Surfaces, Interfaces, and their Applications II

Introduction to Wear

1 Introduction to Wear
1.1 Recap: Definition of Tribology
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and related subjects and processes. Tribology covers the fields of friction, lubrication, and wear.

1.2 Recap: Normal Loads, Contact Areas and Roughness

Figure 1-1: Contacts between real surfaces.

Rubbing surfaces are never perfectly flat, but they have a certain amount of roughness. The normal load is not borne by the apparent area of contact, but by a much smaller true area of contact. This corresponds to the raised areas, or asperities on each surface, coming into contact with each other. Since these contact areas are relatively small, the corresponding pressures are relatively large, with the result that the asperities become plastically deformed upon contact with each other. This continues until the contact areas increase sufficiently such that the contact pressure drops below the elastic limit of the material.

1.3 Recap: Friction and Lubrication

1.3.1 Definition of Friction Friction can be described as the resistance encountered when one body is moved over another.

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Figure 1-2: The frictional force needs to be overcome, in order to cause a body to slide.

The relation between normal load and frictional force is represented by the friction coefficient, :

=F/W
-values describe the magnitude of the frictional force. Values beween around 0.001 (e.g. in a lubricated bearing under light loads) and around 10 (e.g.when clean metals rub against each other in vacuum) are encountered, although most -values for sliding surfaces in air fall between 0.1 and 1.0. 1.3.2 The Stribeck Curve It is frequently observed in lubricated systems that the friction coefficient changes as a function of speed. This is shown in the well-known Stribeck curve, in which the friction coefficient, , is displayed as a function of the viscosity multiplied by the tangential velocity, and divided by the normal load (U/W). The curve can be divided into three regions.

Figure 1-3: Change of the friction coefficient with the quantity U/W for lubricated sliding bearings: The Stribeck curve.

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Introduction to Wear

1.3.3 Boundary Lubricants At very high loads or low speeds, hydrodynamic forces can no longer maintain a lubricant film between the sliding surfaces and direct contact between the asperities starts to become important. A boundary lubricant is essential under these conditions, in order to avoid excessive friction and wear. Boundary lubricants form adsorbed molecular films on the surfaces. The repulsive forces between the films carry a significant part of the load and shield the asperities from unprotected contact.

Figure 1-4: Simplified view of boundary lubrication: polar end-groups of hydrocarbon chains bind to the surfaces and form a layer of lubricating molecules that reduce direct contact between asperities. There is much evidence that, in reality, thicker layers are frequently formed, although monolayers have been demonstrated to afford some degree of protection.

Examples of boundary lubricants are the long-chain carboxylic acids, whose polar end-groups make a strong bond with the oxide layer of the metal surfaces. The long chains can orient themselves and form protective layers, 2-3nm thick, sometimes reacting with the substrate to form thicker layers (metal soaps). The reduction of the friction coefficient is dependent on the chain length.

Figure 1-5: Variation of friction coefficient as a function of the lubricant chain length for steel surfaces, lubricated with carboxylic acids and alcohols.

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Introduction to Wear

Figure 1-6: Friction coefficient as a function of chain length for hydrocarbons on tungsten surfaces.

Many plant oils (e.g. rapeseed oil) contain long-chain molecules that are polar, and can function as boundary lubricants. Only a small concentration (0.1-1wt.%) of such molecules is necessary, in order to afford a certain degree of surface protection under boundary conditions. A second class of molecules that protects surfaces under extreme conditions is known as Extreme-pressure additives. These are molecules that only react once extreme conditions (e.g. pressure, temperature) are reached, at which point they react with the surface, producing a protective layer with low shear strength in exactly the right place. This class of additive frequently contains sulfur, phosphorus, or chlorine, forming sulfides, phosphates, or chlorides on the surface, which possess low shear strength. Frequently used molecules include zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZnDTP), tricresyl phosphate (TCP) and dibenzyl disulfide (Figure 717). The mechanism of action of ZnDTP is extremely complex and has been extensively investigated, and a model of the structure of the protective film is shown in Figure 7-18.

