PRICIPLE OF CONTROL SYSTEM NOTE S

(For Bachelor of Engineering) Notes by:

PROF. MOHAMMED JUNED

Index
(1) Introduction to Control system (2) Mathematical model of linear systems (3) Transfer functions (4) Block diagram (5) Signal Graphs Flow

(6) Stability Root Plots

System (7) Locus

Plots (8) Bode

Control Systems

Introduction to Control Systems

Control System means any quantity of interest in a machine or mechanism is maintained or altered in accordance with desired manner. OR A system which controls the output quantity is called a control system.

Definitions:
1. Controlled Variable: It is the quantity or condition that is measured & controlled.

2. Controller: Controller means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the system & applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or to limit the deviation of the measured value to the desired value. 3. Plant: A plant is a piece of equipment, which is a set of machine parts functioning together. The purpose of which is to perform a particular operation. Example: Furnace, Space craft etc., 4. System: A system is a combination of components that works together & performs certain objective. 5. Disturbance: A disturbance is a signal that tends to affect the value of the output of a system. If a disturbance is created inside the system, it is called internal. While an external disturbance is generated outside the system. 6. Feedback Control: It is an operation that, in the presence of disturbance tends to reduce the difference between the output of a system & some reference input. 7. Servo Mechanism: A servo mechanism is a feedback controlled system in which the output is some mechanical position, velocity or acceleration. 8. Open loop System: In an Open loop System, the control action is independent of the desired output. OR When the output quantity of the control system is not fed back to the input quantity, the control system is called an Open loop System. 9. Closed loop System: In the Closed loop Control System the control action is dependent on the desired output, where the output quantity is considerably controlled by sending a command signal to input quantity.

Introduction to Control System 10. Feed Back: Normally, the feedback signal has opposite polarity to the input signal. This is called negative feedback. The advantage is the resultant signal obtained from the comparator being difference of the two signals is of smaller magnitude. It can be handled easily by the control system. The resulting signal is called Actuating Signal This signal has zero value when the desired output is obtained. In that condition, control system will not operate.

Effects of Feed Back:

Let the system has open loop gain Input signal . Then the feed back signal is, feedback loop gain Output signal &

E(S)

R(S)
B(S)

G(S) H(S)

&

C(S)

Hence,

=
With this eqn. (a)

(1)
, we can write the effects of feed back as follows.

Overall Gain: Eqn. shows that the gain of the open loop system is reduced by a factor in a feedback system. Here the feedback signal is negative. If the feedback gain has positive value, the overall gain will be reduced. If the feedback gain has negative value, the overall gain may increase. Stability: If a system is able to follow the input command signal, the system is said to be Stable. A system is said to be Unstable, if its output is out of control. In eqn. , if the output of the system is infinite for any finite input. This shows that a stable system may become unstable for certain value of a feedback gain. Therefore if the feedback is not properly used, the system can be harmful. Sensitivity: This depends on the system parameters. For a good control system, it is desirable that the system should be insensitive to its parameter changes. Sensitivity,

(b)

(c)

SG =

This function of the system can be reduced by increasing the value of . This can be done by selecting proper feedback.

Control Systems (d) Noise: Examples are brush & commutation noise in electrical machines, Vibrations in moving system etc.,. The effect of feedback on these noise signals will be greatly influenced by the point at which these signals are introduced in the system. It is possible to reduce the effect of noise by proper design of feed back system.

Classification of Control Systems

The Control System can be classified mainly depending upon, (a) (b) (c) (d) 1. Method of analysis & design, as Linear & Non- Linear Systems. The type of the signal, as Time Varying, Time Invariant, Continuous data, Discrete data systems etc., The type of system components, as Electro Mechanical, Hydraulic, Thermal, Pneumatic Control systems etc., The main purpose, as Position control & Velocity control Systems. Linear & Non - Linear Systems: In a linear system, the principle of superposition can be applied. In non - linear system,this principle can't be applied .Therefore a linear system is that obeys superposition principle & homogeneity.

2. Time Varying & Time Invariant Systems: While operating a control system, if the parameters are un a f f ec t e d by the time, then the system is called T ime I nvar iant Control S ystem. Most physical systems have p a r a m e t e r s c hang i n g wit h ti m e . If this variation is measura ble during the system operation then the system is called T ime Var ying S ystem. If there is no non-linearity in the time varying system, then the system may be called as Linear T ime var ying S ystem. 3. Discrete Data System s: If the signal is not con tinuously varying with time but it is in the form of pulses. Then the control system is called Discrete Data Control S ystem. If the signal is in the form of pulse data, then the system is called Sampled Data Control S ystem. Here the information supplied intermittently at specific instants of time. This has the advantage of Time sharing system. On the other hand, if the signal is in the form of digital code, the system is called Digit al Coded S ystem. Here use of Digital computers, p, c is made use of such systems are analyzed by the Z - transform theory. 4. Continuous Data Systems: If the signal obtained at various parts of the system are varying continuously with time, then the system is called Cont inuous Data Control S ystems. 5. Adaptive Control systems: In some control systems, certain parameters are either not constant or vary in an unknown manner. If the parameter variations are large or rapid, it may be desirable to design for the capability of continuously measuring them & changing th e compensation, so that the system performance criteria can always satisfied. This is called Adapt ive Control S ystems.

