Introduction to chemistry

Science is the field of knowledge where we develop a body of knowledge about the physical world by observing it, performing experiments to verify facts and substantiate theories, and systematically organizing what is inferred. Some of this scientific knowledge may be put to some practical use, in which case it becomes technology. Chemistry is the branch of Science that studies matter and the changes it undergoes. Try and imagine what it was like in prehistoric times. The need to transform matter must have been one of humankinds earliest scientific intentions. Seeking to identify, or improve upon, what was available naturally, whether in obtaining food, drink, medication against pain and disease etc., in making tools, or in refining metals from ores, Chemistry just came to be! Indeed, cooking, which may have originated at least 500,000 years ago, is Chemistry in action, as is the manufacture of anything at all! Chemistry covers the study of the entire material universe, animate and inanimate. Everything we see, and often cannot, is made up of chemical substances! This includes what we eat, breathe, wear, and shelter in or under. Bacteria, plants, animals, indeed we ourselves, are nothing but differently-shaped living bags of chemicals, containing, believe it or not, mostly water! Any change or transformation that happens, whether on Earth or anywhere in the universe, involves chemical processes. Without exception, all matter, is made up of atoms, molecules (which are themselves made up of atoms), and subatomic protons, neutrons and electrons. These, and the more fundamental particles that they are themselves constituted of, fall into the realm of Physics.
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Measurement requires Mathematics. By now, you would have realized that along with Biology, Physics and Mathematics, Chemistry is one of the truly basic sciences, not just inter-related to, but also collectively the bedrock of, all other sciences, applied sciences, and technology. For instance, the practice of Medicine, whether in the 6th Century B.C. by Sushrutha, or by Hippocrates in the 5th Century B.C., involved the chemical extraction and use of medicinal substances from plants. The incredible phenomenon of life itself is a result of exquisitely organized interactions between the chemicals of life, namely water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids etc. These are studied as Biochemistry. Whatever materials we use today for anything at all are generally obtained by chemical reactions, where one substance is changed to another with either an input or release of energy. Computers, memory chips, televisions, telephones, calculators, hard or flexible plastics, synthetic fibres, toys, medicines, vaccines and drugs, medical devices, fuels, foods, cosmetics, clothes, vehicles, pens, paper, housing materials, furniture, steel, etc. are all products of chemical transformations. Even out-of-season fruits and vegetables are the result of the application of Chemistry! Even global warming and ozone depletion are due to Chemistry applied greedily, without thinking of long-term consequences! Chemical principles, concepts and techniques contribute to many sciences and technologies. Engineers and architects must know the properties of the materials they use. Biologists must understand the chemical processes that sustain metabolism and energy

transformations in living organisms. Medical personnel must know the chemical basis of the tests and analysis that doctors depend upon. Pharmacologists must understand the chemistry of drug action. Doctors themselves have to familiar with the biochemical basis of health and disease. The cost of chemical manufacturing processes today can affect entire economies! It can be safely said that Chemistry plays a role in all spheres of human life and activity today. In recent times, the central focus of Chemistry has been to produce new materials with novel and useful properties. Chemists have played a pivotal role in developing heat-resistant and current-insulating coatings, materials of high strength or durability, electricityconducting polymers, miniature high-speed computer chips, superconductors and nanomaterials.

According to Bodner and Pardue, modern Chemistry is based on the following principles: 1. One of the goals of Chemistry is to recognize patterns in the behavior of different substances. Once a pattern is recognized, it should be possible to develop a model that explains these observations. These models should allow us to predict the behavior of other substances. When possible, the models should be quantitative. These models should be able to make predictions that can be tested experimentally.

2.

3. 4. 5.

So take the learning of Chemistry as a privilege, because it allows you insights into the functioning of the universe around you, and inside you.

