Accepted Manuscript

Title: Electricity cost saving comparison due to tariff change

and ice thermal storage (ITS) usage based on a hybrid
centrifugal-ITS system for buildings: A university district
cooling perspective

Author: Mohammad Omar Abdullah Lim Pai Yii Ervina

Junaidi Ghazali Tambi Mohd Asrul Mustapa

PII: S0378-7788(13)00505-7
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.08.008
Reference: ENB 4449

To appear in: ENB

Received date: 24-6-2013

Revised date: 3-8-2013
Accepted date: 5-8-2013

Please cite this article as: M.O. Abdullah, L.P. Yii, E. Junaidi, G. Tambi,
M.A. Mustapa, Electricity cost saving comparison due to tariff change and
ice thermal storage (ITS) usage based on a hybrid centrifugal-ITS system for
buildings: A university district cooling perspective, Energy and Buildings (2013),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.08.008

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.
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*Manuscript

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5 Electricity cost saving comparison due to tariff change and ice thermal storage
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7 (ITS) usage based on a hybrid centrifugal-ITS system for buildings: A university
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10 district cooling perspective
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16 Mohammad Omar Abdullaha, *, Lim Pai Yiia, Ervina Junaidia,

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19 Ghazali Tambia, Mohd Asrul Mustapab

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21 a
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
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Asset and Management Division, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
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26 Abstract
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28 In this paper, the case study of a district cooling system of a university located in a South East Asia region (Lat:0129’;
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30 long:110 20’E) is presented. In general, the university has high peak ambient temperature of around 32-35 °C coupled with
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high humidity of about 85% during afternoon period. The total electricity charge for the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
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Campus is very high amounting to more than $314,911 per month. In this paper, a few district cooling schemes are
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37 investigated to provide “what-if analysis” and in order to minimize the overall electricity charges. Few scenarios designed
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for the application of centrifugal with and without ice-thermal storage (ITS) systems on the buildings were investigated. It
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41 was found that, due to the local tariff status, marginally saving can be achieved in the range of 0.08% - 3.13% if a new tariff
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43 is adopted; and a total of further saving of 1.26% – 2.43% if ITS is operated. This marginally saving is mainly due to the
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45 local tariff conditions and lower local temperature range (T) which are less favorable as compared with those reported in
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47 the literature elsewhere.
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51 Keywords: Electricity charge, cost saving, district cooling system, tariff structure, ice thermal storage
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* Corresponding author. Tel: + (6082) 583280 (direct line). Fax: + (6082)-583409,
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56 Email address: amomar@feng.unimas.my; amomar13@gmail.com
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7 1. Introduction
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9 The building industry involves two kinds of energy applications, i.e., building construction application,
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12 and post- constructions (occupants) application. The latter consumes much of the energy use due to the

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14 energy consumption over a period of much longer time [1]. For modern buildings, one of the notable
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energy usages is due primarily to the electrical-driven air conditioning systems, either for heating or

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19 cooling. For bigger system such as district cooling systems (DCS) application, higher capacity of the

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21 cooling systems are necessary due to the higher cooling or heating demand which necessarily incur
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24 enormous electrical energy costs. The advantages of DCS systems in huge building areas compared

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26 with individual air-conditioning unit systems are many, among others:
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 Economical advantages: The DCS have overall lower total capital cost compared to the split cooling
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31 that require their own cooling equipment(s) [2] [3];
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34  Space conservation: The space required for cooling equipment(s) can become vacant for other
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36 purposes for a district cooling systems [2] [3].

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 Noise reduction: The noise that produced by the cooling machines can be avoided in the consumer
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buildings [2].
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44  Flexibility: The DCS systems also flexible to employ a wide range of inter-related thermal storage
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46 technologies such as co-generation, tri-generation, and thermal energy storage (TES) [2] [3]. The
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49 present paper is primarily concerning with the TES storage technique.
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51 In respect of energy usage, it was reported that thermal energy storage (TES) not only
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54 dramatically reduces the use of peak-period high cost energy; it can also reduce the total energy usage
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56 by as much as 13% [4] [5]. The United State Department of Energy reported that many ice storage
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59 applications can result in lower first cost and/or with higher system efficiency as compared to non-
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4 storage system [6]. This is because ice-storage allows downsizing of the conventional chiller system [3,
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7 7], the resulting cost savings may substantially or entirely cover the added incremental cost of the
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9 storage system [7]. MacCracken [8] pointed out that since thermal storage method operate at full load
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12 during the night time, the fuel cost for powering the ITS plant during the night (non-peak hours) will

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14 be reduced, as the cooling demand is shifted from peak hours to non-peak hours. The two main reasons
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for the saving are thus: (1) In the night, the base load plants are much more energy efficient than day

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19 time plants; and (2) line losses are less during the night time because much less power is transmitted at

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21 night.
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24 Results from the study by the California Energy Commission [9] shows an even higher energy

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26 saving potential figures, for two typical major California utilities with energy usage reduction as much
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as 10% and can up to 30% has been reported [9] [10].
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31 Sebzali & Rubini [10] had conducted an investigation in a clinic building in Kuwait, which has
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34 hot climates with long summer condition. They found out, via computational modeling analysis, that
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36 the AC systems consume around 61% of the peak electrical duty and around 40% of the total
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electricity consumption. The saving is due to the advantage of hot climate and huge temperature
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41 difference between day and night time, considerably long summer and low energy costs in Kuwait.
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43 A hybrid chilled water/ice thermal storage plant for the Lucile Erwin Middle School in
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46 Colorado, United State, has been reported to able to save more than $18,000 in energy costs annually.
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48 One of the contributing saving factors reported is due to the offer of low-interest financing from the
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51 local Florida power authority, and by completely eliminating chiller demand from the utility bill. The
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53 project uses a flexible ice thermal storage management system concept with a demand limit-controlled,
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chiller priority, partial storage system. This ice storage system optimized energy efficiency by
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58 carefully avoiding electrical demand peaks caused by the system, where the chiller/storage match is
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4 designed for continuous chiller operation at about–6°C chilled water supply temperature under normal
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7 conditions. [11]
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9 Morgan and Krarti [12] reported a TES application study on a school with total small floor area
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12 of 65,000 ft2 (6038.7 m2). They investigated the influences of using active and passive TES systems to

