scientists were previously not certain was possible. The prospect of cloning mammals raised many concerns regarding the ethical implications of this technology. While this was indeed a new landmark in genetics, close examination of the facts reveals that, for both technological and legal reasons, cloning is still far from being applicable to humans. In addition, the significance of having identical genes has a notable but limited influence on the phenotype of an organism. CLONING TECHNOLOGY: With the recombinant DNA molecule successfully inserted into the bacterial host, another property of plasm ids can be exploited their capacity to replicate themselves. Once inside a bacterium, the plasmid containing the human cDNA can multiply to yield several dozen replicas. With cells dividing rapidly (every 20 minutes), a bacterium containing human cDNA (encoding for, say, insulin) will in a relatively short time produce many millions of similar cells (clones) containing the same human gene Reproduction is usually the work of specialized cells in the ovaries of women and the testicles of men. Dolly demonstrated that the genetic material in other cells of the adult body contained all the information needed to produce a new organism. The technique used to clone Dolly is called nuclear transfer and is as follows : 1. An egg is removed from a sheep that will be the surrogate mother.

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2. The nucleus is removed from the egg, to prepare it to receive new genetic material. The result is an enucleated egg. 3. Meanwhile, adult cells removed from another sheep are cultured under special conditions. 4 The enucleated egg and the adult cell are fused by the application of an electric current. The current also activates development of the egg in the absence of a sperm. 5. The egg, now containing the genetic material from an adult cell, will develop into an new organism. The clone and adult whose DNA he or she shares will be similar, but the effects of prenatal and later environmental influences will shape each uniquely. The clone is likely to be less similar to the adult 'twin' than identical twins are to each other, because they would grow up in different conditions and times, with different social and cultural atmospheres. Cloning may be used as an alternate way of having children, either by infertile couples, homosexual couples, single parents, parents wishing to have children who strongly resemble themselves or someone they know, or parents attempting to avoid known genetic defects. In theory, cloning could also be used to generate human embryos for research purposes, but the ethical objections to that applications would be considerable, so this is unlikely to happen. There are numerous technical barriers to human cloning. In addition, many countries have legal restrictions on research involving human embryos. For example, in the United States, no federal funds can be used for human embryo research. Finally, given the high rate of embryo defects and deaths with this technique, any attempts to clone humans would be costly, as well as raise moral objections. GENETIC DISORDERS The information encoded in genes is vital to every process of living. Therefore, it is not surprising that changes in genes can sometimes lead to disease. There are some differences in the DNA between individual people, in the form of multiple alleles for many genes, which do not result in disease. These differences are the basis of of genetic diversity among people. Other changes in DNA can be very detrimental to our health. Mutations : The term mutation can refer to any type of change in DNA. Some examples of mutations are missing or inserted base pairs or alterations in the sequence of a gene. Mutations prevent the gene from giving proper instructions to the cells, which can therefore not function normally. Mutations in one or more genes can lead to disease. Many of the genetic conditions that have been identified result from mutations in just one gene; these are called single gene disorders. Some examples of single gene disorders are listed below: Cystic Fibrosis A recessive disorder caused by mutations in the CFTR gene. Major symptom is thick mucus in the lungs, leading to infections. A recessive disorder caused by mutations in the beta globin gene. Sickle Cell Anaemia Red blood cells take on sickle shape, interferring with normal circulation, and depriving organs off oxygen. A dominant condition caused by mutations in the Huntington Huntington Disease gene. Symptoms begin in adulthood and include uncontrolled movements and cognitive impairment. A dominant condition caused by mutations in the gene for a Familial cholesterol carrier receptor. Causes extremely high blood Hypercholesterolemia cholesterol and heart disease at an early age.

Chromosomal Abnormalities : In some cases, diseases result not from changes in individual genes but in changes in the number or arrangement of chromosomes. For example, people with Down

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Syndrome have three copies of chromosome 21, instead of the usual two. There are not many examples of conditions arising from major chromosomal abnormalities, because most cases of foetuses with chromosomal abnormal ities are not able to survive past the earl iest stages of development. Most examples of conditions with altered numbers of chromosomes involve the sex chromosomes. There are also conditions involving abnormally arranged chromosomes, such as two chromosomes fused together or large deletions and insertions. Some examples of conditions resulting from chromosomal abnormalities are listed below: Down Syndrome Results from having 3 copies of chromosome 21. The phenotype includes distinctive facial features and developmental delay. Results from having only one sex chromosome, an X. People with Turner Syndrome are female and affected by short stature and infertility. Results from having three sex chromosomes, XXY. People with Klinefelter Syndrome are male and affected by infertility and unusual body proportions.

Turner Sydrome

Klinefelter Syndrome

Polygenic Disease: The prefix 'poly-' means 'many.' Most diseases that appear to be inherited are not caused by mutations in a single gene. Rather, combinations of alleles of various genes contribute to the phenotype. For example, the risk of having diabetes or heart disease appear to be influenced by genetics in some cases, but the increased risk results from the interaction of a variety of genes. Each of the contributing alleles on their own are not disease-causing, so the method of identifying and studying the genetics of these diseases is quite different from the study of mutations in single genes. SOME COMMON GENETIC DISORDERS Congential Heart Defects. Some common defects are holes in the heart, or septal defects. Normally, the two upper chambers of the heart are separated by a membrane, the atrial septum. A hole in the atrial septum that permits the abnormal passage of blood from one atrial chamber to the other may be present at birth. There may be a similar abnormal communication between the lower chambers of the heart. In either type of defect the hole may be closed by suturing, or sewing, the edges together or, insome cases, by suturing synthetic material around the defect. The patient may expect to live a normal life. Erythroblastosis Foetalis. This is a haemolytic disease of new born infants that can occur as a result of blood group incompatibility between mother and foetus. Colour Blindness. Persons suffering from this defect are unable to distinguish red and green colours, particularly their less bright shades, in dim lights. This happens more commonly in males than in females. The ability to distinguish these colours depends on the presence of red and green colour sensitive cells in the retina. Their formation is related with the gene on the X-chromosonic. If this gene is recessive, the red and green colour sensitive cells fail to develop. Down's Syndrome (Mongolism). It is known as mongolism because of the characteristic appear of the eyes. The condition is due to an abnormality in either the number or structure of the chromosomes. The most common type of abnormality in Down's syndrome is due to an extra chromosome. Such persons have 47 chromosomes (instead of 46). The characteristic physical features include almond shaped eyes and a rounded skull with a flattened occipital region; an enlarged, fissured tongue; broad hands with stubby fingers; hypotonic muscle development; a short nose and depressed nasal bridge; thick, everted and cracked lips; dry, rough skin; sub-normal height; and infantile gentialia. All these physical signs are not present in every case.

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Down's syndrome does not appear to be a hereditary disease following a typical genetic pattern. The major factor which appears with consistency in studies of the etiology is that the probability of Down's syndrome birth increases with maternal age after age 35, and in advanced paternal age. Prenatal determination of the presence of a Down's syndrome foetus can be ascertained through amniocentesis. Haemophillia This is a rare hereditary blood disorder marked by a tendency towards excessive bleeding. It has been found that a gene located on the X-chromosome is responsible for the production of a factor necessary for blood coagulation. If this gene is present as a recessive mutant in the males, the necessary blood coagulation factor is not produced in requisite amount. Consequently, the blood oozing out of an injury takes a much longer time (30 min to 24 hrs) to clot than otherwise (2 to 8 min). Thus, even small injuries become hazardous since the blood continues to flow out for hours. The females become haemophillic only if the recessive gene is present on both of their X-chromosomes, i.e. occurs in homozygous condition. If present only on a single X chromosome, the effect of the recessive gene is masked by the dominant one present on the other X-chromosome. Thus, in heterozygous condition, the females remain the carriers of the disease but do not suffer from it. In the males, the sex chromosomes being XY, the recessive gene on the X chromosome shows its effect without being masked since there is no corresponding dominant gene on the Y -chromosome. Harelip. This is a form of congenital defect, sometimes hereditary, marked by abnormal clefts between the upper lip and the base of nose. Many cases of harelip occur in association with other defects of the facial area, most commonly those of cleft palate. Corrective measures (surgery) should be undertaken before the child begins to talk, since phonation, or speech, is severely affected, particularly, in combination defects with penetration through the oral cavity into the nasal chambers. Cleft palate. This is one of the most frequently encountered birth defects in the human, resulting from the incomplete closure of the palate, or roof of the mouth, during embryonic life. Prior to the sixth week of development, the primitive oral and nasal cavities exist as a single large chamber. Beginning in the sixth week, lateral ridges appear on either side of this cavity and then grow toward the midline, meeting during the eighth week to complete formation of the palate. If the formation of these shelves is arrested prior to the eighth week, a defect of variable size will remain in the central part of the palate. As a result of this defect, the oral and nasal cavities are incompletely separated. Sickle-cell anaemia. This is a disease affecting Black Africans in which the red blood cells have a tendency to assume a spiked or sickle-like shape when the blood is deprived of oxygen. The disease results from the inheritance of a defective allele coding for p globin, which results, in the production of an abnormal types of haemoglobin, sickle haemoglobin. Affected blood-cells are removed from the circulation, leading to anaemia. Phenylketonuria: Pheylpyruvic is one of the amino acids of proteins. Phenylketonuria causes inability to metabolise the amino acid. It gives rise to the accumulation of poison in the body of embryo, with the result the growth of body and mind is retarded. The defect is either micromutation, macromutation or induced mutation. Albinism: This is the failure of development of skin pigments. In mammals it is commonly due to an autosomal recessive gene. CHAPTER 7 EVOLUTION OF LIFE ON EARTH ORIGIN OF LIFE: Life originated approximately 3,600 million years ago as is evident by the discovery of fossil of cyanobacteria. The early belief that living things arose from non-living matter (spontaneous generation) was disproved by Louis Pasteur. The most widely accepted theory of 'origin of life' was given by J.B.S. Haldane, A.I. Oparin, S.L. Miller and S.W. Fox. According to the hypothesis proposed and the experimental results obtained by these scientists, constituents of the ancient atmosphere, such as methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water

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vapour may have combined under the influence of heat, lightning and ultra-violet radiation that prevailed in the environment of the primitive earth, resulting in the formation of more complex organic molecules, such as amino acids. These organic molecules might have precipitated from the atmosphere to the waters of the primeval ocean and accumulated there over millions of years. The chemical reactions among them could have produced larger and more complex compounds which gradually evolved into the first living organisms that came into being. However, it must be pointed out that our present knowledge of the origin of life is incomplete and that we are not able to explain all the events that led to the evolution of the first living beings. Still, all available evidence indicates that the first living beings might have been cradled in the aquatic environment of the ancient oceans. The gradual evolution of these simple beings through millions of years could have established the great array of aquatic organisms. With the increasing competition in the watery environment. Some of these organisms might have taken to life on land, and further evolution among the terrestrial organisms has produced the most complex types. ORGANIC EVOLUTION The term organic evolution means a gradual unfolding or a continuous process of change over long periods of time by which complex organisms are derived from relatively simple forms. Living things have been changing, and the millions of different species of organisms that inhabit the present-day world, as well as the millions of species of organisms that have become extinct or have died out, are all thought to be the result of evolution through millions of years. The process of evolution is not a thing of the past. It is occurring even today, and by it living beings are constantly changing. Many theories have been formulated to explain the phenomenon of evolution in animals and plants. Only a few important concepts are discussed below. 1. LAMARCKISM. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, a French naturalist, published a book in 1809 entitled Philosophic Zoologique which contained the theory of evolution. Lamarck visualized evolution as a ladder of life from the simplest to the most complex animals-man being at the top of the rung. Lamarck's explanation of evolution revolves around two basic assumptions. (a) Use and Disuse of Organs: By using a certain part of its body, an animal could strengthen or develop that part, and by its disuse the part becomes shortened for weak. He gave the sample of long neck of giraffe, which he emphasized has developed due to stretching for eating leaves present on the top of tall trees. The ancestors of giraffe had short necks. Similarly in snakes the disuse oflimbs during crawling resulted in their gradual reduction and ultimate disappearance. . (b) Inheritance of Acquired Characters: The characteristics an individual acquires or develops during its life-time are passed on to its progeny. As in the case of giraffe's neck, he postulated, in each generation each offspring would be born with a slightly longer neck than those of its parents. Thus long-necked giraffes gradually evolved. Lamarck's Propositions: (i) Living organisms or their component parts tend continually to increase in size. (ii) Production of a new organ results from a new need and from the new movement which this need starts and maintains. (iii) If an organ is used constantly it will tend to become highly developed, whereas disuse results in degeneration. (iv) Modifications produced by above principles during the life time of an individual will be inherited by the offspring, with the results that changes are cumulative over a period of time. 2. DARWINISM. The theory of evolution by natural selection was put forward in 1858 by Darwin and Wallace. Darwin realized that in nature there is a tendency towards overproduction of organisms; however, many of them do not survive. Therefore failing to survive means, there is a

