ANATOMI DAN FISIOLOGI

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

SISTEM SARAF Tisu Neural - Terminologi Saraf - Neuriglia - Neuron - Neurofisiologi SistemSaraf Pusat - Otak - Saraf Tunjang Sistem Saraf Pinggir - Saraf Kranial - Saraf Spinal - Saraf Refleksi Sistem Saraf Autonomik - Bahagian Sistem Saraf Autonomik - Bahagian Simpatetik - Bahagian Parasimpatetik Fungsi Sensori - Deria Umum - Keseimbangan dan Pendengaran

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The Nervous System - Master controlling and communicating system of the body - Its signalling dsvice, or means of comunicating with body cells is electrical impulses, which is rapid and specific and cause almost immediate responses. - 3 functions : i. Stimuli monitor changes Ii. Integration interpret and process Iii. Response effectors, activating muscles or glands via motor output (e.g. driving come to a traffic light). - Works with endocrine system to regulate and maintain body homeostasis. - Nervous system controls with rapid electrical nerve impulse, the endocrine system organs produce hormones released into the blood, the effect is slow.

Organisation of the Nervous System - 1. Structural Classification - 2. Functional Classification

1.

Structural Classification - i. Central Nervous System (CNS) - ii. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) i. Central Nervous System acts as the integrating and command centres of the nervous system consist of the brain and spinal cord occupying the dorsal body cavity. interpret incoming sensory information and issue instructions based on past experience and current conditions. Perpheral Nervous System part of the nervous system outside the CNS. consists mainly of nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord. spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the brain. serves as communication lines, linking all parts of the body, carrying impulses from the sensory receptors to CNS and from CNS to muscles and glands.

ii. -

2. i.

Functional Classification concerned only with PNS structures divides into 2 principal subdivitions Sensory or Afferent Division

consists of nerves that convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors of the body sensory fibres delivering impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles and joints are called somatic sensory fibres. whereas, those transmitting impulses from the visceral organs are called visceral sensory fibres or visceral afferents (e.g. heart, lung, digestive system) the sensory division keeps the CNS constantly informed of events going on both inside and outside the body.

ii.

Motor or Efferent Division - Carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles and glands, i.e. they effect (bring about) a motor response. - Motor division has 2 subdivisions : a. Somatic Nervous System - allows us to consciously or voluntarily control our skeletal muscles - often referred to as the voluntary nervous system b. Autonomic Nervous System - regulates events that are autonomic or involuntary, such as the activity of smooth and cardiac muscles and glands. - commanly called the involuntary nervous system, has 2 parts, i.e. sympathetic and parasympathetic, which brings about opposite effects one stimulates, the other inhibits.

NERVOUS TISSUE : Structure and Function Complex, is made up of just 2 principal types of cells the supporting cells and the neurons.

Supporting Cells - lumped together as neuriglia - Many types of cells that support, insulate and protect the delicate neurons. a. Astrocytes - Star-shaped cells that account for nearly half of neural tissue. - Numerous projections clings to neurons, bracing them and anchoring them to their nutrient supply line, the blood capilliries - Form a living barrier between capilliaries and neurons, play a role in making exchanges between the two. - Help protect the neurons from harmful substances that might be in the blood. - Also help control the chemical environment in the brain by cleaning the leaked potassium ions and recapturing released neurotransmitters. b. Microglia - Spider-like phytocytes that dispose of debris, including dead brain cells and bacteria. c. Ependymal cells - Lined the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord. - Cilia beating helps to circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that fills cavities and forms a protective cushion around CNS. d. Oligodendrocytes - Wrap their flat extensions tightly around the nerve fibres producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin sheath.

Glia resemble neurons structurally but glia are not able to transmit nerve impulses, a function that is highly developed in neurons. Glia are able to divide , neurons are unable to. Brain tumors, are gliomas, formed by glial cells