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14 shift the peak cooling loads to the nights to reduce building energy costs. The set point temperature
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during the occupied periods from 8:30 to 17:00 was at 24 °C; and 32 °C during unoccupied periods. A

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19 50 ton scroll compressor operates during the night (from 02:00 to 08:00) and charges three ice-tanks

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21 with a total capacity of 570 tons/hour using the internal melt ice-on-coil system. They found that
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24 around 47% of the annual electricity cost could be saved by employing the TES systems. This huge

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26 cost saving is due to the incentive utility rate of $0.0164/kWh as a flat consumption rate and a demand
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charge of $11.24/kW.
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31 It is to be noted that not all the literature came up with favorable TES applications.
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34 Habeebullah [13], for instance, had conducted an economic feasibility of using the huge ITS system in
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36 the Grant Mosque of Makkah, the results of which show that as the existing electricity rate is fixed at
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0.07 $/kWh, the ITS system does not have any gain neither for the partial nor for the full storage
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41 strategy. However, the author indicated that by employing the energy storage system via full load
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43 storage strategy combined with an incentive time structured rate, the electricity cost could be reduced.
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46 In order to evaluate the energy performance and cost effectiveness potential, a feasible
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48 district cooling with ice-storage system was investigated by Chan et al. [14] for a hypothetical site in
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51 Hong Kong. In their works, a parametric study employing DOE-2 and TRNSYS simulation software
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53 was conducted to evaluate the system performance at different partial storage capacities, control
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strategies, and under three different tariff structures. Other than the basic design factors, the results
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58 from 27 cases studies showed the importance of the tariff structure, the capital cost and electricity costs.
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4 They found out that the district cooling plant with about 40% ice-storage capacity and chiller-priority
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7 control sequence can provide better energy performance. However, the saving in electricity cost is not
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9 attractive. The authors further suggested that in order to shorten the payback period, the power supply
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12 must come from the neighboring region that provides lower electrical charges and supporting tariff

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14 structure. This also implies that there is a potential of applying the integrated technology in the South
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China region but only when the investment becomes favorable and with supporting tariff structure.

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19 From cited literature and experiences obtained elsewhere, favoring conditions of TES

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21 applications can vary from country to country, and in fact region to region, due to numerous factors.
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24 Generally, the usage of ice-thermal technology has been higher in regions where a significant day and

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26 night-time differential in both temperature, in the lower price of electricity exists, and with some utility
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companies provide cash incentives or rebates to developers that incorporate TES schemes.
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31 The present study is an extension of previous work reported earlier in 2007 [15]. The previous
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34 work briefly investigated some parameters influencing the DCS performance, in particular cool air
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36 distribution, chiller capacity, and occupant behavior. This paper, however, is an extension of the
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previous work. The current study aims to seek on the overall district cooling saving possibilities due to
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41 the following two application aspects, viz. (1) the effects of tariff change; and (2) the effect of ITS
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43 usage. For that purpose, few application scenarios are given for comparison. Due to the completeness
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46 and most recent data available, the authors have chosen a typical year, i.e. 2011 for the analysis.
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51 2.0 The UNIMAS’ District Cooling System
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53 Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) is located in Kota Samarahan of Sarawak. By completion of
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new campus (or known as West Campus) in the year of 2005, the total build-up area of the new
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58 campus is approximately 223,619m2 and keep expanding from time to time (Fig. 1). With the location
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4 at equatorial climate which provide hot tropical weather basically on 365 days per year with average
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7 temperature of 25-35˚C during day time, air conditioning system was installed in almost all of the
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9 building spaces to provide comfortable environment for both students and staffs [15]. The main
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12 cooling system which is selected to install in this new campus is district cooling system (DCS) due to

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14 the extremely huge built-up area and the potential to expand in future depend on demand. Most of the
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buildings are operating with the air-conditioning system that essentially sharing the cooling from the

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19 same resources from Mechanical and Electrical Plant (MEP) with the piping buried underground for

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21 distribution. There are a total of 15 facilities (as end of 2011) in the compound which were using the
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24 same resources for cooling purpose. The total cooling capacities supplied by base chillers from MEP

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26 reached up to approximately 8000 refrigerant tan (RT)1. Up until December 2011 in the MEP, there are
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a total of eight centrifugal chillers with total 8500RT, two brine chillers with total 900RT, and also 10
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31 cooling towers of total 14000RT were used for provide heat rejection. Brines chillers are connected
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34 with ice thermal storage; while centrifugal chillers supply cooling directly to buildings by chilled water.
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36 The heat rejection is accomplished by using cooling towers with makeup water tank as to replace the
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evaporated water in cooling towers. For effectiveness of heat transfer, heat exchangers and pumps also
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41 use in MEP to assist in transporting the cooling to buildings. However, the brine chillers and the ITS
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43 are just for backup and not in operating so far, as well as heat exchanges which used to assist brine
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46 chillers in distributing. This is mainly due to the fact that the current tariff does not have the different
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48 charging rate provision for on peak and off peak. The electricity charge of UNIMAS’s new campus is
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51 very expensive, reached more than $ 314,911 or more per month (data from ref.[15]), thus in the
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53 present work, some feasible study are seek to investigate the effects on the use of different tariff in
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56 1
57 Anyhow, it is to be noted that there are few other standalone buildings having their individual cooling systems, for instance the Centre
58 of Information Study (CAIS) building, the requirement of which is to operate 24 hours per day due to which it is not economical for the
59 MEP to supply cooling just for the CAIS building alone at midnight. Apart from that, some buildings which are located too far from the
based, like Faculty Recourse Science and Technology (FRST) external laboratory building also having their individual cooling
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equipments.
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4 reducing overall electricity cost; and to estimate the how much saving if a hybrid centrifugal-thermal
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7 storage system is used instead. Figure 1 shows the UNIMAS campus layout plan illustrating the district
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9 cooling water pipeline from the Mechanical Electrical Plant (MEP) throughout the university’s campus.
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12 The total electricity consumption of the District Cooling System for a typical month (August 2011) is

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14 given in Fig. 2. The MEP only consumed about 34% while the rest of the consumption goes to the
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Main Intake Supply (MIS).