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struggle for existence among large populations (the struggle is for food, shelter and escape from predators) and only those survive which are found fit for these conditions. This is due to possession of certain features that give them better chance to survive, or there is the idea of survival of the fittest. The features that confer the organisms better survival chances were referred to as variations by Darwin. He postulated that these variations can be inherited, giving rise to new species. This is how the evolution takes place. Darwin's theory is often summarised by the phrase "survival" of the fittest. Here the 'fittest' means, those best adapted to survive and breed in a particular environment. 3. NEO-DARWINISM. Integration of Darwin's ideas with the genetic mechanism of inheritance discovered by Mendel is referred to a neo-Darwinism. It is a synthesis of Darwinian natural selection and the new field of population genetics. Darwinism was based upon small, beneficial, inheritable variations existing in the population that nature selects, leading to establishment of new species. (i) With the discovery of large variations (mutations), the evolutionists focussed more on these, and Darwinism's validity was questioned. (ii) With the rediscovery of Mendel's laws, based on inheritance of significantly distinct and contrasting characters, the small variations referred by Mendel were not considered inheritable. Thus, Darwinism lost its importance and attention was diverted towards sudden changes in characteristics (mutation) and Mendelism. Discovery of gene mutations and chromosomal changes again diverted the attention of evolutionists toward Darwinism and they put forward the idea of neo-Darwinism, that. contain the synthesis of Darwinism and Mendelism. According to it, the changes in the genes are the causes of variations existing in population and these variations could be large or small. EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION Structural similarities among fossrls and existing forms provide part of the evidence of evolutionary theory. Almost all of the 2,50,000 species of flowering plants share-a basic structure: roots, stem-bearing branches, leaves pigmented with chlorophyll and flowers. Behavioural studies also support the theory, as in the case of ants, bees, and wasps-all of-which share social habits that affirm a shared descent. Various species of birds have the nest-building instincts as part of a common heritage. The, vestige of a tail with which humans are born is evolutionary evidence of an ancestor that was arboreal, a quadruped. Before birth all animals with backbones-including man- pass through a stage of development in which they have gill clefts. This fact suggests that we have descended from organisms that once lived in water. Direct evidence of evolution is obtained when animal or plant breeders raise new varieties by cross breeding. Further evidence is provided by laboratory experiments with bacteria and other primitive forms of life. Since these organisms produce new generations within minutes or hours, scientists can observe evolutionary changes that would take thousands of years in more complex forms. Another type of direct evidence comes from palaeontology, the study of fossils, in which scientists trace to the history of plants and animals. CHAPTER 8 COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL A plant is considered healthy when all the physiological processes are in order with a coordinated functioning of all its organs and parts. It is diseased when any physiological process is disturbed which usually manifests itself in morphological changes. Thus a disease causes 'symptoms'. Important plant diseases can be studied under the following four heads:

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1. SEED-BORNE DISEASES. The following diseases are seed borne diseases. : Sesame Leaf Spot or Brown Leaf Spot of Rice(Fungus). This disease is mostly found in the southern and western regions of the country. Symptoms: Minute circular brown spots appear on the leaves, leaf sheaths and glumes. The seed becomes shrivelled and disco loured. Control: The seeds are t:eated with organo-rnercurials before sowing. Ergot of Bajra(Fungus). Symptoms: Small droplets of pinkish light honey-co loured fluid (honeydew) exude from the spikelets of the spike. Later, several agglomerated dark, sticky patches are seen on the ear. Seed setting may be inhibited. Control: This disease is seed-borne. Therefore, the ergot- free seeds should be used. Red Rot of Sugarcane (Fungus). This disease causes severe damage in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Symptoms: The infected cane splits, gives an alcoholic smell and shows red tissues with white cross bands. The leaves wither and the cane shrinks, showing black specks on the shrivelled rind. The disease spreads through setts (seed cuttings). Control: Healthy setts should be used. Resistant varieties of plants may be grown. Bacterial Blight of Rice (Bacterium). Bacterial blight of rice came into India with the introduction of high-yielding Japanese varieties like Taichung. Symptoms: The disease appears as pale-green or greenish yellow lesions either on one or both the leaf surfaces. In most cases the diseased leaf starts drying up from its tip downwards. Control: The seeds are soaked in a mixture of 0.025 per cent solution of Agrirnycin and 0.05 per cent wettable Ceresan for 12 hours. Then these are transferred to hot water at 52-54C for 30 minutes and then sown. Black Arm or Angular Leaf Spot of Cotton (Bacterium). This is a serious bacterial disease of cotton. It occurs in all major cotton-growing regions of the world. Symptoms: The earliest symptom of the disease is seen in the cotyledons of the germinating seeds, minute, water-soaked spots appear on the leaves. Long and dark-coloured lesions are also seen on the veins, petiole and stem. Control: The seeds are treated with concentrated H2S04 and treated with Agrosan. 2. SOIL-BORNE DISEASES. The following are soil-borne diseases: Green Ear Disease of Bajra (Fungus). Symptoms: The affected leaves become white and, later, the brown whitish downy growth of sporangia appear on the lower surface of the leaves. The ear of the inflorescence transforms, wholly or in part, into the loose head of small, twisted, green leaf like structures. Control: Treatment of the infected seeds with Agrosan GN has been suggested to reduce the infection. Smut Disease of Bajra (Fungus). Symptoms: The affected grains are scattered in the ear and project prominently beyond glumes. The plants become infected at the flowering stage by the soil-borne spores. Control: Burn the infected plants and grow resistant varieties. Tikka Disease of Groundnut (Fungus). Symptoms: Numerous necrotic circular spots appear on both the surfaces of the leaf. Sometimes these spots are surrounded by a yellow halo at maturity. Control: The diseases spread due to magnesium deficiency. Therefore, fertilizers containing magnesium should be applied to the soil. Root Knot of Tomato (Nematode). It is a nematode, parasitic in the root of tomato plants. Symptoms: This infection reduces the growth of the plant, induces sudden wilting, causes gall formation on the roots resulting in their clubbing. The larvae penetrate, into the pith of the root where the growth of the latter is arrested and the cortical cells enlarge considerably. Control: Biological control of the nematodes is achieved by planting Tagetes in the field. The roots of Tagetes have toxic effect on the nematodes. The tomato root residues are destroyed and the soil fumigants used. Ploughing the field twice or thrice in summer kills the larvae of the nematodes. 3. AIR-BORNE DISEASES. The air-borne diseases of plants are mainly as follows: Blast of Rice. (Fungus). This is the most important disease of the rice plant. Symptoms: The spindle shaped lesions appear on the leaves. In severe cases, the plants wither at the seedling stage. Air-borne conidia are the

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most important means for dissemination of the pathogen. Control: The resistant varieties of crops are used. Rust of Wheat; (Fungus). Symptoms: Brown pustules of uredosori appear on the leaves, the leafsheaths and the stem. These pustules grow and fuse to form bigger dark brown lesions. The height of the plant is retarded and there is poor tillering with poor shrivelled grains. Control: Rust-resistant varieties are grown in India. Coffee Rust (Fungus). It is the most serious disease of arabica coffee in South India. Symptoms: Orange-yellow spots with spores appear on the lower leaf surface with dry brown patches on the upper surface. In acute cases defoliation occurs. Control: Resistant coffee strains for different types of rust are used. Copper fungicides are also being used extensively. Bordeaux mixture (2.2.50) may be sprayed on the lower surface of the leaves a month after the occurrence of blossom showers. 4. INSECT-BORNE DISEASES. Some diseases-are propagated in plants' parts by insects: Blister Blight of Tea. Symptoms: Small yellow spots are formed on the leaves. The upper surface of the leaf develops a shallow depression whereas the lower surface becomes greenish-white bearing spore. Control: Spray with 4 percent cuprosan. Banana Bunchy Top. This disease of banana occurs in eastern and southern India; Symptoms: The affected plant usually remains stunted and all the leaves developing a rosette- like fashion at the apex. Marginal curling and chlorosis and curling of the leaves takes place. Control: Diseased plants should be uprooted and burnt. Potato Mosaic. Symptoms: Mottling of the leaves is a characteristic symptom of this disease. The plants may become stunted. The leaves and tubers may show necrotic spots. Control : Resistant varieties should be grown which will combat the infection to a large extent. Mango Maiformatlon. This disorder is prevalent in north India and is due to the infestation by mites which result iJil an, abnormal growth. Symptoms: Floral branches of the infected plants are crowded in the form of a cone. Fertile flowers are rare. The entire inflorescence turns black. Fruits are seldom formed. Control: Systematic removal of the affected shoots controls the spread of the diseases. Spraying of insecticides kills the mites. PLANT PESTS. The common pests that affect plants are as follows: Stem Borer of Rice. The insect bores into the stem of rice- plants. The central shoot withers and produces dead heart. Control: The subtles should be destroyed after harvest to kill the hibernating larvae. The seedlings are treated in 0.1 per cent DOT suspension before transplantation. Rice Grasshopper and Brown Plant Hopper of Rice. Symptoms : This in ect devours leaves and tender grains of the paddy crops. The ymphs (as well as adults feed on the plants. Control: The pest can be controlled by deep ploughing after every harvest. The plants should be dusted with 5 to 10 per cent BHC. Spotted Bollworm of Cotton. The caterpillar bores into the top shoots of the cotton plant in the early stage and into the bolls later on. The top shoots droop down and the attacked bolls are shed. Control: The infected shoot and bolls should be destroyed. Pink Bollworm of Cotton. The caterpiller bores into bolls and seeds and also pupates within the bolls. Control: The fallen buds and bolls should be removed. The pest can be controlled by spraying endrin (20 per cent) or folithion (0.2 per cent). Coconut Caterpillar. It is a serious pest of coconut found along the coastal areas. The caterpillar feeds on the leaves . The attacked plants can be recognised at a distance by the scorched appearance of its fronds. Control: The infected fronds should be destroyed. 0.2 per cent DDT should be sprayed. Gundhy Bug or Paddy Bug. The bug sucks the milky sap in the tender grains. Sometimes the crop is destroyed completely. Control: The plants are shaken so that the young nymphs drop in water. Five per cent of BHC kills the nymphs. GENERAL MEASURES OF DISEASE CONTROL IN PLANTS Certain measures taken in time help to control the 'onset' and 'spread' of diseases in plants.