Introduction to Control System

Identification & Parameter adjustment

R(s)

E(s)

Compensator

+
H(S)

System

C(s)

B(s)

6. Optimal Control System: Optimal Control S ystem is obtained by minimizing and/or maximizing the performance index. This index depends upon the physical system & skill. 7. Single Variable Control System: In simple control system there will be One input & One output such systems are called S ingle var iable S ystem (SISO Single Input & Single Output). 8. Multi Variable Control System: In Mult ivar iable control system there will be more than one input & correspondingly more outputs (M IM O - Multiple Inputs & Multiple Outputs).

Comparison between Open loop & Closed loop Gain

Open Loop System 1. An open loop system has the ability to perform accurately, if its calibration is good. If the calibration is not perfect its performance will go down. 2. It is easier to build. 3. In general it is more stable as the feed back is absent. 4. If non-linearity are present; the system operation is not good. 5. Feed back is absent. Example: (i) Traffic Control System. (ii) Control of furnace for coal heating. (iii) An Electric Washing Machine. Closed Loop System 1. A closed loop system has got the ability to perform accurately because of the feedb ack.

2. It is difficult to build. 3. Less Stable Comparatively. 4. Even under the presence of non lin e a rity s th e sy ste m o p e ra te s b e tte r th a n o p e n loop system. 5. Feed back is present. Example: (i) Pressure Control System. (ii) Speed Control System. (iii) Robot Control System. (iv) Temperature Control System.

Note: Any control system which operates on time basis is an Open Loop System.

Control Systems

Block Diagram of Closed Loop System:

E(S)
Ref. i/p Control Elements

Controller

Plant
Controlled o/p

Actuator

Feed Back elements

Thermometer Block Diagram of Temperature Control System:

Thermo meter

A/D Converter
Electric Furnace Heate r

Interface

Relay

Amplifier

Interface

Programmed i/p

Temperature Control of Passenger Compartment Car:

Sensor
Radiation Heat Sensor

Sun

Ambient Temperature

Desired Temperatu re i/p

Controller

Air Conditioner

Passenger Car

O/p

Sensor
****************************************************************

********

Control Systems 1

Mathematical Models of Linear Systems

A physical system is a collection of physical objects connected together to serve an objective. An idealized physical system is called a Physical model. Once a physical model is obtained, the next step is to obtain Mathematical model. When a mathematical model is solved for various i/p conditions, the result represents the dynamic behavior of the system. Analogous System: The concept of analogous system is very useful in practice. Since one type of system may be easier to handle experimentally than another. A given electrical system consisting of resistance, inductance & capacitances may be analogous to the mechanical system consisting of suitable combination of Dash pot, Mass & Spring. The advantages of electrical systems are, 1. 2. Many circuit theorems, impedance concepts can be applicable. An Electrical engineer familiar with electrical systems can easily analyze the system under study & can predict the behavior of the system. 3. The electrical analog system is easy to handle experimentally. Translational System: It has 3 types of forces due to elements. 1. Inertial Force: Due to inertial mass,
2

F(t)

Fm t M
Where,

. a

. . .
D

2.

Damping Force [Viscous Damping]: Due to viscous damping, it is proportional to velocity & is given by,

.
Damping force is denoted by either D or B or F

3.

Spring Force: Spring force is proportional to displacement.

. .

Fk

Mathematical Models of Linear Systems

Rotational system: 1. Inertial Torque: 2. Damping Torque: 3. Spring Torque :

Where,
.

Analogous quantities in translational & Rotational system:

The electrical analog of the mechanical system can be obtained by, (i) (ii) Force Voltage analogy: (F.V) Force Current analogy: (F.I)

Sl. No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Mechanical Translational System

Force (F) Mass (M) Viscous friction (D or B or F) Spring stiffness (k) Linear displacement () Linear velocity ()

Mechanical Rotational System

Torque (T) Moment of Inertia (M) Viscous friction (D or B or F) Torsional spring stiffness ( ) Angular displacement () Angular Velocity (w)

F.V Analogy
Voltage (V) Inductance (L) Resistance (R) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1/C) Charge (q) Current (i)

F.I Analogy
Current (I) Capacitance (C) Conductance (G) Reciprocal of Inductance (1/L) Flux () Voltage (v)

DAlemberts Principle:
The static equilibrium of a dynamic system subjected to an external driving force obeys the following principle, For any body, the algebraic sum of externally applied forces resisting motion in any given direction is zero.

Example Problems:
(1) Obtain the electrical analog (FV & FI analog circuits) for the Machine system shown & also write the equations.