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19 There are eight centrifugal chillers with total of 8,500RT (CH1 – 400RT, CH2 – 1,300RT, CH3

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21 – 1,300RT, CH4 – 1,300RT, CH5 – 800RT, CH6 – 800RT, CH7 – 1,300RT, CH8 – 1,300RT), the
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24 centrifugal chiller function as supply direct cooling to consumer buildings (facility). There are also two

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26 brine chillers in the MEP which used to charging the ITS (7000RTh) with total of 900RT (450RT
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each). While for the heat rejection system, ten units of cooling towers with total of 14,000RT (1,400RT
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31 each) applied in central plant. Between, to replace the evaporated water inside the cooling towers, there
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34 are one expansion tank and two make up tank used. Apart from that, there are also three heat
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36 exchangers with a total of 1,800RT (two units with 450 RT each and another one with 900 RT)
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available at the MEP which support the brine chiller and the ITS as the loop used is different with that
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41 of the direct cooling supply by centrifugal chiller, hence the heat exchanger is become an essential.
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43 Nevertheless, there is also some quantity of heat exchangers inside each consumer buildings which
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46 function as receive cooling from the central plant. The capacity of the heat exchangers for each
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48 building is different depending on the cooling load received. The cooling is supply via the pipe buried
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51 underground which connected from the central plant to each buildings. The ITS facility comprises of a
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53 brine chiller system, an ice thermal storage (Fig. 3), a cooling tower system and a heat exchanger
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system. It generates chilled water required to meet the cooling load demand for various air-handling
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58 units distributed in the buildings. Besides, the brine chillers are also used to generate ice for the
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4 thermal storage plant. It is divided into the following 5 sections, i.e. (1) brine chiller system, (2) base
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7 chiller system; (3) cooling tower system; (4) thermal storage system consists of one ITS and associated
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9 motorized valves; and (5) heat exchanger system. The chilled water system (central air conditioning
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12 system) is networked to have multiple cooling coils distributed throughout the large distributed

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14 buildings with the refrigeration chiller placed at one base central location.
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In the previous work as reported in [15], many parameters influencing the DCS had been

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19 briefly covered which includes cool air distribution, chiller capacity, and occupant behavior. This

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21 paper, however, is an extension of the previous works which is a detail study of the changing of tariff
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24 effect as well as the ITS application to the overall saving possibilities. Few application scenarios are

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26 also investigated. For that purpose and due to the completeness and most recent data available, the
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authors have chosen a typical year, i.e. 2011 for the analysis.
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36 3. UNIMAS Electricity Charge for Year 2011

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The main target of the present analysis was UNIMAS’ new campus, the electricity’s main
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41 intake for UNIMAS’ new campus is known as Main Intake Supply (MIS) which supply majority of the
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43 electricity required. Monthly electrical consumption, monthly maximum demand, and electrical charge
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46 are described in the following sub-sections.

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48 Monthly Electricity Consumption
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51 Figure 4 shows the monthly electricity consumption of UNIMAS for year 2011 which was
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53 essentially increasing over the months. The increment was reasonable due to the increasing of built-up
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area throughout year 2011. But there were exception for June, July, and August of 2011 due to
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4 semester break period where most of the occupants, in particular the undergraduates are out of the
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7 campus for holiday.
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9 Monthly Maximum Demand
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12 Table 1 show that monthly maximum demand only occurred during Monday to Thursday. In

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14 detail, maximum demand only occurred during office hour period. Hence, it can be deduced that
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maximum demand was impossible to occur on weekend and public holiday due to decrease of

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19 occupants and overall usage. The maximum demand was increased when getting towards the end of

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21 year 2011, thus the increased of total electricity charge.
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26 Methodology and data analysis
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The huge data is collected for the project and enable further analysis. The data includes: (1)
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31 monthly electrical charge for UNIMAS’s new campus (MIS); monthly electrical consumption of
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34 central plant (MEP); (3) electricity consumption of UNIMAS’s new campus for year 2011 and
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36 schedule of tariff both of which is available from local electrical service provider.
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Electricity charge of MIS can be divided into usage charge and demand charge to find the
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41 opportunity to decrease the electricity charge. Since huge number of data is involved, Microsoft Excel
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43 is used to compile and analyze the data sets. Standard deviations with confidence interval of 95%
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46 (Error bars with 5% errors) were used to represent the distribution of the data.
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48 In the present study, ice storage tank only chosen to be operating during off-peak hour. This is
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51 because, from the literature, many deduced that ice thermal storage not really economical in regard to
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53 energy saving, but cost earning primarily from the tariff structure benefit of on-peak and off-peak hour.
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In this study, it is assumed that with a total daily charging period of six hours (off peak is from 00:00
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4 to 06:00 hours), the ice tank only able to discharge for about 5.5 hours, due to the fact that many
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7 literature predicted losses of around 10% for thermal storage.
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14 4. Results and discussion
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Computation of electrical charge and effect of ITS usage on the hybrid operating system is discussed in

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19 section 4.1 and section 4.2, respectively.

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24 4.1 Computation of Electricity Charge

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26 4.1.1 Applying Different Tariff Structure
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In year 2011 an average of 39.54% electricity was contributed by MEP central plant alone. As
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31 for the overall air-conditioning system, the electricity consumed by the system will be more than 39.54%
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34 out of total consumption, since MEP only generate the main cooling equipments. While the other
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36 components like split units, individual cooling equipments, air handling unit, fan coil unit, and etc was
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not included in the 39.54% figure.
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41 There are three tariffs available for UNIMAS as listed in Table 2. UNIMAS is applying tariff
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43 C2 currently (including year 2011) [16]. In order to take advantage from converting from tariff C2 to
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46 tariff C3, the increment of maximum demand charge should overcome by earning from off peak period.
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48 By referring to electricity bill when applying tariff C2, the usage for off peak period is somewhat
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51 ambiguity. Hence, the detail data obtained from the electricity provider, SESCO is essential.
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53 Appendix I shows an example of calculation on a specific month which is August 2011 for
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different type of tariff structures. Appendix II shows the calculated total charge for three different
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58 tariffs as well as the reality charge for tariff C2 which obtained from the Sarawak Electricity Supply
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4 Corporation (SESCO). Table 3 show that total saving of $50,052.37 (RM 158,941.32) can be obtained
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7 for year 2011 by applying tariff C3 rather than tariff C2. The accuracy of the calculation was
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9 considered high due to the calculated and the actual total electricity charge for year 2011 with tariff C2
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12 were very close as $1.92 (RM6.11) whole year. Besides, Table 3 shows that there was more saving

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14 from tariff C1 to tariff C2 compare to tariff C2 to C3. This means that UNIMAS had made a smart
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choice by switch from tariff C1 to tariff C2 many years ago.

