Lecture Notes On NanoTechnology

Mahesh Lohith K.S,VVIET, Mysore

1 Introduction to Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is a branch of physics which deals with the design construction
and utilization of functional structures with atleast one characteristic dimension
measured in nanometer. Such materials and systems can exhibit novel and
improved remarkable properties, phenomenon and processes as a result of their
limited size constitutent particles or molecules. This is due to the intermediate
behavior in an extent between individual particles and the bulk material called
mesoscopic behavior.Richard Feynmann in the year 1959 promoted the idea
of Nanotechnology. The “Nanotechnology” was named so in the year 1974 by
Norio Taniguchi.

2 Nano Materials
It has been observed that the values of some of the physical quantities like
Young’s Modulus and thermal conductivity are independent of the size for
bulk materials.This notion holds good only to a certain extent of limiting size
(nanoscale) is reached, below which the physical properties are size dependent.
Thus the material exhibits a remarkable interesting behavior in this state and
is called the mesoscopic state. A conductor exhibits semiconducting behavior
when the bulk material is reduced to nanometer dimension (Cluster of metal
atoms). The cluster of atoms is called Nanoparticle. A nano-materials are
made of nano-structures like Quantum Dots, Quantum wires,Carbon Nanotubes
and Fullerenes. Nano materials are of two types.

2.1 Inorganic Nanomaterials

The organic nano materials made of nano structures formed by inorganic mate-
rials. Gold nano clusters, Fullerenes, and Carbon nanotubes etc., are classified
into this type.

2.1.1 Gold Nano Particle

It is a cluster of gold atoms and its dimension is of few nanometer. This could
also be referred to as Quantum Dot because the electron has no degrees of
freedom due to 3-D confinement. Gold nano particle absorbs energy and emits
visible wavelength which depends on the size of the partcile. Thus, in olden
days, it is used to pigment the glass which were used for window panes.

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 Figure 1: Gold Nano Particles

2.1.2 Fullerene
It is an allotropic form of carbon in which 60,50 or 40 carbon atoms are arranged
forming a spherical structure similar to the foot ball. Fullerene as itself behaves
like a single intact entity and is found to be extremely useful in Drug Delivery
System(DDS) and in the formation of Carbon Nanotubes.

Figure 2: Fullerene

2.1.3 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)

It is also an allotropic form of carbon and a single entity having novel proper-
ties which make it a very useful nano structure in nano electronics and nano
composites. The carbon nanotube is a cylyndrical structure made of carbon
and is of dimension around 1.5 nm. This could be formed either by folding the
carbon sheets of graphite or using fullerenes. It has electrical properties better
than copper and it has a very high Young’s modulus. Thus it is being used as
a nano wire and also in the manufacturing of composites which are light,strong
and tough. It can replace certain circuit elements like MOSFET because CNTs
can be used in FETs(Field Effect Transistor). Thus the miniaturization from
micro to nano dimensions made possible. CNTs are also used in DDS. CNTs
can also be used as sensing nano devices. CNT’s are of two types
1. Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube (SWCNT) is a just single cylinder
2. Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube (MWCNT) consisting concentric nan-
otube cylinders.

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CNTs have different types of arrangements of carbon atoms and they are
1. Armchair

2. Zigzag
3. Chiral

Figure 3: Carbon Nanotube

2.2 Organic Nanomaterials

They are the nanomaterials made of carbon compounds. Self Organization is a
technique using which the molecules can be assembled to form nano structures.
Self Assembly is achieved by providing the suitable Physical and Chemical envi-
ronment The modification of DNA molecule using this technique has remarkable
improvement in genetic evolution. The DNAs are the genetic codes which carry
message through generations can be modified to make the life resistant for cer-
tain hereditric diseases. Self organisation of organic nanomaterials results in the
growth artificial layers of skin, liver tissues and other organs.

3 Molecular Manufacturing
Molecular manufacturing is a future technology that will allow us to build large
objects to atomic precision, quickly and cheaply, with virtually no defects. This
involves chemical reactions controlled by a type of machinery called Molecu-
lar Machinery. Robotic mechanisms will position and react molecules to build
systems to complex atomic specification. The act of controlling and guiding
a chemical reaction mechanically during a synthesis is called Mechanosyntheis.
The theoretical capabilities and performance of these systems have been an-
alyzed for over many years. Some of the molecular machine components are
being built. The molecular manufacturing could mature within the next few
years. When it becomes available, it will enable immensely powerful computers,
abundant and high quality consumer goods, and devices able to cure diseases
by repairing the body at the molecular level.

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4 Fabrication Technology
The fabrication of nanostructures and materials could be achieved through two
approaches
1. Top-Down approach
2. Bottom-Up approach
The molecular nanotechnology makes use of the Bottom-up approach for the
fabrication of nanosystems.

4.1 Top-Down appaorach

This is the method of reducing the dimension of the material of bulk scale to
a nano scale. Lithograhic and etchig techniques are used to construct nano
structures and devices.

4.2 Bottom-up approach

Molecular manufacturing is an anticipated future technology based on Feyn-
man’s vision of factories using nanomachines to build complex products, includ-
ing additional nanomachines. The basic idea is to mix molecules in solution,
allowing them to wander and bump together at random, nanomachines will in-
stead position molecules, placing them in specific locations in a carefully chosen
sequence. Letting molecules bump at random leads to unwanted reactions and
a problem that grows worse as products get larger. By holding and positioning
molecules, nanomachines will control how the molecules react, building up com-
plex structures with atomically precise control. This Self organization or Self
assembly is a bottom up apparoach used in building nano machines.