Free Body diagram

D2

2 2

M1
Ft

D1

1 1

Ft

Control Systems 1

Transfer Functions

The input- output relationship in a linear time invariant system is defined by the transfer function. The features of the transfer functions are, It is applicable to Linear Time Invariant system. It is the ratio between the Laplace Transform of the o/p variable to the Laplace Transform of the i/p variable. It is assumed that initial conditions are zero. It is independent of i/p excitation. It is used to obtain systems o/p response. An equation describing the physical system has integrals & differentials, the step involved in obtaining the transfer function are; (1) Write the differential equation of the system. (2) (3) Replace the terms

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

by S & by 1/S.

Eliminate all the variables except the desired variables. Impulse Response of the Linear System:

R(S)

G(S)
G(S) =
1

C(S)

In a control system, when there is a single i/p of unit impulse function, then there will be some response of the Linear System. The Laplace Transform of the i/p will be R(S) = 1 . . 1

i.e., the Laplace Transform of the system o/p will be simply the Transfer function of the system. Taking L Here G(t) will be impulse response of the Linear System. This is called Weighing Function. Hence LT of the impulse response is the Transfer function of the system itself.
-1

PROBLEMS: (1) Obtain the TransferFunction(TF) of the circuit shown in circuit 1.0

C
Solution:

Laplace Transformed network

i(S)

Circuit 1.0

Transfer Functions
1 1

. .,

&

. .

1 Where,

1 1

= RC

(2) Obtain the TF of the mechanical system shown in circuit 2.

Control Systems 3
(3) Transfer Function of an Armature Controlled DC Motor in circuit 3.0:

Ra ia

La

If = Constant

Let,

Ra Resistance of armature in s.

Vi

ia

Eb

F
Tm
F

Vf

La Inductance of armature in Hs. ia Armature current. & if Field current.

circuit 3.0

Vi Applied armature voltage. Eb Back e.m.f in volts. Tm Torque developed by the motor in N-m.

J,

Angular displacement of motor shaft in radians J Equivalent moment of inertia of motor & load referred to the motor shaft. F Equivalent Viscous friction co-efficient of motor & load referred to the motor shaft. The air gap flux is proportional to the field current. i.e., Where, Kf is a constant. . the constants. Since the field current is constant, Motor torque constant. The motor back e.m.f is proportional to the speed & is given by,

The torque developed by the motor Tm is proportional to the product of the arm current & the air gap flux. Where, Ka & Kf are Where, KT is

Where, Kb is back e.m.f constant.

2 2

The differential equation of the armature circuit is, The torque equation is, Taking LT for above equation, we get

------------------------------- (1)

(A)

Taking LT for the torque equation & equating, we get

Transfer Functions
2

------------------------------ (2)

-------------------------- (B)

Taking LT for back e.m.f equation, we get we get

-------------------------------

(C) Substituting the values of Ia (S) & Eb (S) from equation (C) & (2) in equation (1),

The block diagram representation of armature controlled DC Motor can be obtained as follows,

Vi(S)

From equation (A),

Eb(S)
From equation (B),

Ia(S)

Ia(S)

(S)

From equation (C),

(S)

Eb(S)

The complete block diagram is as shown below,

Vi(S)

Eb(S)

Ia(S)
1

(S)

Control Systems 5
(4) Transfer function of Field Controlled DC Motor in circuit 4.0:

Rf

Lf

Ia = Constant

Let, Rf Field winding resistance. Lf Field winding inductance.

Vf

if Tm
circuit 4.0 J, F

Vf Field control voltage. If Field current.

Tm Torque developed by motor. J Equivalent moment of inertia of motor & load referred to the motor shaft. F Equivalent Viscous friction co-efficient of motor & load referred to the motor shaft.

Angular displacement of motor shaft. In the field controlled DC motor, the armature current is fed from a constant current source. Kf are the constants. The KVL equation for the field circuit is,

Where, Ka &

On Laplace Transform,

---------------------------------- (1) --------------------------------- (A)

The torque equation is ,

Where, KT is Motor torque constant.

On Laplace Transform,

--------------------------- (2)

------------------------- (B)
Substituting the value of from equation (2) in equation (1), we get

Transfer Functions
2

The block diagram representation of field controlled DC Motor can be obtained as follows, From equation (A),

Vf (S)

If (S)

From equation (B),

If (S)

(S)

The complete block diagram is as shown below,

Vf (S)

If (S)

(S)

(5) Obtain the TF

for the network shown in circuit 5.0:

1

Vi

Vo

Solution:

Laplace Transformed network

R I(S)

I1(S) R
1

I2(S) Vo (S)

circuit 5.0

Vi (S) Applying KVL to this circuit, --------------------------------- (1)

1 .
1 1

Let,

100 k (6) Find the TF Solution:

1M

Control Systems 7

for the network shown in circuit 6.0: Laplace Transformed network 10 10

Vi

10 F

1 F

Circuit 6.0

Vi (S)

10

10 V0 (S)

Loop 1
Writing KVL for loop (1), we get 10 1
.
5
5

Loop 2

10

105 2

10 1

2 1

------------------------------------------- (1)

Writing KVL for loop (2), we get

1 0
10 11
1

-------------------------------------------- (2)

2 .