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19 Table 4 shows that applying tariff C3 will lead to decrement in percentage of usage charge, but

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21 increment in percentage of maximum demand charge. Hence, if applying tariff C3, it is importance to
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24 put more effort in order to decrease the maximum demand due to the high charge for maximum

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26 demand compare to tariff C2.
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31 4.1.2 Equation and Regression of Saving
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34 Appendix II and Table 3 show that there is saving from changing tariff C1 to tariff C2 as well
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36 as from tariff C2 to tariff C3.

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In the subsequent sections, some equations are developed to calculate both of the savings based
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41 on the obtained information and related analysis. Regression equations were use to relate between the
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43 savings and the influencing factors.
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48 4.1.2.1. Tariff C1 to Tariff C2
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51 The equation (1) is developed to represent the saving per month by switching from tariff C1 to
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53 tariff C2
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56 Saving, SC1-C2 = $0.0155/kWh × U – $4.96/kWh × D + $63.86 (1)
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4 Where SC1-C2 = Saving from switch tariff C1 to tariff C2, $
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7 U = Total usage, kWh
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9 D = Maximum demand, kWh (double the largest number of kilowatt supplied during any
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12 consecutive thirty minutes)

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The following equations were required for the purpose of developing the graphs in Fig. 5 and

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19 Fig.6:

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21 Percentage of Maximum Demand = (D/U) ×100% (2)
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24 Percentage of Saving = (SC1-C2/TC1) × 100% (3)

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Where SC1-C2 = Saving from switch tariff C1 to tariff C2, $
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31 U = Total usage, kWh
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34 D = Maximum demand, kWh (double the largest number of kilowatt supplied during any
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36 consecutive thirty minutes)

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TC1 = Electricity charge with tariff C1 in $
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43 The equation line in Fig. 6 shows the maximum saving of 16.66% when maximum demand
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46 percentage was zero, but the scenario was impossible to occur. From the line, the condition of lost
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48 occurred by switching tariff C1 to tariff C2 can be estimated. The condition was the intersection point
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51 between the line and x-axis, which is 0.31% of maximum demand. This means it is not worth to switch
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53 from tariff C1 to tariff C2 when the maximum demand’s percentage was more than 0.31%. Based on
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the error bars at the 95 % confidence interval, no significant differences were observed between the
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58 data points for both Fig. 5 and 6.
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2
3
4
5
6
7 4.1.2.2. Tariff C2 to Tariff C3
8
9 The equation (4) is developed to represent the saving per month from tariff C2 to tariff C3.
10
11
12 Saving, SC2-C3 = $0.0329/kWh × Ø –$1.24/kWh × D (4)

t
13

ip
14 Where SC2-C3 = Saving from switch tariff C2 to tariff C3 in $
15
16
Ø = Off peak usage in kWh

cr
17
18
19 D = Maximum demand in kWh (double the largest number of kilowatt supplied

us
20
21 during any consecutive thirty minutes)
22
23
24

an
25
26 The following equations were required for the purpose of sketching the graphs in Fig. 7 and 8:
27
28
Percentage of maximum demand = (D/U) ×100% (5)
M
29
30
31 Percentage of saving = (SC2-C3/TC2) × 100% (6)
32
33
d

34 Off peak usage/Maximum demand = Ø/D (7)

35
te

36 Where SC2-C3 = Saving from switch tariff C2 to tariff C3 in $

37
38
U = Total usage in kWh
p

39
40
41 D = Maximum demand in kWh (double the largest number of kilowatt supplied during
ce

42
43 any consecutive thirty minutes)
44
45
Ac

46 TC2 = Electricity charge with tariff C2

47
48 Ø = Off peak usage in kWh
49
50
51 Graph in Fig. 7 shows the intersection occurred when percentage of maximum demand charge
52
53 was 3.29%. The intersection indicate the moment starting of negative value in saving (loss) occur,
54
55
56
hence can be estimated that it was not worth to switch from tariff C2 to tariff C3 if the percentage of
57
58 maximum demand was more than 3.3%.
59
60
61
62
63
64 13
Page 13 of 41
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 1
2
3
4 The graph in Fig. 8 shows the intersection occurred when the ratio was 36.24. The intersection
5
6
7 indicates the moment starting of negative value in saving (loss) occur, therefore estimated that it not
8
9 worth to switch from tariff C2 to tariff C3 if the ratio was less than 36.3.
10
11
12 Based on the error bars at the 95 % confidence interval, no significant differences were observed

t
13

ip
14 between the data points for both Fig. 7 and 8.
15
16

cr
17
18
19 4.2 Effect of Ice Thermal Storage (ITS) usage

us
20
21 The ITS facility in the MEP was installed during construction of air conditioning system at new
22
23
24 campus, thus required no extra cost for the hybrid cooling application as far as the study is concerned.

an
25
26 The 6 hours charging period during off peak hour will yield around 5½ hours discharging of ITS by
27
28
considering some losses (assuming 8% losses). The discharge period depend on the maximum
M
29
30
31 demand that occur each month during year 2011. As stated in literature review, the applicants of ITS
32
33
d

34 facility do not actually cause energy saving, but only take advantage with different rate on off peak and
35
te

36 on peak [9][14]. Hence, for the present study, theoretically, the ITS application will only take
37
38
advantage in tariff C3.
p

39
40
41 The discharge of ITS can be 450RT, 900RT, 1350RT or 1800RT with the existing heat
ce

42
43
44
exchangers. In this project, only discharge rate of 900RT be considered in order to simplify the process
45
Ac

46 for replacing another base chiller. There are three scenario developed for testing in order to find out the
47
48 scenario that will lead to highest cost saving. The discharge time is fixed at 0900-1130 and 1430-1630
49
50
51 based on the study for occurrence of maximum demand on the year 2011 as shown in Table 2. The
52
53 three scenarios developed are summarized as follows:
54
55
56 Scenario 1, S1 – charge (0000-0600) and discharge (0900-1130, 1430-1630) ITS daily
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 14
Page 14 of 41
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 1
2
3
4 Scenario 2, S2 – charge (0000-0600) and discharge (0900-1130, 1430-1630) ITS daily except weekend
5
6
7 and public holiday
8
9 Scenario 3, S3 – charge (0000-0600) and discharge (0900-1130, 1430-1630) ITS daily except Friday,
10
11
12 weekend and public holiday

t
13

ip
14 With the discharge of ITS at the rate of 900RT, the investigations can be further divided to two
15
16
cases (Fig. 9): Case 1 is the most likely case which is assuming the discharge of 900RT able to replace

cr
17
18
19 an 800RT base chiller. Case 2 is optimistic case which assuming the discharge of 900RT able to

us
20
21 replace a 1300RT base chiller. Case 2 might be happen when the 1300RT is under performance which
22
23
24 only perform around 60% of the base load.