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Introduction to Wear

Figure 1-7: Structure of three extreme pressure antiwear additives: (a) tricresyl phosphate (TCP) (b) dibenzyl disulfide (c)zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate (ZDTP).

Figure 1-8 Structure of protective film formed by ZnDTP on steel

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Introduction to Wear

The development of a lubricant requires considerable effort, since the various additives may not be compatible with each other. In particular, it is possible that competitive adsorption between additives leads to a reduction of the effectiveness of EP additives. On the other hand, excessive reaction of the EP additives with the surface can lead to corrosive effects. Many EP additives are ecologically undesirable and alternatives are being urgently sought.

1.4 Wear
1.4.1 The Archard Wear Equation Whenever surfaces rub against each other, wear almost always occurs. A simple analysis (Holm and Archard), which was originally developed for metals, yields a wear coefficient, K, which is frequently used in practice. One of the assumptions for the analysis is that the contact between the surfaces occurs at asperities and that the true contact area is the sum of the individual asperity contacts. This area is proportional to the normal load and the local deformation is assumed to be plastic.

Figure 1-9: Schematic diagram of the formation of a contact area during the relative motion of two asperities.

In Figure 1-9, the contact between two asperities is shown. In (c), the contact area becomes maximal and the normal load, which is supported by this contact area, is given by:

W=pa2

Flow pressure: p Radius of the contact area: a

p is the flow pressure, which normally corresponds to the indentation hardness, H. During sliding [(d) and (e)], the task of supporting the normal load is taken over by other asperity contacts, such that continuous sliding involves continuous creation and destruction of single asperity-contact areas. Wear is due to the removal of fragments of material from the asperities. The volume of the single fragments depends on the size of the asperity-contact areas, i.e. the volume of the removed materials is proportional to the cube of the contact dimension, a. If we assume that this volume consists of a half-sphere of radius a, 2 V = a 3 3

Surfaces, Interfaces, and their Applications II

Introduction to Wear

Not all asperity contacts lead to wear particles. Let us assume that a proportion, forms particles. The mean wear volume, V, produced by the sliding of an asperity pair over each other is given, per unit sliding distance, by:

Q =

V a 2 = 2a 3

The total wear rate, due to all asperity contacts, Q, is the sum of all contributions over the total contact area:

Q = Q =

a 2 3

The total normal load is given by:

W = W = p a 2

And so the wear rate, Q, is

Q=

W KW = 3p H

In the second part of this equation, /3 has been replaced by K and p by the indentation hardness, H. This equation, which shows the relation between worn volume per unit sliding distance and the normal load and hardness of the softer surface, is often called the Archard Equation. The constant, K, which is usually called the wear coefficient, is dimensionless, and always <1. K/H [mm3N-1m-1], sometimes called the dimensional wear coefficient is often used, especially in cases when the hardness is not easily definable (e.g. in the case of elastomers). K/H is the quantity of worn material [mm3] per unit sliding distance [m] per unit of normal load [N]. The wear rate is, according to the assumptions of Archard, independent of the sliding speed and the apparent contact area. This assumption appears to hold in many situations.

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Introduction to Wear

Figure 1-10: Wear, shown as pin wear volume over the entire sliding distance in an unlubricated pin-on-ring test, sliding on tool steel (when not otherwise mentioned).

The curves in Fig. 1-10 show the characteristics of the materials under steady-state conditions. Surfaces must often be run-in before this behavior can be observed. The following table shows values of the dimensionless wear coefficient, K for various materials sliding on tool steel, obtained in an unlubricated pin-on-ring test in air. The values are highly dependent on test conditions and thus provide little insight into the wear mechanisms involved. Material mild steel / Brass PTFE Brass PMMA copper-beryllium hardened tool steel Stellite 1 stainless steel (ferritic) PE Sliding partner Mild steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Wear coefficients, K 710-3 610-4 2.510-5 1.710-4 710-6 3.710-5 1.310-4 5.510-5 1.710-5 1.310-7

The values are all between 10-7 and 10-2. This is a far greater range than seen with friction coefficients. There is no apparent correlation between the two quantities. 1.4.2 Mild and Severe Wear During wear experiments with brass, the following behavior is observed:

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Introduction to Wear

Figure 1-11: Wear and electrical contact resistance for a pin made from /-brass sliding on hardened stellite (Co-alloy) as a function of the normal load.