10

106

--------------------------------- (3)

Substituting for I1 (S) from equation (2) in (1), we get

2. 10

5

11

10 1

2 1

10 1

10 11 1 1 2 1

From equation (3) the above equation becomes,

10
5

10

10

21 10

10
10

1 0

2 1

Vi(S)

10

I1(S)

1 10

11

I2(S)

10

V0(
1 1

S)

Transfer Functions

Control Systems

Block Diagrams

It is a representation of the control system giving the inter-relation between the transfer function of various components. The block diagram is obtained after obtaining the differential equation & Transfer function of all components of a control system. The arrow head pointing towards the block indicates the i/p & pointing away from the block indicates the o/p.
If is the TF,

After obtaining the block diagram for each & every component, all blocks are combined to obtain a complete representation. It is then reduced to a simple form with the help of block diagram algebra. The following block diagram reduction algebra is used,
(1) Blocks i n Casca de [Series] :

(2) Combining blocks in Parallel:

(3) Elimi natin g a feed back loop:

(4) Moving a take -off po int beyond a bl ock: (3) (6) (2) C(S) G(S) (2) (5) Moving a Take -off po int a head of a block: (3) (2) (6 ) G( S) (6)

(2)

(3)

(6)

(2)

(3)

(2)

(6)

(6) (2)

Block Diagrams P
ROBLE MS:

R e duc e t h e Bl o c k D i a gr a ms s h o w n be l ow:
(1)

+ -

Solution: By eliminating the feed-back paths, we get

+ -

Combining the blocks in series, we get

+ -

C(S)

Eliminating the feed back path, we get

Control Systems
(2)

R(S)

C(S)

Solution:

Shifting the take-off beyond the block , we get

R(S)

C(S)

Combining
R(S)

and eliminating

(feed back loop), we get

C(S)

Eliminating the feed back path

, we get

R(S)

C(S)

Combining all the three blocks, we get

R(S) C(S)

Block Diagrams

R(S) (3)

C(S)

Solution:

Re-arranging the block diagram, we get

R(S)

C(S)

Eliminating
R(S)

loop & combining, we get

C(S)

Eliminating feed back loop

R(S) C(S)

Eliminating feed back loop

R(S)

, we get

C(S)

Control Systems

Signal Flow Graphs

By:

Sheshadri.G.S.
CIT, Gubbi.

For complicated systems, Block diagram reduction method becomes tedious & time consuming. An alternate method is that signal flow graphs developed by S.J. Mason. In these graphs, each node represents a system variable & each branch connected between two nodes acts as Signal Multiplier. The direction of signal flow is indicated by an arrow.

Definitions:
1. Node: A node is a point representing a variable. 2. Transmittance: A transmittance is a gain between two nodes. 3. Branch: A branch is a line joining two nodes. The signal travels along a branch. 4. Input node [Source]: It is a node which has only out going signals. 5. Output node [Sink]: It is a node which is having only incoming signals. 6. Mixed node: It is a node which has both incoming & outgoing branches (signals). 7. Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch arrows. Such that no node is traversed more than once. 8. Loop: It is a closed path. 9. Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch transmittances of a loop. 10. Non-Touching Loops: Loops are Non-Touching, if they do not possess any common node. 11. Forward Path: It is a p a th fro m i/p n o d e to th e o /p n o d e w h ich d o esn t cro ss a n y n o d e m o re th a n once. 12. Forward Path Gain: It is the product of branch transmittances of a forward path.

MASONS GAIN FORMULA:

The relation between the i/p variable & the o/p variable of a signal flow graphs is given by the net gain between the i/p & the o/p nodes and is known as Overall gain of the system. Maso n s g a in fo rm u la fo r th e d eterm in a tio n o f o vera ll system g a in is g iven b y, Where, Path gain of Determinant of the graph. forward path.

The value of the T

for that part of the graph not touching the

forward path.

Overall gain of the system.

Signal Flow Graphs Problems:

(1) Obtain the closed loop TF,

by using Masons gain formula.

R(S)

C(S)

Solution: M a so n s g a in fo rm u la is, No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

Gain Products of all possible combinations of two non-touching loops:

No. of three non-touching loops = 0.

(2) Obtain the closed loop TF,

by using Masons gain formula.

R(S)

C(S)

Solution: M a so n s g a in fo rm u la is, Forward Paths:

Con td......

Control Systems
No. of individual loops: Two Non-touching loops:

(3) Construct a signal flow graph from the following equations. Obtain overall TF using Masons gain formula.

Where Solution:

is i/p variable &

is o/p variable.