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Through our five senses, we enjoy the bounty and beauty of nature, in all its incredible diversity. We see huge mountains, unfathomed seas, fascinating animals, a variety of intriguing plants and so on. Yet, all these objects, and everything else in the universe, are made up of very very minute particles called atoms. Have you ever wondered why all these objects are so different from each other?

States of Matter
We come across the three basic states of matter, namely solid, liquid and gaseous states, in our daily life. We have even experienced the practical conditions governing the change of one state of matter into another. However, a fourth state of matter called the plasma state and even a fifth state called the Bose-Einstein condensate have been identified. What are these? Why are they called so? What are their basic properties and the factors governing these states of matter?

Why does the plasma state not normally exist on Earth? Why is it that only some solids are sublimable while most are not?

Nature of matter
Objectives
You should be able to w define matter . w compare and contrast between solid, liquid and gas. w explain conversion of state. w define atom, molecule, element and compound. w classify matter based on its composition. w differentiate between compound and mixture. w classify things into elements, compounds and mixtures. w define atomicity. 2.

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Conclusions: 1. Both water and the object occupy space. Two things cannot be in the same space at the same time.

All things occupy space, and that is the hidden likeness in them. Yet, they are obviously different.
Can you recollect some more stories related to one or other scientific facts you know?

Matter
We are surrounded by an incredible variety of living and non-living things. Can you think of the hidden likenesses in all these things? The ground we walk on, the air we breathe, the food we eat and the water we drink all seem entirely different, yet have some not-so-obvious similarities which are surprisingly important. In order to make out the hidden likenesses, let us perform an activity. This may remind you of the famous story of the wise crow.
Take a vessel of about 250 ml capacity, preferably made of glass. Fill half of it with water. Drop an object into it. What happens to the water-level? Your observations would be:

All the things around us, and we too, are made up of matter . Air, water, the food we eat, our clothing, dwellings, the sun, the moon, rocks and mountains are all matter. They have two basic properties - mass and volume. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. In a perfect vaccum, there will be no matter. Now we have understood that one important similarity between things is the fact that they occupy space and have mass, we have to look at one other common property. What do the following things have in common - tiger, building, book, ocean, jasmine, air, rock, tree, soft drink, car, ant? All these things are made up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are the building blocks of everything around us and in us. However, there are different types of atoms. Atoms are similar to each other and yet different. Iron feels different from wood, does it not? Carbon and oxygen both contain atoms, but the composition of these atoms are different. The particular atoms that are put together to make substances decide how the substances feel, weigh, taste and behave. A substance is a single, pure form of matter, all samples of which have identical composition and properties.
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Note the level Note the rise in the of water level of water Fig. 2.1. Matter occupies space
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There are only a few dozens of different kinds of common atoms, but there are infinite number of ways to organize them into three different kinds of matter. Most of our experience with atoms has to do with their combination rather than taking them singly. Generally, atoms cannot stay alone. They combine with other atoms (same type or different) and form substances. Example: Many copper atoms join together to form a piece of copper metal. A silicon atom and two oxygen atoms combine to form the substance called sand, whose chemical name is silicon dioxide. Some gases like xenon, neon, argon, helium, krypton, contain only individual atoms or particles. Such smallest freely existing particles of matter are called molecules whereas atoms are the smallest particle of matter which is incapable of independent existence. All such arrangements exist in different states of matter.

Solids are materials that have more or less fixed shape and the atoms in a solid bind together with sufficient strength to stay in place. Liquids have no fixed shape but they occupy a fixed volume. Gases fill balloons, propel bullets, and form the earths atmosphere. Generally, the gases in the air that you breathe are invisible, but you know that something is there, especially when the wind blows strongly! The distinctive feature of all gases is their ability to expand, filling whatever volume is available.

Liquids and gases are fluids. They can flow easily and also change their shape. The interparticle force of attraction in liquids is much weaker than that in solids. Hence, the particles in liquids can move with respect to the neighbouring particles.

