Wind Turbine Design Project

AE5 Design Small Scale Wind Turbine for Home Electricity Generation
March 2013 By Maheemal K.B. (0923688) Kalinga Ellawala (0628552) Bhavdeep Pancholi (0906043) Mishkath Harees (0806420)

Abstract
Wind Turbines are one the oldest known method used to extract energy from the natural sources (wind in this case). With the changing weather and wind speed, it is not possible to produce high constant power from the wind turbine but a small scale wind turbine can be used to power small appliances at home, e.g. fridge. This project looks into thetechnical and marketing aspects for an innovative design of a small scale wind turbine designed for supplying home electricity. The report includes content on design, enhancement, power management, manufacturing methods, cost analysis & marketing issues; processes which are considered for creating new patent and putting into development.

Acknowledgement (BP)
We would like to express our gratitude to all those who gave us the possibility to complete this design project. We would like to thank Brunel School of Design & Engineering and all the professors involved in this module for giving us permission to commence this project in the first instance, to do the necessary research work and to use departmental data and knowledge. We also like to take this opportunity to thank our project supervisor Dr. A. Gatto whose help, suggestions and encouragement helped us stretch our ideas further then our own imaginations.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 0 Acknowledgement (BP) ........................................................................................................................... 1 1 Introduction (BP) ............................................................................................................................. 0 1.1 1.2 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3 3.1 3.2 4 4.1 4.2 Aim .......................................................................................................................................... 0 Design Brief ............................................................................................................................. 0 Energy ball V200 ...................................................................................................................... 1 Honeywell WT6500 Wind Turbine .......................................................................................... 1 Hannevind 2.2 kW ................................................................................................................... 2 Windon 2 kW ........................................................................................................................... 2 Bergey Excel............................................................................................................................. 3 Southwest Windpower Skystream 3.7 .................................................................................... 3 Windsave WS500..................................................................................................................... 3 Renewable Devices Swift ...................................................................................................... 4 Geographical Analysis.............................................................................................................. 4 UK Historical Data.................................................................................................................... 6 Wind power calculations ......................................................................................................... 7 The Blades ............................................................................................................................... 9 Number of Blades ............................................................................................................ 9 Aerofoil & Load................................................................................................................ 9 Materials........................................................................................................................ 12 Wind Speed ................................................................................................................... 12 Angle of Attack .............................................................................................................. 13

Current Designs (KE) ........................................................................................................................ 1

The Wind (BP) .................................................................................................................................. 4

The Wind & the Blades .................................................................................................................... 7

4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.3 4.4 5 5.1 5.2 5.3

Power Extracted .................................................................................................................... 13 Acoustics & Insulation ........................................................................................................... 13 AC & DC Generator ................................................................................................................ 14 Induction Generator .............................................................................................................. 15 Generator types .................................................................................................................... 15 Synchronous Generator (SG) ......................................................................................... 15 Permanent magnet synchronous Generator (PMSG) ................................................... 15 Switched reluctance generator (SRG) ........................................................................... 16 The magnetic flux orientation (Radial Flux or Axial Flux) .............................................. 17 Longitudinal or Transversal (Figure 5.4.1) ..................................................................... 17 2|Page

Generator (KE) ............................................................................................................................... 14

5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2

Permanent magnet generators ............................................................................................. 16

5.4.3 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 6 6.1

Inner Rotor or Outer Rotor............................................................................................ 18 Coil placement ............................................................................................................... 18 Coil winding distribution ............................................................................................... 19 Pole slot combinations .................................................................................................. 19

Coil winding arrangements ................................................................................................... 18

Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Turbine Designs (MT).................................................... 19 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines .............................................................................................. 19 Advantages of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines .............................................................. 19 Disadvantages of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines.......................................................... 20 Advantages of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines................................................................... 21 Environmental Benefits ................................................................................................. 21 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.3 6.4

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines................................................................................................... 20

Comparison between Vertical designs Vs. Horizontal designs ............................................. 21 Justification for design choice ............................................................................................... 22

7 8

Wind Turbine Power Management (MH)...................................................................................... 22 Safety Systems for Wind Turbines (MH) ....................................................................................... 23 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Vibration Sensors .................................................................................................................. 23 Turbine over-speed ............................................................................................................... 24 Thermal and other sensors.................................................................................................... 24 Anti-Icing Systems ................................................................................................................. 24 Material Failure ..................................................................................................................... 24 Design for Manufacture/Design for Assembly ...................................................................... 25 Material Selection ................................................................................................................. 26 Material Properties ............................................................................................................... 26 Cost and Availability .............................................................................................................. 27 Selection of manufacturing processes .................................................................................. 27 Metal and Metal Alloys ......................................................................................................... 28 Metal Casting Processes ........................................................................................................ 28 Sand Casting .......................................................................................................................... 30 Sands ..................................................................................................................................... 31 Types of Sand Moulds ........................................................................................................... 31 Patterns ................................................................................................................................. 31 Sand-Moulding Machines ...................................................................................................... 32 The Sand Casting Operation .................................................................................................. 32 Die Casting ............................................................................................................................. 33 Hot-Chamber Process ............................................................................................................ 33 Cold-Chamber Process .......................................................................................................... 33 3|Page

Manufacturing Methodology and Processes (MH) ....................................................................... 25 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16

9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 10 11 11.1

Process Capabilities and Machine Selection ......................................................................... 34 Forging of Metals................................................................................................................... 34 Extrusion and Drawing of Metals .......................................................................................... 35 Forming and Shaping Plastics ................................................................................................ 35 Injection Moulding ................................................................................................................ 36 Process Capabilities ............................................................................................................... 37 Rotational Moulding .............................................................................................................. 37 Product Design Specification (MH/MT)..................................................................................... 38 Design Conceptualisation .......................................................................................................... 41 Blade (BP) .............................................................................................................................. 41 Design 1 ......................................................................................................................... 42 Design 2 ......................................................................................................................... 42 Design 3 ......................................................................................................................... 42 Aerofoil Shape ............................................................................................................... 43 Materials........................................................................................................................ 43 Design 1 ......................................................................................................................... 43 Design 2 ......................................................................................................................... 44 Design 3 ......................................................................................................................... 45 Design 4 ......................................................................................................................... 45 Braking Systems............................................................................................................. 46 Braking System Design 1 ............................................................................................... 46 Braking System Design 2 ............................................................................................... 46 Braking System Design 3 ............................................................................................... 47 Mounting System Method 1.......................................................................................... 47 Mounting system 2 ........................................................................................................ 48 Mounting System 3 ....................................................................................................... 48 Introduction................................................................................................................... 49 Series Regulators ........................................................................................................... 49 Shunt Regulators ........................................................................................................... 50 Two modes of operation ............................................................................................... 50 Pulse Width Modulation Regulators ............................................................................. 50 PWM regulator with a dump load ................................................................................. 51 Shorting the generator output? .................................................................................... 51 Wind compatible Solar style charge controllers? ...................................................... 51 4|Page

11.1.1 11.1.2 11.1.3 11.1.4 11.1.5 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 11.3 11.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4 11.4 11.4.1 11.4.2 11.4.3 11.5 11.5.1 11.5.2 11.5.3 11.5.4 11.5.5 11.5.6 11.5.7 11.5.8

Generator (KE) ....................................................................................................................... 43

Preliminary Design of braking and mounting systems (MH)................................................. 46

Mounting System (MH) ......................................................................................................... 47

Popular Wind turbine arrangements for domestic use (MT) ................................................ 49

11.5.9 11.5.10 11.5.11 11.5.12 11.5.13 11.5.14 12 12.1 12.2

Maximum Power Point Tracking ................................................................................... 52 Hysteresis .................................................................................................................. 52 Lead-Acid Batteries.................................................................................................... 52 Dump Loads (as used in 'battery shunt' configuration) ............................................ 53 Braking Resistor (as used in 'turbine brake controller' configuration) ..................... 53 Grid Tie Inverters ....................................................................................................... 53

Preliminary Design & Analysis ................................................................................................... 54 The Blades, the Hub & the Cone (BP) .................................................................................... 54 Generator design selection (KE) ............................................................................................ 55 Design Selection ............................................................................................................ 55 Design improvements for the preliminary generator design ........................................ 56

12.2.1 12.2.2 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5

Final Design (BP) ........................................................................................................................ 57 FEA Analysis (MT) .................................................................................................................. 59 Bill of Material (MT) .............................................................................................................. 62 Blades (BP) ............................................................................................................................. 63 Bearings (BP/MH) .................................................................................................................. 64 Final Generator Design (KE) .................................................................................................. 64 Rotor .............................................................................................................................. 64 Stator ............................................................................................................................. 65 Final assembly of the generator .................................................................................... 66 Power Calculations ........................................................................................................ 67 Power Curve .................................................................................................................. 69 Method .......................................................................................................................... 69 Generator circuit (stator to blade point)....................................................................... 70

13.5.1 13.5.2 13.5.3 13.5.4 13.5.5 13.5.6 13.5.7 13.6 13.7

Power Management (MT) ..................................................................................................... 70 Maintenance (ALL) ................................................................................................................ 71 Generator ...................................................................................................................... 71 Tips for long lasting power management system ......................................................... 72

13.7.1 13.7.2 14 15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8

Manufacturing (MH).................................................................................................................. 72 Business Model Evaluation of wind turbine (MH)..................................................................... 73 Material Costs........................................................................................................................ 73 Manufacturing Costs ............................................................................................................. 75 Marketing Costs..................................................................................................................... 75 Premises Costs....................................................................................................................... 76 Labour/staffing Costs ............................................................................................................ 76 Operational Costs .................................................................................................................. 77 Revenue ................................................................................................................................. 78 Profit Margins ........................................................................................................................ 78 5|Page

16 16.1 17 18 18.1 18.2 19 20

Conclusion (KE/MT) ................................................................................................................... 84 Design Specification .............................................................................................................. 84 Works Cited ............................................................................................................................... 85 Appendix-A (ALL) ....................................................................................................................... 87 Figures ................................................................................................................................... 87 Flow chart for varying conditions (MT) ................................................................................. 90 Appendix-B (MT)........................................................................................................................ 91 Appendix-C (ALL) ....................................................................................................................... 92

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1 Introduction (BP)
With increasing awareness of global warming due to Carbon Dioxide produced from the burning fuels, the use of natural energy source is coming into effect. Engineers are adapting the use of natural sources (e.g. wind, solar, hydro) to generate electricity and provide power to the power plants. The use of wind turbine is one of the oldest known methods of extracting the energy from natural sources. Windmills were used in olden times to run the pump for pumping the water from the well. Wind turbines are not well considered because they heavily depend on the wind blowing along with the geographical disturbance however, a small scale wind turbine can be used to power small home appliances reducing the cost of electricity and fuel burnt to produce equal amount of electricity. Wind turbine extracts energy from the wind to generate electricity. 40% of all the wind energy in Europe blows over the UK, making it an ideal country for domestic turbines (known as 'microwind' or 'small-wind' turbines). A typical system in an exposed site could easily generate more power than household lamps and other electrical appliances use. Just like any engineering design poses challenges, household wind turbine also poses various challenges such as noise, aesthetics, buying cost, maintenance cost, etc. This report looks into the current designs of the small scale wind turbine along with the market requirement followed by the design of an innovative wind turbine system. In the report areas such as current designs, power generation, blade design power management and fail safe methods are considered. The report also considers the development complications limiting the design enhancement such as noise, aesthetics, material cost, maintenance, legal constraints and other issues. These are the issue which affect the design, manufacturing and marketing of the product.

1.1 Aim
The main aim of the project is to design a small wind turbine that can generate electricity for home appliances. The thought of design directs us to look into the various aspects such as manufacturing, noise, cost which leads us to our additional aim of analysing the system to overcome the usual technical glitches.

1.2 Design Brief

The project brief involves the design of a small scale wind turbine that can be easily mass produced and fitted to every household in the UK to aid electricity consumption. The design should provide the following; 1. Be able to generate a non-trivial electricity supply to the household when operating. Excess electricity can be fed back into the national grid or charge secondary batteries. 2. The scale of the turbine should be within the limits of the UK building code and not dominate the aesthetics of the average dwelling. 3. Designed to operate at suitable wind speeds typical to UK weather in urban environments. 4. Possess a fail-safe system as a consequence of an over-speed event. 5. Have a low acoustic footprint. The above brief for this project can be simplified further to manage the project. Simplified brief below shows that this project provides us with an opportunity to look into various sections which will help us complete the task. The several tasks to be completed for this project are as follows: Evaluation of the working environment for the turbine in the UK wind speeds, weather, etc. Calculation of the aerodynamic design and structural loads

Selection of the materials & equipment equipme battery, metal, coils, etc. Investigation of mass production methods Cost/Benefit analysis of the system power generated ted and its cost effective use Considerations for safety y system during extreme events Noise reduction methods and its implementation into design

2 Current Designs (KE)

2.1 Energy ball V200

Figure 1: Energy Ball V200

Energy ball V200 (SeeFigure 1) ) is a unique turbine design when compared to the traditional three blade wind turbines. The design consists of six rotor blades that are assembled assembled as a sphere shape. The turbine weights 90kg, turbine diameter of 1.98m and minimum start up wind speed of 3 m/s. Due to the unique design and the venture effect, the generator harness wind more efficiently. The electricity generated from V200 Energy ball comes to direct use where it can be plugged in straight to the electric socket (Plug-in in product) of the property. The Inverter is connected to the property electric breaker box. The energy harvest from V200 can be used to charge batteries and excess unused nused energy automatically dumped in to the grid. The Energy ball categorised as a noise less, since the turbine does not have any wing tips it does not generate the swishing noise. The Energy balls dimensions allow it to be installed in many countries countries urban areas. Also it features such as less vibration (noise less) and less shadows it ideally suited for residential or commercial rood top usage. Figure 90 shows the power curve of the Energy ball V200 which shows the turbines operating parameters (1).

2.2 Honeywell WT6500 Wind Turbine

Figure 2: Honeywell WT6500

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The Honeywell Wind Turbine (seeFigure (see 2) ) is a gearless wind turbine, which the diameter of 1.8 m, weight of 110 kg and generates on average up to 1500 kWh per year depending on height and location. The Honeywell Wind Turbines blade blade tip power system (BTPS) is a perimeter power system and the unique multi - stage blade design enables the system to react quickly and efficiently to change in wind a speed which ensures that the maximum wind energy is captured without the typical noise and nd vibration associated with traditional wind turbines. The Wind Turbine has an increased operating span over traditional turbines with a start-up start up speed as low as 0.5 mph (0.2 m/s), with an auto shut off at 38 mph (17.0 m/s). Figure 91shows the power curve for WT600 (2). (2)

2.3 Hannevind 2.2 kW

Figure 3: Hannevind Wind Turbine

The Hannevind wind turbine (seeFigure (see 3) ) equipped with typical classic look of three blades made of glass fiber. Since the diameter of the turbine is 3.5 meters it required to acquire acquire a building permit. The tower can be high between 12 to 18 meters and it weight around 100 kg. The turbine operates at minimum wind speed of 2.4 m/s and the maximum power is generates at the wind speed of 9 m/s. At the rear end of the turbine there is is a fin mounted which helps it to steer the turbine up towards the wind for capture as much wind energy as possible. The turbine can be connected to the electric grid, work solo or be connected with some other kind of electric device (3).

2.4 Windon 2 kW
The Windon 2kW (SeeFigure 4) ) is a turbine which has three blades with a diameter of 3.2 meters. Back on the turbine is a fin, which helps the turbine to steer up against the wind so that maximum effect can be received. The tower can be 9 or 12 meters high, and the weight of the turbine is approximately 40 kg. The minimum wind for the turbine to start generate electricity is 2.5 m/s. The wind turbine is very quiet and demands very little service and maintenance. Figure 92 shows the turbine power curve (4).

Figure 4: Windon Wind Turbine

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2.5 Bergey Excel

Figure 5: Bergey Excel

5) is designed for high reliability, low maintenance and automatic The Bergey Excel (See Figure 5) operation in adverse weather conditions. When connected connected to the grid the turbine provide most of the electricity for an average total electric home at moderate wind sites. Rated Capacity of 10kw, Start-up Wind speed at 7.5 mph and rotor size of 6.7 m, Interconnection can be Utility connected or battery charging. The Estimated Energy Production of 1500 KWh per month at a wind speed of 12.5mph (5).

2.6 Southwest Windpower Skystream 3.7

The Skystream 3.7(See Figure 6) ) is designed for residential use which is the first fully integrated and grid-tied tied wind energy system designed for that purposes. This plug and play play turbine is an allinclusive wind generator with controls and inverter built in designed to provide quiet, clean electricity in very low wind speeds. The Skystream 3.7 operates to downwind because it has no tail rudder to keep it facing into the wind. w The turbine has a Rated Capacity of 1.9 kW continuous outputs and peak capacity of 2.6 kW. The Start-up Start wind speed of 8mph and the rotor r size of 3.72m. The interconnection can be either utility connected or battery charging. It has a gear less alternator and a brushless permanent magnet. The turbine generates total voltage output of 240 VAC and estimated energy production of 400 kWh per month at wind speed of 5.4 m/s (6). (6)

Figure 6: Skystream 3.7

2.7 Windsave WS500

The Windsave WS500 (See Figure 7) ) is 1.25 m in diameter and rated at 500 W at 12 m/s and the Windsave WS 1000 is 1.75 m in diameter and rated at 1000 W at 12 m/s. Both these ratings imply a 3|Page

coefficient of performance (power produced by turbine divided by power in the wind) of about 0.38, which would be an extremely good performance for a micro wind turbine, which, at that size, might have been more expected to have maximum coefficient of performance between 0.11 and 0.19 (7).

Figure 7: Windsave

2.8 Renewable Devices Swift

The Swift turbine (SeeFigure 8) ) has a blade diameter of 1.8 meters and start in wind speed at 4 m/s. The turbine rated output power of 2200W and output voltage of 120V. The design engineers en of Renewable Devices claim that it is the worlds first truly silent wind turbine. The Swift has some very advanced aerodynamics that make the rotor more efficient, whilst reducing the noise emissions significantly, a problem which has meant that similar similar sized turbines cannot be building mounted. A circular rim around the outside of the blades restricts the radial flow of air at the tip of each blade that creates a ripping noise with conventional turbines. Renewable Devices has also developed an electronic ctronic control system that safeguards the turbine in high winds and ensures efficient power extraction under normal operating conditions (8).