These experiments were carried out using hexadecane as a lubricant, but not under hydrodynamic conditions. Similar results were obtained during dry sliding. At low loads, the Archard equation holds, with a K-value of around 210-6. At loads between 5 and 10N, the wear rate increases significantly by a factor 100. Above this region, the Archard equation holds once more, with a new wear coefficient of 10-4. The wear-rate transition coincides both with a drop in

Surfaces, Interfaces, and their Applications II

Introduction to Wear

electrical resistance, as well as a change in the color and size of wear particles. Below the transition, the behavior is known as mild wear, and above the transition as severe wear. Mild wear involves small (0.01 - 1 m) wear particles, which mostly consist of oxides. On the other hand, the characteristic particles during severe wear are much larger (20 - 200m) and chiefly metallic in composition. Severe wear is unacceptable in most practical applications. The mechanism of the transition is confirmed by the following results:

Figure 1-12: Variation of wear coefficient with sliding speed for / brass sliding on steel at various temperatures and environments.

1.5 Measurement of Wear

A standard result review for wear tests, defined by the ASTM International, should be expressed as loss of material during wear in terms of volume. The volume loss gives a truer picture than weight loss, particularly when comparing the wear resistance properties of materials with large differences in density. For example, a weight loss of 14 g in a sample of tungsten carbide + cobalt (density = 14000 kg/m) and a weight loss of 2.7 g in a similar sample of aluminium alloy (density = 2700 kg/m) both result in the same level of wear (1 cm) when expressed as a volume loss. The inverse of volume loss can be used as a comparable index of wear resistance. A common unit for measuring wear is volume/sliding distance/load (mm3/m/N). This makes the assumption that the Archard equation holds!

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Surfaces, Interfaces, and their Applications II

Introduction to Wear

1.6 Types of Wear

1.6.1 Adhesive Wear Adhesion is the result of the direct contact of bearing metals. When the applied load is sufficient to rupture any protective surface film (oxides, etc.), the contacting asperities deform elastically, then plastically. Welding of these asperities may occur on contact, but occurs more readily when relative motion takes place. The shearing of these adhesive junctions produces wear particles; it is through this process also that metal is transferred from one bearing surface to the other in sliding or rolling motion. When adhesive-wear damage is severe, it is referred to as scuffing. If frictional heating causes decomposition and/or desorption of protective films from the surface, the process can become destructive.

Figure 1-13: Process of adhesive wear (www.machinerylubrication.com)

The factors decreasing adhesive wear (www.substech.com): Lower load. Harder rubbing materials. Contaminated rubbing surfaces. Presence of solid lubricants. Presence of a lubricating oil. Anti-wear additives in oil. 1.6.2 Abrasive Wear (www.substech.com) Abrasive wear occurs when a harder material is rubbing against a softer material. If there are only two rubbing parts involved in the friction process the wear is called two-body wear. In this case the wear of the softer material is caused by the asperities on the harder surface. If the wear is caused by a hard particle (grit) trapped between the rubbing surfaces it is called three-body wear. The particle may be either free or partially embedded into one
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Surfaces, Interfaces, and their Applications II

Introduction to Wear

of the mating materials.

Figure 1-14: Process of abrasive wear (www.substech.com)

On the micro-level, abrasive action results in one of the following wear modes: Ploughing. This wear mechanism is mainly governed by plastic deformation. Sliding of the constrained abrasive particle occurs without material being removed from the wearing surface, as it is shifted to the sides of the wear groove. (Picture, EC de Lyon, Elleuch et al, Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, Vol. 55 Iss: 6 pp. 279 286. Ploughing of Aluminium alloy)

Cutting. Here, also the wear mechanism is also in part governed by plastic deformation. In fact, the abrasive particle acts as a cutting tool and a chip is formed in front of the cutting edge of the abrasive particle. In this case, lost material from the wearing surface occurs in a volume equal to the volume of the wear track (groove).