Classification of matter based on physical properties

Depending on how the atoms or molecules are packed, substances are classified as solids, liquids or gases. For example, if they are very close to each other because of strong attractive forces between them, they are solids. If there is not much attraction between them, then they stay as liquids. If there is very little attraction between them, they are very far apart from each other and will exist in the gaseous state. The figure given below helps you to visualize this idea. On Earth, matter exists in three states, namely solid, liquid and gas.

There are two more states of matter namely plasma and Bose - Einstein condensate. Plasma is a distinct phase of matter, seperate from the traditional solids, liquids and gases. It is a collection of charged particles that respond strongly and collectively to electromagnetic fields, taking the form of gas like clouds or ion beams. Since the particles in plasma are electrically charged (generally by being stripped of electrons), it is frequently described as an ionised gas. Plasma state is observed in flame, lightning, interstellar nebule, stars and even the empty vastness of space. Bose-Einstein condensate which is regarded as fifth state of matter is a gaseous superfluid phase formed by atoms cooled to temperatures very near to absolute zero.

The same substance can exist as a solid or liquid or gas depending on the temperature.

Solid

Liquid
Fig. 2.2. States of matter

Gas
Phenomena such as heat, light, sound and electricity do not come under matter. Why? What is the shape of air enclosed in an egg shaped bottle?

Examples: Solid Stone, wood, mud Liquid Water, milk, oil Gas Air, oxygen, methane

The following table gives the characteristic properties of the three common states of matter.
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Table 2.1: Characteristics of states of matter Solid Packing of particles Very close to each other Liquid Less close to each other Gas Very far from each other

Forces of attraction between the particles Strongest Shape and Volume Fixed shape and volume

solid, the particles in it are able to partially overcome the force of attraction between them and they drift apart, forming a liquid (melting). If we supply some more energy, the particles move very far apart and go to the gaseous state (evaporation). The reverse can be done by cooling a gas to obtain a liquid (condensation) or cooling a liquid to obtain a solid (freezing). The temperature at which a substance changes from solid state to liquid state is known as melting point. Eg., Melting point of ice is 0 C. A temperature at which a substance changes from liquid state to a gaseous state is known as boiling point. Eg., Boiling point of water is 100 C. A temperature at which a substance changes from liquid state to solid state is known as freezing point. Eg., Freezing point of water is 0 C. There is an interesting change of state shown by some solids. If you take solid iodine in a test tube and heat it gently, you will observe that it does not melt but vaporizes directly giving violet fumes. Camphor and naphthalene behave similarly. This process is called sublimation and substances which undergo sublimation are called sublimates. The reverse of this process is deposition. For example, silver atoms in the vapour state can be cooled and made to deposit as a solid film on a piece of glass. This is one way of making mirrors. Such type of change where the substances undergo temporary change in their physical properties like colour, shape, state etc. and the actual composition whereas mass of the substances remains unchanged is termed as physical change. Here no new substance is formed and the original state of the substance is attained as soon as the cause of change (temperature and pressure) is withdrawn. The diagram below summarizes the various changeof-state processes.
on ati ns
or
Evap

Weaker than Solids No fixed shape, but fixed volume Higher than solids Higher than solids Less than solids

Negligible

Neither fixed shape nor volume

Compressibility Negligible Rate of diffusion Very low Density Highest Kinetic energy of particles Very small Example Ice

Highest

Highest

Least

Higher than solids Water

Highest

Water vapour

Change of state
If you take an ice cube out of the refrigerator, it tends to melt. If you boil water on a stove, steam is produced. If you take water in a tray and put it in the freezer of a refrigerator, after some time you observe that it has become ice.
What did you observe in all these processes?