Neurons (Nerve Cells) - Highly specialized to transmit messages - Differ structurally but have common features - All have a cell body, which contains nucleus and the slender processes Cell Body - Metabolic centre of the neurons with nucleus and cytoplasm - Nissl substance and neurofibrils maintain cell shaped are abundant in the cell body Processes - Armlike fibres vary in length - The longest in human reach from the lumber region to the great toe - Dendrites convey incoming messages toward the cell body - Axons conduct away generated nerve impulses from cell body - Neurons may have hundreds of the branching dendrites but only one axon. - All axons branch at their terminal end forming hundreds of axon terminals - These terminals contain hundreds of tiny vescicles or membranous sacs that contain chemicals called neurotransmitters that stimulate the release into extracellular space. - Although the axon terminal are close, neurons never touch each other. - The tiny gap is called synaptic cleft Myelin Sheath - Whitish, fatty material wrap which has a waxy appearance. - Function : to protect and insulate the fibres and increases the transmission rate of nerve impulse - Myelin sheath is formen by many individual Schwann cells with broken interval or gaps of modes of Ranvier at regular intervals.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - During embryionic development, CNS appears as a simple tube, the neural tube. - 4th week, the anterior end expand and form brain, posterior end form the spinal cord - The central canal, enlarged in 4 regions to form chambers called ventricles.

Functional Anatomy of the Brain - Brains weighs more than 3 lbs - Largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body - 4 major regions : - cerebral hemisphere, diencephalon, cerebellum and brain stem Cerebral Hemisphere - Cerebrum paired most superior part of the brain . larger than other 3 parts. - Developed and grow obsuring others. - Each cerebral hemisphere has 3 regions: i. Superficial cortex of grey matter ii. Internal white matter iii. Basal nuclei, islands of grey matter situated deep within the white matter. i. Cerebral Cortex of Grey Matter. - Functions of speech, memory, logical, emotional response, consciousness, interpretation of sensation, voluntary movement. - Impulses travelling from the bodys sensory receptors are localised and interpreted in this area. - Somatic sensory area recognize pain, coldness or light touch. - Sensory pathways are crossed pathways - Cerebral hemisphere functions are found only in the outermost grey matter of the cerebrum. ii. Cerebral White Matter - Composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses to, from or within the cortex. - Large fibre tract, the corpus callosum connects the cerebral hemisphere to communicate with each other, as some of the cortical functional areas are only one hemisphere. iii. Basal Nuclei - Help regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying instructions sent to the skeletal muscles. (starting or stopping movement).

Diencephalon (Interbrain) - Sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres - Major structures are the thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus. - The thalamus is a relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex. - Impulses surge through the thalamus, we have a grude recognition of whether the sensation is pleasent or unpleasent, but the neurons of the sensory cortex actually localize and interpret the sensation. - The hypothalamus important plays a role in the regulation of body temperature, water balance, and emotions, e.g. thirst, appetite, sex, pain and pleasure. - Hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland and produce 2 hormones of its own. - The epithalamus form parts of the pineal body of the endocrine system and the choroid plexus form the cerebrospinal fluid.

Brain Stem - Diameter is about the size of a thumb and approximately 3 inches (~ 7.5 cm) - Structures consist of midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata. - Pathway for ascending and descending tracts. - Has many small grey matter areas that produce the rigidly programmed autonomic behaviour necessary for survival. - Some nerves associated with cranial nerves and control vital activities such as breathing and blood pressure. i. Midbrain - relatively small part of brain stem - tiny canal, cerebral aqueduct travels through midbrain and connects the third ventricle of diencephalon to the fourth ventricle. - Reflex centre involved with vision and hearing. ii. Pons - Rounded structure below midbrain involved in the control of breathing iii. Medulla oblongata - Merges into spinal cord - Control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing and vomitting

Cerebellum - Large, cauliflower-like cerebellum has two hemispheres and convoluted surface. - Like the cerebrum, it has grey matter on outer cortex and white matter in inner region. - Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity. - Controls our balance and equilibrium from apparatus of the inner ear, the eye the proprioceptors of the muscles and tendons. - Play its role less well when it is sedated by alchohol. - Continuously comparing the brain intentions with actual body performance by monitoring body position and amount of tension in various body parts. - When needed, it sends messages to initiate the appropiate corrective measures.