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1. Rotation of crops: Generally pathogens (organisms which cause disease) are specific to particular plants for infection. If the previous crop is replaced by another new crop the chance of disease is reduced to nil. For example paddy crop should be replaced by pigeon pea crop (Arhar). 2. Rogueing: Infected plants should be uprooted or burnt and thrown away from the field. 3. Seed Certification: Before sowing the seeds it should be treated with dilute, solution of fungicides and pesticides to eradicate the contamination of disease germs which stick on the seed surface. 4. Using Resistant Varieties: Several crop varieties have been developed and released which are disease-resistant and these must be used. 5. Biological Control: In this method predator insects are released to kill the insects. Trichogramma wasps feed on the eggs of the sugarcane pest. 6. Proper Manuring: In many cases as rust etc., the excess or deficiency of nitrogen fertilizers increase the susceptibility of the plants, hence the balance of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers should be maintained. 7. Using Chemicals: Some chemicals can be used to protect plants and kill the pests called Pesticides. Much, of the food produced today is still lost to pests and diseases. These losses can be minimized by the use of pesticides, fungicides, and insecticides. These chemicals must be used with care. (i) They must be selective. For example, insecticidesshould not harm bees which are needed for pollination. (ii Some pesticides are very poisonous to humans. (iii) They should be bio-degradable, that is, should decay naturally and become harmless after some time. DDT is not bio-degradable and can be passed along the food chain from crops to insects, eventually killing birds of prey. For this reason DDT has been banned in most countries. INSECTICIDES : Materials used to control insects by poisoning (chrysantheraic acids, contact poisons, systemic 'poisons') by use of attractants or repellants. Systemic Insecticides: Compounds which when applied to the leaves, stems and sometimes the roots of plants, are absorbed and translocated in the plants, in the course of normal nutrition in concentrations safe for the plant but lethal to insects feeding on the plants. The most important systemic insecticides are, certain organo-phosphrous compounds and these are thought to act as inhibitors of esterase activity in the organism. Commonly used insecticides are DDT- 2,4-D Gammaxene; Dimecron; Malathion, etc (a) D.D.T. is dichloro diphenyl tirchloroethane. It is obtained by heating chlorobenzene with chloral in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid (b) Gammaxene is obtained by treating benzene with excess of chlorine in presence of sunlight or ultraviolet light. It is particularly effective against ball weevil, leafhopper, caterpillar, flea worm, etc. HERBICIDE: It is a chemical used to kill weeds and fungi: Weedkillers: Herbicides used to control selectively unwanted vegetation on agricultural land. They may act either selectively, or may be applied before the crop emerges. Fungicides: Chemicals that inhibit fungal attack, e.g., in agriculture, on wood, plastics, etc. Important fungicides include sulphur, polysulphides and 'sulphur containing chemicals (e.g., 'dithiocarbonates), heavy metal (Cu, Sn, Hg, Ni) compounds. Some Terms Related to Plant Diseases Autoclave: Instrument used to sterilize culture media. Amanita : A poisonous fungus. Ringworm of the scalp is caused by Microsporum fungus. Arthrobotrys is a predatory fungus. Wart disease of potato is caused by Synchytrium endobioticum.

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Predisposition: Environmental effects which make the plants more susceptible to diseases. Disease syndrome : The sum total of all disease symptoms.

ANIMAL DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL Domestic animals often suffer from diverse diseases, either caused due to nutritional deficiencies, or by infections of bacteria, viruses or worms. Some of these are discussed here: BACTERIAL DISEASES. The following are the major diseases caused by bacteria : Anthrax, also called splenic fever, affects all warm-blooded animals. It results in swelling on the body and neck, and reduces milk secretion. Animals suffering from anthrax should be isolated and others should be vaccinated. Carcasses of diseased animals should be burnt. Tuberculosis: The bacterial disease of cattle is transmitted to man also, through milk. The causal organisms, bacteria, effects many parts of the body, mainly lungs. In lung tuberculosis, intermittent or remittent fever with a dry husky cough and gradual emaciation is observed. The duration of disease ranges from two months to many years. Suffering animals should be treated with suitable antibiotics and other should be vaccinated. Mastitis: Diseased animals show swollen udders; milk becomes more watery and shows clots. Different types of antibiotics are tried and the one to which the animal responds positively is administered. Brucellosis: It affects cattle, sheep, pig, goat and even man. It causes abortions in all these animals. Severe infection in uterus and testis leads to sterility. Cows should be vaccinated and proper hygienic conditions maintained and on death the carcasses should be burnt. Salmonellosis: Suffering animal does not feed, develops high temperature and diarrhoea with blood clots in it. It is spread by polluted river water and can prove fatal. Vaccines are available for this disease. Types of Diseases of Cattle Types of Diseases Examples 1. Bacterial Anthrax, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Rinderpest. 2. Viral Rabies, Cowpox, Encephalitis, Foot and mouth Disease 3. Fungal Actinomycosis, Aspergillosis, Ringworm. 4. Parasitic Ameobiasis, Trypanosomiasis, Ascariasis. VIRAL DISEASES. The following are the major diseases caused by viruses. Blue tongue. It is an anthropod-borne viral disease of sheep, goat, cattle; and wild ruminants; it is characterized by high temperature, severe depression and the cyanotic (blue) appearance of mucosa of mouth and tongue. Vaccines of naturally occurring diseases and modified live virus vaccines are used to protect the suffering animals. These should not be used during pregnancy as the foetus is affected by them. SOME COMMON DISEASES OF CATTLE Causative agent and transmission Symptoms Bacterial disease (Contagious Acute contagious and most disease) fatal disease characterized by fever and inflammatory lesions of the mucous membranes, especially ofalimentary canal, swelling

Diseases Rinderpest

Prevention Freeze dried virus vaccination. Isolation of infected animals.

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Haemorrhagi c septicaemia

Bacterial disease(Pasteurella group)(Epidemiology is usually through digestive tract. Bacteria may also be spread by flies and mosquitoes.)

Black quarter

Bacterial disease (Bacillus clauvelli) - soil bacterium (Transmission is through contaminated feed or through cuts)

Anthrax

Ground should not be contaminated by discharges of affected animals. All natural orifices of dead animals should High fever, progressive be plugged. Anthrax inflammation of udder, spore appearance of flakes or dots vaccine is in milk, increased recommended. Mastistis Bacterial disease (Staphilococci, alkalinity of milk, fibrosis Antibiotics like Streptococci and Corynebacteria) and abscess formation in the penicillin, (Contagious disease transmitted udder. streptomycin, by milkers. Also spread byf lies). aureomycin, terramycin, etc. Rinderpest or cattle plague: The infective virus is found in saliva, discharge from the eyes and nostrils, urine and faeces and circulating blood. It spreads through air or contaminated utensils. The affected animals are dull with congested conjunctiva, lachrymation and dryness of muzzle. There is aching of back with loss of appetite. Lesions appear on the buccal mucosa, lips and gums on the seventh to ninth day, and finally the animals dies. The diseased animals should be separated as early as possible and the others inoculated with rinderpest antiserum. Foot and mouth disease: This disease is characterized by eruptions in the mouth and on the feet. It affects cattle of all ages and mortality is found only in 2.5 per cent of affected calves. Suffering animals show loss in their functional efficiency and breeding capacity. The disease spreads through direct contact, water, manure, hay and pasture. It can be controlled by vaccine which is effective only for 6-12 months.

Bacterial disease (Bacillus anthracis) (Transmission is through contaminated food and water.)

and partial closing of the eyelids and discharge from nostrils, diarrhoea and death. High fever,cessation offeeding and umination, inflammatory swelling of throat and skin, successive salivation from mouth, acute gastroenteritis, swollen tongue and difficulty in respiration. Lameness in hind leg, acute rise in temperature, swellings in upper parts of hind limb, shoulder, neck and abdominal wall, skin over the swellings become dry, dark and cracked, etc. High fever, abdominal pain, marked excitement, difficult respiration, bluish tinged muocus membrane and sudden death. Oozing of blood from the orifices and rapid decomposition of carcasses

Isolation of affected animals. H.S. adjuvant vaccine (protection for 9 to 12 months)

Isolation of diseased animals. Injuries should be properly dressed. Black quarter vaccine (Two doses.)

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FUNGAL DISEASES. The main disease spread by fungus is ringworm. The body shows rounded surfy scabs all over, especially on neck and head. It spreads through the spores of the fungus from one animal to another and from the dirty sheds. Suitable fungicides should be applied on the scabs. PROTOZOAN DISEASES. A common disease spread by protozoan is trypanosomiasis. It affects horse, camels and cattle. It is transmitted to other animals by blood Slicking flies. Affected animals die within a day or two after developing high fever. Suffering animals can be treated with Suramin, Antrypol and Antrycide. Other important protozoan diseases are Cooidiosis, Babesiosis and Therileriasis. Worms too cause disease. Flukes, tapeworm roundworm, spiny-headed worms, are parasites that make the animals diseased. Common Diseases of Goats and Sheeps Types of diseases Examples 1. Bacterial diseases Black quarter, Brucellosis, Vibriosis. 2. Viral diseases Sore mouth, Goatpox, Rinderpest.

Common Diseases of Fishes Types of diseases (i) Infectious diseases Name of disease 1. Viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (VHS) 2. Infectious Pancreatic Neurosis (IPN). 1. Gill rot (Blackening of gills) 2. Fin rot (Cutting down of fins). 3. Dropsy (Swollen belly) Fish lice e.g. Argulus.

(ii) Pollution-caused diseases

(iii) Fish-ectoparasites

Some Important Diseases of Poultry (Chickens) Disease Causal Organism Paramyxo virus A. Viral Diseases: l. Ranikhet disease (most common disease) (New Cattle Disease) (ND) 2. Fowl pox Avipox virus 3. Marek's disease Herpes virus 4. Avian ncephalomye- Entero virus litis(Pullorum disease) 5. Infectious Bursal Disease(lBD) 6. Hydropericardium syndrome(HPS) or Leechi disease 7. Infection Bronchitis Symptoms Sneezing, yellowish white diarrhoea followed by nervous symptoms like twisting of head and wings get paralysed. Minute lesions

Presence of lymphomas in various visceral organs, thickened nerves, paralysis of legs or wings, death. Partial paralysis, unsteady gait, tremoring of head, neck, tail and muscles. Dullness,whitish pasty diarrhoea,haemorrhage and enlarged bursa. Broiler disease in which lesions appear around the heart giving it an appearance of leechi, enlarged liver and anaemia. Respiratory problems like sneezing, coughing and reduced rate of respiration.Also drop in eggproduction.

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(lB) B. Bacterial Diseases: 1. Fowl cholera 2. Fowl Spirochaetosis 3. Colibacillosis Poultry 4. Salmonellosis (Pullorum disease) 5. Fowl typhoid 6. Fowl paratyphoid C. Fungal Diseases: 1. Mycotic disease 2. Candidiasis

Pastaurella multocida Borrelia anserine

of Escherichia coli

Depression, coughing, sneezing, difficulty in breathing. Rise in temperature (43-44C), cyanosis of comb and wattles followed by jaundice. Loss of appetite, reduced respiration,diarrhoea and weakness. Diarrhoea with white faeces, loss of appetite and thirst, dropping wings etc. Diarrhoea with yellowish faeces and cyanosis of comb and wattles. Loss of appetite,diarrhoea, necrosis of liver, etc. Extensive damage caused to skin, hair, hide etc. Reduced appetite, poor growth and reduced weight.

Salmonella pollorun S. gallinarum S. typhimurium

Aspergillus fumigates Candida albicans

Common Diseases of Poultry. Poultry are affected the following diseases : Ranikhet : It is fatal viral disease and about 80-100 per cent of the affected birds die due to loss of appetite and suffocation (birds gasp for air) and finally paralysis. To protect the birds they should be vaccinated as soon they are six weeks old. The sick birds should be immediately identified, isolated and killed. Fowl pox: It is a contagious-disease and is more common in summer months, young birds show more mortality. Suffering birds show wart-like nodules on the comb and the wattle and blisters on the skin. Eyes and nose are covered by a yellow cheese-like discharge. All the young chicks above four weeks should be vaccinated against fowl pox. Affected birds should be isolated and killed. Fowl typhoid and paratyphoid: Both are bacterial diseases. Infection mainly spreads through infected eggs, droppings of the diseased chicken and carrier birds . Tick fever: It is a fatal fever. The birds show loss of appetite, increased thirst, and couching appearance. Body temperature shows sudden fluctuations. Comb and wattle become pale and there is a profuse discharge of loose greenish droppings. Ultimately death is due paralysis of legs and wings, and convulsions. For preventing this disease, poultry houses should be kept clean from ticks and tick proof perches should-be provided. Necessity of Balanced Diet. Animals require a balanced diet for their healthy maintenance. The feed given to them should be rich in carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. Their food has two components-roughages and concentrates. The former includes straws of cereals, fibres and other coarse substances which have low nutritive value. Concentrates include cotton-seeds, oil cakes, cereals, pulses and bran which have high nutritive value. HUMAN DISEASES AND ITS PREVENTION Any deviation from normal health leads to disease. Thus any disturbance in the structure and/or function of an organ or part of the body is called disease. There are two major categories of diseasescommunicable and non- communicable. Among the acquired diseases the infectious diseases are communicable i.e. they rapidly spread from one person to another. That is why they are also known as