These are examples of processes in which matter changes its state. When ice melted, solid became liquid; when water was heated, liquid became gas, and when you placed water in the refrigerator, liquid became solid. We also see from this example that the same substance can be changed from one state to another. How does this happen? Is there any change in the types of atoms or molecules? No, there is no change in the atoms or molecules. That is, water molecules are still present as water molecules. What happens then? When we supply heat energy to a
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Fre e

g zin

Co n

on ati

de

Me l

tin

g
Deposition

Sublimation Fig. 2.3. Change-of-state processes

Liquifaction: The process of condensing a gas into liquid usually by cooling, or a change from solid to liquid through melting. Vapourisation: It is a phase transition process describing conversion of liquid phase to gas phase. The molecules gain energy from the bottom before been released as vapour. It is of three types: Evaporation, boiling and sublimation. Evaporation: It is a phase transition from liquid phase to gas phase that occurs at temperature below the boiling point at a given pressure. It occurs below boiling point where particles of the liquid go from the surface to vapour state.

chemically combined to form molecules of carbon dioxide. In air, there are oxygen molecules, nitrogen molecules and carbon dioxide molecules, not chemically combined, but just mixed together. The first is an element, the second is a compound and the third is a mixture. A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or compound that is capable of independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance. Example:
H 2 is the formula of a hydrogen molecule. Cl 2 is the formula of of a chlorine molecule. CO 2 is the formula of carbon dioxide.

Can you suggest the type of conversion associated with the heating of camphor?

A phase describes a physical state of matter. The key word to notice is physical. Things only move from one phase to another by physical means. If eenrgy is added (like increasing the temperature) or if energy is taken away (like freezing something), you have created a physical change.

A molecule may be homonuclear or heteronuclear. Homonuclear molecules are the molecules composed of atoms of the same element. Homonuclear molecules are further classified based on the number of atoms in the molecule as monoatomic, diatomic, triatomic and polyatomic molecules. Example (a) Xenon, neon, argon, krypton - monoatomic molecules. (b) O2, N2 , H2, Cl2, F2, Br 2 - diatomic molecules. (c) O3 - triatomic molecule. (d) P4, As 4 , S8 , C60 - polyatomic molecules. Heteronuclear molecules are molecules having atoms of different elements. Example: CO2, NH3, H2SO4, HCl etc.
Ordinary sugar syrup is a mixture. What are the constituent substances present in it? (i) Is ice a mixture? (ii) Is ice-candy a mixture?

Classification based on chemical composition

Depending upon the chemical composition, matter is classified as follows:

Homogeneous Mixture Heterogeneous Matter Elements

Elements
Pure substance Compounds

Let us take oxygen, carbon dioxide and air. All three are gases. However, in oxygen there are only oxygen atoms combined to form oxygen molecules. In carbon dioxide there are carbon atoms and oxygen atoms
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An element is a substance that cannot be split into simpler substances by a chemical process. Gold, silver, iron, sulphur, carbon are elements which are solids at room temperature. Mercury and bromine are liquids. Oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, the noble gases etc. are gaseous elements. More than a hundred elements are known at present.

Helium, neon, argon, krypton, radon and xenon are called noble gases.

On the basis of their properties, elements are classified as metals and non-metals.

Compounds
A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements which are chemically combined . All compounds can be broken into simpler substances. Example : Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. Sulphur dioxide is a compound of sulphur and oxygen.
Do you know the constitution of water? Is it an element or a compound? Collect the required information and list the elements and compounds that are present in air.

Examples: Air, salt solution, alloys A heterogeneous mixture has different compositions in different regions . Examples : (a) Iron filings + sulphur powder (b) Water + oil The essential differences between a mixture and a compound are given in the following table:
Table 2.3: Differences between compounds and mixtures Compound 1. Consists of two or more elements chemically combined. The components must be present in definite proportion. Compounds have properties which are different from the properties of the original elements. Components cannot be separated by physical means. Compounds generally have sharp melting and boiling points. 1. Mixture Consists of two or more substances present together. The components need not be present in definite proportion. The components retain their original properties.

2.

2.

3.

3.