Figure 8: Swift

3 The Wind (BP)

3.1 Geographical Analysis
Wind turbine generates electricity by extracting energy from the wind. Earths circulation system, driven by its magnetic poles and the temperature gradient (across its latitude), sets the wind direction and its speed. It gets affected by the landscape, the geometry and the speed its flowing across or around. Flowing with unique characteristics, the wind carries energy of the th form which can be used to generate lift or drag force as a result of a pressure difference. The following paragraph will show how the wind gets affected by the general landscape aided by the data of UK Mean Wind Speed.

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Figure 9: Microscale modelling around Wellington (9)

Wind flowing over various landscapes can get affected by its geometrical appearance. Figure 9shows a classic example of how the wind gets affected by the landscape. It shows graphical presentation of the CFD simulation carried for a micro scale model over the Wellington area.The wind cannot be seen in real life but can be visualised as stream of particles flowing in a line (either straight or random chaotic line). Figure 10&Figure 11shows animated behaviour of the wind flow over the mountain and the cliff.

Figure 10: Wind Flow near the Cliff (10)

Figure 11: Wind Flow over the Hill (10)

The purpose of this analysis is to show that the undisturbed flow of air is mostly uniform.However when it flows around or across a geometry or a landscape, it creates turbulence. This turbulent air/wind includes random movement of the air particles which leads to loss of energy the wind contains. Therefore wind turbine needs to be placed on a landscape that places rotor and blades in average wind flow but with little of turbulence created by the surroundings. Artificial or natural surroundings can potentially create turbulence. Artificial surroundings include the houses and buildings. Figure 12&Figure 13 shows CFD Analysis carried out by S J Watson at Loughborough University. Figure 12displays filled vector plot of a house in isolated area and how wind (flowing from left to right) creates wake resulting in no or low velocity with a change in direction. Figure 13displays a filled vector plot of a house in urban area which shows wind flow (left to right). In urban area there is only small amount of wind flowing below the roof tops and because of this, minimum turbulence is created before and aft of house.

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Figure 12: CFD Analysis of Wind Flow - Isolated Area (11)

Figure 13: CFD Analysis of Wind Flow - Urban area (11)

The wind analysis of different landscape and geometrical obstacles suggest that the wind turbine needs to be placed in open area where landscape does not create wake. If the turbine is to be placed on top of a house roof, it needs to be place on the upwind side of the roof as downwind side has high turbulence close to the roof. If the wind turbine is to be placed near the cliff top or on mountain, it needs to be high above the ground as the turbulence is high near to the terrain. However at very high level from ground, wind speed is not high therefore a balance must be found by collecting data over certain period of time at different height scales.

3.2 UK Historical Data

Weather changes with time bringing in new seasons with different climate conditions. The Met office provides us with some average data on Mean Wind Speed measured at various regions in UK. This data will help us identify the wind speed limit we are expected to incorporate while designing small scale wind turbine for home electricity.

Figure 14: Mean Wind Speed 1971-2000 Spring (12)

Figure 15: Mean Wind Speed 1971-2000 Summer (12)

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Figure 16: Mean Wind Speed 1971-2000 Autumn (12)

Figure 17: Mean Wind Speed 1971-2000 Winter (12)

The data above clearly shows that the mean wind speed varies between 6-25 m/s at various regions in UK. Climate conditions also play important role in wind speeds as seen from the figures above. In summer, the wind speed measured in most urban areas is below 10 m/s and towards the Scotland side it picks up to 25 m/s. however in winter, the urban areas experience wind speed of 10-15 m/s and areas in Scotland and North Wales experience wind speed greater than 25 m/s. some part in changing wind speed. Therefore if the small wind turbine is to be designed for UK households, then it should be able to work at speeds low as 3-6 m/s and should also be able to sustain high wind speeds of around 25 m/s.

4 The Wind &the Blades

4.1 Wind power calculations
Kinetic Energy of a mass in motion is given by 1 = 2 =

Equation 1: Kinetic Energy

But the power is the rate of change of energy:

Equation 2: Power

If the kinetic energy of the wind is considered to have constant velocity then the power of the wind can be calculated by =
,

where

Therefore, 1 = 2

Equation 3: Wind Power (13)

Where is the Density, A is the Sweap Area and v is the Velocity of the wind.

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Figure 18: Wind Turbine Sweap Area (13)

The above calculation only helps us to find out the wind power with specific wind velocity. The wind turbine however does not extract all the power from the wind. Some of the energy is used to overcome the profile drag (14) created by the blade geometry and the leftover energy is allowed to pass through as extracting all the energy from the wind would mean accumulation of static pressure particles aft of wind turbine blades. Imagine an Axial Stream Tube around a wind turbine as shown in Figure 19; if the energy is extracted between stage 2 and 3, the pressure accumulation would divert the incoming flow around the blade rather than passing through the blades. By extracting the power, the turbine reduces the wind kinetic energy. Therefore the air moves more slowly downstream of turbine compare to the upstream. This accumulates wind behind the turbine sweap area (downstream) as its moving slowly after the energy extraction. As a result the approaching (upstream) wind diverts around the turbine blades to avoid slow moving air. For these very reason there is an optimum amount of power to extract from a given disc diameter (15). The ideal is to reduce the wind speed by about two thirds downwind of the turbine, though even then the wind just before the turbine will have lost about a third of its speed. This allows a theoretical maximum of 59% of the winds power to be captured (this is called Betzs limit) (15).

Figure 19: Axial Stream Tube around a Wind Turbine (16)

So by taking the Betzs limit in consideration, the power available from the wind is given by the formula below where is the Betzs limit (generally given by ratio). 1 = 2

Equation 4: Power Available

Even after applying the Betzs limit, the wind contains energy enough to drive the blades &generator and produce electricity. However, it depends on the blade design and its efficiency across the span to determine how much energy is extracted. While talking efficiency, we are faced by various design &mechanical limitations, therefore design of the blades will be considered even further in the next section as the blades play keep role in extracting the energy from the wind. 8|Page

4.2 The Blades

Starting from design needs, considering manufacturing & materials limit and finishing with the power efficiency, the wind turbine blades are shaped to generate the maximum power from the wind The design engineers have to consider the following while designing the turbine blade: Number of Blades Aerofoil & Load Materials Rotational Speed Wind speed Pitch Control

4.2.1 Number of Blades

Betzs limit places significant restriction on the power that can be extracted by the blades. The limitation means more blades there are, the less power each can extract. However this allows us to reduce the blade length (span) and chord. The other factor influencing the number of blades is aesthetics: it is generally accepted that three-bladed turbines are less visually disturbing than one or two-bladed designs (15). Also the number of blades adds to the weight which creates moment about the centre (mast or pillar). This moment is counter acted by the moment generated by the weight of the tail fin. Therefore increasing the number of blades would also require increasing the weight of the tail fin by changing the geometry or the distance its acting at from the centre or by using a denser material for the tail fin. Blades generate lift and this lift providesacceleration for the angular rotation. Hence the reason blades need to be manufactured precisely and increasing the number of blades would increase the cost of manufacturing.

4.2.2 Aerofoil & Load

The turbine blades extract energy from the wind by using wind energy to generate the lift force. It uses same concept as the aeroplane wing in order to generate the lift force. 1 = 2

Equation 5: Finite Wing Lift Equation

The equation above shows the finite wing lift equation which uses the finite wing CL value to work out the lift. If we look at the cross section of the wind turbine blade at particular point, we would see an airfoil shape. Air flowing over an airfoil shape generates lift due to the pressure difference. The best lift/drag characteristics are obtained by an airfoil that has thickness approximately 10-15% of its chord length (15). The lift can be increased by increasing the angle of attack but it also increases drag and potential of flow separation (Figure 21). For a particular airfoil shape coefficient of lift to angle of attack graph (Figure 22) is used to best describe the relation between lift and the angle of attack.

Figure 20: Lift and Drag Vectors (15)

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Figure 21: Aerofoil Shape & the Angle of Attack (15)

Figure 22: Typical CL Graph (14)

The figure above shows the graph for Infinite and Finite Wing Coefficient of lift where infinite wing curve is mostly based on experimental and computation analysis and finite wing lift can be worked using the following formula: = 1+
.

Equation 6: Finite Wing CL Gradient (14)

Where CL is the finite wing coefficient of lift curve gradient worked using infinite wing coefficient of lift curve gradient (Cl), aspect ratio (AR) and the span efficiency factor (e). Using this equation the coefficient of the lift and the lift itself can be worked out for a blade design however, the drag affects needs to be considered. The drag force on wind turbine blade is used to rotate the blades for VAWT but for HAWT it adds to the loss of energy from the wind and also adds to the structural load applied to the blade and the whole system. Drag force acting on the blade is given by the following equation: 1 = 2

Equation 7: Finite Wing Drag Force

Where CD is: = +

Equation 8: Finite Wing Drag Coefficient(14)

The above equation uses finite wing coefficient of lift value along with the aspect ration, span efficiency factor and airfoil profile drag (skin friction drag + pressure drag) to calculate the Finite

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Wing Drag. With the method of calculating the lift and drag for wind turbine blade, the design of the blade can be altered to maximize its efficiency. To improve the blade efficiency, the blade thick needs to be reduced relative to its width and this has effect on the aerofoil shape and the loading of the material. Also the apparent wind, wind blowing at an angle (Figure 23), rotates the angles of the lift and drag to reduce the effect of lift force pulling the blade round and increase the effect of drag slowing it down. It also means that the lift force contributes to the thrust on the rotor (15). Hence the reason the blade needs to be turned further at the tips than at the roots, approximately around 10-20.

Figure 23: Apparent Wind Angle (15)

As mentioned earlier, the best lift/drag characteristics are obtained by an aerofoil that has thickness approximately 10-15% of its chord length. However the due to structural requirements, the blade needs to support the lift, drag and gravitational forces acting on it, the aerofoil needs to be thicker than the aerodynamic optimum. The blade needs to be even thicker towards the root (where the blade attaches to the hub) where the bending forces are greatest. Because the apparent wind is moving slowly near to the roots (Figure 24), the need of aerodynamic efficiency is low. In which case some designers use a flatback section (Figure 25) closer to the roots as it gives high structural strength at the root attachment area but the attention needs to made as the section cannot get too thick for its chord length or the air flow will separate.

Figure 24: Apparent Wind across the Blade(15)

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Figure 25: Flatback Section (15)

4.2.3 Materials
To maintain optimum solidity and high aerodynamic efficiency, thickness of the blade is compromised. This makes it difficult to build the strong blades as thin material can flutter and fracture eventually. To build a strong blade, material such as Pre-Preg carbon can be used which is stiffer and stronger then glass fibre but drives the cost of material high. For a small scale wind turbine blade material; aluminium alloy, iron, wood or strong plastic are more suitable due to its low cost of manufacturing compared to carbon fibre (blade aerofoil shape does affect the manufacturing cost).

4.2.4 Wind Speed

The wind speed is also taken into consideration when design the turbine blade. The wind speed sets the Reynolds Number given by: =
Equation 9: Reynolds Number for flow around Turbine Blade

where u is the wind speed velocity, c is the blade chord length and is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (air in this case). If the Reynolds number is high the stall coefficient of lift value for a particular airfoil shape is also higher (Figure 27), therefore more leverage in the angle of attack. High Reynolds number also reduces the drag for given angle of attack (Figure 26).

Figure 26: NACA 0010 Cd Graph

Figure 27: NACA 0010 Cl Graph

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4.2.5 Angle of Attack

The blade pitch is controlled to attain correct angle of attack for maximizing the lift; however the same feature can be used for safety purposes. During adverse weather condition, the blades angle of attack can be reduced to zero so that it generates no lift. The process is known as featuring as the blades allow wind to simply pass through without extracting energy from it (except the energy required to overcome the drag affects while passing over the blade).

4.3 Power Extracted

Earlier we looked into the power available from the wind however, it is important to calculate how much available power is extracted by the turbine blade design to review its efficiency. Once the lift and Drag force is calculated for a given airfoil (blade cross section), experimental or computational analysis can be carried out to measure the angular velocity. Alternatively, lift and drag force can be used along with the measure RMP to work out the angular velocity and other forces acting on the blade. With the calculated values the power extracted by the wind turbine blade can be worked out using the following equation: =
Equation 10: Power Extracted

Where is the angular velocity and T is the torque given by: =

Equation 11: Torque

F = force, r= radius from the centre point to where the force is acting Therefore the efficiency of the wind turbine can be determined by dividing the Power extracted (PR) by the Power Available (P): =
Equation 12: Coefficient of Performance(17)

The efficiency of the turbine gives us good idea on how where the turbine needs to be altered to improve the coefficient of performance but with the improvement comes the cost of manufacturing and maintenance. The wind turbine also ends up losing some efficiency to overcome the frictional affects and some energy is lost as heat and noise.

4.4 Acoustics & Insulation

Although the energy lost in noise, heat, etc. is minor compare to the energy lost due to blade inefficiency but reducing the other losses would still improve turbines efficiency. The few major losses that are involved in most wind turbine designs are: Frictional affects on rotating centre Gear frictional losses Drag force on the blades All the losses stated above either result into noise or heat transfer. As the small wind turbine can be placed on house roof top or building roof top, the constant noise from the rotating turbine blades would upset the house or building inhabitants. 13 | P a g e

The noise from the mechanical rotating parts can be reduced by lubricating the parts however maintenance of these parts is expensive and difficult if the wind turbine is mounted on roof top or high mast. Blade rotating through air also produces noise which can only be reduced by containing the turbine blades in a cylindrical diffuser built with high acoustic material e.g. foam. The mechanical parts and blades are not the only source of noise but the electrical generator also emits noise when wire is turning in the magnetic flux area or when high voltage current is passing through the coils. This situation not only emits noise but also transfers heat to the surroundings reducing the overall efficiency of the turbine. To summarise, properly insulating the wires, wires, placing the acoustics around the turbine and lubricating the mechanical system regularly keeps the turbine efficiency high but the maintenance cost increases.

5 Generator (KE)
Torque is transferred from the rotor through a connecting connecting shaft to the generator genera which generates electricity. The shaft is either directly connected or is connected through t the gearbox which then is linked to the generator. Gearbox is placed to increase the rotational speed if the rotor is not turning fast enough for the generator to produce high frequency electricity. Some wind turbine would also incorporate changing gear system managed by the controlled feedback system, system, i.e. it would change the gear depending on the rotor speed to keep the generator speed constant.Generators constant. can be placed at the top of the tower or at the base (connect by the gears) for HAWT and at the base for VAWT. An electrical generator is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The torque transferred by the rotor is used to rotate acoil of wire re or a magnet to generate electricity.

5.1 AC & DC Generator

An electrical generator is a device, which converts mechanical mechanical energy into electrical energy. DC generator produces direct current. In a DC generator an e.m.f is induced whenever magnetic flux is cut by a conductorFigure 28: : DC Generator (Figure 28). Figure below shows a copper conductor loop rotating in a uniform magnetic field provided by permanent magnets or electromagnets. Two ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings R1 and R2 which are insulated from each other. Two collecting brushes are pressed against the slip rings. The current is induced in the coil ABCD when it rotates and cuts the magnetic flux between two magnets according to Flemings right hand rule. However the current is alternating as coil is turning (cutting (cutti the flux in two directions), but because ecause of the split slip rings (insulted from each other), the current passed to the brushes is always lways direct. direct Hence the reasons we have direct current.For the AC generator, the coil is connected to the individual circular slip rings that are always in contact with the brushes. Therefore when the current in the coil alternates (as it cuts the flux in two direction due to its circular motion), the current passed to the brushes also alternates. Hence the reasons we have alternating current.

Figure 29: : AC Generator (19) Figure 28: DC Generator (18)

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5.2 InductionGenerator
Electricity can also be generated by rotating magnet and fix stator with coils to induce current in. Induction generator uses principle from induction motor where the wind turbine rotor blades are connected to the magnet that rotates between a stator with coils wounded around the stator. When the magnet rotates it creates flux in the stator which cuts the coils and generates voltage (Figure 30). The magnet then turns to change the magnetic field and the flux direction which sets the scenario for changing flux between fixed coils resulting in alternative current produced.

Figure 30: Induction Generator (20)

5.3 Generator types

5.3.1 Synchronous Generator (SG)
The synchronous machine uses separately excited windings in the rotor in order to excite the magnetic field in the rotor. Separate excited windings give the possibility to change the output voltage by adjusting the excitation of the magnetic field of the rotor. Since the stator windings do not have to carry the power to excite the rotor magnetic field, a reduction in mass of the active materials, over the IM (induction motor), is possible. Another advantage over the IM is that smaller power handling equipment, like converters, can be used to control the SG (21).

Figure 31: Synchronous Generator

5.3.2 Permanent magnet synchronous Generator (PMSG)

When the separate excitation of the synchronous generator is done by permanent magnets (PMs) instead of windings, the machine is called a permanent magnet synchronous generator. No power is lost to excite the rotor magnetic field through windings and efficiency will increase compared to the SG. Also a weight reduction can be made over the SG. Since the rotor construction of the PMSG is smaller than the rotor construction of a SG made with excitation windings .The cost reduction of a PMSG over a SG will not be proportional with the reduction in mass, since PM material is much more expensive than copper and steel used in SG rotor constructions. However the total costs for a PMSG are lower than for a SG(21).

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Figure 32: PMSG

5.3.3 Switched reluctance generator (SRG)

In a switched reluctance machine only the stator windings are excited and produce a magnetic field. The rotor is constructed in such a manner that by moving it, the rotor causes a change of stored magnetic energy in the machine. By sequentially exciting the stator coils the torque can be produced or electricity can be generated. The benefits of the SRG lie in a simple and low cost and rigid construction. However as with an IM the SRG draws its excitation magnetic field from the power source, therefore larger converters are needed to operate a SRM. For equal efficiencies the SRG construction appears to be more compact and slightly lighter than the IM construction(21).

Figure 33: SRG

5.4 Permanent magnet generators

Small scale wind power requires a cost effective and mechanically simple generator in order to be reliable energy source. The use of direct driven generators instead of geared machines reduces the number of drive components, which offers the opportunity to reduce the number of drive components. Also it offers the opportunity to reduce the costs and increase system reliability and efficiency. For such applications, characterized by low speed is particularly situated, since it can be design with a large pole number and high torque density. The most efficient type of generators matching the above criteria is the permanent magnet generators. So the group have decided to consider permanent magnet generators for the design(21). The permanent magnet synchronous generators are constructed in different ways. Two design characteristics of a construction type are:

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The orientation of the magnetic flux within the machine. The type of rotor construction with permanent magnets.

