1

CHAPTER 2

INTERNAL LOADS IN AEROSPACE STRUCTURES


2.1 Force and Moment Distributions
Slender body under axial force
Slender body under torque
Slender body under lateral loads

2.2 Inertia Loads

Load factor
Examples











2
2.1 Force and Moment Distributions

Aircraft with high aspect ratio wings and rockets can be modeled as a slender structures
subjected to external loads in the form of axial forces, lateral forces and moments. These
external loads in turn induce internal forces and moments. In the following sections, we
will look at the distributions of forces and moments along slender structures. We will
consider only statically determinate cases.


Recall:
1) For statically determinate structures, force and moment distributions can be
determined considering only equilibrium equations.
2) For statically indeterminate structures, it is necessary to consider the
deformation under applied load to determine force and moment distributions.















3
2.1.1 Resultant Forces and Moments



Consider a slender body with the x-axis placed along the longest dimension. Now lets
introduce an imaginary cut normal to the x axis and consider the stress components acting
over a cross-section located at coordinate x as shown below.






















Then three resultant forces and three resultant moments acting over the cross-section are
defined as follows :

}
= dA x F
xx
o ) ( : axial force in the x direction
}
= dA x V
xy y
t ) ( : (transverse) shear force in the y direction
}
= dA x V
xz z
t ) ( : (transverse) shear force in the z direction
}
= dA z x M
xx y
o ) ( : moment around the y axis
}
= dA y x M
xx z
o ) ( : moment around the z axis
}
= dA z y x T
xy xz
) ( ) ( t t : torque or moment around the x axis
t
xz
t
xy y
z
dA
y
z
x
y
z
x
V x
z
( )
V x
y
( )
T(x)
M x
y
( )
M x
z
( )
z
y
x
o
xx
This figure shows positive forces and
moments on the positive x-surface.
F(x)
positive x-surface
4
( ) 1000 F x lb =






( ) 1000 F x lb =
x
x
1000 1000
x
x
1000 1000
5
5000
z
V lb =






( ) 5000
z
V x lb =
x
x
5000
5000
z
x
x
5000
5000
z
6
5000
y
M lb in =





5000
y
M lb in =

x
x
5000
5000
z
x
x
5000
5000
z
7
2.1.2 Slender Body under Axial Force

A rocket or a helicopter blade can be modeled as a slender body under axial force.








f x ( ) : applied force per unit length, e.g. gravity
A x ( ) : cross-sectional area


To look at equilibrium, lets create a free body by introducing imaginary cut(s).

Introduce a cut at x and consider the free body on the right hand side of the cut.










(Axial forces) = 0

for the free body.

P lb
x=0
f lb/in
x=L
x
P
x

d +
P lb
0 x =
x
f
d f ) (
F(x)
( ) F x ( ) F x
x
0
0
x

=
=

d
8
( ) ( ) 0
L
x
F x P f d

=
=
+ =
}
(1)

( ) ( )
L
x
F x P f d

=
=
= +
}
(2)



Example :

Consider a rocket on a launch pad modeled as a slender body under its own weight.














Mg: payload weight, m(x): mass per length, g: gravity

Introducing a cut at x,

( ) ( ) ( )
L L
x x
F x f d Mg mg d Mg



= =
= =
= =
} }
(1)

For constant m,
( )
( ) ( )
L
x
F x mg Mg
F x mg L x Mg
=
=
(2)
x=0
f lb/in
x=L
x
payload Mg
9

2.1.3 Slender Body under Torque

Consider a high aspect ratio wing subject to aerodynamic moment and, possibly, wing tip
moment due to a wing tip fuel tank or an engine. The x-axis is along the wingspan.














( )
T
f x : applied torsional moment per unit length
T : torsional moment applied at x = L

Using double arrows to indicate torque,








To look at equilibrium, lets create a free body by introducing imaginary cut at x and
consider the right hand side of the cut.











(torques acting over the free body) = 0

( )
T
f x
T
x=0 x
x
x=0
x=L
( ) :
T
lb in
f x
in

in lb T :
( )
T
f x
T
x
10

For the free body, lets look at the span between and + d .