Mixtures
Mixtures are combinations of two or more pure substances in which each substance retains its own composition and properties . Most of the materials around us are mixtures. A mixture contains more than one substance. Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Salt solution is another example. A mixture must be made of at least two parts, or phases, which may be a solid, liquid or gas. Sugar + water sugar solution Starch powder + cold water starch suspension If you observe these two mixtures carefully, you can make out the difference. In sugar solution, the constituent substances (sugar and water) get completely mixed to become one single phase i.e. they form a homogeneous mixture. In case of starch and water mixture, solid starch remains suspended in water, a liquid. Here, the constituent substances (starch and water) remain in separate phases i.e. they form a heterogeneous mixture. Thus, a mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous. A homogeneous mixture has uniform composition throughout.
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4.

4.

5.

5.

Components can be separated by physical means. Generally, mixtures do not have sharp melting and boiling points.

Chemically combined means combined in such a manner that the combining elements would have lost their original properties.

Classify the following into elements, compounds and mixtures: soil, sugar, methane, coal, sea water, carbon, blood, starch, silica. If a mixture contains salt, copper powder and iron filings, how would you separate and isolate the components of this mixture?

Colloids
A colloidal solution is a cloudy and homogeneous solution in which the size of solute particles lies between that of particles in a true solution (108 cm) and that of suspension (105 cm).

Classification of colloids
A colloidal system is a two phase system consisting of a dispersion medium in which extremely minute particles called dispersed phase are suspended.
Emulsion E.g. Milk, cod liver oil liquid Aerosol E.g. Clouds, mist, fog Foam E.g. Whipped cream, foam gas

2.

First letter of the name of the element written in capitals, followed by the second letter written using small letters.
Table 2.5: A few e lements with 2-letter symbols

solid Solid sol E.g. Coloured precious stones Dispersed phase Dispersion medium Same medium

Element Actinium Aluminium Argon Barium Beryllium Bismuth Bromine Calcium Cobalt Gallium Germanium

Symbol Ac Al Ar Ba Be Bi Br Ca Co Ga Ge

Element Helium Lanthanum Nickel Lithium Molybdenum Neon Osmium Radium Silicon Titanium

Symbol He La Ni Li Mo Ne Os Ra Si Ti

. sm Aero ok sol e du , volc st a

E.g Foam .S po nge

E.g

nic

l , So arch od t . S blo E.g eins, t pr o

Symbol
All matter is made up of atoms. An element is made of just one kind of atom. An atom of an element is the smallest unit from which the element is built. There are over a hundred elements. Each one of these contains only its own kind of atom. So we have as many kinds of atoms as there are elements. Chemists have found it extremely useful to use symbols to represent elements. A symbol is a short, scientific notation used to represent the atom of an element. The norms employed in assigning the symbols, along with symbols of common elements, are given below. 1. First letter of the name of the element, written in capitals.
Table 2.4: Symbols of some common elements Element Boron Carbon Fluorine Hydrogen Iodine Nitrogen
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E.g

G l e, Ge hees ,C lly . Je

Symbol B C F H I N

el

3.

The first letter written in capitals followed by any other prominent letter written using small letters.
Table 2.6: Some more elements with 2- letter symbols Element Arsenic Cadmium Chlorine Chromium Magnesium Manganese Palladium Platinum Symbol As Cd Cl Cr Mg Mn Pd Pt

4. Some symbols are also derived from the latin names of the elements.
Table 2.7: Some elements with Latin names English name Silver Gold Copper Iron Mercury Potassium Sodium Lead Tin Tungsten Antimony
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Element Oxygen Phosphorus Sulphur Uranium Vanadium

Symbol O P S U V

Latin name Argentum Aurum Cuprum Ferrum Hydragyrum Kalium Natrium Plumbum Stannum Wolfrum Stibium

Symbol Ag Au Cu Fe Hg K Na Pb Sn W Sb

Why do you have to use two letters to represent Helium, Nickel and Calcium?