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communicable diseases. Infectious diseases are the leading cause of death world wide, killing at least 17 million person annually and south-east Asian region accounting for about 41 % of these deaths. COMMUNICABLE DISEASES The communicable diseases are caused by pathogens which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths and are readily transmitted from person to person by direct or indirect contact or through a vector. The infection may also spread through air, water, milk, food or pass across the placenta from the mother into the foetus. Communicable diseases are classified according to the nature of the causative organism, into bacterial, viral, protozoic, helminthic and fungal. Important Facts Smallest known animal: RNA-virus. Polio is misnomerly called infantile paralysis. Polio occurs more in colder months. Polio virus multiplies in the intestinal cells. Polio is a neurotrophic disease as it damages motor neurons ofCNS. Pulse-Polio Programme: It was started in December 1995 in India. In this programme, babies in the age group of 0-5 years are vaccinated with oral polio vaccine. Hepatitis. It is the inflammation of the liver. Type A hepatitis is transmitted through human waste whereby virus A can enter an individual's body through contaminated water or food. Type B hepatitis is transmitted by blood transfusion contaminated with type B virus. Weakness, loss of appetite and inability to digest the food are its symptoms. In severe cases there is yellowing of the eyes, and staining of the skin. It is treated through appropriate diet, rest. Hepatitis-B virus causes deaths in only one day as an AIDS virus in one year. In India, about 4.30 crore people suffer from hepatitis-B. The vaccine against hepatitis-B is available and is given to 6th, 10th and 14th years age-group of children. Revac-B vaccine is a genetically engineered vaccine against Hepatitis-B disease. It has been developed by Bharat Biotech International Ltd. (Hyderabad). No vaccine is available for protection against Hepatitis-C. Herpes: It is a skin disease of various types. Its causative organisms are simplex virus. The disease is transmitted by contamination from salvia to stool. The symptoms are that it has an ruptions running along and inter-costal nerve with acute inflammations of the nerve ganglia. Treatment is that most human beings have antibodies against the infection. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) It is the death causing disease. The causative organisms are human T-cell, Leukemia Virus (HTLV-III) also called LAV. It is transmitted via blood and sperm through sexual contact or directly into blood by intravenous drug uses or by transfusion of infected blood. Loss of weights, fever of unknown origin, pneumonia, brain tumors, swelling of lymph gland and mouth ulcers are its symptoms. At present there is no treatment of this dangerous disease. The cause of AIDS is a retro-virus, so it multiplies by the process of reverse transcription. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) On 16th April, 2003, WHO has declared that the 'sars virus' is the causal organism of 'SARS' disease. The virus is a corona type virus, having a crown-like shape made up of glycoprotein. These consist of single stranded DNA (reovira) and can exist in the external environment (outside the human body) for about 3 to 24 hr. SARS spreads through sneezing or coughs droplets of injected persons. Important symptolms include fever (lOO.4F or 38.0 CO), headache, chills, bodyaches and feeling of discomfort. There is no known cure of SARS Some Diseases Caused by Unknown Agent

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Spongiform Encephalopathy or Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) CJD is a rare disease of unknown cause. It is named after its discoverer H.G. Creutzfeldt (1920) and A. Jacob, who has described it later. It is believed that the causal organism of disease is 'Prion' (Proteinaceous Infectious Particle ). CJD is a fatal neurodegenerative disease. Kuru Disease It is also a 'Prion' disease-symptoms include, unsteadiness of stance, gait,voice,. hands, eye; deterioration of speech, tremor, shivering, dysarthria (slurring of speech); patient can no longer walk without support, atakia (lois of co- ordination of muscles); organ damage (mostel to the brain). DISEASE CAUSED BY HELMINTHS (WORMS) Filaria: The filarial worms are amongst the most important parasites which attack man. The causative organism is Wucheriabancrofti. They live in lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes. The mode of transmission is that if the Wucheria bancrofti bites a person, the worm following a sub-cutaneous path transfers into the lymphatic system where they grow into adult females producing the numerous tiny larvae which are carried into blood. They move into mouth parts of the mosquito and get into the skin which enter through wounds and reach lymphatic channels. The symptoms is swelling of the legs resembling those of an elephant hence name elephantiases is given. The eradication of the vector is important as in malaria. Hookworm: It is also called ancylostomiasis or minors' anaemia. Its causative organism is ancylostoma duodenale. It is transmitted from person to person whereby filariform larvae move out in faeces and man gets infected while moving barefoot on faecally contaminated soil. Its symptoms are severe anaemia, duodenal ulcer, constipation, face puffy withswelling of lower eyelids, oedema of ankle and feet. Tape-worm (Tacnia Sotium) : It is a ribbon-shaped segmented parasitic worm. It is transmitted through infected pork and attaches itself to the wall of small intestine. Symptoms of this disease are chronic indigestion, abdominal discomfort and anorexia. It is treated by giving dose of anti-Helminthic drug. Ascariasis: It is one of the common disease. The organism responsible is Ascaris Lumbricoides who live In small intestine of man. It is transmitted due to ripe eggs passing out in faeces through contaminted food and water. The symptoms of this disease are gastric discomfort, diarrhoea, jaundice and inflammation of lungs. Taeniasis: Its causative agent is-Taenia solium who lives as an endo-parasite in the small intestine of man. It is transmitted when men gets infected on eating imperfectly cooked pork of which infected stage is being mature cyst in pork. The symptoms of this disease is ulcers, nutritional disturbances and gastric disorders. DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI Athlete's Foot: It is a contagious disease of the foot. The causative agent is Trichophyton. It is transmitted by infected floor and'mats on which people move bare-foot. Its symptoms are painful itching or burning, sensation in the infected areas. Cracks develops in the skin between 4th and 5th toes whereby a mass of loose dead skin clings between toes which is mostly painless. Dhobie Itch : It is a tropical allergic dermatitis. It is transmitted by direct contact with objects touched by infected person. Its sYilmptom is, it9hy red rashes commonly found in the groin and inside of thighs. Ringworm : It is a disease characterised by ring-shaped patches. Its causa,t~ve. 0fgani~m is. Micros porum Trichophyton! It is transmitted thrpugh air-borne spores or DISEASES CAUESD BY BACTERIA Disease Pathogen Epidemiology Incubatio Symptoms Prophyla Therapy

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1.Tuberculosis

Mycobacterium Tuberculo-sis

2. Diphtheria

Corynebacterium Diphtheriae

3. Cholera

Vibrio chole-rae

n period Airborne. & 2-10 weeks Coughing, Droplet Infecchest pain and tion bloody sputum with tuber-culin. Airborne & 2-6 days Inflammation Droplet infecof mucosa of tion nasal chamber, throat etc. Respiratory tract blocked. Direct & 6 hours to Acute diarroral(with cont- 2-3 days hoea & aminated food dehydration. & water)

xis BCG vaccine

Streptomycin, para-amino salicylic acid. rifampicin etc. Diphtheria antitoxins. Penicillin, Erythromycin.

DPT vaccine

4. Leprosy

Mycobacterium leprae

Slowest infect- 2-5 years ions& contagious

5. Pertussi- Bordetella pert- Contagious & 7-14 days s(Whooping ussi Droplet infeccough) tion 6. Tetanus Clostridium tet- Through injury 3-21 days ani

7. Typhoid

Salmonella phi

ty- Direct & oral

1-3 weeks

8. Plague

Pasteurella pestis

Indirect & 2-6 days inoculative(vect or is rat flea)

Sanitatio n, boiling of water&ch olera vaccine. Skin hypop- Isolation igmentation nodulated skin,defonnity of fingers & toes. l.epronun in skin tests. Whoops dur- DPT ing inspire- vaccine ation Degeneration ATS and of motor DPT neurons, rigid vaccines jaw muscles, spasm and paralysis Classic typ- TABhoid fever, vaccine widal test. and screening of food & water Killing of Bubonic rats& plague affects ratfleas lymph nodes; PlaguePneumonic vaccine plague affects lungs and

Oral rehydration therapy & tetrac-ycline.

Dapsone. rifampicin, Clofazirniue.

Erythromycin.

Tetanus antitoxins

Chlorarmphenicol

Tetracycline, streptomycin. chloromycetin .

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9. Gonorrhoea

Neisseria gonorrhoeae Treponetiut pallidun

Sexual transmission Sexual transmission

2-10 days

10. Syphilis

3 week

11.Pneumonia

Diplucoccus Penicillin

Airborne

1-3 days

Septicemic plague causes anaemia Inflammation of urinogenital tract. Inflammation of urinogenital tract. Decrease in respiratory efficiency. Diarrhoea

Avoid prostituti on. Avoid prostituti on. Isolation

Penicillin & Ampicillin. Tetracycline & penicillin.

Penicillin & flucloxacillin.

12. Salmonellosis

Salmonella Enteridis

Direct & oral

48 hours

Isolation

Antibiotics

contact with infected person. Its symptoms is early lesion, in the form of rings accompanied by fissuring of skin and secondary infections. Madura Foot: The causative organism of this disease is Maduarella mycetomi. It is transmitted when fungi gain entry through some minor injury to the skin. Its symptoms are production of chronic, granulating infection on the lower extermities. Affected part becomes enlarged leading to deep sores with extensive bone destruction accompanied by crippling deformities. NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES Also called non-infectious or degenerative diseases, the non-communicable diseases are not transmitted by contact with the person suffering from the disease or any other agency. These may result from: (a) the imbalance of essential dietary constituents, e.g., minerals, vitamins; (b) general wearing out or degeneration of tissues as in old age; (c) uncontrolled growth of tissues in any part of the body; (d) defects in the metabolic reactions; and (e) injury and damage to any part of the body by accidents. Some of the Human Viral Diseases Pathogen Epidemilogy Incubation Symptoms HerpesContagious 12-20 Dark red zoster virus days colouredrash (DNA-virus) or pox changing into vesicles, crusts and fall-ing. VariolaContagious & 12-days Appearance virus(DNADroplet infection. of rash virus) changing into pustules, scaps and

Disease I.Chickenpox (Varicella)

Prophylasis Now vaccine available

Therapy Zoster immunoglobulins ZIG).

2. Smallpox

Smallpox vaccine

No case reported afterl978.

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3. Poliomye- Polio-virus litis (RNAvirus)

4. Measles (RubeollaRubeolla(RNAvirus) virus disease)

5. Mumps

Mumpsvirus(DNAvirus)

6. Rabies (Hydrophobi a)

Rabiesvirus(RNAvirus)

7. Trachoma

Chlamydia trachomatis

8. Influenza (Flu)

Myxovirus influenzae(R NA-virus)

falli-ng Pockma-rks are left. Direct & oral 7-14 days Damages motor neurons causing stiffness of neck, convulsion, paralysis of generally legs. Contagious & 10 days Rubeolla Droplet infection (skin eruptions), coughing, sneezing etc. Contagious & 12-26 Painful Droplet infection days enlargemen t of parotid salivary glands. Indirect & 10 days to Spasm of inoculative(vecto 1-3 throat&chest rs are rabid months muscles animals fears from especially dogs) water paralysis and death. Contagious, 5-12 days Inflammatip formite-borne n of conjuand flies(vectors) nctiva & cornea leading to blindness Air borne and is 24-48 Bronchitis, pandemic. Hours sneezing Lasts for4- bronchopneu 5 Days monia, leucopenia, coughing, etc.

'Salk' Physiovaccine and therapy Oral Polio vaccine

Edmonston- Antibiotics B- vaccine & sulpha isolation. drugs

Mumpsvaccine isolation

Antibiotics.

Immunizati on of dogs.

Pasteurtreatment

Isolation

Tetracycline & sulfonamide

Isolation

Antibiotic therapy.