an
25
26 By combining two cases of ITS application, the range of saving for each scenario compared to
27
28
conventional method by tariff C3 can be obtained (Table 5). Table 5 shows that the saving of ITS with
M
29
30
31 scenario 2 was within the range of $1,1388.81-$48,112.29 (RM3,673.59 – RM155,200.91). With the
32
33
d

34 total electricity charge of $3,954,885.00 (RM12,757,693.55) (with tariff C3) for year 2011, the saving
35
te

36 is within 0.03% – 1.22% . But, with the contribution of 39% for MEP compare to MIS, the saving in
37
38
MEP with ITS application scenario 2 is up to 0.08 – 3.13%. Here, the saving by applying ITS is not
p

39
40
41 obvious due to the extreme small capacity of the storage facility as compared to the main direct
ce

42
43 cooling facility. Note that the saving in Table 5 is having wide range figures, yet the actual saving still
44
45
Ac

46 can fall out from the range predicted. The saving cannot be predicted accurately due to the controlling
47
48 technique of the system such as late startup of the chillers. Besides, the ITS will have higher
49
50
51 performance at night time by taking advantage from the lower surrounding temperature at night period
52
53 compare to day time. It means that ITS may able to discharge more than 5½ hours per day and by 6
54
55
56
hours of charging.
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 15
Page 15 of 41
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 1
2
3
4 By applying ice thermal storage, the results of which is as shown in Table 6 shows that the
5
6
7 demand charge was decreased by discharging the ITS strategically. Anyhow, by applied ITS facility,
8
9 around half of maximum demand will occurred right after the ITS stop discharged. In reality, although
10
11
12 the ITS had stop discharged, it may also cause the late startup of the chiller as well depending on the

t
13

ip
14 controlling method of the system. Hence, maximum demand charge may be further decreased.
15
16
A view on typical days for the day and night-time differential in ambient temperature T

cr
17
18
19 profile is as given in Fig. 10, it shows that the local tropical condition (present study) is having

us
20
21
22 narrower ambient temperature difference as compared to other countries. As far as the present study is
23
24 concern, the Ts are 8, 12, 14, 21C for Kuching (Sarawak), Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), Colorado (USA)

an
25
26
27 and Kuwait (Kuwait), respectively. In general, bigger T will contribute to higher energy savings as
28
M
29 more cooling load can be met by the storage (see Fig. 11). Conversely, a country with lower T region
30
31
32 will generally have lower cooling load that can be met by the storage.
33
d

34
35
te

36
37
38
p

39 5. Conclusions
40
41
ce

42 In this paper, a few operating schemes are investigated to study the saving potential in total
43
44 electricity charge for UNIMAS’ new campus, in particular with respect to the tariff change and with
45
Ac

46 the thermal storage application. One of the findings emerge from this study is the significance of
47
48
49 contribution of demand charge to total electricity charge in tariff C2 and tariff C3. Effort had been put
50
51 on to decrease the maximum demand especially when applying tariff C3 which has the highest charge
52
53
54 for maximum demand. This project indicated that tariff C3 is the best option to implement based on the
55
56 data available for year 2011. From the analysis, it was found that, UNIMAS can save up to $49,271.81
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 16
Page 16 of 41
65
 1
2
3
4 (RM158,941.32) on year 2011 by switching to tariff C3. The saving is inversely proportional to the
5
6
7 percentage of maximum demand charge by refer to tariff C2.
8
9 Also, this project explains the influence of ITS application to the electricity charge. The ice
10
11
12 thermal storage facility (ice thermal storage, heat exchanger, brine chiller, brine pump and etc) are not

t
13

ip
14 in use due to neither energy saving nor cost saving with current tariff applied. But, by switching to
15
16
tariff C3, ITS application is estimated to be able to save up to $1,138.81 – $48,112.28 (RM3,673.59 –

cr
17
18
19 RM155,200.91) for year 2011, when the ITS is subject to charge and discharge every weekday

us
20
21 excluding public holiday. The saving was calculated to be in the range of 0.08% - 3.13% with respect
22
23
24 to total usage of MEP. There can be more saving gain by imposing more detail study on the controlling

an
25
26 system. Overall, by switching tariff to C3 as well as the application of the ITS facility, a saving up to
27
28
total of $19,410.62 – $97,384.09 (RM162,614.91 – RM314,142.23) for year 2011 is estimated. The
M
29
30
31 total saving is 1.26% – 2.43% compare to total electricity charge of MIS with
32
33
d

34 $4,004,156.81(RM12,916,634.86) for year 2011. The saving can be done without any initial cost,
35
te

36 without changed the human behavior for users, as well as without scarified users comfort.
37
38
In summary, it was found that, due to the local tariff status, marginally saving can be achieved in
p

39
40
41 the range of 0.08% - 3.13% if a new tariff is adopted; and a total of further saving of 1.26% – 2.43% if
ce

42
43 ITS is operated. This marginally saving is mainly due to the local tariff conditions which is less
44
45
Ac

46 favorable as compared with those reported in the literature and experience elsewhere [e.g. in refs. 9, 10,
47
48 and 11]. Furthermore, while there are significant day and night-time differential in ambient
49
50
51 temperature that exists in other countries, the local tropical condition is having less favorable,
52
53 relatively narrow ambient temperature difference over the day-night periods.
54
55
56
57
58 6. Recommendation for Further Study
59
60
61
62
63
64 17
Page 17 of 41
65
 1
2
3
4 In order to further reduce the electricity charges in UNIMAS buildings, there are few methods
5
6
7 can be considered such as (1) Study on the controlling method in relation to the ITS applications via
8
9 fuzzy logic investigation and/or development of a framework employing Axiomatic design
10
11
12 methodology for improvement of UNIMAS’s district cooling system, and (2) Optimal operation

t
13

ip
14 strategy of the hybrid based on minimum operating cost of the systems at various combined working
15
16
conditions and suitable storage schemes. Also, reduction of electricity charge during student’s semester

cr
17
18
19 break can bring about further savings.