5.4.1 The magnetic flux orientation (Radial Flux or Axial Flux)

Air gap orientation can be identified in two different ways. The radial flux design magnetic field is given a radial direction by mounting the stator around the rotor. Figure 34 shows the cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction. The axial flux design (See Figure 35) is constructed by placing stator and rotor in a way that the air gap is perpendicular to the rotational axis, where the magnetic flux crosses the air gap is in axial direction. The axial design used in situations where the machines axial dimension is more limited than the radial dimensions(21).

Figure 34: Cross Sectional View in radial direction and in axial direction

Figure 35: Cross Sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction

5.4.2 Longitudinal or Transversal (Figure 5.4.1)

Figure 36: Transversal Flux PMSG

Transversal flux machines are manufactured by mounting the plane of flux path perpendicular to the direction of rotor motion. The transversal flux machines can used in applications where required high 17 | P a g e

torque density requirements. The transversal flux machines can independently adjust the current loading and the magnetic loading. The main disadvantage of transverse PMSG is that high leakage flux results in poor power factor; this can be avoided by reducing the number of poles where in turn reduces torque density. Another drawback in rotating transverse PMSG is the mechanical construction is weak due to large number of parts(21).

5.4.3 Inner Rotor or Outer Rotor

The common rotor topology is acquired by mounting the PMs on the rotor surface. This is called a surface mounted permanent magnet rotor construction. This construction requires to shape the magnets in a circular arrangement. There are two types of rotor magnetic inner rotor and outer rotor. The outer rotor machines are constructed by placing the rotor surrounds the stator. The magnets are mounted on the inner circumference of the rotor. In the outer rotor machine the rotor has higher radius compared with the stator and it can be equipped with higher number of poles for the same pole pitch. Another advantage is that the magnets are well supported despite the centrifugal force also a better cooling of magnets is provided. Figure 37 shows an inner rotor PMSG and an outer rotor PMSG(21).

Figure 37: Inner rotor PMSG (left) and an outer rotor PMSG (right) (ref3)

5.5 Coil winding arrangements

Winding arrangement determines the way the coils are arranged. Coil can either have an air gap or they can be placed in slots around the teeth in the stator. Density of coil taps is a choice between higher amounts of coils placed densely in one place or lower number of taps placed around the device. When and design with number of slots is considered, the choice or number of poles and coils is a choice(21).

5.5.1 Coil placement

Figure 38: Slotless Design

Slotless design is where the coil is placed in the air gap. This air gap increases the distance between stator and the rotor increasing the reluctance causing increase in PM (Permanent Magnet) leading to 18 | P a g e

a reduction in flux density. More magnetic material or copper winding are needed to compensate this. A slotless design has less steel and therefore less hysteresis and Eddy current losses. The power density of a slotless design is three times lower than in a slotted design(21).

5.5.2 Coil winding distribution

In a slotted stator, the stator windings can be placed as concentrated coils around the teeth or the windings can be distributed in the slots. Concentrated coil constructions have the advantage of a higher winding factor; this increases the amplitude of the induced output voltage. Less copper is required due to shorter end windings. They are also easier to manufacture through modern automated techniques. The disadvantage of concentrated coil windings is the increase of harmonic components in the air gap flux. This causes an increase of losses in the rotor magnets and back iron due to Eddy currents(21).

5.5.3 Pole slot combinations

The number of stator slots (Ns) and the number of magnet poles (Nm) that can be used in an electrical machine design are countless. For a 3 phase machine using concentrated coils, the number of combinations (Ns and Nm) is still large. Therefore the choice of slot pole arrangements has to be made by considering different slot pole combinations. The combination of 3 coils around 3 teeth with 2 magnet poles creates the lowest Eddy current losses in the magnets and rotor back iron; however this combination has a poor winding factor. Low rotor Eddy currents cause less temperature rise in the magnets, which will enhance efficiency and decrease the risk of demagnetizing the magnets(21).

6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Turbine Designs (MT)

As mentioned earlier, a wind turbine extracts the wind power to generate electricity. The blades extract energy from the moving wind which spins a shaft, which connects to a generator that supplies an electric current. Today there are two basic types of wind turbines available in the market. Most commonly used in wind energy systems are the traditional farm styled, horizontal-axis turbines.Vertical turbine is relatively new design thats gaining market share rapidly. They both have their advantages and disadvantages.

6.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

Figure 39: HAWT

6.1.1 Advantages of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack. Allowing the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day and season.

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The tall towers allow access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind shear sites, every ten meters up, the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power output by 34%. High efficiency, since the blades always moves perpendicularly to the wind, receiving power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions, requiring aerofoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle. Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.

6.1.2 Disadvantages of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

Taller masts and blades are more difficult to transport and install. Transportation and installation can now cost 20% of equipment costs. Stronger tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and generator. Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes of radar installations creating signal clutter, although filtering can suppress it. Mast height can make them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition. Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when a blade passes through the towers wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower). They require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind. (22)

6.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Figure 40: VAWT

An increasing number of progressive organizations are adopting Omni-directional VAWTs because of their aerodynamic performance advantages with characteristically turbulent and moderate winds in densely populated urban settings. VAWTs operate quietly, deliver clean electricity directly to the owner, and can feed excess electricity into the local power grid, which can further reduce the owners energy consumption costs. The use of VAWTs to produce distributed energy also reduces both the need for unpopular transmission lines and emissions from fossil-fuel-fired generators that contribute to climate change, and it provides points for LEED certification (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design). Wind flow within urban and suburban environments is turbulent and veering. Increased turbulence levels yield greater fluctuations in wind speed and direction. Unlike a traditional horizontal axis wind

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turbine (HAWT), a VAWT rotates around the shaft vertically. VAWTs provide good performance in urban and suburban environments due to their inherent design characteristics.

6.2.1 Advantages of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Ability to effectively capture turbulent winds which are typical in urban settings, especially in built-up areas. No need for a yaw mechanism to face the blade rotor into veering wind directions; VAWTs therefore have higher efficiency and no orientation parts to maintain. Operation at lower rotational speeds, thereby reducing or eliminating turbine vibration and noise. Durability and reliability working in multi-directional wind. Easier and less expensive repair and maintenance with generator on rooftops. Lower noise and vibration. (23)

6.2.2 Environmental Benefits

Noise & Vibration: Although urban settings are inherently noisier than rural areas, an additional noise can affect a small minority of people. A popular concern with the use of large-scale wind turbines for power generation is noise. The majority of large HAWT noise is generated from the gearbox and the aerodynamic noise of the blades. With small-scale VAWTs, however, a gearbox is not required, and VAWT blade speeds are much lower than small HAWTs, so noise is also much lower. In a 2007 test by McMaster University, a small VAWT was tested for noise generation, which revealed that the overall noise level of the turbine remains below 50 decibel (dB) for all normal operating conditions (the turbine rarely operated at a wind speed beyond 15 m/s). When this range is converted to the dBA scale, based upon the average human hearing capability, the level drops to 20 dBA. This is because the majority of the turbine noise is produced in the infrasound range (frequencies below human perception), which is quieter than a whisper. Ultimately, the test determined that the noise level produced by the small VAWT is insignificant and poses no threat to the comfort of nearby persons or wildlife (24).

6.3 Comparison between Vertical designs Vs. Horizontal designs

A VAWT can receive winds from any direction, this is important in locations where winds Are turbulent, gusty and constantly changing directions. There is no down-time as the rotor does not have to yaw to face the wind, in addition there are no gyroscopic effects preventing yaw. The more obstacles (e.g. trees and buildings) in your environment the more turbulent the wind is likely to be. Aerodynamic noise is primarily generated by the fast moving tips of the blades through the air. A VAWTs tips are much closer to the axis of rotation and therefore moving more slowly through the air. A VAWT for the same swept area has a smaller plan area than a HAWT, making it more space efficient, an important consideration when siting close or onto buildings Loads are more evenly distributed with a VAWT than a HAWT which results in lower vibration making VAWTs a better option for roof mounts. VAWTs HAWTs Effective in laminar winds (1) Effective in turbid urban winds (2) Effective in low mountings Yes Yes Yes Yes No Sometimes

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Ground mounting Rooftop mounting

Yes Yes
Table 1: VAWT vs. HAWT

No Sometimes

1) Laminar: fluid air flow which occurs in "sheets" parallel to each other. 2) Turbid: flow that changes directions quickly and often and has turbulences. (25)

6.4 Justification for design choice

Wind turbine we are designing would be a horizontal axis wind turbine. Even though the vertical axis wind turbines are efficient they are complex and cost of manufacturing is higher. Also since horizontal axis wind turbines been around for a long time, finding necessary component from suppliers is easy and also performance information is readily available.

7 Wind Turbine Power Management (MH)

Once the energy from the wind has been harvested through the turbine blades and transmitted through a generator to produce electricity, a power management system needs to be put in place in order to ensure its intended purpose is served. This management system would have slight variations depending on the scale of the wind turbine. However, the intended final aim is to provide adequate electricity to a household power grid. Figure 41 provides an example of a typical management system that can be used for a wind turbine.

Figure 41: Wind Turbine Electricity Power Management (26)

Once the electricity generation process has been completed, it is then sent down through wires to a transformer unit which increases the voltage up to a few 1000 kV depending on the scale of the wind turbine. The transformer is needed for either on-shore or off-shore wind turbines where the electricity generated needs to travel a large distance. Depending on the type of generator used within the turbine, it will produce either AC or DC power. An inverter is used in order to convert from DC to AC for domestic use. The electricity can now be connected directly to the national grid network, stored in batteries for future use or connected to a household mains grid. When connecting to a household mains grid, another transformer would be used to reduce the voltage to 120/240 V AC.

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A small scale wind turbine to be used for domestic purposes will contain slight variations to be more suited for the purpose. Figure 42shows 42 a typical system which might be used for a household wind turbine.

Figure 42: Small Scale Wind Power (27)

Due to various design and build limitations in small scale wind turbines, a few additional systems needs to be put in place to provide safe power that can be used in a home system. Typically, they do not have variable pitch rotor blades and due to this, the rotor speed would constantly change according the change in wind nd speed. This does not present a favourable situation for the power management system because the output voltage and frequency provided by the generator is proportional to the speed of the rotor while the current produced is proportional to the torque on the rotor shaft. Once the electricity is generated, it is sent through a rectifier in order to convert the AC current produced through the generator. This is done because AC constantly changes direction while DC maintains a single direction, thus making it easier to regulate. Once this current is converted, it is sent to a Voltage Regulator unit which is used to maintain the voltage at a constant level independent of the variability presented to the system. This regulator system can also ensure that the voltage oltage supplied is at the correct frequency and phase. The system is then taken over by a DC control unit which works in a similar method to an Engine Control Unit (ECU) in a vehicle. Now that we have a constant voltage supply which is regulated, we can distribute stribute the electricity using various methods. The electricity could be stored within batteries for future use. If it is required to be used within a household grid, an inverter would be used to convert DC to AC which can then be distributed. Another option option available for home owners is to sell excess electricity back to the national grid which could help recuperate some of the costs of the system. Such systems however would need to be agreed to by the supplier and considerations would need to be made if it would be better to store excess electricity within batteries or to sell back to the grid, where once sold, if the wind turbine does not produce enough electricity, cost of purchasing the same amount would be higher.

8 Safety Systems for Wind Turbines (MH)

A typical wind turbine is designed to operate for a lifespan of around 20 years. Within this period, it is expected for it to be operated under various weather conditions which can often be unfavourable. A wind turbine has a design operating condition which which once exceeded, would require it to be stopped in order to prevent damage. Therefore various safety systems are put in place to prevent damage to the turbine or people who are within the vicinity of the turbine.

8.1 Vibration Sensors

During adverse weather conditions, vibration of the turbine can be dangerous for the turbine itself and the parts contained within it. These can range from a very basic mechanical sensor which works 23 | P a g e

by having a ball resting on a ring where the ball is connected to a switch through a chain. If vibrations reach an excessive limit (which can bet set at a required amount), the ball will fall out of the ring which would enable to switch to turn off the turbine. Advanced electronic sensors which are connected to the electronic control system of the turbine could also be employed to monitor vibration levels.

8.2 Turbine over-speed

Since the turbine blades would rotate faster with increasing wind speed, it has a safe limit of operation. This limit is set to ensure there would be no blade failure and also protects the components within the nacelle such as generators and gearboxes from overheating and eventual failure. Modern wind turbines are equipped with variable pitch controlled blades where the optimum pitch is constantly selected in order to gain the maximum power output. In an event of high wind speeds, the pitch control would turn the rotor blades 90 degrees (aerodynamic braking). This creates an aerodynamic effect which gently brings the turbine to a stop within a few rotations. The major advantage of this system is that it does not present major stress factors on the system and once the high wind speeds are over, the pitch control will take over once again to make the rotor turn. A mechanical braking system is kept in place as a backup to the aerodynamic braking system when required. This system is similar to the disc brake system used within cars where a disc rotates with the shaft and a brake pad is activated in case it is necessary to stop. This system can also be used as a parking brake when maintenance is needed.

8.3 Thermal and other sensors

The nacelle of the turbine houses some of the most important components of a turbine. These include the Shaft, Gearbox, Generator, etc. Advanced sensors which monitor the temperature and pressure among many other parameters constantly feed information into the electronic control system of the turbine which would detect any abnormalities and determine if a system shut down is necessary. Overheating can present numerous problems to a turbine because this can lead to fire, additional stress placed on components and bearings, etc.

8.4 Anti-Icing Systems

A wind turbines blades are constantly exposed to the environment which requires it to withstand large variations in temperature. A significant problem in wind turbine operation is having ice build-up within the blades. While building up of ice can present a danger of the ice falling once the turbine is operational, it also presents challenges to its efficiency due to ice formation changing the shape of the aerofoil shape of the blades. Blade design is a carefully researched area and this change in shape due to ice can reduce its operating efficiency while presenting dangers to people below. Many modern turbine blades have systems to deal with such situations. Parent and Ilinca (28)conduct a thorough review of the current systems that exist for anti-icing and de-icing systems. These include a special coating to prevent the formation of ice and a super-hyperbolic coating which does not allow water to remain on the surface. Other systems include inducing heat in order to prevent the ice build-up.

8.5 Material Failure

Material selection is extremely important in the design of a wind turbine due to its operating conditions. Testing of this material is also important in order to determine the effects that are present during high levels of loading. A recent report by Elforsk (29)provides a thorough guidance of damage prevention to many parts inside the nacelle (primary/secondary shafts, rotor hub, bolts, gearboxes, bearings etc.). Many failures are attributed to fatigue or corrosion and recommendations are made regarding various testing methods that can be employed (Eddy Current, Magnetic Particle,

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Sonic, Termographic etc.). Therefore the timely testing and observation to such damage could prevent incidents such as a blade failure, gearbox failure etc.

9 Manufacturing Methodology and Processes (MH)

9.1 Design for Manufacture/Design for Assembly
Modern product development states that a product should not only be simply designed. It should also consider the path the product would take through its manufacturing, assembly, disassembly and finally through servicing of the product. In their book, Kalpakjian and Schmid (30) mention that design and manufacturing must be intimately interrelated. They argue that we should not view these two as separate identities but two that must go hand in hand. When any design process is undertaken, it is vitally important to do so for each part and component which would also reap its benefits economically. This would also allow the company to standardise its manufacturing process so that productivity can be improved. Employing Lean Six Sigma (discussed in a later section) is another popular and effective method of achieving maximum productivity for a process. Although initial costs may be incurred to implement six sigma methods and techniques, many companies large and small, have achieved significant increases in productivity and efficiency along with long term cost savings. This concept is known as Design for Manufacture (DFM). Kalpakjian and Schmid (30)further highlight that DFM is a comprehensive approach to the production of goods, and it integrates many design features which should take into consideration the materials, manufacturing methods and processes among many others. This requires that the designer have a fundamental understanding of such processes and specifically for DFM, about various machining processes and equipment. If a designer wants to have a successful product, he/she should also understand the effects of machining too. These include surface finish, accuracy of each machining process, processing time etc. An extension from DFM is DFA (Design for Assembly), which constitutes the next step after the manufacture of individual components. When considering cost of operating a business, the efficiency of the assembly process is critical to overall costs associated for the product. If DFA methods are applied to a product design, then it would consider the ease, speed and cost of assembling the parts together. The ease of assembly would be considered at a design stage because the easier it is to assembly, the quicker it would be which would save precious time of the employees. If would contribute to the bottom line of the business enabling to produce more units within a given period of time. DFM and DFA can be combined as a methodology named DFMA (Design for Manufacturing and Assembly). DFMA can now benefit from advanced computer software that would help the designer from the very beginning of the process. Modern designers use Computer Aided Design (CAD) software which can now aid them to use DFMA effectively. Greenlee defines the cost split for DFMA as 70% for design decisions (Cost of materials, processing, and assembly), 20% for production decisions (process planning and tooling selection) and the remaining 10% other costs. Greenlee also gives a comprehensive 10-step guideline for DFMA which summarises the whole process. They are given below: 1. Reduce the number of parts 2. Develop a modular design 3. Use of standard components 4. Design parts to be multi-functional 5. Design parts for multi-use 6. Design for ease of fabrication 7. Avoid separate fasteners 25 | P a g e

8. Minimize assembly directions 9. Maximize compliance 10. Minimize handling

9.2 Material Selection

An integral process after the design of a product has been conceptualised is material selection. Material Engineering has many varieties of materials for a designer to choose from. The decision for this is taken based on many specifications, which for the Turbine, can be found in the Product Development Specification (PDS). Types of material can be classified as follows (30): 1. Ferrous Metals 2. Non-Ferrous Metals 3. Plastics 4. Ceramics, Glass Ceramics, Glasses, Graphite, Diamond etc 5. Composites 6. Nano-Materials, alloys etc. For the turbine design, various materials were considered and many factors were taken into consideration when choosing such materials. For example, at a conceptual stage, the material for turbine blades was chosen as aluminium for their lightweightness and cost. However, applying DFMA methodologies, it was decided to use high strength plastics due to ease of manufacturing and also a lower cost per part. Since plastic also is a non-conductive material, it is even more suited for its function as a blade for the given turbine design as the generator design warrants electric wires to be running through the blades. This is an added benefit from a product safety point of view. This highlights the importance of considering such factors in the design selection.