Plasmodium spp. 1 P. vivax 2. P.ovale

Types of Plasmodium spp. and Malaria Type of malaria Period of attack Benign tertian malaria After 48 hours(every 3rd day). Not fatal. Mildtertian malaria After 48 hours

Distribution Tropical and Temperate. Most common malaria. West Africa and South

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3. P. malariae

4. P. falciparum

America. Quartan malaria (also After 72hours(Every Tropical and Temperate called sub-clinical 4th day) malaria) Quotidian (cerebral Daily malaria) Or Tropical, Malignant tertian After 48 hours or Irregular malaria Not fixed

DISEASES OF THE HEART (i) Arteriosclerosis: It is the most common heart disease of men than of women. This is due to the deposition of cholesterol or calcium in the wall of the arteries resulting in thickening of the arterial walls. This in turn narrows the lumen of the arteries. This leads to high blood pressure, formation of a clot in the arteries (thromobosis), sometimes, haemorrhage, and finally heart attack. Too much consumption of eggs, cream,butter etc. are suspected to cause arteriosclerosis. (ii) Rheumatic Heart : When the heart valves fail to function properly, the disease caused is called rheumatic heart. This can happen in cases of bacterial infection caused in the Diseases Caused by Protozoa Disease Causative Agent Mode ofTransmission Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Contaminated raw vegetables, salads Sleeping sick- Trypanosoma brilicei Tse-tse fly ness Diarrhoea

Symptoms fruits, Mild dirrhoea with constipation Headache, drowsiness and chest pain

Bacteria-Campylobac-ter Contaminated water fingers, Dehydration Protozoa-Giardia bed Malaria Plasmodium Anopheles mosquito Severe chill,high temperature throat, mouth, etc. The toxins released by these bacteria not only cause the rheumatic fever (swelling and pain in the legs accompanied by fever), but also infect the heart valves. The valves between the auricles and ventricles become inflammed and do not function properly. This leads to low blood pressure and the heart is said to be rheumatic. Proper rest is advised by the doctors. (iii) Hypertension (High blood pressure) : There are many causes of hypertension. The most common ones are over- eating and obesity. Physical, mental and emotional stresses (fear, worry, anxiety, sorrow, joy, etc.) can cause hypertension. Smoking can also raise the blood pressure. The symptoms include headache, dizziness, fatigue, restlessness, ringing in the ears, etc. Acute infections of tonsils, scarlet fever, typhoid, etc. can lead to kidney diseases which in turn can cause hypertension. Physical and mental rest is advised to such a patient. (iv) Coronary heart diseases: It is characterized by insufficient supply of blood to the heart muscles which results in heart attack. This is essentially due to temporary constriction or degenerative changes in the coronary arteries, e.g., thickening and hardening of their walls by deposits of fatty materials. Sometimes these arteries may rupture or a clot may be formed in them. The reduced availability of oxygen and nutrients due to inadequate blood supply to the heart muscles leads to its necrosis. As a consequence, the efficiency of blood supply to the entire body is reduced. The patient complains of chest discomfort which is related to exertion, with or without pain. Intense nausea

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and vomiting may also occur, and may finally prove to be fatal. The disease can be diagnosed by electrocardiogram (ECG). There is no permanent cure of the disease though heart surgery has been attempted during the last three decades. It is important for the patients to have complete physical and mental relaxation. They are advised to avoid tea, coffee, and alcohol. Tobacco smoking is prohibited for them. Large meals as well as physical strains after meals are harmful, if they show obesity, they are advised to reduce weight. They should take diet having low fat. If there is hypertension, salt intake should be restricted. Diabetes mellitus: This is a disease of abnormal carbohydrate metabolism in which the sugar glucose cannot enter the body's cells to be utilized and therefore remains in the blood in high concentrations. The excess of sugar in the blood leads to the excretion of sugar in the urine, one of the cardinal diagnostic signs of this disease. This causes the excretion of large-amounts of urine, which results in dehydration and intense thirst. Although blood glucose is high, glucose cannot enter the appetite-regulating cells of the hypothalamus, and hunger is therefore great, so that the diabetic person tends to eat constantly. But because glucose cannot enter and nourish the cells, body tissues are subjected to the equivalent of starvation conditions, and rapid weight- loss occurs. Diabetes mellitus occurs because of faulty functioning of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas which secrete insulin. Dietary management has always been part of diabetic therapy, including weight reduction and carbohydrate restriction. Insulin is given not as a cure but as a rep lacement. Arthritis: The word arthritis means joint inflammation. Painful, swollen joints are one of the major characteristics of different arthritis-related conditions that include osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gout.Osteoarthritis occurs as a result of one-time or repeated trauma, or injury. Football players commonly have arthritic knees. Osteoarthritis often affects only a single joint in the body. Rheumatoid arthritis is systematic, meaning that it affects the entire body, sometimes causing fatigue and weight loss. Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease. However, one of its startling features is that it often comes and goes. The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis is complex, involving the use of drugs such as pain killers and anti-inflammatory agents as well as rest and exercise. Gout is a metabolic disease associated with acute attacks of arthritis. Gout patients have too much acid in their blood. This acid can crystallize out. During an acute attack of gout, uric acid crystals become lodged in a joint-the big toe joint being a favourite target. Many of the other disorders have been dealt with when dealing with the functions of those organs. Cancer: It is characterized by an uncontrolled growth, of cells in any part of the body. Certain cells in a tissue undergo repeated mitotic divisions endlessly, i.e., become cancerous and cause its abnormal enlargement referred, to as tumour. Initially, the rate of growth of the tumour is generally slow but becomes rapid later. Subsequently, the tumorous cells begin to spread to the neighbouring tissues. These become detached and migrate through the blood stream or lymph to other parts of the body where they accumulate and form secondary tumours. This stage proves fatal. Symptoms include wounds that do not heal, unusual bleeding or discharge, a lump or thickening in the breast or elsewhere, a sore that does not heal, change in bowel or bladder habits, hoarseness or cough, indigestion or difficulty in swallowing, change in size or colour of wart or mole. Physicians classify cancer according to the tissues in which they originate; for instance, the carcinomas arise from the cells of the skin, the lining membranes of internal organs, and the glandular Organs; the sarcomas develop in muscles, bones, cartilage and connective tissues; cancers originating in the network of supporting connecting tissues in the brain and central nervous system are called glimas; particularly dangerous is the type of cancerous growth called the melanoma, a rapidly growing pigmented tumour, which originates in certain types of pigmented moles found on the skin. If these moles are irritated, they may become malignant, and the resulting cancers metastasize rapidly. The lymph nodes and other tissues of the lymphatic system give rise to cancerous growths called lymphomas. The condition known as Hodgin's disease is now recognized as a lymphoma. In the present state of our knowledge, it is still not clear just what causes a cancer. However, there are certain more-or-

125

less well-established contributing factors. These include environmental agents (chemicals, adiation), the genetic background of the individual, gross chromosomal abnormalities, hormonal dysfunctions, and viruses. The association between skin cancer and sunlight has' been known since the early 1900's. Ultraviolet radiation in sunlight is absorbed mainly by the skin. Chemical substances added to food or used in the manufacture of products may have some bearing on the development of cancers. Substances believed to produce cancer are known as carcinogens. Benzene, a very common compound, is suspected of causing leukemia. Inorganic arsenic compounds, used in the pesticide industry, have been linked to cancer caused deaths among industry workers. There are at least 14 cancers that are clearly inherited. For example, a cancer of the eye called retinoblastoma is a hereditary tumour. Some of these cancers involve a genetic predisposition toward the disease, and the cancer is expressed after the person is exposed to a specific environmental agent. It is vitally important to root out a cancer completely at its starting point before it invades nearby tissues or sends malignant cells to other parts of the body. Some malignant tumors are preferably treated with various kinds of radiotherapy, or radiation treatment. In the radiation treatment X-rays or' radioactive substances are employed. Chemotherapy or drug treatment, is used in some cases to supplement other treatments. Many different chemicals have been used singly or in combination with other chemicals, as in the treatment of certain forms of leukemia. Surgery is another treatment. THE BODY DEFENCE AGAINST INFECTION The body has many natural den fences against pathogens. Together these defences are called natural immunity. The resistance of a body to the effects of pathogenic organisms is called immunity. Innate Immunity The skins: The surface of the body is covered with skin,which consists of several layers; The outer layers is made of the dead cells and is called cornified layer. As fast as these dead cells wear away or are damaged they are replaced from below by a region of live growing cells called the Malpighian layer. The dead cornified layer is kept supple, water-repellent, and mildly antiseptic by an oily substance called sebum, which is produced by sebaceous glands in the hair follicle. The skin therefore acts as a waterproof, germ-proof, self-repairing barrier against germs and dirt. The Eyes : The eyes are protected from infection by a thin skin called the conjunctiva. This is continually bathed in an antiseptic liquid produced by the tear glands. Blinking spreads this liquid and washes away germs and dust from the eyes. The eyelashes also provide some protection. The Respiratory System: The nasal passage, wind-pipe, and bronchial tubes of the lungs are lined with a carpet of microscopic hair-like structures called cilia. Cells between the cilia produce a sticky fluid called mucus which traps germs and dirt breathed in through the nose and mouth. Back-andforth movements of cilia carries the mucous and trapped germs and dirt to the back of the throat where they are swallowed, rendered harmless by digestive juices, and passed out of the body in the faeces. The Stomach : Many germs are unavoidably swallowed with food and drink. Fortunately these germs are usually harmless, but in any cas~ the majority are killed by stomach acids and digestive enzymes. The examples of natural immunity described so far may be thought of as the body's first line of defence. But if these defences are broken, as happens when the skin is cut, grazed, or burned or large numbers of germs are inhaled or swallowed, , then the body's second line of defence comes into operation. Second line defences ate controlled by the blood. Phagocytes: These are white blood cells which destroy bacteria that invade the body, by engulfing and digesting them. Neurophils and monocytes are examples of phagocytic cells. Phagocytes are particularly active in wounds. Soon after the skin is damaged capillaries in surrounding tissues dilate, increasing the supply of blood to the area. Fluid pours out of these capillaries into the wound, together with thousands of phagocytes which destroy any bacteria present. Bacteria which penetrate deep into the body and enter the lymphatic system are killed by large phagocytes inside the lymph nodes. Bacteria inside the body are also killed by chemicals called antibodies.

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Acquired Immunity. When germs penetrate the body's natural defences, the body reacts by producing substances called antibodies. Antibodies circulate in the blood and tissue fluid, killing germs or making them harmless. Antibodies also neutralize poisonous chemicals called toxins which germs produce. Since antibodies appear in the body after an invasion by germs, their production is an example of acquired immunity. There are two types of acquired immunity-active and passive. Antibody formation is an example of active immunity because their formation is in active response to infection. Active immunity takes a few weeks to a few months to develop but persists for long periods. Passive immunity is produced when antibodies formed in one human being are transferred to another. It may be acquired through: (i) Transmission of maternal anti-bodies to the foetus through placenta; (ii) Injection of anti-serum (blood plasma containing antibodies) prepared against a specific disease e.g., tetanus, diphtheria or rabies; and (iii) Administration of immunoglobulins or human gamma globulins. Passive immunity is rapidly established but lasts for a short while. Antibodies: Antibodies are proteins. They are made by white blood cells called lymphocytes. Any substance which stimulates lymphocytes to make antibodies is called an antigen. Bacteria and viruses are covered with antigen molecules and toxins may also act as antigens. When lymphocytes contact germs or toxins, the antigen molecules are detected and antibodies are formed. Antibodies combine with the antigens producing a number of different effects. Opsonins are antibodies which combine with antigen material on the outer surface of germs and appear to make the germs more likely to be destroyed by phagocytes. It is as if the antibody makes a germ more 'apetizing'. Lysins are antibodies which kill germs by causing them to burst open into fragments which are engulfed by phagocytes. Agglutinins are antibodies which cause germs to sticktogether in clumps (agglutinate). In this state the germs can neither penetrate cells nor reproduce properly. Anti-toxins are antibodies which combine with toxins and render them harmless. There are many different antigens and each requires a specific antibody to destroy it. The antibody which combines with measles virus antigen, for example, will destroy, this virus and no other. Immunization. The body can be artificially stimulated into producing antibodies. This prepares it in advance to fight off infection. This is done by inoculating someone with vaccine. A vaccine is a liquid containing antigens powerful enough to stimulate antibody formation without causing harm. This is called immunization because it makes the body immune to germs with the same antigens as the vaccine. One of the first people to use a vaccine with success was Edward Jenner (1749-1823). Jenner was investigating a theory that people who recovered from a mild disease called cowpox would, thereafter, be immune to smallpox, which is usually fatal. He scratched the skin of a healthy boy and rubbed pus from the hand of a girl with cowpox into the wound. The boy caught cowpox and when he had recovered Jenner inoculated him with pus from a smallpox victim. The boy did not catch smallpox. The modern explanation for this result is that cowpox and smallpox viruses have the same antigens. Thus if someone catches cowpox first they form antibodies which make them immune to smallpox. Jenner's method of immunization soon acquired the name vaccination after vaccinia, the Latin word for cowpox. Modern vaccines contain either killed germs, germs made harmless to humans by growing them in non-human hosts, or germ-toxins made harmless in various ways. Vaccines are now available to combat many diseases including typhoid fever, poliomyelitis, cholera, and bubonic plague. ALLERGY Allergy is any condition in which a person reacts in a hypersensitive manner to any substance. Symptoms mostly affect the skin and mucous membrane, may be in reaction to specific foodstuffs, drugs, fabrics, dust, pollen, plants, animals, heat, cold. The major types of allergy are hay fever (seasonal or perennial;), asthma, and eczema, or allergic dermatitis (inflammation of the skin rought on by an allergy). Among the other conditions with a strong allergic basis are hives, contact ermatitis, which is caused by direct contact with plants like poison ivy; puritis, or severe localized itching; recurrent croup;