No. of forward paths:

Individual loops:

Two non-touching loops:

Three non-touching loops = 0 M a so n s g a in fo rm u la is,

(4) Obtain signal flow graph.

by Block Diagram Reduction method & verify the result by

+
R(S)

+ +
ntd...... Co

C(S)

ntd......

Signal Flow Graphs

Solution: R(S) Re-arranging the summing points,

C(S)

R(S)

C(S)

Signal flow graphs: R(S) C(S)

No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops: M a so n s g a in fo rm u la is,

(5) Obtain the TF & Verify by signal flow graph.

+
R(S)

C(S)

Solution: Shifting the take-off point ahead of the block . The BD reduces to,

R(S)

Co

C(S)

Control Systems

R(S) C(S)

R(S)

C(S)

R(S)

C(S)

Signal flow graph:

R(S)

C(S)

No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

(6) Reduce the Block Diagram shown.

R(S) C(S)

Solution: Shifting R(S)

+
beyond , we get

C(S)

Signal Flow Graphs

Eliminating feed back loop R(S) , we get C(S)

Eliminating feed back loop R(S)

, we get C(S)

R(S)

C(S)

Eliminating the another feed back loop R(S)

, we get C(S)

R(S)

C(S)

Signal flow graph:

R(S)

C(S) C

ontd......

Control Systems
No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

(7) Obtain the closed loop TF

by using Masons gain formula.

R(S)

C(S)

Solution: No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

Two non-touching loops:

(8) Obtain the TF of the closed loop control system represented by the Block Diagram shown below using block diagram reduction method.

Solution: Shifting the take off point of

beyond block

& Simplifying for the blocks

, we get

Signal Flow Graphs

Eliminating loop, we get

(9) Using Masons gain rule, obtain the overall TF of a control system represented by the signal flow graph shown below.

Solution: No. of forward paths:

Individual loops:

Two non-touching loops = 0

(10) Construct signal flow graph from the following equations & obtain the overall TF.

Contd......

Control Systems
Solution:

No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

Two non-touching loops:

Three non-touching loops:

Four non-touching loops = 0

(11)

Obtain the TF using Masons gain formula.

Contd......

10

Signal Flow Graphs

Solution: No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

Two non-touching loops:

Three non-touching loops = 0

(12)

Obtain the TF using Masons gain formula.

Solution: No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

Two non-touching loops:

(13)

Obtain the TF using Masons gain formula.

Contd......

Control Systems
Solution: No. of forward paths:

11

No. of individual loops:

Two non-touching loops:

Three non-touching loops = 0

(14) Draw the signal flow graph for the Block Diagram shown in fig. Hence obtain , Using Masons gain formula.

Solution:

No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

Two non-touching loops: Co

ntd......

12

Signal Flow Graphs

Three non-touching loops = 0

(15)

Obtain TF,

using block diagram algebra & also by using Masons

Gain Formula. Hence Verify the TF in both the methods.

Solution: Same block diagram can be re-arranged as shown below.

Shifting the take-off points beyond

we get

Control Systems

13

S u b stitu tin g x va lu e in th e b lo ck d ia g ra m . T h e b lo ck d ia g ra m b eco m es,

Signal flow graph:

No. of forward paths: No. of individual loops: Two non-touching loops = 0

(16)

Obtain TF,

using block diagram algebra & also by using

Masons Gain Formula. Hence Verify the TF in both the methods. Contd......

14

Signal Flow Graphs

Solution: Same Block Diagram can be written as,

S u b stitu tin g th e va lu e o f x

Signal flow Graph:

Control Systems
No. of forward paths:

15

No. of individual loops:

Two non-touching loops = 0

(17)

Find the output

Solution: (i)

Let

then we can find

No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops:

Two non-touching loops:

Three non-touching loops = 0

16

Signal Flow Graphs

(ii) Let Determine

No. of forward paths:

No. of individual loops: rem a in s sa m e.

(iii)

Let

Determine

No. of forward paths: remains same.

(iv) Let Determine (i.e., R esp o n se a t 2 w h en so u rce 2 is a ctin g ). (figure is in next page) No. of forward paths: remains same.