( ) ( ) 0
( ) ( )
L
T
x
L
T
x
T x T f d
T x T f d

=
=
=
=
+ + =
= +
}
}
(1)


Example: A straight wing fixed at the root (x = 0) is subjected to a torque produced by
the aileron deflection. The aileron extends from x = L/2 to wing tip (x = L). Torque ( )
T
f x
per unit aileron span is assumed constant f
o
. Determine torque T(x).

(1) 0
2
L
x s s











0 0 0 0
2
2 2 2
1
( ) ( )
2
L L L
L
L T
L L L
T x f d f d f d f f L

= = =
=
=
= = =
= = = = =
} } }

T
( )
T
f d
T(x)
d
d + 0,
0 x
=
=

x
( )
T
f d
T(x)
d
d +

0,
0 x
=
=

x
2
L

11
(2)
2
L
x L s s









0 0 0 0
( ) ( ) ( )
L L L
L
T
x
x x x
T x f d f d f d f f L x

= = =
=
=
= = =
= = = = =
} } }



( )
T
f d
T(x)
d
d +

0,
0 x
=
=

x
x
L
0
T
f L

0.5
0.5 1.0
12
1.4.4 Slender Body under Lateral Loads

High aspect ratio aircraft wing, tails and fuselage can be modeled as a beam.

Example: A wing of a VTOL aircraft subjected to an engine thrust at the wingtip can be
modeled as a cantilever beam under a tip force as shown below.








To determine shear force and moment distributions due to the tip force, lets introduce an
imaginary cut located at x to create a free body as shown below.












Consider the free body on the right hand side of the cut.

(the sum of vertical forces) = 0

( ) 0 ( )
z z
V x P V x P + = = (1)

(the sum of moments) = 0

( ) ( ) 0
( ) ( )
y
y
M x P L x
M x P L x
=
=
(2)

0 x =
x L =
P
z
x
V x
z
( )
M x
y
( )
V x
z
( )
x
M x
y
( )
P
x L =
13
Example: A high aspect ratio wing with a podded engine can be modeled as a cantilever
beam under a downward force as shown below.








1) 0 x a s s

Consider an imaginary cut located at x as shown below.











Consider the free body on the right hand side of the cut.

(the sum of vertical forces) = 0, ( ) 0 ( )
z E z E
V x W V x W = =
(the sum of moments) = 0, ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( )
y E y E
M x W a x M x W a x + = =

2) a x L s s
0 x =
x L =
z
E
W
x a =
x
V x
z
( )
M x
y
( )
V x
z
( )
x
M x
y
( )
x L =
E
W
x a =
x
V x
z
( )
M x
y
( )
V x
z
( )
x
M x
y
( )
x L =
E
W
x a =
E
W : engine weight
( ) 0
( ) 0
z
y
V x
M x
=
=

14
Example:
A wing subjected to a lift, its own weight or fuel weight can be modeled as a cantilever
beam under a distributed load ( )
z
p x as shown below.











Introduce a cut at x to isolate a free body.














In addition, consider a section between and +d of the free body,

}

=
=
= + =
L
x
z z
d p x V z

0 ) ( ) ( 0 ) in (Force (1)
}
=
=
=
L
x
z z
d p x V

) ( ) ( (2)
}

=
=
= + =
L
x
z y
d p x x M x

0 ) ( ) ( ) ( 0 ) about (Moment (3)

( ) ( ) ( )
L
y z
x
M x x p d

=
=
=
}
(4)
x
x=0
p x
lb
in
z
( ),
x=L
x
V x
z
( )
M x
y
( )
V x
z
( )
x
d

M x
y
( )
( )
z
p
15
Example: A lift over the wingspan may be interpolated as a polynomial function as
follows:

2
( )
z
p x A Bx Cx = + + +"

where coefficients , A Band C are determined via matching the actual lift distribution
with the quadratic function at three points along the wing span.

Now lets look at shear force and moment corresponding to the individual terms.