127

canker sores; periodic vomitting; colic; repeated inflammation of the eyes; recurrent boils; chronic sinusitis; and recurrent headaches. Hay fever affects the mucous membranes of nose, eyes, and upper respiratory tracts; asthma affects the lower portions of the respiratory system. What causes an allergic reaction? As far as medical science has determined, foreign substances enter the body and find their way to the bloodstream. These foreign agents, called antigens, stimulate the production of a class of antibodies called Immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies. Upon their release from plasma cells, Ig E antibodies circulate to various parts of the body and attach themselves to mast cells, a class of cells that are located in parts of the body where foreign substances could enter, such as respiratory passages, skin surfaces, and the digestive tract. Later, if the same kind of antigen enters the bloodstream again, it combines with of the antibodies and the complex triggers a release of chemicals called mediators from the mast cells. These mediators initiate a local inflammatory response. Once the cause of the allergy has been determined, a programme of treatment can be started. When contact with the allergenic material cannot be avoided, the patient's system must be trained to live with it. This is done by means of hyposensitization. The physician first injects an extremely small, amount of the allergen into the patient's system. Gradually, he increases the amount that is injected. In time, the patient's body becomes accustomed to accept larger amounts of the materials without experiencing any allergic effects. The antihistamine drugs can be useful in providing temporary relief in minor allergies. The steriod hormonescortisone and hydrocortisone-and their synthetic substitutes can also be of extreme value in some instances. ALCOHOLISM AND DRUG ABUSE Alcoholism. Addiction to alcohol or its repeated use is called alcoholism. Over a period of time, alcoholism can cause ,physical and mental deterioration and can result in death. Alcoholism is usually considered a disease. Alcoholic drink is a fermented or distilled beverage that contains ethyl alcohol. When a person drinks an excess of alcoholic beverage at one time, he/she is likely to become intoxicated. The reason why alcohol consumption so often results in intoxication, or runkenness, is that there is a limit on the rate at which the body can dispose off it. If a drinker takes in alcohol faster than it can be metabolized, then, of course, it begins to accumulate in one or another of the body's organs, chiefly in the brain and in the liver, which absorbs it most readily. The effects of drinking a lot of alcohol in a relatively short time are well known: dizziness, impaired vision, nausea, etc. A Icohol affects the central nervous system. Heavy drinking can cause cancer of the mouth, gullet, stomach, and liver. It upsets the digestion and reduces blood cell formation, causing anaemia. Alcohol causes shrinkage of the brain, reducing the powers of abstract reasoning, and it destroys liver cells causing this organ to store abnormally large amounts of fat. In severe cases, alcoholic suffer numbness and paralysis of the limbs. Some alcoholics suffer a disorder called delirium tremens when forced to stop drinking. Vomiting occurs and the whole body begins to shake. This is followed by grotesque and often terrifying vision (hallucinations). Alcoholic Beverages, Raw Material and Percentage of Alcohol Name Raw material Undistillcd Alcohols(Simple Ferm- Fruit Juice, entation Grains Products) Cider (Apple Juice + Sugar) Beer Bareley (Malt) Claret (Red Wine) Grapejuice Champagne (White Wine) Grapejuice Port (Heavy, Sweet, Fortified Wine, Grapejuice Dark Red or White)

S.No A 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

%of alcohol 3 to 24 3-6 4-5 7-13 8-10 15-24

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6. 7. 8. B.

Sherry (Fortified Wine, Pale Gold to Grapejuice Dark Brown) Toddy Palm Sap Arrack Coco Palm, Rice

18-24

Distilled Alcohols(Distilled Fermented Wines to Raise Strength) 1. Hollands Rye 40 2. Gin Barley 40-45 3. Brandy Apple, Peach and Cherry Juice 40-50 4. Whisky Barley, Rye. Maize, Potatoes 40-50 5. Rum Molasses 45-55 6. Vodka (Used in Russia) Rye 40-55 7. Sake (Used in Japan) Rice 40-55 Drug Abuse: This is the taking of drug without a medical need. A drug can be defined as a chemical which affects the mind. Only the so called 'hard' drugs are addictive. These include the opiates; opium, morphine, and heroin. A drug addict comes to depend upon a drug so that life is no longer bearable without it. Addiction occurs because, like alcohol, !}lore and more of a drug is required to produce its desired effects. Moreover, if the drug supply is suddenly cut off an addict suffers withdrawal symptoms. These are extremely unpleasant and can be fatal. The drugs usually abused can be placed .in four groupsdepressants, stimulants, hallucinogen and cannabis. Abused drugs include all drugs used non-medically, from those that are illegal to sell or own, such as heroin, or those that are legal to sell or own, such as alcohol and nicotine. Alcohol (in beverages) and nicotine (in tobacco) are among the most widely abused drugs. Addictive Drugs and their Common Names Addictive drugs Common names Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) Acid Phencyclidine Piperidine (PCP) Angel dust Diacetylmorphine Hydrochloride Brown sugar Cocaine Coke Barbiturates Downers(Sleeping pills) Marijuana Grass Concentrated Tetrahydrocannibinol Hash Psiloybin Magic mushroom Amphetamines Speed

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

COMMON DRUGS Anaesthetics are drugs administered during surgical operations of all kinds to prevent the patient feeling pain. General anaesthetics cause complete loss of consciousness, and are used in major operations, such as appendicetomy and tonsilectomy. They include laughing gas (nitrous oxide), chloroform, ether, and sodium pentothal. Local anaesthetics deaden the nerves in one part of the body only. Dentists use them, for example, when drilling or extracting teeth. Local anaesthetics include lignocaine and procaine. Analgesics are substances which prevent or relieve pain, but the person taking them retains consciousness. They include simple drugs like aspirin (acetylsalicyclic acid) and bromides and powerful ones like morphine and heroin. Antibiotics <\te drugs that have the power to destroy body germs quickly arid to prevent germs from growing. They are compounds that are produced by bacteria and moulds, tiny plant organisms (micro-organisms). Antibiotics are probably the biggest life-savers

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today. They combat pneumonia, typhoid syphilis, scarlet fever and many other serious illnesses. Penicillin, streptomycin, chloromycetin, and terramycin are among the most important antibiotics. Antihistamines relieve the symptoms of asthma, hay fever, and other allergies. They counter excess production the body of substances called histamines which cause sneezing and a streaming nose. Antipyretics are drugs used medically to lower the body temperature. Hormones are used as drugs when the body has hormone deficiency that causes disease. Insulin is probably the best- known hormone drug. It is given to sufferers of diabetes, who have an insulin deficiency. The insulin injected is obtained from the pancreas of sheep, cattle, and pigs. Adrenalin, cortisone and ACTH are other important hormone drugs.Narcotics deaden the whole nervous system and a prevent a person feeling pain. They may make one sleep or go into a coma. Opium and the drugs derived from it-codeine, heroin and morphine-are the most widely used narcotics. Sedatives are soothing drugs that generally send a person to sleep. Common sedatives are barbiturates and bromides. Narcotics and anaesthetics have sedative effects too. Tranquillizers are taken to calm the nerves and prevent worry. They do not, like sedatives, dull the nervous system, or slow down mental or physical activity. CHAPTER 8 ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Ecology is the branch of science that is concerned with the relationships of life forms with each other and with their surroundings. The basic unit in ecology is the eco-system; a fairly self-contained system of plants and animals living in a particular kind of environment. A forest is an cosystem; so is a lake. Every ecosystem has two main components:- Abiotic and Biotic Abiotic components. These are the non-living components of the ecosystem and include (a) physical or climatic factors such as soil, temperature, light and water, and (b) chemical factors constituting, the inorganic mainly, minerals in the soil and atmosphere (potassium, sodium, phosphorus, nitrogen), gases (carbondioxide and oxygen) and the organic substances (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and humus) found in soil as a result of activities of living organisms. Biotic components. These include the living components of the ecosystem and is made up of many different populations which are interdependent upon each other in the ecosystem. These include the producers which are autotrophs (self- nourishing green plants); Consumers which are heterotrophs (dependent on others for food-mainly animals) and decomposers (fungi and bacteria) which consume the dead remains of other organisms-plants and animals. Biome. When the ecosystem is very large, e.g.,. forest, ocean or desert it is called as Biome (or major ecosystem). The major biomes are Tundra; Coniferous forests; Temperate forests; Tropical rain forests; Grasslands; Deserts; Fresh water and Marine biome. The first six of these are terrestrial and the last two aquatic.Climatic conditions of a place are important in deciding the nature of plants and animals that can survive there. Energy Flow in Ecosystem (food chain). The basic source of the earth's energy is the sun. Through photosynthesis, green plants use the sun's radiation to manufacture food in the form of chemical energy (they are thus called producers). Energy passes through green plants to plant-eating animals or herbivores(primary consumers). They use some of this energy for their own needs and store the rest in the form of fat and meat. The herbivores are in turn eaten by meat-eating animals or carnivores (secondary consumers); some of the energy is passed on to them. Bacteria and fungi decompose dead plants and animals and their wastes and return nutrients to the soil. These nutrients are essential to plant life. This relationship is known as a food chain, or web. For example one food chain may be represented as follows: Sun Grass Energy (Producer)

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Deer (First-order Consumer) consumer)

Tiger (Second-order

(Herbivore) (Carnivore) The number of steps in each food chain is limited and each step is called a trophic level. In a simple food chain, out of say 1000 calories of energy reaching the plant only 10 calories (I %) are stored by plant. The remaining are lost either to the environment for the plant's own maintenance. Of the 10 calories available to the herbivore, nine are lost at its level and one is passed down to the carnivores. At each step in a food chain, a large portion of energy is used for its own maintenance and lost as heat. As a result, organisms in each trophic level pass on less and less energy than they receive. This limits the. number of steps in a food chain to four or five. The longer the chain the less is the energy available to the final member. Biosphere. The entire inhabited part of the earth and its atmosphere including living components is called the biosphere. The global environment consists of three main subdivisions: (i) The hydro-sphere which includes all the water components, (ii) The lithosphere comprising the solid Compo-nents of the earth's crust and (iii) The atmosphere formed of the gaseous envelope of the earth. Thus, biosphere is the combination of all the ecosystems or identifiable units of the earth's environment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Pollution is generally defined as an undesirable and excessive addition of foreign substances to water, air and land which adversely alters the natural quality of the environment. The term environment includes the land, air and water. LAND POLLUTION. The area of earth which is capable of supporting life is represented by a thin mantle and there is a very complex relationship between this land and the other components of the environment. Man and other animals exhaust the resources of a given area and so natural forces cannot maintain the balance between the materials consumed and returned to the soil. The major sources of land pollution are the industries such as pulp and paper mills, oil refineries, power and heating plants, chemical and fertilizer manufacturers, iron and steel plants, plastic and rubber producing complexes, and so on. Modem agriculture has been heavily involved in polluting soil through the non-judicious use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, and fumigants. Most of these are stable chemicals and remain in the soil for long periods without degradation, and have cumulative effect. Apart from killing the living organisms present on the surface of the soil, they reach even to the deeper layers through tilling and irrigation of the land, killing still more living forms. With their continuous use the soil micro-organisms lose their ability of nitrogen- fixation. Appropriate methods should he developed to dispose off or utilize the pollutants. Low-lying watery areas and ditches can also be filled and the land thus reclaimed, used for making gardens, parks, playgrounds, or even apartment complexes. Animal refuse and agricultural wastes can be utilized as manure and for the production of bio-gas that in turn can help to generate electricity. AIR POLLUTION. Air pollution is mainly caused by the discharge of gases and particles from sources such as domestic fires, coal-fired power stations, motor-vehicles and factories. Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is not harmful in itself, but the proportion of the gas in the atmosphere appears to be increasing. Some scientists predict that, if this continues, carbondioxide will eventually form a'blanket' around the earth, which will stop heat escaping and cause temperature to rise. The effects on farming throughout the world would be profound. Also, ocean level would rise as a result of the polar ice-caps melting and flood coastal lands.