Control Systems

17

Hence,

Control Systems

System Stability

While considering the performance specification in the control system design, the essential & desirable requirement will be the system stability. This means that the system must be stable at all times during operation. Stability may be used to define the usefulness of the system. Stability studies include absolute & relative stability. Absolute stability is the quality of stable or unstable performance. Relative Stability is the quantitative study of stability. The stability study is based on the properties of the TF. In the analysis, the characteristic equation is of importance to describe the transient response of the system. From the roots of the characteristic equation, some of the conclusions drawn will be as follows, (1) When all the roots of the characteristic equation lie in the left half of the S-plane, the system response due to initial condition will decrease to zero at time Thus the system will be termed as stable. (2) When one or more roots lie on the imaginary axis & there are no roots on the RHS of Splane, the response will be oscillatory without damping. Such a system will be termed as critically stable. (3) When one or more roots lie on the RHS of S-plane, the response will exponentially increase in magnitude; there by the system will be Unstable. Some of the Definitions of stability are, (1) A system is stable, if its o/p is bounded for any bounded i/p. (2) A system is stable, if its response to a bounded disturbing signal vanishes ultimately as time t a p p ro a ch es in fin ity. (3) A system is u n sta b le, if its resp o n se to a bounded disturbing signal results in an o/p of infinite amplitude or an Oscillatory signal. (4) If the o/p response to a bounded i/p signal results in constant amplitude or constant amplitude oscillations, then the system may be stable or unstable under some limited constraints. Such a system is called Limitedly Stable system. (5) If a system response is stable for a limited range of variation of its parameters, it is called Conditionally Stable System. (6) system. If a system response is stable for all variation of its parameters, it is called Absolutely Stable

Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
A designer has so often to design the system that satisfies certain specifications. In general, a system before being put in to use has to be tested for its stability. Routh-Hurwitz stability criteria may be used. This criterion is used to know about the absolute stability. i.e., no extra information can be obtained regarding improvement. As per Routh-Hurwitz criteria, the necessary conditions for a system to be stable are, (1) None of the co-efficien t o f th e Characteristic equation should be missing or zero. (2) All the co-efficien t sh o u ld b e rea l & sh o u ld h a ve th e sa m e sig n .

System Stability A sufficient condition for a system to be stable is that each & every term of the column of the Routh array must be positive or should have the same sign. Routh array can be obtained as follows. The Characteristic equation is of the form,
Where, 0 0 0 0

:
0

0 0

Similarly we can evaluate rest of the elements,

The following are the limitations of Routh-Hurwitz stability criteria, (1) It is valid only if the Characteristic equation is algebraic. (2) If any co-efficient of the Characteristic equation is complex or contains power o f , this criterion cannot be applied. (3) It gives information about how many roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane; values of the roots are not available. Also it cannot distinguish between real & complex roots. Special cases in Routh-Hurwitz criteria: (1) When the term in a row is zero, but all other terms are non-zeroes then substitute a small positive number for zero & proceed to evaluate the rest of the elements. When the column term is zero, it means that there is an imaginary root. (2) All zero ro w: In the case, write auxiliary equation from preceding row, differentiate this equation & substitute all zero row by the co-efficien t o b ta in ed b y d ifferen tia tin g th e a u xilia ry eq uation. This case occurs when the roots are in pairs. The system is limitedly stable.
Problems: COMMENT ON THE STABILITY OF THE SYSTEM WHOSE CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION IS GIVEN BELOW: (1) 1 6 15 28 20 21 36 20 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 The no. of sign changes in the column = zero. No roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The given System is Absolutely Stable.

Control Systems
(2 )

4 2 3 5 -4.66 0 5 0

The no. of sign changes in the column = 2 Two roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The given System is unstable.

(3) 1 2 -1 14 5 (4) 1 2 0 2 4 2.5 1 0 1 (5 ) 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 +v e +v e +v e -ve +v e +v e 1 4 5 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 The no. of sign changes in the column = 2 Two roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The given System is unstable.

The no. of sign changes in the column = 2 Two roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The given System is unstable.

1 3 2 6 2 0 -16 0 6 0

2 4 All Zero row. A.E. is

6 0 0

The no. of sign changes in the column = 2 Two roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The given System is unstable & limitedly stable.

(6) A.E. is

1 in the 8 column =20 The no. of sign changes 0 12 The System is lim2 itedly stable . 2 6 2.6 6 16 12 16 0 0 16 16 0 0 0

16 0 0 0 0 0

(Because, in the zero).

row all the elements are

System Stability
(7) The open loop TF of a unity feed back system is

. Find the

restriction on K, So that the closed loop is stable. Solution:

For Stable system,

(i) 10 6.5 1 K 0 K 0 For, (8) Solution: 1 3 4 1 K 0 K 0 K 0 0 0 0 For, the closed loop system is stable For Stable system, (i) (i) the closed loop system is stable.

(ii)

(9) Determine the value of K & b, So that the system open loop T.F. oscillates at a frequency of 2 radians. unity feed back i.e., H(S)=1 ) Solution: The characteristic equation is 1 b (3+K) (1+K) 0 (1+K) 0 ( Assuming

From equations (9.1) & (9.2) Either from (9.1) or (9.2)

Control Systems
(10) The open-loop TF of a unity feed back system is

given by the above expression. Find the value of K for which the system is just stable. Solution: The characteristic equation is (i) K> 0 (ii) 192 K > 0 K < 192 1 9 23 (15+K) 2K 2K 0 0 (iii) (192 K)(15+K) 162K > 0
(for the max. value of K)

From this evaluate for K, Using, Considering the positive value of K, So, 0 < K < 61.68

0 2K 0

0 0

When th e va lu e o f K is 6 1 .6 8 th e system is ju st sta b le. (11) Using Routh-Hurwitz criteria, find out the range of K for which the system is stable. The characteristic equation is Solution: (i) K> 0 1 (2K+3) (ii) 5K 10 0 10 T h e ra n g e o f K is 0 Considering the positive value of K,

(12) A proposed control system has a system & a controller as shown. Access the stability of the system by a suitable method. What are the ranges of K for the system to be stable?