9.3 Material Properties

Once the type of material is selected, its properties need to be analysed and the designers should consider if its fit for purpose. Along with the type of material, its properties would be a decisive factor in the manufacturing process. Various material types can have different properties. For example, within metal alloys, there are several hundreds, if not more, variations that can be created in order to gain the ideal type of material the designer is seeking. This flexibility gives a designer the freedom which does not restrict the outcome that is expected. Materials can be classified into types of properties, which are: 1. Mechanical Properties: These are properties such as strength, toughness, ductility etc. These properties need to be chosen carefully according to the physical environment in which the end product will be operating. Since the turbine will be operating outdoors all year round, it should be expected to last through many harsh weather and other environmental conditions. 2. Physical Properties: Density, Thermal Expansion, conductivity, melting point, electrical properties etc. These properties should be chosen to match the operating conditions relating to the product as well as the environment. For example, since the electrical wires need to travel through the turbine blades, plastic is an ideal choice due to conductivity of the material. Also, the magnets used in the generator are selected as such because of its electrical properties and its intended function to produce electricity which would be the primary outcome of the turbine. 3. Chemical Properties: These properties can be corrosion resistance, flammability, oxidation etc. This is also highly important since the turbine will be continuously exposed, factors which affect its chemical properties would need to be strong. 4. Manufacturing Properties: These would help identify the best manufacturing methods for any given property. They would determine if a certain material can be cast, machined, welded, formed etc. This decision would ultimately form the criteria by which the product 26 | P a g e

would need to be manufactured and also its end service life. These factors would also directly affect the cost of manufacture and labour skills required to carry out the various tasks.

9.4 Cost and Availability ility

Once the material selection has taken place, the next step to take into consideration is the cost and availability of those materials. For any given material, the cost and availability are related to each other. For example, if a material is not widely widely available, it would inevitably drive the cost factor higher. Conversely, a very widely available material will be relatively cheaper to source. Kalpakjian and Schmid (30) mention that the economic aspect of a material is as important as technological consideration of the properties and characteristics of that material. Another method of costs for manufacturing to increase is if DFM or DFMA is not followed properly. For example, if the raw or processed materials required by the the design are not available in the desired shape or size, then adjustments would be required. For example, when designing the mounting system for the turbine, if the diameter of the mast is not of a standard size, then further work would be required at the manufacturing stage which would require a higher diameter mast to be bought and then material taken off. This extra process will add further cost to the product.

9.5 Selection of manufacturing processes

Once the primary design of the turbine is completed, the the selection of the manufacturing process would begin for each component. This is a vast area since there are a number of components which would require different manufacturing processes. It is also very likely that a certain component could be manufactured d various methods, at which point a decision would have to be made to determine the type of manufacturing that would closely resemble the needs of the product. Typical manufacturing processes can be broadly categorized into 5 types:

1. Casting 2. Forming and Shaping 3. Machining 4. Joining 5. Finishing

Source: Kalpakjian and Schmid(30) (30)

Expendable Mould Permanent Mould

Rolling, Forging, Extrution, Drawing Sheet Sheet Forming, Powder Metallurgy and moulding

Turning, Turning, Boring, Drilling, Milling, Planing, Shaping Broaching, Gringing, Ultrasonic Machining

Welding, Brazing, Soldering Diffusion Diffusion Bonding, Adhesive Bonding and mechanical Joining

Honing, Honing, Lapping, Polishing, Burnishing, Deburring Surface Treating, Coating and Plating

Kalpakjian and Schmid also provides a rough guideline on the selection of a manufacturing process; mentioning that it depends not only on the shape to be produced but also on many other factors

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that relate to the topics discussed above. For example, certain materials which are brittle and/or hard cannot be shaped easily but casting is a more relevant method. Within the next few sections, common manufacturing techniques will be discussed and recommendations can be made for manufacturing techniques relative to the turbine. The types of materials will be broadly categorized into metals and plastics. Firstly, a brief discussion on their various properties which make it suitable for each process will be discussed, followed with methods in which they could be manufactured.

9.6 Metal and Metal Alloys

Metals have good bonding properties, this key feature distinguishing them from non-metallic materials. The metals have free electrons, which are free to move from one atom to the other and they determine certain material properties, such as electrical conductivity. The mechanical, physical and chemical properties of the metals and alloys are influenced by their microstructure, composition, processing and treatment methods used in obtaining the final product. Relevant basic properties, such as ductility, strength, hardness, toughness etc., and others, such as resistance to wear and corrosion, are dependent on the elements that are alloyed and on heattreatment processes applied to the material. Cold-working operations are available for non-heattreatable alloys, such as rolling, forging and extrusion. (30) Different material manufacturing processes are analysed in the next section in order to determine the best approach to be applied for the materials used in the wind turbine.

9.7 Metal Casting Processes

A basic casting process consists of the following: pouring the molten metal into a mould pattern, cooling it and removing it from the mould. Certain aspects are important to be considered, such as the flow of the molten metal, the solidification and cooling method and the influence of the type of mould material. A few factors influence the aspects of casting mentioned above: the flow is determined by the mould design and flow characteristics, the solidification and cooling are affected by metallurgical and thermal properties, while the type of mould influences the rate of cooling and the number of defects. (30) Various casting processes have been developed over time for different types of applications and their advantages and limitations can be found in Table 2.

Process
Sand

Advantages
Almost any metal cats; no limit to size, shape or weight; low tooling cost. Good dimensonal accuracy and surface finish; high production rate. Most metals cast with no limit to size; complex shapes. Intricate shapes; good dimensional accuracy and finish; low porosity.

Limitations
Some finishing required; somewhat coarse finish; wide tolerances. Part size limited; expensive pattern and equipment required. Patterns have low strength and can be costly for low quantities. Limited to nonferrous metals; limited size and volume of production; mould making time relatively long. Limited size.

Shell mould Expendable pattern

Plaster mould

Ceramic mould

Intricate shapes; close tolerancesparts;

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good surface finish. Investment Intricate shapes; excellent surface finish and accuracy; almost any metal cast. Good surface finish and dimensonal accuracy; low porosity; high production rate. Excellent dimensional accuracy and surface finish; high production rate. Large cylindrical parts with good quality; high production rate. Part size limited; expensive patterns, moulds and labour. High mould cost; limited shape and intricacy; not suitable for high melting point metals. Die cost is high; part size limited; usually limited to nonferrous metals; long lead time. Equipment is expensive; part shape limited.

Permanent mould

Die

Centrifugal

Table 2: Summary of Casting Processes, their Advantages and Limitations (30)

The casting industry is impacted by two major trends. The first is continuing mechanisation and automation of the casting process, leading to changes in the use of equipment and labour. The second trend is the increasing demand for high quality casting with low dimensional tolerances and no defects. SeeTable 3 for general characteristics of the casting processes.
Process Sand Shell Expendable Plaster mould mould pattern All Investment Permanent Die mould Centrifugal

Typical Materials Cast

All

All

Nonferrous All (high All (Al, Mg, Zn, melting Cu) point) 0.05 0.005 0.5

Nonferrous All (Al, Mg, Zn, Cu) <0.05 -

Minimum Weight (kg) Maximum Weight (kg)

0.05

0.05

0.05

No limit

100+

No limit

50+

100+

300

50

5000+

Typical Surface 5-25 -6 Finish (m , Ra) Porosity* Shape Complexity* Dimensional Accuracy* Minimum Section 4 1-2

1-3

5-20

1-2

1-3

2-3

1-2

2-10

4 2-3

4 1

3 1-2

3 1

2-3 3-4

1-2 3-4

2-10 3-4

0.5

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Thickness (mm) Maximum No limit Section Thickness (mm) No limit 75 50 12 100

Table 3: General Characteristics of Casting Processes. *Relative rating: 1 best - 5 worst. (30)

The surface finish of the products depends on the material used in making the mould, as well as on the manufacturing route selected. Surface roughness figures can be observed in Figure 43.

Figure 43: Surface Roughness in Casting and other Metalworking Processes (:272)

9.8 Sand Casting

Sand casting is a traditional method of casting metals and it consists of: Placing a pattern with the desired casting shape in sand to make an imprint Incorporating a gating system Filling the resulting cavity with molten metal Allowing the metal to cool until it solidifies Breaking away the sand mould and removing the casting (30).

Figure 44: Figure of sand-casting operations (30)

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Figure 45: of a sand mould (30)

9.9 Sands
Silica sand (SiO2) is used by most sand casting operations. Sand is cost effective and is suitable as a mould material due to its resistance to high temperatures. There are two general types of sand: naturally bonded (bank sand) and synthetic(lake sand). The last one is preferred as it can be controlled more accurately (30).

9.10 Types of Sand Moulds

Based on the types of sand contained and on the methods used to produce them, there are three basic types of sand moulds: green-sand, cold-box and no-bake moulds.The green moulding sand is the most commonly used sand mould. It is a mixture of sand, clay and water and the term green refers to its moist state when the metal is poured onto it. This is the most cost-efficient sand mould method (30).

9.11 Patterns
Patterns are employed to mould the sand into the shape of the desired casting. They can be made of different materials and their selection is made based on the shape and size of the casting, the dimensional accuracy, the number of finished products and the moulding process. SeeTable 4 for characteristics of pattern materials. The strength and durability of the pattern material should be selected according to the number of castings desired. The pattern may be made out of more materials to reduce wear in critical regions and they are designed to suit the application and economic requirements. There are a few types of patterns, such as the one-piece, split and match-plate patterns (30). Rating* Characteristics Machinability Wear Resistance Wood 1 4 Aluminium 2 2 Steel 2 1 Plastic 2 3 Cast Iron 2 1

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Strength Weight** Repairability Resistance to Corrosion*** Resistance to Swelling***

3 1 1 1

2 2 4 1

1 4 2 4

2 2 3 1

2 4 2 4

Table 4: Characteristics of Pattern Materials. *relative rating: 1 excellent, 2 good, 3 fair, 4 poor. **as a factor in operator fatigue. ***by water (30).

9.12 Sand-Moulding Machines

The first sand moulds consisted of compacting the sand around the pattern by hand hammering, but a more modern approach is applied to most sand casting operations nowadays: the sand mixture is compacted by moulding machines (see Figure 46). They offer great advantages over the traditional method, such as reducing labour and creating high quality casting by improving the application and distribution of forces, manipulating the mould in a controlled manner and increasing production rate.(30)

Figure 46: Designs of squeeze heads for mould making: (a) conventional flat head; (b) profile head, (c) equalising squeeze pistons; (d) flexible diagram (30)

9.13 The Sand Casting Operation

The melting of the raw materials starts the manufacturing process. Then the metal is poured in the sand mould and it is followed by the casting cooling which provides slow uniform cooling. The cast is then removed from the sand moulds and it is cleaned. If desired, heat treatment can be applied 32 | P a g e

e.g.stress relieving, annealing etc. In addition, the wear resistance of the metal can be enhanced at the surface by laser hardening.

9.14 Die Casting

The die-casting process was developed in the early 1900's. The molten metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures ranging from 0.7MPa to 700MPa. The weight of most castings ranges from less than 90g to about 25kg. There are two basic types of die-casting machines: hot-chamber and coldchamber (30).

9.15 Hot-Chamber Process

In the hot-chamber process, a piston traps a volume of molten metal and forces it into a die cavity through a gooseneck and a nozzle. Pressures range up to 35MPa, with an average of 15MPa. The metal is help under pressure until it solidifies in the die. See a schematic diagram of the hot-chamber process inFigure 47 (30).

Figure 47: Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process (30)

9.16 Cold-Chamber Process

In the cold-chamber process, molten metal is poured into a cold injection cylinder (shot chamber); hence the shot chamber is not heated. The metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures usually ranging from 20 to 70MPa, although they can be as high as 150MPa. See figure 5 for a schematic diagram of the process (30).

Figure 48: Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process (30)

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High-melting-point alloys of aluminium, magnesium and copper are normally cast using this method. Molten-metal temperatures start at about 600 degrees Celsius for aluminium and some magnesium alloys and increase considerably for copper and iron based alloys (30).

9.17 Process Capabilities and Machine Selection

Dies have a tendency to part unless clamped due to high pressure involved in the casting process. Die-casting machines are rated according to the clamping force that can be exerted to keep dies closed, but also according to other factors, such as die size, piston stroke, shot pressure and cost (30). Die-casting has the capability for time-effective production of high strength and quality parts with complex shapes. It also produces good dimensional accuracy and surface details, so that parts require little or no subsequent machining or finishing operations (30). Additionally, due to the fact that molten metal chills rapidly at the die walls, the casting has a finegrained, hard skin with higher strength. With good surface finish and dimensional accuracy, diecasting can produce surfaces that are normally machined. Equipment is costly, particularly the dies, but labour costs are generally low as the process is semi- or fully automated. Die-casting is economical for large production runs. The properties and typical applications of common die casting alloys are given in Figure 49 (30).

Figure 49: Properties and Typical Applications of Common Die Casting Alloys (30).

9.18 Forging of Metals

Forging is a process in which the work piece is shaped by compressive forces applied through various dies and tools. Simple forging can be performed using a heavy hand hammer and an anvil, but more modern techniques require a set of dies and a press or a forging hammer (30).Forged parts have good strength and toughness as the metal flow and grain structure can be controlled; they can be used for highly stressed and critical applications (30).Forging may be done at room temperature (cold forging) or at more elevated temperatures (warm or hot forging). Cold forging requires greater forces because of the higher strength of the material, but it produces parts with good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Hot forging requires lower forces, but the quality of the products is not as good (30).

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A component that can be forged successfully may also be manufactured economically by other methods, such as casting. However, each process has its own advantages and limitations with regard to strength, toughness, dimensional accuracy, surface finish and defects (30). The open die forging uses simple, inexpensive dies, but it is limited to simple shapes and a low production rate. The closed die forging has good dimensional accuracy and reproducibility, but machining is often necessary for the finished product (30). Forging was considered as an alternative manufacturing route to casting, but due to its limitations or high cost, metal casting is the preferred manufacturing technique employed for the wind turbine components.

9.19 Extrusion and Drawing of Metals

In the extrusion process, a billet (generally round) is forced through a die. Almost any solid or hollow constant cross-section may be produced by extrusion, creating semi-finished parts(30). In the basic extrusion process, called direct or forward extrusion, a round billet is placed in a chamber and forced through a die opening by a hydraulically driven ram or pressing stem. The die opening might be round or it may have various shapes. In indirect extrusion (reverse, inverted or backward extrusion), the die moves toward the billet. In hydrostatic extrusion, the billet is smaller in diameter than the chamber, which is filled with a fluid and the pressure is transmitted to the billet by a ram. Unlike in direct extrusion, there is no friction to overcome along with the container walls. Another type of extrusion is lateral or side extrusion(30). Important factors in extrusion are die design, extrusion ratio, billet temperature, lubrication and extrusion speed. Depending on the ductility of the material, extrusion may be carried out at room temperature (cold extrusion) or at an elevated temperature (hot extrusion). The cold extrusion combines extrusion with forging operations and it is capable of economically producing discrete parts in various shapes with good mechanical properties and dimensional tolerances(30). Commonly used materials are aluminium, copper, steel, magnesium and lead. Other metals and alloys can also be extruded, having different levels of difficulty. Drawing is a process through which the cross-section of a solid rod, tube or wire is reduced or changed in shape by pulling it through a die(30). Although the cross-section of most drawn products is round, other shapes can also be drawn(30).

9.20 Forming and Shaping Plastics

The processing of plastics involves operations similar to those used to form and shape metals. Plastics can be moulded, cast, machined etc. at relatively low temperatures; hence, unlike metals, they are easy to handle and require less energy to process. The properties of plastic components are greatly influenced by the manufacturing process and a thorough control of its conditions is vital for good part quality(30). Basic processes and their characteristics can be seen in Table 5.
Process Extrusion Characteristics Long, uniform, solid or hollow complex crosssections; high production rates; low tooling costs; high tolerances.

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Injection moulding

Complex shapes of various sizes, eliminating assembly; high production rates; costly tooling; good dimensional accuracy. Large parts with high stiffness-to-weight ratio; less expensive tooling than in injection moulding; low production rates. Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production rates and low cost for making containers. Large hollow shapes of relatively simple shape; low tooling cost; low production rates. Shallow or relatively deep cavities; low tooling costs; medium production rates. Parts similar to impression-die forging; relatively inexpensive tooling; medium production rates. More complex parts than compression moulding and higher production rates; some scrap loss; medium tolling cost. Simple or intricate shapes made with flexible moulds; low production rates.
Table 5: Characteristics of Forming and Shaping Processes for Plastics

Structural foam moulding

Blow moulding

Rotational moulding

Thermoforming

Compression moulding

Transfer moulding

Casting

9.21 Injection Moulding

Injection moulding is essentially the same process as hot-chamber die-casting (see Figure 50). Just as in extrusion, the barrel (cylinder) is heated to promote melting. However, with injection-moulding machines, a far greater portion of the heat transferred to the polymer is due to frictional heating. The pellets or granules are fed into the heated cylinder and the melt is forced into a split-die chamber, either by a hydraulic plunger or by the rotating screw system of an extruder. Newer systems hare reciprocating screw type (see Figure 50). As the pressure builds up at the mould entrance, the rotating screw begins to move backwards under pressure to a predetermined distance; this movement controls the amount of material to be injected. The screw then stops rotating and is pushed forward hydraulically, forcing the molten plastic into the mould cavity. Injection-moulding pressures usually range from 70MPa to 200MPa(30).

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Figure 50: Injection moulding with (a) plunger, (b) reciprocating rotating screw (30)

9.22 Process Capabilities

Injection moulding is a high rate production process and allows good dimensional control. Typical cycle times range from 5 to 60 seconds. The moulds are generally made out of steel, beryllium-copper or aluminium and they have multiple cavities, so that more than one part can be made in one cycle. Mould design and the control of material flow in the die cavities are important factors to be considered for the quality of the product(30).

9.23 Rotational Moulding

Most thermoplastics and some thermosets can be formed into large hollow parts by rotational moulding. The thin walled metal mould is made of two pieces (split female mould) and is designed to be rotated about two perpendicular axes (see figure 9). A premeasured quantity of powdered plastic material is placed inside the warm mould. The powder is obtained from a polymerisation process. The mould is then heated, while rotating about the two axes. This action tumbles the powder against the mould, where heating fuses the powder without melting it. In some parts, a chemical cross-linking agent is added to the powder.