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Smoke. This is mainly a suspension of carbon particles in the air. It reduces the amount of sunlight reaching the earth, which in turn affects many processes, such as photosynthesis. When combined with water vapour, smoke may give rise to 'smog', an irritating fog which aggravates asthama and other lung complaints. Sulphurdioxide. The gas reacts with water to form a dilute solution of sulphuric acid, the main cause of 'acid rain'. Acid rain is poisonous to plant life, fish, and other aquatic animals. In recent years it has devastated large areas of forest in Western Europe and North America. Acid rain also aggravates lung diseases in human, and erodes the brick and stonework of buildings. Oxides of nitrogen. In damp conditions, these gases react with water to form a dilute solution of nitric acid, which can also be a cause of acid rain. They sometimes cause eye irritation in humans. Lead compounds. These are poisonous to plants, and in higher concentrations are also poisonous to animals. Toxic concentrations may build up in the bodies of people who are exposed to lead compounds for any length of time, for example, people who live near a busy motorway are in particular danger as recent research indicates that such exposure can have a deleterious effect on children's intelligence. FRESH-WATER POLLUTION. Pollution of rivers, streams, ponds, and lakes is mainly caused by the discharge of the following: Industrial Waste Minerals: These mainly come from factories. There is a wide variety of them. Several are poisonous to aquatic animals and plants. Example: cyanides; compounds of mercury, copper, and lead. These persistent poisons accumulate in the bodies of aquatic animals, such as fish, and the animals, which feed on them, such as water birds. These poisons also affect humans when they eat the affected fish. Untreated Sewage. In the efficient sewage treatment works, the effluent is made harmless before being discharged, but if the works become overloaded or fail to function properly, untreated sewage. is released. Such sewage may contain human pathogens. It may also lead to entrophication. Eutrophication. Eutrophication is a condition caused by a sudden increase in the amount of nutrients in a lake or pond. The effects on the lake and its flora and fauna are as follows: There is-a sudden increase in the rate of growth of the green plants (mainly algae). They quickly form a dense mat covering the surface of the lake. When the algae complete their life- cycle and begin to die, aerobic decomposers become very active. They soon use up all the available oxygen in the water, so most of the fauna, including fish, die from lack of oxygen. Usually there is not enough oxygen for the bacteria to complete the decomposition of the algae. The semi-decomposed remains of the algae sink to the bottom of the lake, where they form an oxygen-deficient mud. Even if no further pollution occurs, the lake may take several years to recover to the stage where animals like fish can live in it again. Agricultural Waste Materials. When fertilizers, insecticides, or pesticides are used in large amounts, the excess may drain into neighbouring fresh water. Insecticides and pesticides can kill aquatic animals. Fertilizers can cause eutrophication. SEA-WATER POLLUTION. Oil is the main pollutant of the sea and sea-shore. Oil often escapes when oil tankers are being loaded and unloaded, and may be released in large quantities when an oil tanker is wrecked. Oil causes the death of sea birds, either by poisioning them or by making their feathers stick together, so they cannot fly. When washed up on shore, oil' also kills most of the plants and animals living there. Large amounts of untreated sewage, which may contain human pathogens, are also discharged daily round the coasts. This again is a source of pollution. AGENTS OF POLLUTION: RADIATION. Radiations can be categorized into two main groups (i) non-ionizing (e.g.,ultraviolet) and (ii) ionizing (e.g., X-rays, alpha, beta, gamma rays, protons, and neutrons). The sun is a source of spectrum of radiations such as radio waves, infra-red rays, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, gamma and cosmic rays. In addition, radioactive isotopes give off subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons, electrons, and helium nuclei called alpha-particles in the process of decomposition from an unstable state to a more stable condition.

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Effect of Non-ionizing Radiation. Radiation of shorter wavelengths which have greater energy may be lethal to micro-organisms but are capable of injuring only the surface tissues of higher plants and animals. They also increase the rate of mutations. Nucleic acids specifically absorb ultraviolet radiation. Effect of lonizing Radiations. Ionizing radiations induce mutations and breaks in chromosomes. The damage is more during the cell division process. In man, the sensitive areas are epithelial linings of the skin and intestine, blood-forming cells in the bone marrow, and reproductive cells. Immediate effects are visible in the digestive tract resulting in nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea, eventually in loss of appetite and weight, tiredness and fall of hair. Embroys are particularly ensitive to radiation damages. Excessive use of X-rays causes death of tissues. Sterility caused by radiation may be expressed in the same or in subsequent generations, e.g., Philadelphia chromosome in leukemia, translocated 21 st chromosome in Down's syndrome. Inhabitants of Hiroshima exposed to nuclear fall-out had no children for a long time. Man-Made Radiation: The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagonstic use of Xrays, and radioactive isotopes used as tracers. Also, as treatment for cancer and other ailments, some people have to receive rather heavy radiation doses. Radioactive wastes given off by nuclear wastes from atomic powe plants come in the form of spent fuel rods of uranium and the deadly by-products such as plutonium and these can remain toxic to humans for over 200,000 years. Radioctive iodine, another waste products from power plants, can cause cancer of the thyroid gland. Waste coming from the production of nuclear weapons (Plutonium) produces radioactive strontium and cesium, both of which are carcinogenic. These materials generate heat and penetrating radiations for centruries. AGENTS OF POLLUTION: CHEMICAL HAZARDS. There are several chemicals which affects the living world. Nitrous acid causes an increase in mutation. Similarly, mustard gas, used as poison during World War I, enhances mutations. One of the most powerful hallucinogenic drugs, LSD, causes increase in abortion, abnormal babies, and chromosomal aberrations in human lymphocytes. The use of insecticides, pesticides and herbicides to control the insects, pests and obnoxious weeds which damage important crops, are also potential health hazards. The most glaring example in recent times is the Bhopal gas tragedy on a wintry night of December 1984, which accouunted for about 3000 deaths and injuries to as many as 100,000 individuals. The killer gas, methyl isocyanate (MIC) also called cynate methane, involved in Bhopal tragedy is one of the most toxic gases known. It is a volatile, colourless, and tear-producing liquid highly irritating to the skin, eyes and mucous membrane. Another toxic gas is phosgene, chemically called carbonyl chloride. It was used in chemical warfare in the First World War. Most of these gases affect blood capillaries which have thin walls and through which water, oxygen and CO2 exchanges take place. NOISE POLLUTION. Noise is generally an unwanted sound, or a sound with which the modern civilization would not put up. Noise produces several adverse effects on the quality of man's surroundings, and is therfore, considered to be polluting the environment. The loudness causes physical discomfort and temporary or permanent damage to hearing. Noises above 85-90 decibels are considered dangerous. The WHO has recommended a tolerance limit of 45 decibels for noise level at night and 55 decibels for day-time. Prolonged exposure to higher noise levels leads to hearing loss and nervous and emotional tension. The means of noise control are: (a) to manipulate the source so as to reduce the noise at its origin; (b) to interrupt the path of transmission; (c) to protect the recipient, legislation and public policy are essential. Standards for noise control measures should be set for industry and community. The path of the sound can be interrupted by 'using various materials whieh absorb the sound energy. Acoustic materials and mufflers can also be used. ANTI-POLLUTION MEASURES No pollution is inevitable, and measures to prevent pollution or reduce its effects have grown rapidly in recent times. Action against pollution takes a variety of forms. Most countries including India have anti-pollution legislation. Recycling of materials may be done; for example, glass bottles,

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newspaper, metals from old cars can all be recycled. There can be research into the use of cleaner, renewable sources of energy, for example, solar, wind, and tidal energy. Modification of industrial processes to make use of waste materials, or to render them harmless before discharge, is another antipollution measure. Air Pollutants and their Sources Pollutants Oxides of carbon: CO2 and CO Sources 1. Use of coal and oil for energy production, manufacturing and transport. 2. Biomass burning-burning of forests and several grasslands for pasture and cropland. Oxides of Sulphur: S02 and SO3 1. Burning of coal containing sulphur 2. Ore smelting for extraction of metals like Cu and Fe from their sulphide ores. 3. Industrial processes 4. Municipal incineration Oxides of Nitrogen : NO and N02 1. Use of petrol and diesel for transport vehicles. 2. Burning of fuel at the stationary sources 3. Nitrogen fertilizers. 4. Burning of biomass. Methane and other Hydrocarbons 1. Burning of fossil fuel.2. Rice cultivation 3. Breeding of domestic animals 4. Burning forests and Savannah grassland 5. Municipal land-fills 6. Microbial activity on sewage Suspended Particulate Matter 1. Formation of soot, smoke on burning of coal. 2. Transport (SPM) vehicles-raise dust and release smoke 3. Building construction 4. Stone crushing Chloro-fluorocarbons and Chiaro 1. Refrigerants, aerosol sprays. 2. Foam plastic for making Compounds disposable fast food containers. Photochemical Oxidants: Ozone Photochemical reactions in the lower troposphere, reactions of and PAN oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons with oxygen. Some Recent Steps Taken to Control Pollution in India Bharat stage-II (Euro-II) norms are currently applicable in 11 cities (e.g. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Hydrabad, Kanpur and Agra) of India. but will be applicable to all automobiles throughout the country from April I, 2005. From April 1, 2005, Euro-III emission specifications will be applicable to all the petrol and diesel automobiles in the above 11 cities and Euro-IV norms by April 1, 2010, while for rest of the country, Euro II emission norms will be mandatory for automobiles and fuels by 2010. Since January, 2003, "5% ethanol-blended petrol" was launched in eight States (e.g. U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka) and three Union Territories (e.g. Chandigarh, Dadar & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu). Since January 2004, 5% ethanol-blended petrol was also started in rest of Indian States and Union Territories. In third phase, ethanol percentage in the petrol will be increased from 5 to 10%. CHAPTER 9 BIOFERTILIZERS, BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOPROCESS TECHNOLOGY BIOFERTILIZERS

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Biofertiltzers are microbial products containing living cells of different types of micro-organisms possessing the innate ability either to fix or mobilize important nutrient elements from non-usable forms through biological process and needed to be applied to soil to enhance microbial activity in the rhizosphere for playing a significant role in integrated plant nutrient systems. Types of Bio-Fertilizers : 1. Nitrogen-fixers 2. Phosphate-solubilisers Nitrogen-Fixers: Among N-fixers azospirillum is widely recommended because of its easy adaptability and limited host specificity. It is a micro-aerophilic bacterium and associative symbiotic which lives inside the cortical cells and xylem vessels of plant roots. Nitrogen fixers are also known to secrete growth promoting substances like gibberellic acid and JAA which enhance root proliferation and growth of crop plants. These N-fixers have ability to fix 25-40 kg N/haJyear. Phosphate Solubilizers : Phosphorus in soil is in insoluble form due to fixation. P-solubilizers belong to the genera bacillus and pseudomonas which possess the ability to solubilize insoluble forms of phosphorous and make it available to plants. Solubilization is affected by the secretion of organic acids and enzymes which facilitate the crop to assimilate phosphorous easily. These are important, producing amino acids and growth promoting substances which help in better growth of plants and solublize and make available about 30 kg P/haJannum. One of the major concerns in today's world is the pollution and contamination of soil. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has caused tremendous harm to the environment. An answer to this is the biofertilizer, an environmentally friendly fertilizer now used in most countries. Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and yanobacteria (blue-green algae). The most striking relationship that these have with plants is symbiosis in which the partners derive benefits from each other. Plants have a number of relationships with fungi, bacteria, and algae, the most common of which are with mycorrhiza, rhizobium, and cyanophyceae. These are known to deliver a number of benefits including plant nutrition, disease resistance, and tolerance to adverse soil and climatic conditions. These techniques have proved to be successful biofertilizers that form a healthy relationship with the roots. Biofertilizers will help to solve such problems as increased salinity of the soil and chemical run-off from the agricultural fields. Thus biofertilizers are important if we are to ensure a healthy future for the generations to come. Mycorrhiza : Mycorrhizal fungi can increase the yield of a plot of land by 30-40%. It can absorb phosphorus from the soil and pass it on to the plant. Mycorrhizal plants show higher tolerance to high soil temperatures, various soil and root-borne pathogens and heavy metal toxicity. Blue-Green Algae : Blue-green algae are of immense economic value as they add organic matter to the soil and increase soil fertility. Barren alkaline lands in India have been reclaimed and made productive by inducing the proper growth of certain blue-green algae. Main Thrust of Activities: A network project on Development of Transgenic Biofertilizers which are efficient Nitrogen-fixers and Phosphate solublisers, was launched in the 10th plan period. Under this programme development of transgenic biofertilizers, has been undertaken by increasing copy number of nif genes; incorporation of hup genes wherever hydrogenase enzyme is not produced and knocking off negative regulatory gene from the regulatory operon. Achievements: Under Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) studies, biofertilizer component has not received adequate attention in the past. Keeping this in view, a National Network Project was launched in 1999 for 3 years on the 'Role of biofertilizers in INi\.1' embracing 17 centres throughout the country. The objective was to establish useful biofertilizer packages for yield optimization of some major crops in various cropping systems in different regions. In addition to generating field data on biofertilizers used in integration with reduced . levels of chemical fertilizers, advanced molecular tools were employed for genotypic characterization of microbial strains for their identification and performance evaluation in the field. A number of INM packages have been developed for Popular-