Solution:

The characteristic equation is

16 8

(1+K) K 0

(i) (ii)

K> 0

K (13)

System Stability

No. of sign changes = 2, Two roots lie on RHS of S-plane. The system is Unstable.

(14)

Auxiliary Equation:

No sign changes in the column. T h e system is Limitedly S ta b le .

(15)

(i) (ii)

For the system to be stable the range of the K is,

(16) The open-loop TF of a control system is given by Find the range of the gain constant K for stability using Routh-Hurwitz criteria. Solution: The characteristic equation is

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

The Range of K is the system to be stable.

for

Control Systems
(17) 1 2 1.5 -1.666 6.8 2 (18) Solution: 1 6 10 6 (19) Solution: No. of sign changes = 1 The system is Unstable. 11 6 0 0 No sign changes. The system is Absolutely Stable. 4 5 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 0 0 (i) (ii) (iii) No. of sign changes = 2. Two roots lie on RHS of S-plane. The system is Unstable.

1 2 -2 -6

-5 -6 0 0

(20) +ve +ve +ve -ve +ve +ve (21) +ve +ve +ve +ve -ve +ve (22) 1 2 1 6 3 -1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 The system is Unstable. 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 0 0 4 1 0 0 0 0 No. of sign changes = 2. The system is Unstable.

System Stability
1 1 1 -2 -3 -3 -7 -4 -4 -4 0 0 Auxiliary equation:

-1.5 -16.66 -4 (23) 1 2 1

-4 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

No. of sign changes = 1. The system is Unstable & Limitedly Stable.

5 8 4

8 8 4

4 0 0 Auxiliary equation: Auxiliary equation:

0 No. of sign changes = 0 The system is Limitedly Stable.

4 (24) 1 0(4) 1 2 0.5 (25) 1

2 0(4) 0.5 0 0

0.5 0(0) 0 0 0

Auxiliary Equation: No. of sign changes = 0 The system is Limitedly Stable.

Auxiliary Equation: No. of sign changes = 2

-4 2 2 (26) 1 34.5

2 0 0

0 0 0

The system is Unstable.

7500 7500K 0

(i) (ii)

7500K

0 column in the

For a stable closed loop system there should not be any sign change among the elements of the Routh- Hurwitz table. This requires & T h e ra n g e o f K is for the system to be stable.

Control Systems
(27) Given ,

. Solution: The characteristic equation is 1 10 (21+K) 13K 0 13K (28) , 0 The range of K is , for the system to be stable. (i) (ii)

Solution: The Characteristic equation is 1 7 15 25+K 2K 0 2K (29) Solution: 1 20K 5 10 15 0 15 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 2K 0 0 (iii) 0 0 To solve for the K value, By simplifying, Hence, the range of K is (i) (ii)

(i) (ii) (iii)

T h e g a in K a lw a ys sh o u ld b e a rea l quantity. Hence this system is always Unstable.

(30) Determine the values of K & a. Such that the system oscillates at a frequency of 2 rad/sec.

Solution:

The characteristic equation is , becomes

1 a

(2+K) (1+K) 0

(1+K)

From (1) & (2),

&

(31)

10

System Stability
1 1 -2 5 0 5 (32) 9 10 -9 0 0 0 0 (33) 1 9 21.33 15 7.5 24 24 21.33 15 15 0 15 (34) 1 5 7.2 9 36 0 36 (35) Solution: equation is 0 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 4 20 28.8 36 0 0 0 36 36 0 Auxiliary equation: 0 24 24 21.33 15 0 0 0 23 15 0 Auxiliary equation: 0 0 No. of sign changes = 3 The system is Unstable. 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 No. of sign changes = 2 The system is Unstable.

No. of sign changes = 2 0 0 0 The system is Unstable.

No. of sign changes = 2

,
The Characteristic 1 3 2 K 0 K 0 The range of K is (i) (ii)

Control Systems
(36) The open-loop transfer function of a unity feed back control system is given by,

11

, using Routh-Hurwitz criteria. Discuss the stability of the closed loopcontrol system. Determine the value of K which will cause sustained oscillations in the closed loop system. What are the corresponding oscillating frequencies? Solution: The characteristic equation is 1 12 52.5 0 0 Hence, (37) A feed back system has open-loop transfer function Determine the maximum value of K for stability of the closed-loop system. Solution: Generally control systems have very low Band width which implies that it has very low frequency range of operations. Hence for low frequency ranges, the term can be replaced by . i.e., 69 198 0 0 0 0 When (i) (ii) (iii) The Auxiliary equation for the row is

The characteristic equation is 1 5 K 0 K 0

, (i) (ii) The range of K is stable. for the system to be

Control Systems 1

Root Locus Plots

By: Sheshadri.G.S.