Chemical formula
A chemical (molecular) formula is a symbolic representation of a chemical compound. It represents the number of atoms and the type of atoms present in a molecule of the substance. Example: Water: H2O Ammonia: NH 3 In some elements, the atoms remain as atoms and do not combine to form molecules. Such molecules are said to be monoatomic. Example: Argon (Ar), Helium (He), Neon (Ne) etc The molecules of common gases such as hydrogen (H 2 ) and chlorine (Cl 2 ) are diatomic. The molecules of sulphur (S8 ) , ozone (O 3 ) and phosphorous (P4 ) are polyatomic molecules. The number of atoms present in one molecule of an element is known as its atomicity. The atomicity of oxygen (O 2 ) is 2 and that of sulphur (S8 ) is 8, etc.
What is the difference between a molecule of an element and a molecule of a compound?

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heterogeneous

Mixture

Composition
?

Matter
States of matter

Pure substance

Compound

Mandatory exercise
Exercise set - I
1. Distinguish between a gas and a vapour

2.

Distinguish between a solid and a fluid.

3.

Define the following: (i) Matter

(ii) Melting point

(iii) Boiling point

(iv)Sublimation

(v) Condensation

4.

What is the physical state of water at the following temperature? (a) 25 C (A) solid, liquid, gas (C) liquid, solid, gas (b) 0 C (c) 100 C (B) gas, liquid, solid (D) liquid, gas, solid

5.

Among the following which is a sublimable solid? (A) coal (B) sodium chloride (C) iodine (D) silica

6.

Which state of matter has the strongest forces between the particles? (A) Solid (B) Liquid (C) Gas (D) Forces between the particles are the same in each case

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7.

The melting point of bromine is 7 C and its boiling point is 59 C. What is the state of bromine at room temperature? (A) Solid (C) Gas (B) Liquid (D) Mixture of liquid and gas

8.

Materials existing as gases have (A)boiling point and melting point above room temperature (B)boiling point and melting point below room temperature (C)boiling point above room temperature and melting point below room temperature (D)boiling point below room temperature and melting point above room temperature

9.

Which is not the characteristic of matter? (A)Particles of a matter are continuously moving (B)Particles of matter move faster on increasing temperature (C)Particles of matter intermix with each other on their own (D)Particles of all matter have same kinetic energy

Exercise set - II
10. Distinguish between (i) An atom and a molecule

(ii) An element and a compound

(iii) Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture

11. Define atomicity.

12. Among the following which is a compound? (A) Neon (B) Gold (C) Ammonia (D) Argon

13. A metal whose Latin name is Natrium is (A) nickel 14. The atomicity of sulphur is (A) 4
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(B) sodium

(C) calcium

(D) chromium

(B) 6
14

(C) 8

(D) 2

15. Which one of the following is diatomic? (A) Oxygen (B) Ozone (C) Sulphur (D) Argon

16. Which of the following characteristic of iron sulphide and mixture of iron filings - sulphur power is correct? (A) Both are heterogeneous (B) Both are homogeneous (C) Iron filings + sulphur powder heterogeneous but iron sulphide is always homogeneous (D) Iron sulphide is heterogeneous but the mixture of iron + sulphur powder is homogeneous 17. Match the following
A 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hydragyrum Soap Ozone Barium Blood (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) mixture pure substance mercury homonuclear molecule compound B

Challenging exercise
Answer the following

18. Classify the following into solids, liquids and gases: Carbon dioxide, dry ice, petrol, steam, iron, ink, wood. 19. Explain why a liquid can flow but a solid cannot. 20. Classify the following into homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures: Milk, tea, soil, sea water, soft drink, liquefied air, smoke and glass. 21. Write the symbol of the following elements. Silicon, mercury, sulphur, iodine, germanium, sodium, carbon, lithium, silver, boron, argon 22. How many atoms of each element are present in one molecule of each the following compounds?
MgSO 4 , Mg 3 N 2 , BaCl 2 , AlCl 3 , NaOH

23. Why does the temperature of boiling water not rise even though heat is being supplied continuously?

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