[BLANK_AUDIO]. Here we are again. I'm glad to see you.

We're now ready to define a macroscopic cross section and a main free path. Note that I said macroscopic as opposed to microscopic. Microscopic implies one neutron reacting with one nuclide, one on one. But reactors aren't made with only one nuclide. Reactors are made of many different materials and billions of nuclides, distributed over the spatial extent of the reactor. But first let me summarize a bit. The microscopic cross section, or little Greek sigma, is a measure of equivalent target size of the target nuclide being hit by a neutron. At least for the purpose of our mental image. To calculate real reaction rates of neutrons, we have to account for all of the nuclides that could be hit by neutrons. We form that probability by multiplying the microscopic cross section of each nuclide by the number of nuclides or atoms, if you like, that the neutron can hit. And of course we have to cre-, create such a macroscopic cross section for all the nuclides, all the materials in a reactor. We call that product the macroscopic cross section denoted by the capital symbol for sigma. Now you may get confused that I am introducing so many n's. I'll try to reserve capital N for the number density of a nuclide and the lower case n for neutron density. Let's dig a little deeper because we know from what we said before, that many different kinds of reactions can occur with neutrons. Neutrons can scatter. Neutrons can get captured. Neutrons can cause fissions. Question. How do we denote all the different kinds of reactions? Answer. We provide a subscript. A little s for scattering, a little a for absorption, little f for fission, little c for capture. Sometimes referred to as an n gamma cross

section, a neutron that's captured and out comes a gamma ray. We can sum them all up to get the total microscopic cross section. It's related to the probability that a neutron will have some kind of a reaction with a particular nuclide . How do we denote the total microscopic cross section? Well, by a subscript t, of course. Let's just take a look at what we may call the cross section hierarchy. Starting at the left, we see that the total microscopic cross section Is the sum of the absorption and scattering cross sections. The absorption microscopic cross section is the sum of the capture and fission cross sections. The scattering cross section is the sum of elastic and inelastic scattering cross sections. You can further break down the capture cross section into additional subcategories of capture cross sections, but we won't go there. After all, this is just an introductory look at nuclear science and technology. So, now, let me repeat myself for the two important concepts of microscopic and macroscopic cross sections. Microscopic cross sections give us information about the probability of interaction on a per nucleus basis. Macroscopic cross sections give us information about the probability of interaction on a macroscopic or material basis. Material such as fuel or a control absorber or some structural material in a nuclear reactor. What if we want to know the probability of an interaction in a material with a known density? Density of nuclei in the material. In this case, we need to multiply the probability of interacting with a single nucleus by the number density of nuclei in the material. The quantity, called capital sigma, is called the macroscopic cross section. It has units of inverse centimeters or 1 over centimeters. Let me say this again but with a few different words. The macroscopic cross section gives the probability that a neutron will undergo a reaction for distance it travels, the probability per centimeter, 1 over centimeters.

Since microscopic cross sections are energy dependent, it follows of course, that microscopic cross sections are dependent as well on the energy of the incident neutron. Macroscopic cross sections for individual reaction types [INAUDIBLE] absorption scattering and total can be calculated from the corresponding microscopic cross sections. Here is something that we touched upon briefly in Lecture 5 of Week 2, that of calculating number density of nuclei in a material. We know from what we just learned about macroscopic cross sections that number density of a material is needed to calculate a reaction rate with that material in a nuclear reactor. So, we need to have the number densities of all of the nuclides that are used in a material, and then for all of he materials that are used in a reactor. So, let's visit again old Avogadro and his number. Avogadro's number tells us that the number of atoms or the number of nuclei in a mole of a substance, define the number of density of nuclei in a material. We use the relationship shown here. Take the material density, in grams per cubic centimeter, times Avogadro's number in units of atoms per mole, and then divide by the number of grams in a mole of the material. The resulting units are atoms per centimeter cubed. Sometimes, instead of using the density of the material, we use the mass of material rather than the density in grams. In this case, the units come out as atoms. Summarizing, the product of a microscopic cross section of a material and atom density in the material, gives the macroscopic cross section for a material. The product of a macroscopic cross section and the neutron flux, there's a new term, represented by the Greek symbol phi, yields a reaction rate R. The units of reaction rate are reactions per centimeter cubed per second. But to get the reaction, we gotta get the flux. Let's talk a bit more about flux and reaction rates. Yes, this slide shows us how to calculate a reaction rate.

But to do so requires getting something called the neutron flux. So, now we have to define neutron flux, so we could calculate the reaction rate and perform the reaction rate calculations and design nuclear reactors. Neutron flux can be thought of as the rate at which neutrons pass through a spatial position, per unit time. Or it can be thought of as the total pathway traced out by all neutrons per unit time at a particular location in the reactor. The units of neutron flux are neutrons per centimeter squared per second. And it's a most important parameter for calculating reaction rates of neutrons with materials in a reactor. Here, we illustrate the meta model of what the neutron flux is, the total distance traveled by all neutrons during a small time interval, delta t. Or the total pathway generated by all neutrons during the time interval delta t. Let's look at that slide again. Here's that beginning of instant of time. Here you see the neutrons. Here's a tiny increment of time later. The neutrons trace out path lengths. Path lengths are different for different neutrons, because they all have different speeds. The neutron flux is often presented as a function of neutron energy. Here you see two representations of the flux referred to as neutron spectra. That flux labeled LWR is a typical neutron flux distribution for a thermal light water reactor. Neutrons are born at an average energy of two MeV. They slow down or get moderated to an energy of less than 1 MeV, some seven decades lower in energy space. The other example spectrum shown is that for a liquid metal fast breeder, or LMFBR. In this kind of reactor, the neutrons are born at the same energy, but are not slowed down or not moderated. They're purposely kept at high energy. Liquid metal is not a good moderator and does not slow the neutrons down effectively. So, the energy of the neutrons remains at high energies. That big dip you see in the fast neutron spectrum for the element Br is obviously caused by an absorption [INAUDIBLE]

resonance a little below, above one KeV. We normally want to know the total reaction rate at a position r that accounts for neutrons taking place with neutrons of all energies. What you see here is a simplified model where we have integrated out or summed over, all energy space. This gives us the reaction rate density at a particular position r, in the reactor, accounting for reactions at all energies. This reaction right density is what must be calculated to design a reactor. It governs where the energy from fission is deposited, where the fissions are taking place. So, in only the third week of this course, we've gotten to the point where you can start to see how we design a reactor. Of course, the big technical barrier that we face is that of finding the neutron flux at all positions in the reactor for neutrons of all energies. But to get over that technical barrier would require more than a brief look at nuclear science and technology. One more thing, one more little illustration. How does a mono-directional beam of neutrons get attenuated as the neutrons impinge upon a slab of material, with a total macroscopic cross section of sigma sub t, or sigma total? Well, as the neutrons move through the material, they are attenuated with the exponential relationship you see here. Penetration of neutrons to distance x in the material is given by e to the minus sigma total times x. Here's that mathematical relationship. A small change in the flux delta phi as the neutrons penetrate the material is given by the macroscopic cross section times the flux, times the small increment of space, delta x. We can write this as differential equation by using the differential assembled d rather than delta. You don't have to understand this differential equation to know what we're doing now. But the solution to this differential equation is now given by the flux, flux at position 0 at the face of the material, times the exponential falloff of e to the minus sigma times x. I hope you didn't, I didn't lose you with that, with that little illustration.

You know this exponential behavior you're seeing here is much like the exponential behavior we introduced when we talked about radioactive decay. I hope I see you tomorrow. Take care. Bye.