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Figure 51: The rotational moulding (rotomoulding or rotocasting) process (30)

Rotational moulding can produce parts with complex with complex hollow shapes and with a wall thickness starting from 0.4 mm. Cycle times are longer than in other moulding processes, but equipment costs are low. Quality control considerations usually involve accurate weight of the powder placed in the mould, thorough rotation of the mould and temperature-time relationship during the oven cycle(30).

10 Product Design Specification (MH/MT)

1. Dates of P.D.S Production and Adoption 1.1. This Product Design Specification was created on 31/01/2013 1.2. This Product Design Specification was adopted by all members of the Group on 31/01/13 2. Introduction 2.1. This design specification is for the proposed concept design of a small scale wind turbine to be powered by wind 2.2. The wind turbine named above will henceforth be known as The Turbine or The Product 2.3. The aim of this design specification is to provide detailed analysis of the requirements 3. Duty Description 3.1. Harness wind energy through a horizontal wind turbine to produce electricity in order to provide constant power to a typical domestic refrigerator 3.2. The power generated will be stored within a battery bank containing two power outlets; one to power the refrigerator and the other to power an appliance of the users choice 3.3. Further excess power will be sold back to the national grid based on a feed in tariff 4. Design Criteria 4.1. General Design Criteria 4.1.1.The turbine is intended to be a mass produced item where assumptions are to be made in relation to pricing, marketing and other design factors.

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4.1.2.The turbine is to be designed to operate within a range of wind speeds between 5 and 20 m/s and appropriate safety systems to ensure shutdown in the event of excessive wind speeds as per section 4.5 4.1.3.The design of the turbine should comply with the Betz limit which limits the power extracted from the wind at 59.25% 4.2. Legal Constraints/Building Regulations 4.2.1.The requirements set out below are to be met at all times in order for the turbine to be installed without requiring further planning permission 4.2.2.It is recommended however that the local council of the area in which the turbine is to be installed, be contacted in case separate regulations exist 4.2.3.Such development rights are applicable for building mounted wind turbines applicable to detached houses or other detached buildings within the boundaries of a house or block of flats. 4.2.4.In addition to the criteria set out in 4.2.2 a block of flats should not contain commercial premises 4.2.5.The installation of the wind turbine must comply with criteria set out in the Micro generation Certification Scheme Planning Standards (or equivalent) 4.2.6.The installation cannot be carried out on protected land i.e. national parks, heritage sites, protected and/or land with restricted access for legal reasons 4.2.7.Only the first turbine installation is exempt from planning permission. Any further installations would be subject to permission from the local council as applicable by their requirements. 4.2.8.The turbine in an installed condition is not allowed to protrude more than 3 meters above the highest part of the roof (excluding the chimney) or exceed an overall height (including building and turbine) of 15 meters, whichever is lesser 4.2.9.The distance between the ground level and lowest part of the wind turbine blade must not be less than 5 meters 4.2.10. No part of the turbine is allowed to be within 5 meters of any boundary 4.2.11. The swept area of the turbine blades must be no more than 3.8 square meters 4.2.12. In Conservation Areas, an installation is not permitted if the building mounted wind turbine would be on a wall or roof slope which fronts a highway 4.2.13. The materials used within the blades must be non-reflective 4.2.14. The turbine is to be removed as soon as it is reasonably practicable when no longer needed for micro generation 4.2.15. The turbine is to be sited (or mounted), so far as practicable, to minimise its effect on the external appearance of the building 4.3. Power Requirements 4.3.1.As set out in Section 3, in order to fulfil its primary duty of providing power to a domestic refrigerator, a minimum production of 0.5 kW/h is expected although it is aimed to be able to produce between 1-1.5 kW/h in order to satisfy secondary duty as set out in 3.2 4.4. Power Management 4.4.1.A system needs to be in place in order to manage the power that is generated by the turbine, including regulators and converters 4.4.2.The power management system is also required to provide, at least, a simple interface for the end user where information about the current system can be gained 4.4.3.A power consumption and production log is beneficial to have for maintenance and analysis purposes 4.5. Safety Systems 4.5.1.In the event of a wind over speed event, a mechanical brake system is to be applied to stop the turbine from rotating and thereby posing a safety risk 39 | P a g e

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

4.5.2.Safety systems are to be built into the power management system where the current is to be regulated before delivered to the household 4.6. Building Mounting 4.6.1.It is required that the turbine is designed to be mounted on a typical UK household 4.6.2.The mounting system is to be designed to be able to withstand forces produced by the turbine and nature 4.6.3.The design of the mounting system should permit ease of access to the turbine and its components during maintenance and capability to remove the turbine if necessary Material Selection 5.1. The selection of materials for the construction of any part of the turbine should be done with the aim of achieving the requirements set out in sections 3 and 4 i.e. the material selected must be fit for function and purpose 5.2. In order to meet the cost requirement set out in 4.1.1 the cost of each selection needs to be carefully reviewed and if a selection of materials (which meets the criteria) is available, then the cheapest material should be used unless any other valid reasons exist. 5.3. As highlighted in 4.1.2 prices for materials should be based on bulk purchase prices, as this would reduce the overall manufacturing cost of the turbine. 5.4. The materials selected should also be considered for their recycling and disposable properties at the end of the turbine life Production 6.1. If the design of the wind turbine requires customised parts, then it should be investigated if such parts are cheaper to be manufactured in-house or from a specialist manufacturer 6.2. Packaging of the turbine should be designed to minimise shipping costs and space and wherever possible, consist of sustainable and recyclable materials Selection of Conceptual Design 7.1. All members of the group are to be involved in an equal manner regarding the selection of conceptual designs 7.2. All members are to be given specific areas of responsibility in the design of the turbine and it is expected for them to carry out a thorough research into such areas and inform the other members of their findings 7.3. The selection of the final conceptual designs are to be made as a group where input from the areas researched in 7.2 is required Maintenance 8.1. The design of the turbine should, as practicable as possible, not include user serviceable parts due to safety reasons 8.2. Routine service maintenance is to be carried out by a certified technician at six (6) month intervals and a thorough safety and electrical check carried out every twelve (12) month period 8.3. If any part(s) that are contained within the turbine is judged to have a limited life either through hours of operation or limited life cycles, they are to be made clear in the product service schedule and made clear to the end user Financial 9.1. The production costs of the turbine must not exceed 250 (GBP) 9.2. The turbine is to be presented to the market at a profit of 15% above all costs incurred per unit 9.3. The final cost at which the turbine is sold at should take into account all manufacturing, labour, shipping and other such costs 9.4. The cost of the turbine is to be determined once a final value of the components is made and it is then to be scaled to a production cost per unit for 20,000 units Target Markets 10.1. The intended target market for this product is domestic home users where the power requirement is for a medium sized refrigerator (or similar appliance) 40 | P a g e

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

10.2. In addition, as stated in 3.2, extra flexibility is given to the user regarding power consumption through additional power sockets made available through battery banks 10.3. The product is to be marketed as a relatively inexpensive wind turbine where the cost of purchase and installation would reflect as such Operational Safety 11.1. It should be noted at all times during the design stage that the safety should be of paramount importance at all times. Any aspect of the design should not post any safety risks either to the consumer or cause damage to any surroundings. 11.2. The turbine should be designed that wherever possible, Foreign Object Damage (FOD) should be prevented or minimized 11.3. Adequate protection needs to be given to any systems within the turbine containing moving parts 11.4. Any systems that contain electrical elements are also required to be given proper insulation and sealing properties 11.5. The turbine is to be accompanied with a thorough manual which provides clear instructions to the user about its operation and safety features 11.6. The safety systems described in section 4.5 is to be tested as part of section 12 and the results made available to the end user Quality Assurance 12.1. In order to be compliant with various safety standards, the turbine is to be put through a thorough testing process before it is launched into the market 12.2. Testing is to be carried out for the following conditions: 12.2.1. Expected range of operating wind speeds 12.2.2. Safety systems at wind over speed event 12.2.3. Expected temperatures throughout the year 12.2.4. High rain or snow events 12.3. Maintenance to be carried out at intervals specified in section 8 Engineering Drawings 13.1. Complete engineering drawings are to be done for the design of the turbine and its components 13.2. Any such drawings are to be kept securely at all times Intellectual Property (IP) 14.1. The design of the turbine should take into account any existing patents, copyright or design protection(s) and should not at any time infringe such protection(s) 14.2. If any part of the turbine design requires design or copyright protection, applications for such should be carried out Revisions 15.1. Revisions to the Product Design Specification should be clearly marked at the top of the document and the table provided below where the changes made are to be documented

11 Design Conceptualisation
11.1 Blade (BP)
A blade can be designed to have various shapes but as described in section 4.2.2, the lift and the drag force need to be accounted for. The lift and the drag force depend on their coefficient value which eventual depends on the aspect ratio (for finite blade structure) therefore changing the aspect ratio would change the lift and drag force which will help us determine the advantages and disadvantages of different blade structures.

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11.1.1 Design 1
Trapezoidal Planform Area design would allow us to account for the apparent wind (see section 4.2). With length (h) being the span area, smaller chord length can be placed towards the tip of the blade to reduce the chances of stall near to the root section. It also angles the blades from the root section to increase lift due to the apparent wind as mentioned earlier. However, the aerodynamic centre for this shape shifts towards the root chord which reduces the linear velocity (acting at the aerodynamic centre due to the lift force) as its proportional to the force and the radius.It also lowers the aspect ratio (compared to the rectangular planform with same root chordlength) which eventually increases the induced drag and the requirement for the angle of attack. The other problem this design imposes is the changing chord length, which changes the thickness of the aerofoil shape (see section 11.1.4). This does not allow us to work out the volume of the blade structure accurately during the design stage in order to estimate the mass accurately.

a h

Planform Area = Volume = A t, where A is the planform area and t is the thickness X axis Centroid =

11.1.2 Design 2
Rectangular Planform Area can also be used to design the wind turbine blade. This design has high aspect ratio relative to the Trapezoidal Planform design (with same root chord length). Increase in aspect ratio reduces the downwash but this design does not account for the apparent wind. However the simplicity of this design (constant aerofoil shape) allows us to measure the volume more accurately than any other planform shape, which means we can calculate the mass of the blade accurately at design stage. Although caution must be paid while working out the volume as its not a rectangular box but an aerofoil shape with rectangular planform area. This design has high aspect ratio and therefore high coefficient of lift and low induced drag however; it has relatively high profile drag. a b Planform Area = Volume = A t, where A is the planform area and t is the thickness X axis Centroid =

11.1.3 Design 3
Triangular Planform areahas minimum span area but low aspect ratio as the trapezoidal planform design and therefore poses the same problem of downwash. However it has relatively low profile drag and low volume compared to the other two designs therefore the mass of the blade would be low too.

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a b Planform Area = Volume = A t, where A is the planform area and t is the thickness X axis Centroid =

11.1.4 Aerofoil Shape

Various aerofoil profiles are available for selection from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency has various aerofoil profiles that can be used to generate different aerofoil shapes depending on the chord length. length The profile shape ape depends on the NACA MPDD number give for each specific shape which depends on the chord length. M is the maximum chamber divided by 100, P is the position of the maximum camber divide by 10 and DD is the thickness divided by 100. NACA 2412 has maximum chamber line of 2% with 4% of maximum thickness thickn of an aerofoil shape and 12%. For various chord lengths, wind turbine blades can be designed using various NACA profiles to determine blades thickness and maximum chamber. The tail section can be altered for any profile to maximize the lift but the design alterations can only be carried out after testing an aerofoil shape. Experimental or computational analysis can be carried to improve the aerofoil shape and its operational angle of attack.

11.1.5 Materials
The wind nd turbine blade can be made out of range of materials available but the choice of material for individual design heavily depends on the design aspects e.g. Lift the aerofoil shape generates, Length of the blade, Tip velocity, etc. For large wind turbine blades, blades, material chosen needs to be strong but light therefore carbon fibre reinforcement on a strong plastic is widely used. For a small scale wind turbine blades, aluminium is more commonly used as they are more resistive to corrosion then iron. High strength ngth plastic can also be used for blades but the manufacturing cost could be high as the blade surfaces would require smoothening. However plastic are really light weight for small scale wind turbine and, if reinforced with enough thickness to sustain structural structural damage, they can produce high angular velocity due to low mass.

11.2 Generator (KE)

11.2.1 Design 1

Figure 52: Design 1

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Description: Figure 52 illustrates the first preliminary for the generator the wind turbine. The permanent magnet generator is mounted to a central shaft which runs through the bearing and housing. Materials: Rotor is made out of Magnetite or Neodymium and stator is made using copper. Advantages: No gear box required due to direct drive mechanism. Disadvantages: Average cost of a 0.5 kW generator start from 100 which will increase the cost of the product.

11.2.2 Design 2

Figure 53: Design 2

Description:Figure 53 shows the second generator design for the wind turbine. This concept was extracted from the permanent magnet generator theory. In this design, magnets are mounted on the blade tip where the fluxes luxes are distributed and the blades represent the rotor. A non-magnetic, non Nonconducting circular section holds a number of circular bobbin wound armature copper coils positioned circumferentially around the circular ring which acts as the stator of the generator. ge The power is generated when the blade tip magnet pass through the copper coil banks mounted onto the outer ring. Materials: For the rotor, Neodymium magnet was chosen due to its high performances. The copper wires were chosen for the stator due to less resistance. Advantages: Since blade tip has the highest speed, the electricity generate from the generator is much higher when comparing to the axial fixed generator. Also the mechanical resistance is much lower (Blades are connected to a bearing not not to a yaw shaft) so the losses are low which will enable the turbine to operate at a lower wind speed. This design reduces the noise, vibration and the size of the wind turbine. Disadvantages: The blade tip mounted magnets will add extra weight to the blade bl tip which increases the cut in wind velocity.

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11.2.3 Design 3

Figure 54: Design 3

Description: Figure 54 illustrates the third generator design for the wind turbine. It also uses the blade tip power generation system. However in this design the magnets are mounted on the outer ring (Rotor) and the coils are wounded at the tip of the blade. Materials: For the rotor, Neodymium magnet was chosen due to its high performances and copper wires were chosen for the stator due to less resistance. Advantages: The magnets are fixed in a N-S arrangement to create higher and uniform magnetic flux between the two magnets, this effect create higher electricity from the turbine. Disadvantages: Since the blade tip are equipped with coils the aerodynamic efficiency of the system decreases. Total number of 8 magnets is used in this system which increase the total cost of the system.

11.2.4 Design 4

Figure 55: Design 4

Description: Figure 55shows the schematics of the fourth conceptual design of the generator. Turbine consists of two rotating rotor sections. Where the Inner blades tip consists of wounded copper coils. Materials: For the rotor, Neodymium magnet was chosen due to its high performances and copper wires were chosen for the stator due to less resistance. Advantages: The two counter rotating blade systems increases the frequency of flux-coil interaction generates more electricity. Disadvantages: Mechanically complicated to build due to the two counter rotating blade system. Additional materials required to build outer rotating system, which increase the cost of the product.

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11.3 Preliminary Design of braking and mounting systems (MH)

11.3.1 Braking Systems Having a well-defined and functional safety system is critical to any modern wind turbine design. Common safety systems found in wind turbines have been reviewed and considerations have been made for the initial concept. A disc brake system was chosen as the primary method of stopping the wind turbine primarily due to cost considerations. Aerodynamic braking is proven to efficiently stop a turbine from rotating during high wind situations but they are expensive to implement, as many systems will be required to operate it. Due to the current generator design requiring coils to be installed at the blade tip, which would require cables to run within them, also increases the complexity of having a pitch control mechanism within the rotor hub. Three initial designs were formed for the braking system of the turbine. 11.3.2 Braking System Design 1
The 1st preliminary design of the wind turbine system contains the rotor hub seated on a set of bearings which will contain an attached brake disc. This disc will be similar to that found on go carts due to their small size as well as reduced weight compared to much larger car braking systems. The surface area acting on the disc will be chosen to sufficiently provide braking at high wind speeds. A hydraulic or electric actuator system will be mounted within the nacelle of the turbine in order to provide the actuation force needed for the brake pads. An anemometer placed within the turbine would measure the current wind speeds and activate the braking system. Disc

Hub
Figure 56: Design 1

11.3.3 Braking System Design 2

The 2nd brake systems design incorporates the brake disc into the centre shaft which travels through the turbine. This would require the shaft to be rotating at the same speed as the hub, which the disc would be attached to. Due to the bearing system being installing within the hub, it was decided that the rotor would not rotate along with the hub, but rather act as a backbone to the turbine which provides support to all systems.

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Hub Shaft

Disc

Figure 57: Design 2

11.3.4 Braking System Design 3

The 3rd brake system design is to incorporate aerodynamic braking. This would include a variable pitch control system for the blades which requires a set of motors to be placed within the hub system. When the detected wind speed exceeds a specified cut-off value, aerodynamic braking will be activated which would bring the turbine to a gradual stop.

11.4 Mounting System (MH)

The wind turbine is to be designed for the use of domestic UK homes and therefore the mounting system should take into consideration current UK building regulations and legal requirements as well as extracting maximum energy from the wind speeds predicted within such heights. The limitations of the mounting system are highlighted in the PDS under section 4, which highlights all the design considerations. A majority of the power management system for the turbine would not necessarily be required to be placed within the nacelle and this lends to a reduction in weight and space taken up by the nacelle. Although initially, a lattice steel structure could be considered the best method to mount the turbine, costs could be reduced by either fixing the turbine within a steel pole onto the chimney or a concrete base. Examples of mounting systems that could be used are shown below from current small scale wind turbines.

11.4.1 Mounting System Method 1

Mounting system method 1 includes a side mounted turbine on the wall of the building. This is shown in FIGURE. Since roofs in domestic houses are at a given angle, if the house is a detached dwelling, this system would be ideal as work would not need to be carried out on the roof itself.

Figure 58: Design 1

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11.4.2 Mounting system 2

Mounting system method 2 would require the turbine to be installed on the roof and includes a hydraulic ram in order to adjust the tower height when necessary for maintenance and safety.

Figure 59: Design 2

11.4.3 Mounting System 3

Mounting system method 3 would be similar to the system highlighted in method 2, but without the hydraulic ram. In order to maintain a low product cost, and taking into account height limitations given in the PDS, this system is the chosen system as the final design.