(1) ( ) ( )
z z
p x A p A = =


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
L L L
L
z z
x
x x x
z
V x p d Ad A d A
V x A L x

= = =
=
=
= = =
= = = =
=
} } }




2
2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
1
( ) ( )
2
L L
y z
x x
L
L
x x
y
M x x p d x Ad
A x d A x
M x A L x

= =
= =
=
=
= =
= =
| |
= =
|
\ .
=
} }
}



(2) ( ) ( )
z z
p x Bx p B = =


2
2 2
( ) ( )
2
( ) ( )
2
L
L L L
z z
x x x x
z
V x p d B d B d B
B
V x L x

=
= = =
= = = =
= = = =
=
} } }



3 2
2
3 2 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
3 2
( ) (2 3 )
6
L L
y z
x x
L
L
x x
y
M x x p d x B d
B x d B x
B
M x L L x x

= =
= =
=
=
= =
= =
| |
= =
|
\ .
= +
} }
}


16


(3)
2 2
( ) ( )
z z
p x Cx p C = =


3
2 2
3 3
( ) ( )
3
( ) ( )
3
L
L L L
z z
x x x x
z
V x p d C d C d C
C
V x L x

=
= = =
= = = =
= = = =
=
} } }



2
4 3
3 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
4 3
( )
L L
y z
x x
L
L
x x
y
M x x p d x C d
C x d B x
M x

= =
= =
=
=
= =
= =
| |
= =
|
\ .
=
} }
}
"



Note:








( ) (1 )
z
x
p x a A Bx
L
= = +

,
a
A a B
L
= =
z
p
a
x
L
17
2.2 Inertia Loads

Load Factor

For an aircraft in flight, load factor n is defined as

W
L
n =

where L = lift, W = vehicle weight.

1) For an aircraft in level flight, L = W and n = 1.

2) For an aircraft accelerating in vertical direction,








Newtons 2
nd
law

W L Ma =

where M : vehicle mass, a : acceleration

(1 )
W a
L Ma W a W W
g g
= + = + = +
or L nW =

with 1
a
n
g
= +











L
a
W
18
Inertia Force and Inertia moment


Inertia Force:
Consider a mass M under applied force F.

a: acceleration



Newtons second law: Ma F = (1)

Equation (1) can be rewritten as ( ) 0 F Ma + = (2)

which corresponds to the static condition shown below:




So, it is observed that, with the inertia force ( ) Ma ,

(forces) 0 =

: force equilibrium
======================================================
Note: Consider a mass accelerating vertically as shown in the sketch










From the sketch on the right hand side,

0 (1 ) 0
a
F W Ma F W F nW
g
= + = =
where 1
a
n
g
= + : load factor

M
F
a
Ma
F
F
W Mg = Ma
F
W Mg =
a
19
Inertia Moment:

T : Applied moment
I : Mass moment of inertia
u

: Angular acceleration


Newtons second law for a rotating mass:

I T u =

(3)

Equation (3) can be rewritten as

( ) 0 T Iu + =

(4)

which corresponds to a static condition shown as follows:





So, it is observed that, with the inertia moment ( ) Iu

,

(moments) 0 =

: moment equilibrium

T u


I
Iu

T
20
Example:
Consider a single-stage rocket in vertical flight at a high altitude. The rocket is subjected
to thrust T = 7 Mg where M is the total mass. Total length of the rocket is L, and mass per
unit length is constant
o
m . Determine axial force ( ) F x . Assume no aerodynamic loads.















a : acceleration
7 6 6 Ma T Mg Mg Mg Mg a g = = = = (1)

0
0
( ) ( )( ) 0
x
T F x m d g a

=
=
+ + =
}
(2)
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
7 7
7 7 7 7
x x
x
F x T m d g a T m g a d
T m g d T m gx
M
Mg m gx Mg gx
L

= =
= =
=
=
= + + = + +
= + = +
= + = +
} }
}
(3)

or
( ) 7 ( 1) ( 1)
x x
F x Mg T
L L
= = (4)
0 x =
T
x
T ( ) F x

d
x/L
F/T
1.0
1.0
21
Example:

The rocket shown in the figure experiences a wind gust during its vertical ascent. The
gust results in the load )
2
3 (
0
L
x
p p
z
= per length. The pitching is prevented by
vectoring thrust T as shown. Assume m, mass per length, is constant.