Protection of the Central Nervous System - Nervous tissue is very soft and delicate and may injured by slight pressure. - Protection of brain and spinal cord: i. Enclosing within the bone (skull and vetebral column) ii membrane (meninges) iii. Watery cushion (cerebrospinal fluid) iv. Blood-brain barrier (harmful substance)

ii. Meninges - 3 connective tissue membranes covering and protecting CNS, namely, dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater. a. Dura Mater Outermost layer, leathery double-layer membrane surrounding the brain. The inner surface, periosteum, attached to the brain surface. The outer covering, meningeal layer, continues as covering of the spinal cord.

b. Arachnoid Mater - Middle layer, arachnoid membrane, looks like a cobweb and threadlike extensions attached to the inner membrane. c. Pia Mater - The inner membrane, clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord at every fold.

iii. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) - Watery broth similar to blood plasma contains less protein and vitamin C and different ionic composition. - Continually formed from blood by choroid plexuses, clusters of capilliaries hanging from roof of brains ventricles. - Forms a watery cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue from blows and trauma. - In the brain, CSF is continuously moving and circulating from two lateral ventricles (in the cerebral hemisphere) into third ventricle (in the diencephalon) and through cerebral aqueduct of the midbrain into fourth ventricle to the pons and medulla oblongata and continues down into the spinal cord. - The CSF returns to the blood through the arachnoid villi. - The CSF forms and drains at constant rate so that its normal pressure and volume (150ml) are maintained. - Significant changes, shows sign of meningitis or tumours. iv. Blood-Brain Barrier - The brain absolutely dependent on a constant internal environment - Fluctuations in the concentrations of hormones, ions and nutrients causes uncontrollable neural activity. - Neurons are kept seperated from blood-borne substances by the blood-brain barrier, composed of least permeable capilliaries. - Only water, glucose and essential amino acids pass through the walls of the capilliaries. - Metabolic wastes, such as, urea, toxin, proteins, and most drugs are prevented from entering the brain.

SPINAL CORD - 42 cm long, cyclindrical, size of a thumb, continuation of the brain stem. - Two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain ends just below the ribs, cushioned and protected by meninges. - 31 pairs of spinal nerves - Spinal cord does not reach the end of the vertebral column. - Cauda equina like korse tail.

Peripheral Nervous System - Consists of nerves and scattered groups of neural cell bodies (ganglia) found outside the CNS

Structure of a Nerve - Nerve is a bundle of neuron fibres found outside CNS - Nerve, neuron fibre, wrapped in protective connective tissue coverings, endoneurium - fascicle covered by perineurium - all fascicles bound together by tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium to form the cordlike nerve. - Sensory/ afferent nerves carry impulses toward CNS - Motor/ efferent nerves carry impulses from CNS.

Cranial Nerves - 12 pairs primarily serve the head and neck. - Most are mixed nerves except 3, i.e. optic, olfactory and vestibulocochlea are sensory Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses - 31 pairs of spinal nerves of spinal cord - Each nerve divides into dorsal and ventral rami, making each spinal nerve only about inch long - The rami contain both motor and sensory fibres. - Damage to a spinal nerve of either of its rami results both in loss of sensation and flaccid paralysis of the area of the body served. - The ventral rami of all other spinal nerves form complex networks of nerves called plexuses, which serve the motor and sensory needs of the limbs.

Autonomic Nervous System - ANS is the motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body activities automatically. - Composed of specialized group of neurons that regulate cardiac muscles (the heart), smooth muscles (found in the walls of visceral organs and blood vessels and glands. - ANS controls all the relative stability of our internal environment to ensure homeostasis of the body system. - At every moment, signals flood from the visceral organs into the CNS and the autonomic nerves make adjustments as necessary to best support body activities fine tuning adjustments. - ANS also called the involuntary nervous system.

Comparision Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System - Somatic cell bodies of motor neurons are inside the CNS, and their axons (in spinal nerves) extend all the way to the skeletal muscles. - Autonomic has a chain of two motor neurons, i.e. first, is in the brain or spinal cord, leaves the CNS to synapse with second motor

neuron in a ganglion outside CNS, the axon then extends to the organ it serves. ANS has 2 arms, the symphatatic and the parasymphatatic, both serve the same organ but cause essentially opposite effects, counterbalancing each others activities to keep body systems running smoothly.

Autonomic Functioning Symphatatic Division fight or flight - When we are excited or emergency situation a pounding heart, rapid, deep breathing, sweaty skin. - Symphatatic NS increases heart rate, blood pressure and blood glucose level, and brings about many other effects that help the individual cope with the stressor. - Symphatatic NS is working at full speed not only when you are emotionally upset, but also when you are physically stressed. Parasymphatatic Division Resting and Digesting - Most active when the body is at rest and systems not threatened in anyway. - Promoting normal digestion. -