Mast

base

Figure 60: Design 3

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11.5 Popular Wind turbine arrangements for domestic use (MT)

Figure 61: Typical Wind Turbine arrangements (31)

11.5.1 Introduction
A charge controller or charge regulator limits the current being delivered by the power source to the battery. To be useful, "12 volt" wind generators need to be capable of delivering 16 to 20 volts in moderate winds (at say 250-400rpm). Most 12v batteries need around 14 to 14.5 volts to get fully charged. Wind turbines need to be protected from 'over speed' which could occur if a load was suddenly removed or switched 'off'. Over speed protection is normally achieved by maintaining a constant electrical load on the turbine as well as providing voltage regulation the charge controller also ensures that this electrical loading is present at all times. The electrical load is either provided by charging the battery, or if the battery is fully charged then the excess power is normally diverted to a dump load/braking resistor (which could be used for air, water or under floor heating)in this situation, the excess power would be sold to the national grid under Feed-In-Tariff.

11.5.2 Series Regulators

Many charge controllers are designed to disconnect (or open circuit) the solar panel when the battery becomes charged and re-connect the solar panel when the battery needs recharging. While this is acceptable for solar panels, these series regulators are unsuitable as wind and water turbine

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charge controllers as they would cause the turbine to over speed and damage would result from excessive centrifugal force or excessive vibration.

11.5.3 ShuntRegulators
Have the following characteristics The wind generator is not regulated or controlled and continuously delivers the available power to the regulator and battery. The regulator constantly monitors the battery voltage and switches between two states determined by the battery voltage. If the battery voltage falls below a "low" set limit the controller disconnects the dump load and allows the battery to charge. If the voltage rises above a "high" set limit the controller turns on a dump load and isolates the battery from further charging. In normal operation the wind controller will cycle between these two binary operating states (Charging and Charged), thus achieving the battery voltage regulation between the controllers low and high voltage set points* (*Note: see hysteresis below) (32).

11.5.4 Two modes of operation

There are two possible ways in which the simple shunt regulator can be incorporated into a wind generation system; a "dump load controller" (sometimes called a "simple battery shunt" or "shunt mode")anda "turbine brake controller" (sometimes called "back EMF braking" or "diversion mode"). The difference is that in Diversion Mode the regulator only diverts the instantaneous generated power to the dump load and only when the battery is charged. Note: Stored battery power is never dumped by a regulator in Diversion Mode (this is prevented by the presence of a blocking diode).In Shunt Mode the regulator operates as a simple battery shunt and has to dump the generators full rated power capacity each time it turns on (whatever the prevailing conditions) consequently the dumping of battery power is a feature of this mode of operation. In the "shunt mode" configuration, and in windy conditions, once the battery is fully charged the rotor speed will not change significantly when the controller switches between the Charging and the Dumping states. In the turbine brake controller" configuration, once the battery is fully charged (and the controller has entered into the charged/dumping state) the rotor speed will be determined by the braking resistor impedance. If the braking resistor is low impedance, then the rotor will be observed to slow down. As the controller switches back into the charging state then the rotor will speed up again. Some shunt regulators are designed to operate in one mode only, some can be configured in either of the two modes during installation, some can be dynamically switched during operation. Shunt regulators cant operate in both modes at the same time.

11.5.5 Pulse Width Modulation Regulators

PWM charge controller regulates the power being sent to the battery.The PWM regulator is a proportional controller which is capable of varying the charge duty cycle between 0 and 100%. The controller constantly checks the state of the battery to determine how fast to send pulses, and how long (wide) the pulses will be. In a fully charged battery with no load, it may just "tick" every few seconds and send a short pulse to the battery. In a discharged battery, the pulses would be very long and almost continuous, or the controller may go into "full on" mode. The controller checks the state of charge on the battery between pulses and adjusts itself each time.

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A PWM dump load controller regulates the 'excess' power which needs to be dumped. This is an alternative way in which a PWM regulator can be configured. Instead of regulating the power being sent to the battery (see above) it regulates the excess power that needs to be dumped into a braking resistor. With a discharged battery, pulses would never be sent to the braking resistor. When the battery is fully charged and excess power is still being generated then the PWM dump load controller sends pulses or may go into "full on" mode if the generated power is high.

With the development of PWM charge controllers came a new and improved way of charging batteries using bulk, absorption, float and equalization charges. These are a great improvement over shunt charge controllers as they are able to keep the battery voltage much more stable.

11.5.6 PWM regulator with a dump load

Wind turbine system normally require PWM regulator with a dump load to maintain the load on thegenerator/turbine and to dissipate energy when the battery becomes charged). Such regulators allow the wind turbine to deliver all of the available power to the regulator and battery. Examples of PWM shunt regulators which support an external dump load include the Xantrex C40 and Morningstar Tristar-45 family of regulators.

11.5.7 Shorting the generator output?

The output from a DC generator should never be shorted while it is rotating since the commutator and brushes will quickly burn out. Some small machines with more internal resistance and servomotors may survive limited abuse but shorting the DC generator output as a means of continuous regulation should be avoided. AC wind generators have lots of kinetic energy stored within the rotating components and shorting the generator output induces very large currents flowing within the coils. This may cause excessive heat build-up and premature failure of the windings (particularly if the alternator windings are potted within resin, as air cooling is severely constrained). Shorting the windings of an AC generator should only be considered as a maintenance function. If the turbine/generator does not stop within 10-15 seconds then the braking effect is insufficient to overcome the wind strength. If the generator is allowed to continue to rotate with the generator output shorted then permanent damage could occur. Shorting the AC generator output as a means of continuous regulation should be avoided.

11.5.8 Wind compatible Solar style charge controllers?

There are an increasing number of solar style charge controllers which utilize the shunt/diversion mode architecture without a dump load. When the battery becomes charged the solar style charge controller applies a short to the power source, which works perfectly well with solar panels, but care needs to be taken when considering their use for wind generator applications. These solar style charge controllers include the JUTE CMP24 family (20A, 30A and 45A), Hybrid controller CQ1210 and SecasSolarix; Alpha, Gamma, Sigma and Omega family (with the ATONIC chip architecture). Modern wind turbines can be designed to take advantage of solar style charge controllers (they are cheaper than conventional PWM controllers which require a dump load). However they need to be designed from first principals for use with solar style charge controllers. Two wind turbine systems that are compatible with solar style charge controllers (which do not have a dump load) include the Wren Micro-turbine which is compatible with the Samrey 30A Shunt Charge Controller (a rebadge SecaSolarix Omega) and the Macro-Wind small wind turbines (MW-200 and MW-400) which are compatible with the solar style charge controller supplied by Macro-Wind. Additional protection has 51 | P a g e

been embedded within the wind turbine manufactured by Macro-Wind to ensure compatibility with a solar style charge controller which has no provision for a dump load. You should not assume that a new solar style charge controller which has no provision for a dump load will be compatible with your existing wind generator. You need to check for compatibility with your generator and the solar style charge controller suppliers. Apart from the damage referred to above caused by the application of frequent shorts to the generator output there will be the additional problem that the turbine would be beset with frequent stops. If the winds are light then frequent stops means that you will lose the ability to generate power in low winds.

11.5.9 Maximum Power Point Tracking

MPPT charge controllers can be used in conjunction with uniform solar arrays consisting of multiple, identical solar panels. The MPPT controller is designed to maximise the quantity of power obtained by performing a periodic sweep of the solar power curve to determine the ideal voltage at which the maximum power can be extracted. The timing of the sweep has been optimized to take account of solar events like "passing clouds" (typically the sweep occurs every 7 minutes). The power output from fixed pitch wind generators have significant short term fluctuations, as the speed is constantly changing with the variable wind conditions. MPPT systems are not fast enough to keep up with the changing condition of the turbine. Consequently the MPPT sweep algorithm will produce erroneous data with each gust of wind. Hence MPPT controllers are not generally used for fixed pitch wind turbine generators. The power output from variable pitch wind generators and from water turbines can remain constant over the longer term. This makes them more suitable for use with MPPT power controllers.

11.5.10

Hysteresis

Hysteresis is an integral characteristic with shunt regulators (but not with PWM regulators).The regulator is either 'off' or 'on', with nothing in between. The regulator is a system; its input is the battery voltage, and its output is the 'Charging' or 'Charged/Dumping' binary state. If we wish to maintain a battery voltage of 12.5v, then the regulator may be designed to turn the dump load 'on' when the battery voltage rises above the 12.6v set limit, and turn it 'off' when the battery voltage falls below the 12.4v set limit. The controllers "low and high voltage set points" and a "lock out" time constant within the controller define the characteristic hysteresis properties of the controller. Domestic central heating thermostats also exhibit hysteresis. Further information on hysteresis can be found on Wikipedia.

11.5.11

Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead-acid batteries fall into two categories. 1. Shallow cycle - these are the type used to start your car. They are designed to deliver a large amount of current over a short period of time. This type is unsuitable for a home power battery bank. They cannot withstand being deeply discharged, to do so shorten their life. 2. Deep cycle - Designed to be discharged by as much as 80% of their capacity, this is the type of choice for home power systems. The life of deep cycle batteries will be extended if the discharge cycle is limited to 50% of the battery capacity and if they are fully recharged after each cycle (this avoids positive plate sulphating). The quickest way to ruin lead-acid batteries is to discharge them deeply and leave them standing "dead" for an extended period of time. When they discharge, there is a chemical change in the positive plates of the battery. Batteries that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially on a regular basis can fail in less than one year. Second hand batteries from computer UPS and GSM base-station installations frequently come onto the market. These batteries are normally removed from service when the battery backup time (i.e. 52 | P a g e

the battery capacity) has fallen below acceptable operational limits. Batteries always have a manufacturers date code on them (for warranty purposes), make sure you know what it is before you purchase. Second hand traction batteries (milk float, fork lift and submarine) are ideal but difficult to value. However the price will never fall below the scrap value for lead. Storage batteries need adequate ventilation(33). State of Charge (approx.) 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 12 Volt Battery 12.7 12.5 12.42 12.32 12.2 12.06 11.9 11.75 11.58 11.31 10.5 Volts per Cell 2.12 2.08 2.07 2.05 2.03 2.01 1.98 1.96 1.93 1.89 1.75

Table 6: State of Charge

11.5.12

Dump Loads (as used in 'battery shunt' configuration)

Typically 0.5 to 2.0 ohms (for example: a 12volt 200watt dump load would consume 16.6amps and have a resistance of0.72ohms). The dump load should be dimensioned to dissipate the generators maximum output power. You can use a "car ceramic heater" or a regular 12/24/48v immersion heater. If you need a higher capacity dump load you can use a cheap DC-AC inverter to generate 240volts and a domestic oil filled radiator. Car headlight bulbs may be used for experimentation, but are not suitable as a permanent fixture since they will burn out during high winds and without the dump load the controller will either "boil" the battery or fail to load the generator which will then over speed (depending upon the controller design and failure mode). Incandescent bulbs also have low impedance when cold and induce very high switching currents. Dump loads can be controlled by MOSFET's or by relays.

11.5.13

Braking Resistor (as used in 'turbine brake controller' configuration)

Typically 1 to 5 ohms To determine your optimum braking resistor value you may need to experiment with different power resistors during various wind conditions. A very low impedance braking resistor would cause the turbine to slow instantaneously to a low speed, which could place unnecessary stresses on the turbine. The benefit of the turbine brake controller" configuration, which slows the rotor down, is less wear and tear on the rotating components while the battery remains in its fully charged state. A Rheostat is useful in determining the ideal brake resistor value when configured in the "turbine brake controller" configuration. The braking resistor should be dimensioned to dissipate the generators maximum output power.

11.5.14

Grid Tie Inverters

A grid-tie inverter or a (GTI) is an electrical device that allows turbine or solar panels to complement their grid power with renewable power. It works by regulating the amount of voltage and current 53 | P a g e

that is received from the turbine or solar panel and converting this into alternating current. The main difference between a standard electrical inverter and a grid-tie inverter is that the latter also ensures that the power supplied will be in phase with the grid power.This allows individuals with surplus power (wind, solar, etc.) to sell the power back to the utility. This is sometimes called "spinning the meter backwards" as that is what literally happens. On the AC side, these inverters must supply electricity in sinusoidal form, synchronized to the grid frequency, and limit feed in voltage to no higher than the grid voltage including disconnecting from the grid if the grid voltage is turned off. A major advantage of Grid Tie Inverters is that the requirement for batteries is eliminated. Grid-tie inverters have a maximum permitted input voltage. As wind speeds increase, this limit may be exceeded. In these circumstances the grid-tie inverter will automatically disconnect the turbine from delivering power to the mains. At this point the rotor is no longer loaded and it will rapidly increase to a dangerous speed. High voltages are still being applied to the input of the "off-line" Gridtie inverter, which will destroy it. Then the rotor may also be destroyed by high speed vibration and centripetal forces. An additional problem is mains failure as this will also remove the loading on the rotor, with the same consequences. A frequency switch can be used to apply a diversion load and brake to slow the turbine down to a safe speed, during either of these two conditions. Grid-tie inverters also have a minimum input voltage which needs to be maintained if you wish to remain connected to the grid. Falling outside of this min-max window will result in the GTI disconnecting from the grid. To reach the minimum voltage you need to improve your ability to capture the wind by changing the tower height, rotor size, number of blades, blade design, etc. (34)

12 Preliminary Design & Analysis

12.1 The Blades, the Hub & the Cone (BP)

Figure 62: Preliminary Blade Design

Design Features: NACA 0010 Airfoil Shape Ultra High Molecular Weight Polethylene Bolted by two M8 to the hub 6 angle of attack considering infinite wing Cl graph High aspect ratio as the span to chord length ratio is high Low induced drag as aspect ratio is high however; high profile drag The initial design of the blades included trapezoid mount with thin section going into the hub bolted together using M8 bolts. The design is not practical as it requires bolts to attach the blade with the hub. This would induce high stress concentration on the plastic blade around the bolt area which could result in a crack or a fracture. Plastic is also likely to deform if a constant force is applied which 54 | P a g e

means the bolt holes are likely to elongate making blades vibrate more and deform further resulting in a catastrophic failure. The hub is made of aluminium and does not have any significant effect compare to the blades. The cone is also plastic and bolted with the aluminium hub however; cone has no major force acting on it and therefore the bolt hole elongations is not significant for the cone.

Figure 63: Preliminary Hub Design

Figure 64: Preliminary Cone Design

12.2 Generator design selection (KE)

Figure 65: Conceptual Design 3

12.2.1 Design Selection

From the analysis of the conceptual designs, Design 3 was selected for the preliminary design. The unique Blade tip generator system reduces the losses due to the axial rotating components. The cost of the product is lower due to the use of separate stator and rotor. Due to high Blade tip speed high energy generate from the tip. Design 1 _ Use of conventional axial generator need to have a gear box in order to operate in low wind speeds. The axial driven generators have higher losses due to friction, which reduce generator efficiency and high noise pollution. So the conceptual design 1 wasnt chosen for the preliminary design.

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Design 2_The design is based on wind tip generator concept. However, the magnets are mounted on the blade tips which add extra weight. The cut in wind speed of the system is much higher in order to generate power. Also cost of the magnets is higher and mounting it on a rotating component will reduce the life cycle. Conceptual design 2 wasnt selected for the final design. sy will Design 4_The conceptual design 4 has a two counter rotating blade system, where the system exceed the size limitation set by governing bodys (This was discussed in the beginning of the report). Also the cost of the manufacturing will increase due to mechanical complexity.

12.2.2 Design improvements for the preliminary generator design

Figure igure 66: Preliminary CAD Design for the generator

Figure 66 shows the CAD drawing of the preliminary design. The magnets were mounted N-S or S-N pole arrangement, where it creates constant axial magnetic flux distribution between two magnets. This arrangement angement increases the electricity generation form the rotating coils (stator-mounted (stator on the blade tip). After the CAD analysis it was identified due to the outer ring which support magnets reduces the blade tip aerodynamic efficiency. To solve this issue outer ring thickness was reduce and the magnets were mounted on the inner surface of the ring in series arrangement. This modification increases the blade aerodynamic efficiency and high wind energy is captured to generate electricity. Figure 80 shows the magnetic flux arrangement of the magnets magnets in preliminary design.

Figure 67: 67 Magnetic Flux Arrangement in Conceptual Design 3

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13 Final Design (BP)

The final design shows fully assembled wind turbine with bearings and magnets presented as blocks of steel (cream colour). The slice view of the turbine is used to show display the bearing positions. 3D Exploded view shows the position each component is attach to.

Figure 69: Side View of the Wind Turbine Figure 68: Front View of the Wind Turbine

Figure 71: Slice View of the Wind Turbine Figure 70: 3D View of the Wind Turbine

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Figure 72: 3D Slice View of the Wind Turbine

Figure 73: Exploded View of the Wind Turbine

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Figure 74: 3D Exploded View of the Wind Turbine

13.1 FEA Analysis (MT)

FEA Analysis was carried out for different load condition the wind turbine would experience. The first FEA was carried out for the forces the wind turbine would encounter on a worst case scenario (60 m/s wing, highest recorded wind speed for UK) to make sure the turbine would be able to survive.

Figure 75: Equivalent Stress

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Figure 76: Total Deformation

As you can see from the above figure, you can notice some deformation in the blades. But safety factors are well above breaking point proving that the wind turbine would survive a worst case scenario. If the deformations are plastic (unlikely) the blades would need replacing.

Figure 77: Equivalent Stress

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Another analysis was carried out for more likely high wind situation of 25m/s wind. This level of wind speed is not an everyday occurrence but it is a likely situation the wind turbine would encounter. Deformations in blades are slightly above 1mm, well within the elastic limit for Ultra-high-molecularweight polyethylene proving the wind turbine is capable of withstanding this level of strong wind without any problem.

Figure 78: Total Deformation

Further FEA analysing was carried out to find out at what speeds, plastic deformations would occur in the wings. The results revealed the winds higher than 25 meters per second wind would cause plastics deformation in blades. To prevent that anemometer will detect the wind speeds above 23 m/s and apply the brakes stopping any damage to the wings/system When FMEA was carried out on the system, the break mechanism was flag as a system of high risk. This is due to fails in brake system would be recognised only in the annual maintenance. This is not as the there are many ways the break system can fail and if the turbine is faced with a high wind situation after the beaks had failed, that would cause plastic deformation in blades requiring costly replacements.This was unacceptable and the solution had to be easy on the customer, preferably a solution that automated requiring no involvement from the residents or maintenance. The implemented solution is an innovative automated monthly check system. The circuit run through the utility meter (the model specified in the price list capable of running small programs) is system that would supply power to the breaks once a month and compare the power generated against the wind speed registered by the anemometer. When the fail safe check in operation, for any wind speed above zero, the power generated also should be zero as the check system is powering the breaks. If the turbine is generating power, that means the beak system has failed and indication would be displayed of this in the utility meter.As this system is run monthly, chance of damaging situation occurring is very low.