Note: 1)
0
, , p T m and L are given quantities.
2) The c.g. of the rocket is at
2
L
x =

.
(a) Express angle u in terms of T,
0
p and length L.
(b) Determine shear force
z
V and moment
y
M along the length of the rocket. Express
them in terms of
0
p .
(c) Plot
0
( )
z
V p L vs. L x and
2
0
( )
y
M p L vs. L x .

























)
2
3 (
0
L
x
p p
z
=
0
3p
0
p
u
T
z
0 x =
x L =
22
Solution:
























(a)
Force equilibrium: 0
z
F =

,

0 0
sin 0
L L
z
amdx p dx T u + =
} }


For constant m,
0
0
2
3 sin 0
L
x
maL p dx T
L
u
| |
+ =
|
\ .
}

2
0
0
1
3 sin 0
L
maL p x x T
L
u
(
+ =
(



0
2 sin 0 maL Lp T u + = (1)


Moment equilibrium:
0
0
x
M
=
=

0 0
0
L L
z
xp dx xamdx =
} }

u
)
2
3 (
0
L
x
p p
z
=
T
ma
z
a: horizontal acceleration
23
2
0
0 0
2
3 0
L L
p x x dx xamdx
L
| |
=
|
\ .
} }

2 3 2
0
0 0
3 2 1
0
2 3 2
L L
p x x ma x
L
( (
=
( (



2 2
0
5
0
6 2
ma
p L L =

0
5

3
a p
m
= (2)

Placing equation (2) into equation (1),

0 0
0
5
2 sin 0
3
1
sin 0
3
p L Lp T
p L T
u
u
+ =
=

0
1
sin
3
T p L u = (3)


(b) Introduce a cut x to create a free body.
u
0
2
( ) (3 )
z
x
p x p
L
=
T
0
5
3
ma p =
0
2
( ) (3 )
z
p p
L

=
0
5
3
p
x

( )
z
V x
( )
y
M x
d
24
Consider the free body shown in the right sketch,


Force equilibrium:

0
5
( ) ( ) 0
3
L
z z z
x
F V x p p d
| |
= + =
|
\ .

}

( ) ( )
2
0 0 0
2 2
0
2 5 1 5
( ) 3 3
3 3
4 1

3
L
L
z
x
x
V x p p d p
L L
p L x L x
L

| | (
= =
`
|
(
\ . )

=
`
)
}



2
0
1 4
( )
3 3
z
x x
V x p L
L L

| | | |
= +
`
| |
\ . \ .

)





Moment equilibrium:

( ) ( ) ( )
0
5
( ) ( ) 0
3
L L
y y z
x x x
M M x p x d p x d = + =

} }

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
2
0 0
2 3
0
2 2 3 3
0
2 5
( ) 3
3
2 5 4 4 2 2
3
3 3 3
4 2 2

3 3 3
4 2 2

3 3 3
L L
y
x x
L L
x x
L
x
M x p x d p x d
L
x
p x d p x d
L L L
x
p x
L L
x
p x L x L x L x
L L

| |
= +
|
\ .
| | | |
= + + = + +
`
| |
\ . \ . )
( | |
= + +
| (
\ .
| |
= + +
`
|
\ . )
} }
} }


2 3
2
0
1 2 1
( )
3 3 3
y
x x x
M x p L
L L L

| | | | | |
= +
`
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

)
25














26
Example:
Consider a cargo plane in flight as shown in the sketch. The nose is located at a body
station (BS) of 0 in. The loaded plane weighs 150,000 lb, and its c.g. is at BS 250 in. The
fuselage is 600 in long and together with the payload weighs a constant 150 lb/in. The tail
weighs 2,000 lb and has a c.g. at BS 560in.

(a) Determine the c.g. location of the wing including the engines and the fuel in the wing.
(b) The aircraft is at a trimmed (i.e. no pitching acceleration) maneuver with a load factor
of n = 3. The resultant aerodynamic forces
W
L and
T
L on the wing and tail are
respectively at BS 200 in and 550 in. Determine
W
L and
T
L .
(c) Determine the shear and bending moment distribution on the fuselage.