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Introduction to Wear

Picture Substech.com.

Cracking (brittle fracture). Always occurs when highly concentrated stresses are imposed by abrasive particles. Due to a poor plastic deformation ability of the considered material, large wear fragments are detached from the wearing surface owing to microcrack formation and propagation. The volume of the lost material is higher than the volume of the wear track. (Photo: R. Crockett, Empa. Worn alumina femoral head from artificial hip joint)

In conclusion, ploughing and cutting are the dominant wear mechanisms encountered with ductile materials, while cracking becomes important on brittle materials where the hardness is considered as a unique answer to oppose the abrasive wear in service.

1.6.3 Surface Fatigue Fatigue wear of a material is caused by cycling loading during friction. Fatigue occurs if the applied load is higher than the fatigue strength of the material. Fatigue cracks start at the material surface and spread to the subsurface regions. The cracks may connect to each other resulting in separation and delamination of the material pieces. One of the types of fatigue wear is fretting wear caused by cyclic sliding of two surfaces across each other with a small amplitude (oscillating). The friction force produces alternating compression-tension stresses, which result in surface fatigue.

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Surfaces, Interfaces, and their Applications II

Introduction to Wear

Figure 1-15: Process of fatigue wear (www.substech.com)

1.6.4 Erosive Wear Erosive wear is caused by impingement of particles (solid, liquid or gaseous), which remove fragments of materials from the surface due to a momentum effect. Erosive wear of Engine bearings may be caused by cavitation in the lubrication oil. The cavitation voids (bubbles) may form when the oil exits from the convergent gap between the bearing and journal surfaces. The oil pressure rapidly drops, providing conditions for voids formation (the pressure is lower than the oil vapor pressure). The bubbles (voids) then collapse producing a shock wave, which removes particles of the bearing material from the bearing. 1.6.5 Corrosive Wear Wear may be accelerated by corrosion (oxidation) of the rubbing surfaces. Increased temperature and removal of the protecting oxide films from the surface during the friction promote the oxidation process. Sliding provides continuous removal of the oxide film followed by continuous formation of new oxide film. Hard oxide particles removed from the surface and trapped between the sliding/rolling surfaces additionally increase the wear rate by three-body abrasive wear mechanism.

1.7 Stages of Wear

(NASA SP 8063, June 1971) Wear takes place even in properly lubricated mechanisms (ball bearings, gears, bushings, cams, etc.) according to a definite pattern that is shown generalized in Figure 1-16. The initial wear rate (run-in) is relatively high because the microscopic surface asperities penetrate the lubricant film, particularly during the low speeds of start-up and shut-down. This rate is aggravated by oscillating motion and by increasing loads. If conditions are not sufficiently severe to cause scuffing in this stage, the wear rate is termed mild. Normal wear begins when the true area of bearing contact (total asperity-contact area) has been substantially increased by plastic deformation and wear to the extent that the lubricant is fully able to support the load; there will then be only occasional metal-to-metal contacts. From this point on, wear occurs at a negligible rate, modified only by such events as lubricant breakdown, sudden rises in temperature (which reduce oil viscosity), shock loads, or a significant reduction in speed. Normal wear may proceed indefinitely, depending on the several controlling variables, until sufficient debris has accumulated to cause one of the following failure modes: Stress risers in the path of motion, ultimately initiating fatigue Abrasive wear sufficient to change surface roughness or dimensions appreciably

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Physical blockage (e.g., in gear-teeth roots) When severe wear or scuffing sets in, the system is so close to failure that the rates of wear are only of academic interest.

Figure 1-16: Generalized pattern of the wear process (NASA SP-8063, 1971)

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