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Eucalyptus, Mungbean- Wheat-Bajra, Rice-wheat, Rice-Rice, Sugarcane, Rice-Wheat-Pulse and saline area based cropping systems. Leads Obtained : Phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase (pqq) synthase gene has been transferred to Azospirillium. It was found that the transconjugant Azo-spirillum now possess mineral phosphate solubilizing (MPS) ability. No change was observed in the nitrogen fixation of these transconjugants. The pqq synthase gene was isolated from Burkholderia cepacia via PCR amplification of primers designed using the conserved sequences across the gene reported in different species and cloned into E. coli. The E. coli containing the pqq synthase gene now showed MPS activity. These results indicate the possibility of developing transgenic bacteria by cloning pqq synthase genes into certain gram-negative rhizobacteria, The gene has also been electroporated into Rhizobium and Azotobacter and there it has shown MPS activity. Glucose dehydrogenase gene (gdh) of Bacillus /icheniformis has been successfully amplified using gene- specific primers. The amplicon was then cloned into pTZ57. The clone was confirmed as gdh gene by sequencing. Primers have been designed for the gdh sequences of Serratia marcescens and Pseodomonas aeruginosa and the genes would be amplified using specific primers. Pure Genomic DNA has been isolated and attempts are being made to construct a library in pUC 18. The library would be screened for the gdh gene clone based on the zone of solubilization. Selected recombinants would be probed for the presence of the gene using heterologous gdh probes. Organisms, Mode of Action, Crops, and Pro-biofertilizers currently in Use for Agriculture Type Mode of Action Crop Used Rhizobium spp. N2 fixation Legumes Russia; several countries Cyanobacteria N2 fixation Rice Japan; several Azospirillum spp. N2 fixation Cereals Several countries Mycorrhizae Nutrient acquisition Conifers Several countries Penicillium bilaii P Solubilization Cereals, legumes Western Canada Directed compost Soil fertility All plants Several countries Earthworm Humus formation Vegetables, flowers Cottage industry Applications of Biofertilizers Biofertilizers Function/Contribution Limitation (Non-20-25 kg N/ha) Demands high organic Azatobacter (symbiotic) matter 10-15 % increase in yield. No limitation Zospirillum (Associative) Production of growth promoting sunstances only in BlueGreen algae 20-30 kg N/ha 10-15 % Effective Or Cyanoba- increase in field. Production submerged rice fields cteria(Phototropic) of growth promoting and demand bright substance. sunshine 30-100 kg N/ha Yield Survival difficult at Azolla increases20-25 % high temperatures, great (Symbiotic) demand for phosphorous and used in flooded rice-fields. Contributes to solubility of Phosphobacteria tricalcium, aluminium and iron phosphates making the phosphrous present in the

RecommendedDose/ha 2kg/ha 2 kg/ha

10-15 kg/ha

10 tons/ha

2 kg/ha

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soil available to plants

BIOTECHNOLOGY Biotechnology in one form or another has flourished since pre-historic times. When the first human beings realized that they could plant their own crops and breed their own animals, they learned to use bio-technology. The discovery that fruit juices fermented into wine, or that milk could be converted into cheese or yogurt, or that beer could be made by fermenting solutions of malt and hops began the study of biotechnology. When the first bakers found that they could make a soft, spongy bread rather than a firm, thin cracker, they were acting as fledgling biotechnologists. The fi'rst animal breeders, realizing that different physical traits could be either magnified or lost by mating appropriate pairs of animals, engaged in the manipulations of biotechnology. What then is biotechnology? The term brings to mind many different things. Some think of developing new types of animals. Others dream of almost unlimited sources of human therapeutic drugs. Still others envision the possibility of growing crops that are more nutritious and naturally pest- resistant to feed a rapidly growing world population. This question elicits almost as many first-thought responses as there are people to whom the question can be posed. In its purest form, the term biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms or their products to modify human health and the human environment. Pre-historic biotechnologists did this as they used yeast cells to raise bread dough and to ferment alcoholic beverages, and bacterial cells to make cheese and yogurt and as they bred their strong, productive animals to make even stronger and more productive offspring. Since the discovery of penicillian by Fleming, "biotechnology" has rapidly progressed and expanded. In the mid-forties, scale-up and commercials production of antibiotics such as penicillin occurred. The techniques used were (a) isolation of an organism producing the chemical of interest using screening/selection procedures, (b) improvement of production yields via mutagenesis of the organism or optimization of media and fermentation conditions. This type of "antique" biotechnology is limited to chemicals produced in nature. It is also limited by its trial-and-error approach, and requires a lengthy time-frame (years or even decades) for yield improvement. . About two decades ago, biotechnology became much more of a science (rather than an art). Regions of DNA (called genes) were found to contain information that would lead to synthesis of specific proteins (which are strings of amino acids). Each of these proteins have their own identity and function; many catalyze (facilitate) chemical reactions, and others are structural components of entities in cells. If one now is able to express a natural gene in simple bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium living in intestines that has become the model organism for much, of biotechnology, one can have this bacterium make a lot of the protein coded for by the gene, regardless of its source. The techniques used for this development include (a) isolation of the gene coding for a protein of interest, (b) cloning of this gene into an appropriate production host, and (c) improving expression by using better promoters, tighter regulations, etc.; Together these techniques are known as recombinant DNA techniques. The commercial implications are that a large number of proteins, existing only in tiny quantities in nature, can now be massproduced if needed. Also, the yields of biochemicals to be produced can be increased much faster than was possible with classical fermentation. These modern biotechnology techniques started with the expression of human genes such as that coding for insulin, but have since been extended to mammalian, microbial, and plant genes. Also, the spectrum of "bio-reactors" (organisms used for production) recently has been broadened to include a variety of animals and plants. Perceived needs and marketability, the researchers' imagination, ethics, and governmental regulations essentially are the major factors in setting the stage and boundaries for developments in biotechnology. About a

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decade ago, "protein engineering" became possible as an offshoot of the recombinant DNA technology. Protein engineering differs from "classical" biotechnology in that it is concerned with producing new (man-made) proteins which have been modified or improved in some way. The techniques involved in protein engineering are more complicated than before, and involve (a) various types of mutagenesis (to cause changes in specific locations or regions of a gene to produce a new gene product), (b) expression of the new gene to form a stable protein, (c) characterization of the structure and function of the protein produced, and (d) selection of new locations or regions to modify as a result of this characterization. "Transgenic" animals and plants, including cows, sheep, tomatoes, tobacco, potato, and cotton have now been obtained. Genes introduced may make the organism more resistant to disease, may influence the rate of fruit ripening, or may increase productivity. As this approach leads to release of genetically altered organisms into the environment, this part of biotechnology is quite strictly regulated at government levels. Chronologyof Developments in Biotechnology 1953 - Double helix structure of DNA is first described by Watson and Crick. 1973 - Cohen and\ Boyer develop genetic engineering techniques to "Cut and paste" DNA and to amplify the new DNA in bacteria. 1977 - The first human protein (somatostatin) is produced in a bacterium (E. coli). 1982 - The first recombinant protein (human insulin) appears in the market. 1983 - Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique conceived. 1990 - Launch of the Human Genome Project (HGP), an international effort to sequence the human genome. 1995 - The first genome sequence of an organism (Haemophilus influenzaei is determined. 2000 - A first draft of the human genome sequence is completed. Biotechnology seems to be leading a sudden new biological revolution. It has brought us to the brink of a world of "engineered" products that are based in the natural world rather than on chemical and industrial processes. Biotechnology has been described as "Janus-faced" This implies that there are two sides. On one, techniques allow DNA to be manipulated to move genes from one organism to another. On the other, it involves relatively new technologies whose consequences are untested and should be met with caution. The term "biotechnology" was coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky, an Hungarian engineer. New biotechnological techniques have permitted scientists to manipulate desired traits. Prior to the advancement of the methods of recombinant DNA, scientists were limited to the techniques of their time - cross-pollination, selective breeding, pesticides, and herbicides. Today's biotechnology has its "roots" in chemistry, physics, and biology. The explosion in techniques has resulted in three major branches of biotechnology: genetic engineering, diagnostic techniques, and cell/tissue techniques. Biotech Chronicles: Biotech Chronicles is a brief history of biotech discoveries which continue to influence the field today. We have included essays on genetics and DNA research, profiles of some of the influential individuals who have helped build the biotechnology industry, and an integrated series of time-lines which provide an overview of biotechnology from a historical perspective. BIOPROCESS TECHNOLOGY Like other applications of biotechnology, modern bioprocess technology is an extension of ancient techniques for developing useful products by taking advantage of natural biological activities. When our early ancestors made alcoholic beverages, they used a bioprocess: the combination of yeast cells and nutrients (cereal grains) formed a fermentation system in which the organisms consumed the nutrients for their own growth and produced by-products (alcohol and carbon dioxide gas) that helped to make the

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beverage. Although more sophisticated, today's bioprocess technology is based on the same principle: combining living matter (whole organisms or enzymes) with nutrients under the conditions necessary to make the desired end product. Bioprocesses have become widely used in several fields of commercial biotechnology, such as production of enzymes (used, for example, in food processing and waste management) and antibiotics. Because bioprocesses use living material, they offer several advantages over conventional chemical methods of production: they usually require lower temperature, pressure, and pH (the measure of acidity); they can use renewable resources as raw materials; and greater quantities can be produced with less energy consumption. In most bioprocesses, enzymes are used to catalyze the biochemical reactions of whole micro-organisms or their cellular components. The biological catalyst causes the reactions to occur, but is not itself changed. After a series of such reactions (which take place in large vessels called fermenters or fermentation tanks), the initial raw materials are chemically changed to form the desired end product. Although it sounds quite simple, this procedure presents two major challenges. First, the conditions under which the reactions occur must be rigidly maintained. Temperature, pressure, pH, oxygen content, and flow rate are only a few of the variables that must be kept at very specific levels. With the development of automated and computerized equipments, it is becoming much easier to accurately monitor reaction conditions and thus increase production efficiency. Second, the reactions result in the formation of many unwanted by-products. The presence of contaminating waste material often poses a two-fold problem: how to recover (or separate) the end product in a way that leaves as little residue as possible in the catalytic system (since enzymatic catalysts remain unchanged as they drive reactions, they can be used over and over again); and how to isolate the desired product in pure form. The many potential uses of biotechnology are developed through laboratory procedures that generally produce only small amounts of useful substances. As advances in bioprocess technology, particularly' separation and purification techniques, are made, commercial firms will be able to economically produce these substances in large amounts, and thus make them available for use in medical research, food processing, agriculture, pharmaceutical development, waste management, and numerous other fields of science and industry.

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