-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a)











Determination of c.g. location for (wing + engine + fuel in the wing)


600
0
150, 000 150 2, 000 58, 000
wef wing engine fuel AC fuselage tail
wef
W W W W W W W
W dx lb
= + + =
= =
}
(1)

W
L
T
L
AC
W
B.S. 0 200 250 550 600
x
z
250 B.S. @ 000 , 150 lb W
AC
=
x W
wef
B.S. @
2, 000
@ 560 B.S.
tail
W lb =
x
x dx

150 lb/in
tail
W
560
27
0 c.g.) about Moment ( =

600
0
(250 ) (560 250) ( 250)150 0
wef tail
W x W x dx + + =
}
(2)
where x : c.g. location for
wef
W
600
0
58, 000(250 ) 2, 000(560 250) ( 250)150 0 x x dx + + =
}
(3)
in x 724 . 161 ) 000 , 500 , 4 000 , 620 (
000 , 56
1
250 = + = (4)


(b)

lb W
AC
000 , 150 =
3 = n
g g
W
M
AC
AC
000 , 150
= =




Maneuver load factor 3 n = (5)


Total AC
L nW = (6)

3 150, 000 450, 000
W T
L L lb + = = (7)

Taking moment about the c.g. of the aircraft in flight,

T W T W y
L L L L M 6 0 300 50 = = =

(8)

By solving equations (1) and (2),

385, 714.3 , 64, 285.7
W T
L lb L lb = = (9)

W
L
T
L
AC
W
a M
AC

28
(c) To determine shear force and moment distribution, the whole domain is divided into
five regions as shown in the sketch.

























I) Region (1) ) 724 . 161 0 ( s s x

x x V d V F
z
x
z z
450 ) ( 0 450
0
= = =
}

2
0
225 ) (
0 ) ( 450 ) (
x x M
d x M M
y
x
y A y
=
= =
}

200 B.S. @
3 . 714 , 385 lb L
W
=
724 . 161 B.S. @ 3
wef
W
3 @ 560 B.S.
tail
W
x
in lb / ) 150 ( 3
550 B.S. @
7 . 285 , 64 lb L
T
=
region (1) (2) (3)
(4)
(5)
y
M

d
x
z
V
A
29

II) Region (2) ) 200 724 . 161 ( s s x













000 , 174 450 ) ( 0 450 ) 000 , 58 ( 3
0
+ = = =
}

x x V d V F
z
x
z z

000 , 140 , 28 000 , 174 225 ) (
0 ) ( 450 ) 724 . 161 )( 000 , 58 ( 3 ) (
2
0
+ =
= =
}

x x x M
d x x M M
y
x
y A y




III) Region (3) ) 550 200 ( s s x












3 . 714 , 211 450 ) (
0 450 ) 000 , 2 ( 3 7 . 285 , 64
600
=
= + =
}

x x V
d V F
z
x
z z

600
2
( ) 64, 285.7(550 ) 3(2, 000)(560 ) 450( ) 0
( ) 225 211, 714.3 49, 002, 865
y A y
x
y
M M x x x d
M x x x
= + + =
= +

}


3 @ 560 B.S.
tail
W
64, 285.7
@ 550 B.S.
T
L lb =
y
M
z
V

A
x

d
x
724 . 161 B.S. @ 3
wef
W
y
M
z
V
A
d
30
IV) Region (4) ) 560 550 ( s s x














000 , 276 450 ) (
0 450 ) 000 , 2 ( 3
600
=
= =
}

x x V
d V F
z
x
z z

000 , 360 , 84 000 , 276 225 ) (
0 ) ( 450 ) 560 )( 000 , 2 ( 3 ) (
2
600
+ =
= + + =
}

x x x M
d x x M M
y
x
y A y



V) Region (5) ) 600 560 ( s s x













000 , 270 450 ) (
0 450
600
=
= =
}

x x V
d V F
z
x
z z

000 , 000 , 81 000 , 270 225 ) (
0 ) ( 450 ) (
2
600
+ =
= + =
}

x x x M
d x M M
y
x
y A y


3 @ 560 B.S.
tail
W
y
M
z
V

A
x
y
M
z
V

A
x
d
d
31


32