5 Nano-Mechanical Bearings

Figure 4: Nano-Mechanical Bearing

Nano-Mechanical Bearings are the Nano devices formed to reduce friction in

nanomachines. They are realised using the polycyclic ring structure of atoms

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as shown in the sketch and roughly resemble the mechanical bearigs of bulk
machines. The bearing action is based on the internal motions of atoms in
the molecules such as vibration and rotation due to temperature. But at the
given temperature different components or molecules exhibit internal motions
to different extents. The componets or the layers of the bearing are so formed
at a given temperarure some are stiff and some are free to move. This results
in bearing action. These are also referred to as molecular bearings.
Apart form the type of bearing shown in the sketch there are other types
of bearings like telescopic bearings formed using two carbon nanotubes one
rotating inside the other and also having the property of telescopic sliding.

6 Scaling of Classical Mechanical Systems

6.1 Classical Mechanical Systems
Approximations are very much required since accurate physical models are com-
putationally hard to deal with. Engineers use approximations of classical me-
chanics in the design of macromechanical systems by neglecting quantum me-
chanics. Since the macromechanical systems blend into the nanomechanical
systems, the approximations encroch even into nanomechanical systems. The
mechanical systems which does not obeys law of quantization of energy ex-
changes and the system for which the heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is not
applicable is called Classical Mechanical system. The wave nature of matter
has no role to play. Thus the measurements are considered to be accurate and
dependent only on the accuracies of the measuring instrument. The system com-
pletely follows classical equations of motion and energy exchanges This provides
an adequate basis for the design and analysis of the nanoscale systems.

6.2 Basic Assumptions

For the scaling of classical mechanical systems the fields and currents are ne-
glected. The mechanical properties like strengths, moduli, densities and co-
efficient of friction are held to be constant.

6.3 Scaling Laws

The characterization of variation of measures of physical quantities of a system
using the relationships with respect to their dimensions are the scaling laws.

6.3.1 Magnitudes and Scaling

1. If the stress and material strength are held constant then both the strength
of a structure and the force it exerts scale with its cross-sectional area.
T otalStrength ∝ F orce ∝ Area ∝ L2
2. Similarly the shearing stiffness depends directly on area and depends
Area
inversly on Length height. Therefore ShearingStif f ness ∝ Length ∝
1
Length ∝ L

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 3. If the Density is assumed to be constant then the mass is proportional to
volume. Hence mass ∝ volume ∝ L3 . This expression yields the scaling of
−1
accleration and the relation ship is given by Acceleration ∝ FMorce
ass ∝ L
since F orce ∝ Area ∝ L2 under constant stress
4. Characteristic frequencies are inversly proportional to Characteristic times
F requency ∝ time1
∝ L−1
5. Characteristic times are inversely proportional to characteristic frequen-
1
cies T imeP eriod ∝ F requency ∝ L1
6. The problems of liquid lubrication motivate consideration of dry bearings.
Assuming a constant coefficient of friction F rictionf orce ∝ F orce ∝ L2

6.4 Major Corrections

In addition to molecular structure of matter the major corrections to the results
suggested by these scaling laws include uncertainties in position and velocity
resulting from statistical and quantum mechanics

7 Scaling of Classical ElectroMagnetic Systems

The electromaganetic systems that obey classical laws are called Classical Elec-
troMagnetic systems. Even in these systems the quantization effects and uncer-
tainty effects have no role to play.

7.1 Basic Assumptios

It is convenient to assume that electrostatic field strengths and hence electro-
static stresses are independent of scale, for the scaling of electronagnetic sys-
tems. The magnetic effects are ignored. Such scaling is referred to as Constant
field scaling. Then for an electro-mechanical system the same assumptions of
classical electrostatic and classical mechanical scaling hold good.

7.2 Major Corrections

The important corrections to the assumptions which neglect quantum effects
are
1. Many electromechanical systems use nano wires and insulating layers for
which electrical conductivity is an important consideration. The conduc-
tion occurs through a phenomenon called Quantum mechanical tunnel-
ing.Thus Corrections to classical continuum models are more important
in electromagnetic systems than in mechanical systems. The quantum ef-
fects become dominant and at small scales can render classical continuum
models useless even as crude approximations.
2. Electromagnetic systems on a nanometer scale commonly have extremely
high frequencies. Thus the molecules undergoing electronic transitions
typically absorb and emit light in the visible to ultraviolet range, rather
than the infrared range characteristic of thermal excitation at room tem-
perature.

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 3. At high frequencies, the inertial effects of electron mass become significant,
but these are neglected in the usual macroscopic expressions for electrical
circuits.

7.3 Steady state and Time varying electromagnetic sys-

tems
• The electromagnetic systems that do not under go any change with respect
to time are called steady state electromagnetic systems. Electrostatic and
Magnetostatic systems are the steady state systems. Charged capacitor
that does not have any surrounding to discarge and a wire carrying con-
stant current are the examples for steady state systems.
• If the fields and currents are subjected to variations then the system is
called time varying electromagnetic system. For example oscillations in
LCR circuit.

7.4 Magnitude and Scaling of Electromagnetic systems

Following examples are for the steady state electromagnetic systems.
1. Given a scale-invariant electrostatic field strength, V oltage ∝ ElectrostaticF ield×
Length ∝ L
2. A scale-invariant field strength implies a Electrostaticf orce ∝ area ×
Electrostaticf ield2 ∝ L2