CIT, Gubbi.
It gives complete dynamic response of the system. It provides a measure of sensitivity of roots to the variation in the parameter being considered. It is applied for single as well as multiple loop system. It can be defined as follows, It is the plot of the loci of the root of the complementary equation when one or more parameters of the open-loop Transfer function are varied, mostly the only one variable available is the gain K The negative gain has no physical significance hence varying K from 0 to , the plot is obtained called the Root Locus Point. Rules for the Construction of Root Locus (1) The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis. (2) The no. of branches terminating on equals the no. of open-loop pole-zeroes. (3) Each branch of the root locus originates from an open-loop pole at K = 0 & terminates at open-loop zero corresponding to K = . (4) A point on the real axis lies on the locus, if the no. of open-loop poles & zeroes on the real axis to the right of this point is odd. (5) The root locus branches that tend to , do so along the straight line.
0 Asymptotes making angle with the real axis is given by 180 , P = No. of poles & Z =No. of zeroes.

Where, n=1,3,5, i.e.,

(7) The break away or the break in points [Saddle points] of the root locus or determined from the roots of the equation 0. (8) The intersection of the root locus branches with the imaginary axis can be determined by the use of RouthHurwitz criteria or by putting in the characteristic equation & equating the real part and imaginary to zero. To solve for & K i.e., the value of is intersection point on the imaginary axis & K is the value of gain at the intersection point. (9) The angle of departure from a complex open-loop pole( ) is given by, 180

(6) The asymptotes cross the real axis at a point known as Centroid.

Control Systems

Bode Plots
By: Sheshadri.G.S.

CIT, Gubbi. Sinusoidal transfer function is commonly represented by Bode Plot. It is a plot of magnitude against frequency. i.e., angle of transfer function against frequency. The following are the advantages of Bode Plot, (1) Plotting of Bode Plot is relatively easier as compared to other methods. (2) Low & High frequency characteristics can be represented on a single diagram. (3) Study of relative stability is easier as parameters of analysis of relative stability are gain & phase margin which are visibly seen on sketch. (4) If modification of an existing system is to be studied, it can be easily done on a Bode Plot. I ni t i al M agn i t u de : If

, , , , , , ,
P h as e P l o t : ot:
GCF PCF -ve GM line GCF PCF 0 dB line

M agn i t u de P l

+ve PM

GCF line -ve PM GCF

PCF 0 dB line +ve GM PCF

Bode Plots P r o bl e ms :
(1) To find the angle for the quadratic term

Solution:

Put,

(2) Determine the transfer function. Whose approximate plot is as shown. dB B C 40 dB A

Solution: The corner frequencies are Therefore there must be a factor origin i.e., at The slope at changes from to due to a factor . Open-loop TF is, & at , the slope changes from to .

. Since the initial slope is

, There must be a pole at the

To find the value of K : B 20

(3) Find the open-loop TF of a system, whose approximate plot is as shown. dB A B C

Control Systems
Solution: Corner frequencies are To find the value of K : but

Since the Plot between factor is At

has a slope of &

, the corresponding factor is . Therefore at , there must be a zero & the

, It is having a slope of in the numerator.

,the slop is changing from in the Numerator.

to

& the corresponding factor is

At

, the slope has changed from in the denominator.

to

due to a factor

Therefore the open-loop transfer function is,

(4) Find the open-loop TF of a system, whose approximate plot is as shown. dB

Solution:

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Slope of the first line = At At At At At slope changes from slope changes to slope changes to slope changes to slope changes to

indicating the term to indicating a term indicating a term indicating a term indicating a term indicating a term in the in the Numerator. in the Denominator. in the in the

numerator.

Denominator. Denominator.

Bode Plots
The Open-loop transfer function is,

(5) Find the open-loop TF of a system, whose approximate plot is as shown. dB A

Solution: To find the value of K : Let , be the origin.

(6) Derive the Transfer function of the system from the data given on the Bode diagram given below. dB

[[

Solution: dB,

Between

there is a

decrease of there is a decrease of

To find the value of K :

Calculation of

Calculation of

Therefore, the Open-loop transfer function is,

Control Systems
Examination Problem (Mar/Apr 99): (7) The sketch given shows the Bode Magnitude plot for a system. Obtain the Transfer function. dB 40 A B C (Z) E D (P)

(P) (DZ)

Solution:

Since the initial slope is

there must be zero at the origin. &

Examination Problem (Sep/Oct 99): (8) Estimate the Transfer function for the Bode Magnitude plot shown in figure. dB

(Z) Solution:

Bode Plots
Examination Problem (97): (9) The bode plot (magnitude) of a unity feed back control system is as shown in the fig. Obtain the phase plot. dB

Solution: