Waqas A. Gill Pathophysiology Exam 1 - Review Ch. 1 Intro to A&P Know structure functional/organizational levels.

s. o Chemical (drugs) Cellular Tissue Organ Organ-System Organism Know the organ systems of the human body and their function. o Integumentary System: Outer defense, prevent H2O loss, absorb/secrete (hair & skin) o Skeletal System: Framework of body, encloses vital organs, stores minerals (bones) o Muscular System: Controls body movement and posture (muscle) o Lymphatic System: Scans the body for pathogenic foreign substances (lymph) o Respiratory System: Gas-exchange (nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs) o Digestive System: Digest food, absorb nutrients, storage (stomach, liver, pancreas) o Nervous System: Conducts impulses for bodily communication (brain, spine, nerves) o Endocrine System: Blood-transport of hormones to long-distance targets (glands) o Cardiovascular System: Transports cell-materials (O2, nutrients, etc) through the blood, drain fluids from tissue (heart, veins, capillaries) o Urinary System: Excrete fluids, osmotic balance, pH balance (kidney, ureter, bladder) o Reproductive System: Formation, storage, and transport of zygotes (penis, vagina) Define negative feedback and examples o The tendency of our body to resist changes in physiological factors (temp, pH). Ex. Sweating when our body gets warm, insulin released after eating sugar

Define positive feedback and examples o The tendency of our body to exaggerate changes in physiological factors (temp, pH). Ex. Vaginal dilation during childbirth, blood-clotting around wounds.

Ch. 2 Cellular Chemistry Know the most important ions that commonly found in the body.

Be able to define acidosis and alkalosis in terms of the pH scale and their symptoms. o Acidosis: When blood-pH drops below 7.35 Causes: Diabetes, alcohol, lactic acidosis, renal failure, ethylene glycol, diarrhea Symptoms: Nervous system depression, disorientation, comatose o Alkalosis: When blood-pH rises above 7.45 o Causes: Stroke, progesterone, pregnancy, pneumonia, asthma, hyperventilation o Symptoms: Excitability, nervousness, convulsions Ch. 3 Cell Physiology

Know the eight functions of a Eukaryote cell. o Movement, Conductivity, Metabolic absorption, Secretion, Excretion, Respiration, Communication, and Reproduction.

Know the structure and function of cellular organelles. o Cytoplasm (cytosol): Storage, intermediary metabolism o Nucleus: Cell-division, DNA/RNA o Nucleolus: Synthesizes ribosomes o Ribosomes: Protein-synthesis o Endoplasmic reticulum: Protein/membrane/lipid-synthesis, Xenobiotics o Golgi apparatus: Packages proteins for transport, makes lysosomes. o Lysosome: Contains digestive enzymes used to break down cells and pathogens o Peroxisome: Removes H+ using O2 (Oxidative catalysis), and breaks down lipids o Mitochondria: Oxidative phosphorylation and cell-death o Vaults: Take RNA from the nucleus to the ribosomes o Cytoskeleton: Maintain cell-shape and allows movement o Plasma membrane: Controls the passage of substances in/out of the cell

Know the different types of transports including that for solutes, water and protein. 1. Passive: Requires NO energy (water, gases) 2. Facilitated: aka passive-mediated, meaning it also requires NO energy (large protein) 3. Active: Requires some form of energy, like ATP. Transports proteins and ions. o Solutes: Small dissolved particles, whose movement will depend on the solutes size, solubility, charge, and concentration. o Water: Small, electrically neutral molecules that can passively diffuse through pores using Osmosis, Hydrostatic pressure, and Diffusion. o Proteins: Are usually too large or charged to passively diffuse, so they are facilitated by carrier or transmembrane proteins.

If given a list of substances identify the one most easily transported into the cell.

Understand vesicle transport & know the differences b/w endocytosis and exocytosis. o Endocytosis: Materials entering the cell. Both are Active transport. Pinocytosis (cell drinking fluids/salts) & Phagocytosis (cell-eating - cells)

o Exocytosis: Materials exiting the cell (peptides, neurotransmitters, & hormones)

Know the 4-different types of tissue, their typical structure and cell types, function, examples, and classification: 1. Epithelial: Covers internal organs and external surface (skin, bloodvessels, liver, and kidneys). 2. Connective: Form the framework for epithelial (collagen, elastin, reticular fibers, storage). 3. Muscle: Facilitate movement, heat, move blood (smooth, striated (skeletal), cardiac). 4. Neural: Conduct action-potentials, non-replicating neurons, glial/schwann cells, astrocytes

Ch. 4 Cell Signaling Know the three different types of chemical signaling mechanisms.

(Adjacent cell-targets)

(Nearby cell-targets)

(Long-distance targets)

Know the components of chemical and synaptic signaling. o Molecular signals Receptors Target molecules

Understand signal amplification, be able to identify site of amplification, and know why its important for the use of drugs. o The activation of several molecular targets along the way from a single stimulus. This is important b/c small dosages of pharmaceuticals can amplify into large effects.

Know the 3 types of signaling molecules and be able to give examples of each. 1. Cell-Impermeant: Impermeable to the membrane, so must interact w/ outer receptors. Neurotransmitters, proteins, and peptide hormones (glucagon & insulin) 2. Cell Permeant: Freely cross membrane to internal receptors Steroids, thyroid hormones, and other insoluble molecules 3. Cell-Associated Signaling Molecules: Must have physical contact to act Proteins such as integrins and neural adhesion molecules

Know the 4 families of receptors and examples of each. 1. Channel-Linked Receptors: Receptor and transducing function is on the same side. Usually found as ion-channels that will alter membrane potentials. 2. Enzyme-Linked Receptors: Binding site for signal is on the extracellular side, which regulates enzymatic activity inside the cell.

3. G-Protein-Coupled Receptors: Regulate intracellular reactions by an indirect pathway involving a GTP-binding protein that spans the membrane 7 times (100s of them).

4. Intracellular Receptors: Activated by cellpermeant or lipophilic signals that freely diffuse through the cell membrane. These cells usually activate internal enzymes by 1st releasing the negative inhibitory proteins that are inactivating the enzymes.

Define a 2nd messenger, know examples of 2nd messengers, and know their targets. o Molecules that are produced in a cell, where an intracellular signal interacts with a membrane-bound receptor molecule (Ex. Ca2+, cAMP, cGMP, IP3, Diacylglycerol).

Ch. 5 Genetics & Molecular Biology Know what a mutation is and the classification of mutations. o An inherited alteration of genetic material, that can be categorized into: 1. Base-Pair Substitution: 1 BP is substituted for another Silent substitution is one that does not result in Amino-acid change. 2. Frameshift Mutation: Insertion/deletion of one or more base pairs, which causes a change in the entire reading frame. 3. Spontaneous Mutation: Occurs in absence of exposure to known mutagens. Agents known to increase mutations (Mutagen) are Radiation and Chemicals. Mutational Hotspots are areas of high mutation rates, such as a Cytosine followed by a Guanine base are known to mutate frequently

Understand the processes of transcription and translation. o Transcription: RNA is synthesized from a DNA template. This begins with the formation of mRNA in the nucleus, which later moves into the cytoplasm, before it is translated into the protein of choice. o Translation: The mRNA strand coming in from the nucleus contains codons in triplicates, while the complimentary anticodons come from the tRNA strand. A ribosome holding the anticodons will run along the mRNA strand to translate the amino-acid sequence and create the polypeptide chain for protein synthesis.

Know what chromosomal aneuploidy is, why it results in diseases, and examples. o When your somatic cells do not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes. Trisomy (3 copies of 1 cell) is commonly survived, while Monosomy (1 copy of any chromosome) is often lethal. This nondisjunctive change in chromosomal numbers affects mitosis of cells later on and so can change cell functions and lead to birth defects and disease. o Down syndrome (Trisomy-21), Metafemales (Trisomy-X), Turner syndrome (Monosomy-X), Klinefelter syndrome (XXY),

Know the different types of chromosome alterations that occur and the pathologies/diseases associated with them. o Breakage: Chromosomal breaks are naturally repaired, but often heal in a way that alters their function. Cri du Chat syndrome: Deletion of part of C-5 (low weight, retardation). o Duplication: Rare presence of repeated gene sequence (mental retardation). o Inversions: 2 breaks in a chromosome that can reverse the gene-order. o Translocations: The interchanging of material between nonhomologous chromosomes o

Know the differences between locuss and alleles, and difference between dominant and recessive alleles. o Locus refers to the position of a gene along a chromosome, while an Allele is a different form of a particular gene at a given locus. o If two alleles are found together, the allele that is observable is Dominant, and the one whose effects are hidden is considered to be Recessive.

Know the differences between autosomal dominant and recessive diseases, examples of each, and the likelihood of occurrence given a parents genotype. o Autosomal dominant disease: Abnormal allele is dominant, normal allele is recessive, and the genes exist on a pair of autosomes. Achondroplasia (dwarfism), von Recklinghausen (Neurofibromatosis - Tumors). o Autosomal recessive disease: Abnormal allele is recessive and a person must be homozygous for the abnormal trait to express the disease (appears in children). Cystic fibrosis (salt imbalance, thick, dry mucus in lungsBacterial infection Sex disorders: Muscular dystrophy (DMD), Progressive muscular degeneration, and gene deletion.