us
20
21
22
23
24

an
25
26 Acknowledgments
27
28
We greatly acknowledge Datu Dr Hatta Solhi for sharing his concern and idea on electrical
M
29
30
31 consumption. We are grateful to the following personnel for their useful assistance and fruitful
32
33
d

34 discussions, in particular: Mr Lawrence Abdullah (Senior Engineer, Asset and Management Division,
35
te

36 UNIMAS), Mdm Dayang Duwiningsih bintiAbang Abdullah (Electrical Engineer, Asset and
37
38
Management Division, UNIMAS); Mr Pelle Tunggi (Assistant Mechanical Engineer, Asset and
p

39
40
41 Management Division, UNIMAS); Mr Jong Fung Swee (Senior Mechanical Engineer, JKR Sarawak);
ce

42
43 and, Ms Liew Sze Xia (Electrical Engineer, Sarawak Electricity Supply Cooperation). Data provided
44
45
Ac

46 by the Asset & Management Division UNIMAS, and Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation (SESCO)
47
48 is very much appreciated.
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
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64 18
Page 18 of 41
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 1
2
3
4
Nomenclatures
5
6 C1 Commercial 1
7
8 C2 Commercial 2
9
10
11 C3 Commercial 3
12

t
13 CAIS Centre Academic and Information Services

ip
14
15
16 CH Chiller

cr
17
18 DCS district cooling system
19

us
20
21
FCST Faculty Resource Science and Technology
22
23 MEP Mechanical and Electrical Plant
24

an
25 MIS Main Intake Supply
26
27
28 N/A Not available
M
29
30 S1 Scenario 1
31
32
33 S2 Scenario 2
d

34
35 S3 Scenario 3
te

36
37
38 SESCO Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation
p

39
40 UNIMAS Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
41
ce

42
43
T Ambient temperature difference
44
45 Measurement Units
Ac

46
47
48
˚C degree Celsius
49
50 m2 meter square
51
52 RM Ringgit Malaysia
53
54
55 % Percent
56
57 RT refrigerant ton
58
59
60 unit kWh (kilowatt-hour)
61
62 $ US dollar (USD)
63
64 19
Page 19 of 41
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 1
2
3
4
5
6
7 References
8
9 [1] M. O. Abdullah, Applied Energy: an introduction, Boca Raton, New York: CRC Press ISBN:
10
11
9781439871577 (Oct 2012).
12

t
13 [2] J. Soderman, Optimization of structure and operation of district cooling networks in urban

ip
14 regions. Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2665-2676.
15
16
[3] T.T. Chow, W.H. Au, R. Yau, V. Cheng, A. Chan, K.F. Fong, Applying district-cooling

cr
17
18 technology in Hong Kong. Applied Energy 79 (2004) 275-289.
19
E. O’Neal, Thermal storage system provides comforts and energy efficiency. ASHRAE Journal

us
20 [4]
21 38(4) (1996)
22
23
24 [5] M. MacCracken, California Title 24 & Cool Storage, ASHRAE Journal (2006) 29-33.

an
25
26 [6] DOE, (2007), Department of Energy Federal Technology Alert, Thermal energy storage for
27
28
space cooling, DOE/EE-0241 Available: http://www.doe.gov.
M
29
30 [7] D. L. Grumman, ASHRAE GreenGuid. “ASHRAE GreenTip #15” Chapter 9. ( 2004) 86.
31
32 [8] M. MacCracken, Thermal Energy Storage in Sustainable Buildings. ASHRAE Journal; 46,
33
d

34 (2004).
35
te

36 [9] California Energy Commission, Source energy and environmental impacts of thermal energy
37 sorage. Report #500-95-005; 1996. Available from:
38
www.energy.ca.gov/reports/reports_500.htm, assessed on14 November 2006.
p

39
40
41 [10] M.J. Sebzali, P.A. Rubini, Analysis of ice cool thermal storage for a clinic building in Kuwait,
ce

42 Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 3417–3434.

43
44
45 [11] M. D. Haughey, Ice thermal storage for Clorado School, ASHRAE Journal, 45 (5) (2003) 50-53.
Ac

46
47 [12] S. Morgan, M. Krarti, Field testing of optimal controls of passive and active thermal storage.
48 ASHRAE Transaction; 116 (2010), 134–146.
49
50
51 [13] B.A. Habeebullah, Economic feasibility of thermal energy storage systems, J Energy Build; 39
52 (2007) 355–363.
53
54 [14] A.L.S. Chan, T.T. Chow, K.F.F. Square, Z. L. John, Performance evaluation of district cooling
55
56
plant with ice storage, Energy 31(14), (2006) 2750-2762.
57
58 [15] M. O. Abdullah, S. Sulaiman, M. O. Sabri, Initial study on the operation, energy usage and
59 improvement opportunities of an ice-thermal district cooling system. In: Proceedings of
60
61
62
63
64 20
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 1
2
3
4 EnCon2007, 1st Engineering Conference on Energy & Environment, December 27-28 (2007)
5
6 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. pp. 328-333.
7
8 [16] P. Tunggi, Chilled Management System (CMS). Mechanical and Electrical Plant (MEP),
9 UNIMAS, personnel communication, (2011).
10
11
12

t
13

ip
14
15
16

cr
17
18
19

us
20
21
22
23
24

an
25
26
27
28
M
29
30
31
32
33
d

34
35
te

36
37
38
p

39
40
41
ce

42
43
44
45
Ac

46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
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64 21
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 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 List of figure captions
9
10 Fig. 1. District chilled water distribution pipeline for DCS in UNIMAS
11
12

t
13 Fig. 2. Electricity Consumption of the District Cooling System for a typical month (August 2011). MIS

ip
14
15 = Main Intake Supply; MEP = Mechanical & Electrical Plant
16

cr
17
18 Fig. 3. The ice thermal storage (capacity rated at 7000RTh)
19

us
20 Fig. 4. Distribution of Usage Charge, Demand Change and Total Charge for Year 2011
21
22
23
Fig. 5. Variation of Saving (C1–C2) with Percentage of Maximum Demand
24

an
25 Fig. 6. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C1–C2) with Percentage of Maximum Demand
26
27 Fig. 7. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C2-C3) with Percentage of Maximum Demand
28
M
29
30 Fig. 8. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C2-C3) with Off Peak Usage/Maximum Demand
31
32 Fig. 9. MIS’ Electricity Consumption with Different Controlling Method for 2nd Aug 2011
33
d