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13.2 Bill of Material (MT)

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13.3 Blades (BP)

The final design specification: NACA 0010 Profile Chord length 0.1m Each blade with 0.3m span Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene material used to manufacture 10 angle of attack for Finite blade Section cut at the tip for stator For 6m/s wind speed, 0.3m blade span and 0.05m hub radius, Power available is: 16 = 0.5 6 1.225 0.35 = 30.17 27 For the given chord length, thickness (t) of the NACA 0010 airfoil shape is 10% therefore the thickness of the airfoil is 0.01m. The Planform area is given by: = = 0.1 0.3 = 0.03 The volume of the blade worked out using the SolidWork tool is 0.204 10-3m3 Therefore the Aspect Ratio is: =

Mass: = 931 0.204 10 = 0.189

= . = 3
.. .

Reynolds number of the fluid flowing over the airfoil shape: =

= 37065

At calculated Re value, the coefficient of lift value curve gradient is approximately 0.1/ Therefore the Finite Blade CLgradient is given by: = The finite wing CL is 0.0598 10 = 0.598
.. .

= 0.0598

The Lift: = 0.5 1.225 0.598 6 0.03 = 0.396

Drag Force: = 0.5 1.225 0.03 0.16 6 = 0.106 Torque: = = 0.396 0.15 = 0.0594

= 0.16 CD can be worked out using airfoil Cd Value (0.12): = 0.12 + .

Power extracted for 0.5 rps: = = 0.0594 2 0.5 = 0.187 The Power extraction calculations do show low value because of the estimation made for the rps. This is because we need experimental or computational analysis to work out the rotational speed.

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13.4 Bearings (BP/MH)

Two roller bearings are installed; one holding the hub and the other one holding the upper frame. The bearings are lubricated to reduce the noise of blade rotation.

The bearings need to lubricate in order increase longevity. For the bearing in the hub with blades, this needs to be lubricated daily. This would be done via a small pump and an oil reservoir. Time control unit would be a circuit based on a 555 555 time control IC that would operate ones a day for small period of time to lubricate the bearing. Power will be drawn from the battery to run this circuit.The large bearing inside the mast for yaw movement is not rapidly moving and no used long periods of o time. This bearing is lubricated manually ones a year.

13.5 Final Generator Design (KE)

The final generator consists of rotor section and stator section, the specifications and description follows.

13.5.1 Rotor

Figure 79: Final Generator Design

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Figure 79 shows the final generator design; the outer ring is defined as the rotor. 16 magnets (see Table 7) 7 are mounted on the stationary ring (355mm inner diameter ring) made out from plastic material to reduce the flux absorption from the magnets. 16 magnets were chosen in order to generate generate more electricity from the generator, also considering the cost of the total generator. Neodymium magnets were chosen for the rotor, the magnets are made out from Iron and Boron which is class as the strongest magnets. It creates strong magnetic fluxes, which will influence the total electricity generation higher. Most of the renewable appliance used neodymium magnets. Two magnets were place in series in order to create higher flux density around the magnets. Error! Reference source not found., shows the flux arrangement between two magnets. N42 gradeneodymium magnets were chosen due to its optimal balance of magnets strength and durability for the price.
Shape Magnetic Face: Thickness: Grade: Plating: Performance (Gauss): Vertical Pull (Kg): Slide Resistance (Kg): Max Temp (degrees C): Fixing: Rectangle 46 x 30mm 10mm N42 Ni-Cu-Ni ( Nickel ) 2700 30 6 80 Araldite/Loctite Table 7: Magnet specification (35)

Figure 80: Magnetic Flux Arrangement in Final Design

13.5.2 Stator

Figure 81: Front View of the Stator

Error! Reference source not found., shows the front view of the stator. 65 | P a g e

It was decided to use removable stator parts to be fitted to the tip of the blade, which will gives user to replace the stator section and replace with the new part in case of damage to the stator. In total 6 stators each was fitted to each blade tip and it was connected via screws to the blades. Stator main plate was made out from the plastic material, which has zero permeability and zero conductivity. These properties enhance the electricity generation form the coils and reduce loses. Since the copper wires were used in stator, due to its excellent electricity conductivity, its metal properties and low cost. Copper wires were winded (10 rotations) in slots on the main stator blade, which increases the higher winding factor and subsequently increases the electricity generation. The copper wire winding pattern was done in a way to satisfy Faraday low, Figure 82 shows the diagram of the stator winding arrangement for flux direction from the magnet. Insulated copper was used to protect the copper from electricity discharge and other damages. Also this layer of plastic was applied on the side top and bottom face of the stator to increase the aerodynamic performances on the tip of the blade.

Figure 82: Copper winding vs Flux direction

13.5.3 Final assembly of the generator

Figure 83:Stator Connection to the Blade

Figure 84: Wire Connection from Stator

Figure 83, shows the stator connection to the blade, where stator is connected by screws to the blade. Also Error! Reference source not found. shows the wire connection to the main blade. 66 | P a g e

Figure 85, Shows the Magnets placement on the outer ring of the rotor.

S N

Figure 85: Magnet arrangement on the ring

Figure 86 shows the stator and rotor intersection when blades rotating.

Figure 86: Cross Section of Stator & Rotator Flux Arrangement in Generator

13.5.4 Power Calculations

In order to calculate system electricity generation system flux density distribution needs be studies, = tan tan 24 + + 2 + 4 + + + . Br(magnet flux density)=2700 Gauss W (width of the magnet) = 30mm L (Length of the magnet) = 46mm T (Thickness magnet) = 10mm X (distance from magnet) = 2cm (the value was chosen at the furthest point from the magnetic surface, to get the minimum magnetic flux point at the stator)

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Figure 87

Magnetic flux at x distance was calculated,

= 2700 30 10 46 10 tan 22 10 42 10 + 30 10 + 46 10 30 10 46 10 tan 22 10 + 10 10 42 10 + 10 10 + 30 10 + 46 10 .

B = 9574.12 Gauss = 9574.12 X 10-4T (Tesla)

Stator is wound with copper coils, the length on one wound is 1.3cm on one side and there are 10 rotations of coli going through on one slot. Also there are 7 coils wounds in one stator. The total length cutting the magnetic flux is can be found from below equation, = 10 7 1.3 10 2 = 1.82m The area of flux enclosed per second (A) can be found using the below equation, = 1.82 V (blade tip linear velocity)

It was calculated that the angular velocity = 3.14 / of the turbine blades at the minimum operating wind speed of 6 m/s. The relationship between angular velocity and linear velocity (V) can be found from the below equation, = = 3.14 350 10 = 1.099 emf charge per second can be found from equation (one stator), = = = 1.82 1.099 9574.12 10 = 1.91 = = In order to find the current flowing through the circuit resistance of copper wires need to be calculated. The resistance was calculated by using below equation, R= Resistance L= Length of the wire K=Resistivity of copper wire (Copper = 1.73 X 10-8) A= Cross sectional area of wire (0.6 mm copper wire was used) 1.73 10 = 1.82 = 0.0278 0.6 10 The current flow in the circuit can be found from the below equation, R=L 68 | P a g e

I=

1.91 = = 68.70 0.0278

The power generated from one stator can be found from the below equation, = = 1.91 68.7 = 131.217 The system is equipped with 6 stators, to find the total power generate from the system the P1 need to be multiplied by 6. = 131.217 6 = 787.30

13.5.5 Power Curve

The power curve of the system evaluated to study the power output for different wind speeds. However it was unable to find the relationship betweenwind speed and blade angular velocity. So the power curve was plotted to different blade angular velocities.

Power Curve
9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 - Blade Angular velocity (rad/s) Power Output (watts)

13.5.6 Method
Voltage or coil e.m.f generated due to the magnetic flux can be calculated by below equation, = = = = V=blade tip linear velocity L=length of the wire (0.182m) B=magnetic flux (9574.12 X 10-4T) = = 9574.12 10 1.82 = V 1.7424 Also the liner velocity and the angular velocity related by below equation, = = 350 10 r =Radius of the area covered by blades P = vI P= Power v=Voltage I= Current Where, I= 69 | P a g e

R=Resistance By replacing I in equation, 1.7424 350 10 1.7424 = = = 13.39 P=v = 0.0278 0.0278 P = 13.39

13.5.7 Generator circuit (stator to blade point)

13.6 Power Management (MT)

Customer has the option of choosing an arrangement that suits his lifestyle, but for this wind turbine, below arrangement is provided as the standard setup. Out of the typical arangemenbts, we belive this arrangement with combination with the wind turbine would most benificial for the cost.

Figure 88: Final Design Power Management System

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1) Wind turbine tower would be the new innovative wind turbine design presented in this report. 2) Wind turbine control unit looks after charging the batteries. This prevents the batteries from overcharging (providing power when the battery is full reduces the battery life) and undercharging (draining the battery below 20% will irreversibly reduce the battery capacity). It charges the batteries at the earliest opportunity, minimising battery cycling (charging and discharging rapidly). The charge controller and voltage regulator provides the capability for maintaining the state of charge for 12V or 24V storage batteries. The charge controller circuit performs as a fully automatic voltage regulator. It has been designed for unattended site operation and is supplied in a weatherproof plastic enclosure, suitable for mounting on a vertical pole or on a wall. The charge controller constantly monitors the battery voltage and if required the batteries are allowed to charge. As the float voltage is approached a load is applied to dissipate power. The charge controller continues to monitor the battery voltage and if it subsequently drops below a threshold then the load is disconnected and the charging action will resume. 3) Bator yank stores the energy generated from the wind turbine for the purpose of distribute it to the loads when necessary. Standard batteries provided are two non-sealed deep cycle batteries of a capacity of 75 Ampere Hour at 12 volts. Deep cycle batteries are very durable (needs replacing about every six years) and can handle cycling of leads (charging and withdrawing rapidly). Non sealed batteries are used as it allows the user to replenish the fluid inside themselves rather than replacing the battery. Non sealed batteries last longer than sealed batteries but requires replenishing fluids about every six months. The two batteries supplied are able to power a typical refrigerator for two consecutive days. Customer can have increased capacity batteries installed if they wish to do so. 4) The inverter converts the battery stored direct currant to alternating current of 230 volts which is what the typical grid supply would be. Being a grid tie inverter this not only provide AC currant for the refrigerator, it is also capable of exporting the excess electricity in to the national grid under the Feed-In-Tariff. The customer would be paid 16 pence per kilowatt hour exported to the grid. This specific model of inverter has two power outlets, so the customer can chose between exporting the extra power and running a another appliance such as a washing machine when too much power is generated from the wind turbine. 5) Utility meter provides the customer with important information about the system performance. Utility monitor displays the amount of power generated, power exported and battery level. Customer can use this information to manage the power accordingly if necessary.

13.7 Maintenance (ALL)

13.7.1 Generator
Normally magnets maintain its magnetic properties, so replacement of magnets is very rare. However the Neodymium magnets used in the generator is exposed to environment. The magnets are made by using NdFeB is very reactive and it might cause corrosion. It also has a low curie temperature so temperature is concern over the time (high sunlight, snow and rain). Also if there is a crack on magnets the magnetic power losses. Yearly inspection would be a solution to check magnets, since there is no such a formula to find magnetic life time.

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Stator coils are subjected to vibration due to blade tip acceleration. Also the stator is exposed to the temperature changes and high wind speeds. So the durability of stator might reduce. The inspection of stator should be carried out annually.

13.7.2 Tips for long lasting power management system

Corrosion increase resistance in delivering power causing power losses. It is advised that the customer take precautions to avoid/minimise corrosion in the system. A method such as covering the exposed metal with petroleum jelly is widely popular, effective and inexpensive. The batteries used are flooded batteries, which needs refilling with deionised water every 6 months. Batteries lose its ability hold power with cold temperatures. It is advised the batteries are stored in room temperature. Letting the battery be drained fully cause definite and irreversible loss of power storage capability. Provided power regulating system is capable of detecting such events and disconnecting the system. It is also capable of detecting overcharging events and disconnecting the charging supply from the battery bank.

The table below highlights all the components that are suited for manufacturing using the methods detailed above, and the justification for choosing them.

14 Manufacturing (MH)
Component Hub (Main body) Hub Centre Rod Hub Cone Justification Good dimensional accuracy Casting/ moulding needed, intricate part details Relatively simply part but Extrusion or Drawing strength required Part is of a simple design, Compression Moulding therefore can be moulded at a relatively high rate Complex shape which requires a very high Die Casting tolerance of finish in order to house magnets in place Moderate shape, large Sand Casting volumes required due to 3 parts per turbine Simple shape, moderate Sand Casting dimensional accuracy is sufficient Complex shape, hollow structure, high production Injection Moulded rates at 6 parts per turbine, high strength plastics to be used Forging or extrusion/drawing Relatively simple shapes and Forging or extrusion/drawing constant hollow sections in
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Manufacturing Method

Generator Housing

Generator Frame Support

Brake Disc

Blades

Mount: Mast Tail: Shaft

Mount: Base

Forging

Tail: Vane

Casting

centre Due to varying dimensions (non linear), forging is the best method of manufacture Heavy weight due to counterbalancing function and therefore high accuracy not required but casting presents the easiest production option

15 Business Model Evaluation of wind turbine (MH)

In order to create a viable business model to design and produce the wind turbine, it is first necessary to understand the costs involved with each part of the system. The table below gives a guide to the material costs for the turbine. It is important to note the following points that form the basis of the business model in this section: The business model is developed for an initial production of 20,000 units Material costs are estimated using the volume given in the CAD software and then the mass obtained through the density of the material of the component and CES Edupack software to obtain price per kilogram. Manufacturing costs are to be discussed separately which does not take into account material costs used to make the component Costs for each standard parts are obtained at a retail price point, whereas in actual production, the cost for the same item would be less as a higher volume will attract a significant discount

15.1 Material Costs

Material Costs System SubSystem Unit Cost () Comments/Source

Turbine Blades Hub (Body) Hub Centre Cone Housing Frame Support Magnets Coils

2.22 5.66 17.28 0.40 3.39 1.78 227.40 10.50

6 Turbine blades

Generator

12 magnets costing 18.95 each 8m of coils

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Wires Brushes Disc Braking System Calliper Pads Battery x2 Power Management Grid Tie Inverter Shunt Regulator Power Output Monitor Wires Mounting System Mast Base Tail Shaft Vane Other Hub Bearing Mast Bearing

2.99

From blade tip to turbine: 10m, http://www.maplin.co.uk/equipment-wire-16-0.2-6197

22.68

http://www.kartpartsuk.com/product.php?id=1299

7.95 160.00 60.00 45.00 45.00 16.00 1.12 4.14 0.57 13.46 28.96 42.36 30 748.86 524.20

http://tinyurl.com/cxc7dha 80 per battery. The design requires 2 (http://tinyurl.com/b9eex7g) http://tinyurl.com/ahkmxke http://tinyurl.com/b2wb276 http://tinyurl.com/acllfea

Carbon Steel prices obtained from CES Edupack at 0.045 per kg

Miscellaneous
Total Unit Cost Final Unit Price

These costs include nuts, bolts and other items

Price includes 30% reduction for bulk buying components

As seen in the above table, the total unit cost for the material of the turbine is nearly 750. As mentioned previously, this figure is calculated at retail cost value and also material prices per kg obtained from CES Edupack. For a production rate of 20,000 units, a wholesale price can be agreed with the manufacturers of the components within the turbine. A 30% markup on price is generally accepted and if this is factored into the cost model, it reduces to approximately 525. Before we can determine the retail price for the turbine, we have to consider all other cost factors involved within the business and also consider the current market conditions at which we need to sell the turbine at. These costs can be broadly categorized into the following: 74 | P a g e

Manufacturing: Machines, moulds, raw material, Packaging Marketing Advertising and promoting costs for the turbine Premises Rent and utilities to produce the product Labour Wages and administrative costs Operational I.T., Stationary, Security systems

15.2 Manufacturing Costs

The manufacturing costs for the turbine include all costs that are associated with the making of the product. Although the machines will take up the majority of the costs, there are various other costs to consider too. Typically, a new injection-moulding machine would cost in the region of 30,000. As highlighted in the manufacturing process stages, an injection-moulding machine would also have other costs associated such as moulds and pellets. It is aimed to produce the blades and the hub through injection moulding. Although initially the cost per mould might seem quite high, it is important to understand the price per piece, as production in high volumes will significantly decrease this value. A rough guide to injection mould prices can be found at: Hub: Due to its complex shape with many features, the tooling cost will be fairly high. It is estimated to be around 20,000. This would mean the cost per hub would only be 1. Blades: Since the blades are a relatively simply part to produce in comparison, it is estimated to cost around 10,000. This would mean the cost per hub would only be 0.50. Pellets: Since the working material of the machine is pellets, it is important to choose them carefully. Initial research suggests that a price of $1000-2000 per tonne is reasonable. For production purposes, it can be estimated that 2 tonnes worth of material to be kept and used. This would cost an estimated 2680 if higher estimates is to be used. Other manufacturing cost will include cost of sand casting and moulds, forging machines, coolants and other liquids. A conservative estimate for all such machinery would be 300,000. This gives a total of nearly 400,000 for machinery costs. Material costs will also have to be considered for all machining operations which are not plastics. A budget of 200,000 will be set for this which would produce a final cost of 600,000.

15.3 Marketing Costs

The marketing budget for any small business is not a topic that has a clear answer. This is because it can vary a great deal with the type of product, its industry and also required return levels. Image Works Creative mentions that it could be around 5-6% of initial revenue of the company for a company that makes between 10-100 million a year. It should however be noted, as pointed out by Paul that a start-up company would want to spend more as it would want to increase its presence in the market. In order to gain a significant presence in the marketplace, the following marketing streams should be explored: Online Advertising: There are currently many forums and websites that offer information and advice regarding renewable and alternative energy products that are in the market. They are also reviewed according to their performances. An annual budget of 4,000 could bet spent for such advertising which could increase depending on the success of the campaign. Social Media: Social media advertising has grown in recent years and this should be capitalized upon. It is a good method of promoting the business although the results of such

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promotions are not always clear. A nominal budget of 1,000 can be spent on developing a campaign to promote the product Magazine: Many renewable energy magazines exist in the UK market and they are also popular sub topics of consumer advice magazines. A budget of 5,000 could be spent on developing a printed ad campaign in this medium. Paper: Paper advertising has enormous potential as it has a very firm user base with a very wide demographic. The same ad campaign used for magazines could be run in national or local newspapers. Since newspaper ads are more costly, a 10,000 per year budget could be set for this.

Therefore, initially a total budget of 20,000 per annum is to be set up for advertising and marketing the product.

15.4 Premises Costs

Premises costs are considered to be a combination of the rent and utilities for the premises in which the manufacturing will be taking place. If the business is considering manufacturing most of the components on site as well as assembly, a 10,000 sq. ft. site is considered sufficient. This is roughly equivalent to 930 square meters (300 x 300m). Initial research suggests that it would cost 50,000 per annum to rent this amount of space within the outskirts of London. Utility costs can vary by a large amount within such a warehouse space as it entirely depends on the amount of equipment that would be installed within it. Since this cost model will assume that most of the components will be manufactured in house, it can be expected to be higher than average. Other factors that can also have an effect are the amount and level of insulation protecting the premises and the energy efficiency of machines/lighting etc. An initial research suggests utility costs at 1 per square foot per year. Since there are a lot of machines used within the building, it would be wise to estimate this at around 1.25 per square foot, which gives a total of 12,500 per year for utilities. Therefore the total cost for premises would be 62,500 per annum.

15.5 Labour/staffing Costs

Labour/staffing costs have been estimated based on average annual wages in the UK. The amount of staff is an estimated number in order to produce an initial 20,000 units and more staff can be hired based on the requirements of the business in the future.

Position

Average Annual Salary 4 5 1 1 2

Amount of staff needed

Assembly line 15,000 worker Skilled Labour 24,000 Administrative Assistant Security Supervisor 15,000 15,000 25,000

Annual Source Cost for position(s) 60,000 http://tinyurl.com/conleva 120,000 15,000 15,000 50,000 5,000
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http://tinyurl.com/az7lcel http://tinyurl.com/ablfg3r http://tinyurl.com/bbzmsrz http://tinyurl.com/akm5dmb

Employee Liability Insurance

Pension + other benefits Total Annual cost

40,000 305,000

The table above shows an estimated cost for labour and staffing per annum. The job positions were determined to fit the type of business requirements. Assembly line worker Assembly line workers are required once the products are manufactured, to assemble the components together as well as finish packaging Skilled Labour Skilled labour is required to operate the casting and moulding machines as well as producing parts which require any kind of work done to it Administrative Assistant As with any office, an administrative assistant is required to carry out all administrative duties and assist with paperwork and other employee enquiries Security Since the business will be holding high value items, a security guard is needed at the premises to protect it as well as its employees Supervisor While the production is being carried out, 2 supervisors are needed, each at the manufacturing and assembly sections, to ensure the quality of the product is upheld and the production runs on schedule and budget.

15.6 Operational Costs

Operational cost of the business can account for a sizeable proportion of costs, but are necessary to run a successful business.

Type

Subtype

One-off costs (installation, etc) 25,000 2000

Annual Cost

I.T.

Security Systems

Computer Systems Staff Training Maintenance /Support CCTV Cameras

5,000 1,000 5,000

Total Initial Cost (Oneoff + Annual) 30,000 3,000 5,000 2,000 http://www.icctvsystems .co.uk/Item/izeus16_hdi psystem1

2000

Initial 400 Installation CCTV Monitoring Premises Security Stationary Initial Cost 500 Total annual costs for year 1 Cost Summary for turbine manufacture: Type Manufacturing Marketing Premises Labour/Staffing

400 1,200 2,000 1,200 2,000 500 44,100

Cost 600,000 20,000 62,500 305,000

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Operational Total Cost

44,100 1,031,000

15.7 Revenue
Since the business would be classified as a start-up, the only expected income is from product sales. The cost estimates were carried out for an annual production basis and an estimate of the annual production for the turbine in the first year is set to be 20,000. Given the market conditions and current demand for wind turbines, it is not realistic to sell 20,000 turbines within the first year. In order to be conservative, 10,000 units are to be estimated as an initial sales target for the first year. It is of paramount importance to price the turbine according to current demand and market conditions. As a new entrant to the market and as specified in the PDS, this turbine is to be sold at a lower cost than current similar models. During the initial literature review, it was highlighted that similar turbines will cost upwards of 2,000, which is a substantial initial investment. Therefore it is reasonable to be priced at 1,500, which is lower than the current average market price for similar turbine models.

Therefore, Total Revenue = 1000 per unit x 10,000 units = 15,000,000

15.8 Profit Margins

The total annual cost for the turbine production is 1,031,000 and this is based on producing 20,000 units. This gives a unit cost for production of: 103100/20,000 = 51.55 The total cost per unit is calculated as a per unit cost which is added to the turbine. This includes all the costs detailed in previous sections, but in addition, includes the material costs per unit. Since we have a material cost for producing the turbine of 524.20, we can add the production cost per unit in order to work out the profit margin per unit sold. Therefore total cost per unit: 524.20 + 51.55 = 575.75 Projected Profit per unit = Turbine selling price total cost per unit = 1,500 - 575.75 = 924.25 Once the profit per unit is calculated, a total projected profit value could be found for the year: Total Projected Profit = 924.25 x 10,000 units = 9,242,500 While these values included are purely projected values, they are based on conservative estimates. It is also important to note that while the selling price of 1,500 is a low value in comparison to current market products, in order to gain initial market share, could be sold at a discounted price of around 1,000.

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Failure Modes Effects Analysis

Proces s or Produc t Name: Proces s Owner: AE5 Wind Turbine Prepared by: Maheemal Page: Rev. SEV Actions Taken Note the actions taken. Include dates of completi on. 9 7 1 of

Maheemal/Mishkath/Bh avedeep/Kalinga

FMEA Date (Orig):

08/03/2013

Key Proce ss Step or Input What is the Proces s Step or Input?

Potential Failure Mode In what ways can the Process Step or Input fail?

Cause

Outcome s

Current Controls

Actions Recommend ed What are the actions for reducing the occurrence of the cause, or improving detection?

OCC

RPN DET OCC

RPN

SEV

DET

Resp.

What is the cause for the Variables?

How Severe is the effect to the custome r?

What are the Outcomes Resulting From This?

How often does cause or FM occur?

Centre

Facture

Centre

Abrasion

Total failure, Excessive Vibration Noise, Low Power Output

Improper maintena nce Improper Maintena nce

What are the existing controls and procedures that prevent either the Cause or the Failure Mode? Routine Annual Check Routine Annual Check

How well can you detect the Cause or the Failure Mode? 1 9

Who is Responsibl e for the recommend ed action?

No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 9

No Further 7 Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 7

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Cone

Fracture

Cone

Screws loosing due to vibration

Blades Becoming Lose Blades Becoming Lose

Improper Maintena nce Vibration

Break Disk

Fracture

Break Disk

Breaking at attachme nt point Wear and tear

Ineffective Breaks in a Over speed Event Ineffective Breaks in a Over speed Event Ineffective Breaks in a Over speed Event Ineffective Breaks in a Over speed Event Ineffective Breaks in a Over speed Event

Excessive Vibration

Routine Annual Check Opposite Directionally Tapped Screws (3 Screws in each direction) Routine Annual Check Routine Annual Check

No Further 8 Action Annually Check Screws For 4 Tightness 0

Maintenanc e Crew Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 8

1 5

4 0

No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 9

Break Disk

Excessive Vibration, Misalignm ent of Callipers Long Term Use

No Further Action 1 9

Maintenanc e Crew 9 1 1 9

Routine Annual Check Routine Annual Check

No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 9

Break Disk

Power failure to Callipers

Power Supply System Failure Excessive Vibration

Break Disk

Blades

Vibration casing misalignm ent in callipers and pad Fracture

Routine Annual Check

Automated Fail Check 8 (Explained in 1 the Report, Run Monthly) No Further Action 2 7

Customer 9 1 9 8 1

Maintenanc e Crew 9 1 3 2 7

Low Power Output

Excessive Vibration

Routine Annual Check

No Further 5 Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 5

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Blades

Misbalanc ing

Excessive Noise, Fracture Blades and Other Component s

Foreign Object Damage, Excessive Vibration

Blades

Deformati on over time

High Heat, Long Lasting High Wind Situation

Low Power Output

Routine Annual Check, Visual Checks by Customer in case of Excessive Noise Routine Annual Check

No Further Action 1 9

Maintenanc e Crew, Customer 9 1 1 9

No Further Action 1 4

Maintenanc e Crew 4 1 1 4

Blades

Bird strike 7

Frame Suppor t

deformati on over time fracture at joint,

Frame Suppor t

High Heat, Long Lasting High Wind Situation Excessive Vibration

Fracture Compone nts, Excessive Noise Damage to Blades

Visual Check By Customer 1 1 7

No Further Action

Customer 7 1 1 7

Visual Check By Customer 1 1 8

No Further Action

Customer 8 1 1 8

Frame Suppor t

vibration cracks

Excessive Vibration 7

Misalignm ent Between Blades and Magnets Resulting in Low Power Output Misalignm ent Between Blades and

Routine Annual Check 1 1

No Further Action (as 2 Support Rods can effectively 7 Hold the Frame Safely)

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 7

Routine Annual Check

8 4

No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew 7 3 4

8 4

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Frame

deformati on due to vibration

Excessive Vibration

Base

failure of screws,

Metal Fatigue

Magnets Resulting in Low Power Output Misalignm ent Between Blades and Magnets Resulting in Low Power Output Total Failure

Routine Annual Check 3 2 4 2

No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew 4 2

3 2

Base

fracture,

Excessive Vibration Excessive Vibration

Total Failure Total Failure

Base

Tail

joint between mast and base failing weld fracture

Replacement of Screws Every 10 Years Routine Annual Check Routine Annual Check

No Further 2 Action 7 No Further 9 Action No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 3

2 7

Maintenanc e Crew Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 9

1 1 9

High Gust 5

Tail

bird strike

Loss of Yaw Control, Low Power Output Insignifica nt Deformati on

Routine Annual Check

No Further Action 1 5

Maintenanc e Crew 5 1 1 5

Routine Annual Check

No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 1

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Tail Suppor t

weld fracture,

High Gust 1

Hub

fracture at joints, failure at joint between bearing and hub fail at the joint,

Excessive Vibration Excessive Vibration

Loss of Yaw Control, Low Power Output Total Failure Total Failure

Routine Annual Check

No Further Action 1 1

Maintenanc e Crew 1 1 1 1

Hub

Routine Annual Check Routine Annual Check

No Further 9 Action No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 9

1 1 9

Base Mount Bearin g Base Mount Bearin g

Excessive Vibration

Total Failure

Routine Annual Check No Action

No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 9

bearing freeze up

Extreme Cold Temperatur e

Base Mount Bearin g Magne t Magne t

pitting of the roller bearings thunder strikes vibration wear off, ,

Extreme Cold Temperatur e

Loss of Yaw Control, Low Power Output Noise, Wear and Tear Reduced Power Output Reduced Power Output

No Further Action 1 4 4 1 1 4

Routine Annual Check Routine Annual Check Routine Annual Check

No Further Action

Maintenanc e Crew

1 1 7

6 Vibration 2

No Further 7 Action 2 No Further 2 Action 4

Maintenanc e Crew Maintenanc e Crew

4 3

7 2 2 4

4 3

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16 Conclusion (KE/MT)
All the calculation show that this project would be a success and it will be more than capable cap of providing operating power to a refrigerator without needing support from the grid. The next stage of the project would be to protect this design from being copied. We plan to do so by applying to a patent UK and International. Our research shows this this has never been done before, so we can go to the prototype, felid trials and manufacturing stages with confidence with the patent pending (As international patents can take up to six years to process)

16.1 Design Specification

Figure 89

Rated Power Applications Solutions Architecture Blade Material Blade type Generator Type Cut In Speed Cut Out Speed Cost Weight Overall Height Span Diameter Number of Blades Inverter Safety System Tower Type Tower Height Tower foundation Operating Temperature Range Warranty

. (rated at wind speed of 6m/s) Rural Domestic, Small Holding, Agricultural, Commercial, Telecoms, Public Grid tied, Battery Charging, 12V Up wind, 6 blade rotor, self-regulating Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene Fully optimised aerofoil ensuring maximum yield & minimum noise Blade Tip permanent magnet generator 6 m/s 25 m/s 1500.00 150kg 0.7 m 0.3m 6 Grid-tie inverters Electrically actuated brakes, automated monthly brake checks Free-standing 2m (from roof ) Root/ Pad -20 C - +50 C 3 years

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17 Works Cited
1. www.home-energy.com. [Online] [Cited: 06 02 2013.] http://home-energy.com/int/ebv200.htm. 2. Honeywell wind turbine is a breeze to run and a light one at that. Gizgam. [Online] [Cited: 06 02 2013.] http://www.gizmag.com/earthtronics-honeywell-windgate-wind-turbine/11990/. 3. www.microstrain.ie. [Online] [Cited: 06 02 2013.] http://www.microstrain.ie/hannevind.html. 4. www.bettergeneration.co.uk. [Online] [Cited: 06 02 2013.] http://www.bettergeneration.co.uk/wind-turbine-reviews/windsave-ws1000-wind-turbine.html. 5. www.bergey.com. [Online] [Cited: 06 02 2013.] http://bergey.com/products/wind-turbines/10kwbergey-excel. 6. www.windenergy.com. [Online] [Cited: 06 02 2013.] http://windenergy.com/products/skystream/skystream-3.7. 7. better generation. [Online] [Cited: 04 02 2013.] http://www.bettergeneration.co.uk/wind-turbinereviews/honeywell-wt6500-wind-turbine.html. 8. www.renewabledevices.com. [Online] [Cited: 06 02 2013.] http://renewabledevices.com/rd-swiftturbines/overview/. 9. Reid, Steve. Wind and Wind Energy. NIWA - Water & Atmosphere. [Online] 2005. [Cited: 20 01 2013.] http://www.niwa.co.nz/publications/wa/vol13-no4-december-2005/wind-and-wind-energy. 10. Is wind power right for you? Energy Matters. [Online] [Cited: 20 01 2013.] http://www.energymatters.com.au/renewable-energy/wind-energy/wind-power-guide.php. ISO8859-1. 11. Watson, S J.Predicting the yield of micro-wind turbines in the roof-top urban environment. [Power Point Presentation] s.l. : Loughborough University. 12. Climate. Met Office. [Online] Met Office. [Cited: 20 01 2013.] http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/#?tab=climateMaps. 13. Wind Turbine Power Calculations. npower. s.l. : The Royal Academy of Engineering. 14. Yechout, Thomas R., et al., et al.Introduction to Aircraft Flight Mechanics. s.l. : AIAA, 2003. ISBN 1-56347-577-4. 15. Wind Turbine Blade Aerodynamics. [book auth.] WE Handbook. 2-Aerodynamics and Loads. 16. Ingram, Grant.Wind Turbine Blade Analysis using the Blade Element Momentum Method. s.l. : Durham University, 2011. 17. Wind Turbines. University, Boston. s.l. : Coherent Application Threads. 18. Edurite.DC Generator. Youtube. 19. Generating Electrical Current. [Online] School for Champions, 10 12 2012. [Cited: 20 01 2013.] http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/electrical_generation.htm. 20. Whitehouse, Jon Ogborn & Mary.Advancing Physics. s.l. : Institute of Physics. ISBN 0-7503-06777. 21. Madani, Nima.Design of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator for a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine. Sweden : s.n., 2011. XR-EE-EME 2011:013. 22. Wind Energy. [Online] Deodaar Automation, 02 2013. http://www.deodaar.com/#!windenergy/c1fdu. 23. Key Benefits of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs). [Online] Cleanfield Energy, 02 2013. http://www.cleanfieldenergy.com/key_VAWT_benefits.php. 24. Wind Energy Noise Impacts. Acoustic Technology Institute. [Online] Cleanfield energy, 02 2013. http://www.acousticecology.org/srwind.html. 25. Why a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) ? [Online] macado, 02 2013. http://www.verticalgreenenergy.co.za/all_about_wind_vawt.htm. 26. Exploring Green Technology. [Online] http://exploringgreentechnology.com/images/windenergy-diagram.gif. 27. Wind Power. Battery and Energy Technologies. [Online] [Cited: 20 01 2013.] http://www.mpoweruk.com/wind_power.htm.

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28. Anti-icing and de-icing techniques for wind turbines: Critical review. Olivier Parent, Adrian Ilinca. 8 January 2010, s.l. : Elsevier, Vols. Cold Regions Science and Technology 65 (2011) 8896. 29. Erik Isaksson, Magnus Dahlberg.Damage prevention for wind turbines. s.l. : Elforsk report 11:18, July 2011. 30. Kalpakjian, Serope and Schmid, Steven R.Manufacturing Engineering and Technology. s.l. : Prentice Hall, 2001. ISBN 0-201-36131-0. 31. Liu, Jessica. KHCK. KHCK. [Online] Kee Hing Cheung Kee Co., Ltd., 2011. [Cited: 2013 01 16.] http://www.khck.hk/New-Energy.htm. 32. Shunt Regulator. REUK.co.uk. [Online] [Cited: 26 01 2013.] http://www.reuk.co.uk/ShuntRegulator.htm. 33. Wind Turbine Regulators and Charge Controllers. Ebay.co.uk. [Online] Ebay. [Cited: 2013 01 28.] http://reviews.ebay.co.uk/Wind-Turbine-Regulators-and-Charge-Controllers-Part1?ugid=10000000006308446. 34. Grid Tie Inverters. REUK.co.uk. [Online] 06 2011. http://www.reuk.co.uk/. 35. F63010. High Performance Neodymium Magnets & Outstanding Customer Service. [Online] 02 2013. http://www.first4magnets.com/f63010---46-x-30-x-10mm-thick-n42-neodymium-magnet--30kg-pull-x1-d31o-786-p.asp. 36. Town and Country Planning, England. Statutory Instruments. 2011 No. 2056.

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18 Appendix-A (ALL)
18.1 Figures

Figure 90: Power curve for Energy ball V200

Figure 91: Power curve for WT6500

Figure 92: Windon Power Curve

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Figure 93: Power Curve for Bergey Excel

Figure 94: Power Curve for Skystream 3.7

Figure 95: Windsave Power Curve

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Figure 96: Swift Power Curve

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18.2 Flow chart for varying conditions (MT)

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19 Appendix-B (MT)

Technical Drawings

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20 Appendix-C (ALL)

Weekly Review Sheets

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