34
35 Fig. 10. Ambient temperature profile comparison for various selected area.
te

36
37 Fig 11 Cooling load meets by storage profile for a full storage scheme. The region of total load meet
38
p

39
40 by storage (indicated by shaded area) are A and A+B for the Low T and High T profile, respectively.
41
ce

42 Chiller meets load directly at the regions under each graph from a to b, and c to d.
43
44
45
Ac

46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
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64 22
Page 22 of 41
65
List of Figure Captions

Figure captions

Fig. 1. District chilled water distribution pipeline for DCS in UNIMAS

Fig. 2. Electricity Consumption of the District Cooling System for a typical month (August

2011). MIS = Main Intake Supply; MEP = Mechanical & Electrical Plant

t
Fig. 3. The ice thermal storage (capacity rated at 7000RTh)

ip
Fig. 4. Distribution of Usage Charge, Demand Change and Total Charge for Year 2011

cr
Fig. 5. Variation of Saving (C1–C2) with Percentage of Maximum Demand

us
Fig. 6. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C1–C2) with Percentage of Maximum Demand

Fig. 7. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C2-C3) with Percentage of Maximum Demand

an
Fig. 8. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C2-C3) with Off Peak Usage/Maximum Demand

Fig. 9. MIS’ Electricity Consumption with Different Controlling Method for 2nd Aug 2011
M
Fig. 10. Ambient temperature profile comparison for various selected area.

Fig 11 Cooling load meets by storage profile for a full storage scheme. The region of total
ed

load meet by storage (indicated by shaded area) are A and A+B for the Low T and High T

profile, respectively. Chiller meets load directly at the regions under each graph from a to b,
pt

and c to d.
ce
Ac

Page 23 of 41
Table 1

Occurrence of Maximum Demand for Year 2011

Date Day Time Maximum

t
Electricity

ip
Consumed per half

cr
hour (kW)

us
January 04-01-2011 Tuesday 0930-1000 4,233.976

February 23-02-2011 Wednesday 1430-1500 4,222.604

March 16-03-2011 Wednesday 1100-1130

an 4,387.816

April 28-04-2011 Thursday 1530-1600 4,627.604

M
May 10-05-2011 Tuesday 1600-1630 4,590.928
ed

June 27-06-2011 Monday 1600-1630 4,452.476

July 26-07-2011 Tuesday 0930-1000 4,356.732

pt

August 04-08-2011 Thursday 0900-0930 4,441.456

September 15-09-2011 Thursday 1430-1500 4,765.392

ce

October 04-10-2011 Tuesday 0830-0900 4,989.480

Ac

November 16-11-2011 Wednesday 1530-1600 5,217.680

December 01-12-2011 Thursday 0900-0930 5,574.548

Average 4,655.06

Page 24 of 41
Table 2

Tariff Structure Available for UNIMAS

Tariff C1 – Commercial Rate Per Unit

For the first 100 units per month RM0.40 ($0.124)

t
For the next 4900 unit per month RM0.34 ($0.101)

ip
For each additional unit per month RM0.30 ($0.093)

cr
Tariff C2 – Commercial Demand Rate Per Unit

us
For each kilowatt of maximum demand per month RM16.00 ($4.96)

For each unit RM0.25 ($0.078)

Tariff C3 – Commercial Peak / Off-Peak Demand

an Rate Per Unit

For each kW of maximum demand per month during peak period RM20.00 ($6.200)
M
For each unit during the peak period RM0.25 ($0.078)

For each unit during the off-peak period RM0.144 ($0.045)

ed

Note: 1 RM = $ 0.31 (exchange rate as per 15 July, 2013). $ refer to US Dollars.

pt
ce
Ac

Page 25 of 41
Table 3

Savings Regard to Tariffs for Year 2011

Cost saving

Tariff C1 → Tariff C2 $136,632

t
Tariff C2 → Tariff C3 $49,272

ip
cr
us
Table 4

Percentage of Usage and Demand Charge for Year 2011

an
Tariff Percentage of Usage Charge, % Percentage of Demand Charge, %

C1 100 N/A
M
C2 86.14 13.86

C3 82.46 17.54
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 26 of 41
Table 5

Estimation Savings for Year 2011 with Ice thermal storage Application

Controlling Method Saving range

Conventional N/A

t
Apply Ice Thermal Storage S1 $11,379.55-$57,281.52

ip
Apply Ice Thermal Storage S2 $1,1388.81-$48,112.29

cr
Apply Ice Thermal Storage S3 $2,439.53-$39,037.44

us
Table 6
an
Estimation Percentage of Usage and Demand Charge by Different Controlling Method for
M
Year 2011.
ed

Usage Charge, % Demand Charge, %

Conventional 82.46 17.54

pt

Apply Ice thermal storage Case 1 S2 83.14 16.86

Apply Ice thermal storage Case 2 S2 83.00 17.00

ce
Ac

Page 27 of 41
Appendix I

Units (kWh) Charge, RM ($) Total, RM ($)

C First 100 Units 100.00 40.00 ($12.4)

1 Next 4900 Units 4,900.00 1,666.00($516.46)

t
Surplus 3,471,296.28 1,041,388.88($322,830.55) 1,043,094.88($323,359.41)

ip
C Total Usage 3,476,296.28 869,074.07 ($269,412.96)

2 Maximum Demand 8,882.91 142,126.59 ($44,059.24) 1,011,200.66 ($313,472.20)

cr
C On Peak Usage 3,032,208.54 758,052.13($234,996.16)

us
3 Off Peak Usage 444,087.74 63,948.64($19,824.08)

Maximum Demand 8,882.91 177,658.24($55,074.05) 999,659.01($309,894.29)

an
Maximum demand occur during: 04-08-2011, 0900-0930 (Thursday)
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 28 of 41
Appendix II

Tariff C1 Tariff C2 Tariff C3 Reality

RM ($) RM ($) RM ($) RM ($)

January 1,051,672.87 1,011,709.62 998,073.86 1,011,710.50

($326,018.59) ($313,629.98) ($309,402.90) ($313,630.26)
February 969,180.42 942,602.01 929,477.08 942,598.00
($300,445.93) ($292,206.62) ($288,137.89) ($292,205.38)

t
ip
March 1,167,927.57 1,113,511.42 1,093,264.62 1,113,517.50
($362,057.55) ($345,188.54) ($338,912.03) ($345190.43)

cr
April 1,144,220.66 1,101,428.88 1,084,904.64 1,101,425.50
($354,708.41) ($341,442.96) ($336,320.44) (341,441.90)

us
May 1,118,815.96 1,079,084.66 1,065,800.35 1,079,087.00
($346,832.95) ($334,516.24) ($330,398.11) ($334,516.97)

June 953,808.85 937,148.27 932,840.68 937,149.00

July
($295,680.74)
1,000,574.86
($290,515.96)
973,056.14
an
($289,180,61)
964,865.35
($290,516.19)
973,048.75
($310,178.21) ($301,647.40) ($299,108.26) ($301,645.11)
M
August 1,043,094.88 1,011,200.66 999,659.01 1,011,202.00
($323,359.41) ($313,472,20) ($309,894.29) ($313,472.62)
ed

September 1,138,714.74 1,101,249.83 1,087,535.27 1,101,253.50

($353,001.57) ($341,387.45) ($331,135.94) ($341,388.56)

October 1,258,840.75 1,208,525.66 1,189,293.93 1,208,526.00

pt

($390,240.4) ($374,642.9546) ($368,681.11) ($374,633.06)

November 1,229,441.94 1,191,329.05 1,178,565.34 1,191,323.25

ce

($381,127.00) ($369,312.01) ($365,354.64) ($369,310.21)

December 1,281,089.76 1,245,788.67 1,233,413.41 1,245,732.75

($397,137.83) ($386,194.49) ($382,358.16) ($386,177.15)
Ac

Total 13,357,383.26 12,916,634.87 12,757,693.54 12,916,573.75

($4,140,788.81) ($4,004,156.81) ($3,954,884.00) ($4,004,137.86)

Page 29 of 41
Figure(s)

t
ip
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

100m

Fig. 1. District chilled water distribution pipeline for DCS in UNIMAS

Page 30 of 41
 Electricity Consumption (per half hour) vs Time
5,000,000
4,500,000
4,000,000
3,500,000

t
3,000,000

ip
W

2,500,000
MIS
2,000,000

cr
MEP
1,500,000

us
1,000,000
500,000
-
0 100 200 300 400
hr
an
500 600 700 800
M
Fig. 2. Electricity Consumption of the District Cooling System for a typical month (August

2011). MIS = Main Intake Supply; MEP = Mechanical & Electrical Plant
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 31 of 41
 t
ip
cr
us
an
M
ed

Fig. 3. The ice thermal storage (capacity rated at 7000RTh)

pt
ce
Ac

Page 32 of 41
 900,000.00
Demand Charge ($) Usage Charge ($) Total Charge ($)
800,000.00

700,000.00

600,000.00

500,000.00
Charge ($)

t
400,000.00

ip
300,000.00

cr
200,000.00

us
100,000.00

0.00
Jan Feb March April May an
June

Month
July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
M
ed

Fig. 4. Distribution of Usage Charge, Demand Change and Total Charge for Year 2011
pt
ce
Ac

Page 33 of 41
 Saving vs Percentage of Maximum Demand in ($)
18,000

16,000

t
14,000

ip
12,000
Saving ($)

10,000

cr
8,000

us
6,000
y = -217114x + 66013
4,000

2,000
0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
an 0.26
Percentage (%)
0.27 0.28 0.29
M
Fig. 5. Variation of Saving (C1–C2) with Percentage of Maximum Demand
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 34 of 41
 Percentage of Saving vs Percentage of Maximum
Demand

5.5

t
4.5

ip
4 y = -53.253x + 16.665
%

3.5

cr
3

us
2.5

1.5
0.22 0.24
%
0.26
an 0.28
M
Fig. 6. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C1–C2) with Percentage of Maximum Demand
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 35 of 41
 Percentage of Saving vs Percentage of Maximum
Demand

2.5

t
ip
1.5
%

cr
1

us
y = -23.24x + 7.0668
0.5

0
0.22 0.24
%
0.26 an
0.28
M
Fig. 7. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C2-C3) with Percentage of Maximum Demand
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 36 of 41
 Percentage of Saving vs Off Peak Usage/Maximum
Demand
2.5

t
y = 0.0797x - 2.863

ip
1.5
%

cr
1

us
0.5

0
40 45 50 55
an
60 65
M
Fig. 8. Variation of Saving’s Percentage (C2-C3) with Off Peak Usage/Maximum Demand
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 37 of 41
 5

t
3

ip
MW

cr
1

us
-
0 5 10 15 20 25
an
time (hr)

Conventional Case 1 Case 2

M
Fig. 9. MIS’ Electricity Consumption with Different Controlling Method for 2nd Aug 2011
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 38 of 41
 60

50

40
Ambient temperature, °C

t
ip
30

cr
20
Kuching, Sarawak 2 Aug 2011
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 2 Aug 2011

us
10 Colorida, USA 2 Aug 2011
Kuwait, Kuwait 2 Aug 2011
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia July 1996
0
0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00
an
10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 23:00

Time of day, hours

M
Fig. 10. Ambient temperature profile comparison for various selected area.
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 39 of 41
 High ∆T

B
Cooling Low ∆T
load

t
ip
cr
A

us
a b an c d
Time of day
M
Fig 11 Cooling load meets by storage profile for a full storage scheme. The region of total

load meet by storage (indicated by shaded area) are A and A+B for the Low ∆T and High ∆T
ed

profile, respectively. Chiller meets load directly at the regions under each graph from a to b,

and c to d.
pt
ce
Ac

Page 40 of 41
*Highlights (for review)

Highlights

 We compare few district cooling schemes to minimize the overall electricity charges
 We show that local tariff structures play an important role on the total energy (electrical)
cost in a district building
 Only marginally saving can be achieved due to the local tariff conditions and low T
 Energy saving in the range of 0.08% - 3.13% if a new tariff is adopted

t
 A total of further saving of 1.26% – 2.43% if ITS is operated

ip
cr
us
an
M
d
p te
ce
Ac

Page 41 of 41