Oscillations

CONCEPTS IN CONTEXT
The body-mass measurement device shown is used aboard the International Space Station for th e daily measureme nt of th e masses of th e astron aut s. The device consists of a spring coupled to a chair into which the astron aut is strapped. Pu shed by the spring, the chair with the astronaut oscillates back and forth. W e will see in thi s chapter that the frequ ency of oscillation of the mass-spring system dep end s on th e mass, and th erefore the frequency can serve as an indi cator of the ma ss of th e astrona ut. W hile learn ing abo ut oscillating systems , we will consider such question s as:

Cone

;n Conte

? W hen the spring pushes and pulls the astronaut, wh at is the position
of the astronaut as a functio n of time ? The velocity of the astronaut? (Example 4, page 478)

'

..

15.1

Simple Harmonic Motion

469

? What is th e total mechani cal ener gy of the astronaut- spring system? What are
the kineti c and potential energies as th e spring begins to push? At later times? (E xampl e 5, page 482)

? Good oscillato rs have low friction. H ow do we measure the quality of an oscillator? (Ex ample 10, page 490)

he motion

ofa p art icle or ofa system of p articles is periodic, or cyclic , if it repeats again

an d agai n at regular interv als oftime . The orbital motion of a planet aro und the Sun, th e uniform rotational motion of a carousel or of a circular saw blade, th e back rn d- forth mot ion of a pisto n in an auto mobile engine or in a wat er pump, th e swing:ng motion of a pendulum bob in a grandfather clock, and the vibration of a guitar string are example s of periodic motion s. Ifthe periodic motion is a back-and-jOrth motion .dong a straight or curv ed lin e, it is called an oscillation. Thus, the motion of th e piston :5 an oscillatio n, and so are th e mo tio n of the pendulum and th e moti on of th e indi vidual particles of the gu itar string. In this chapter we will examine in some detail the motion of a mass oscillating back and forth under the push and pull exerted by an ideal, massless spring. The equa rions that we will develop for the description of thi s mass-spring system are of great im portance because analogou s equations also occur in the description of all other oscillating systems. We will also examine some of these other oscillating systems, such as :he pendulum .

15.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Simple harm onic mot ion is a special kind of one-dimensional periodic motion . In any of one-dimensional periodic motion, th e particle moves back and forth alon g J straigh t line, rep eating th e same moti on again and again . In the special case of simple harmonic motion, thep art icle'sposition can be exp ressed as a cosine or a sinef unc.lon ofti me. As we will see later, the motion of a mass oscillating back and forth under :he push and pull of a spring is simple harm onic (Fig. l5.l a), and so is the moti on of J pendulum bob swinging back and forth (provided the amplitude of swing is small; see Fi g. l5 .lb), and so is th e up -and-d own moti on of th e blad e of a sa be r saw Fig. 15 .Ic), However, in th is first section we will merely deal with th e mathematical description of simple harm onic mo tion, and we will postpone until th e next section (he question ofw hat causes the moti on. As a num erical example of simple harmonic motion, suppose th at the tip of th e blade in Fig. l5.lc moves up and down between x = -0.8 cm and x = +0.8 cm (where

.a)

Online

Concep t
Tutorial

(bl

(el

W hen motor rum, wheel. . .

FIGURE 15 .1 (a) T he motio n of a particle oscilla ting back an d for th in response to the push and pu ll of a spring is sim ple harmonic. (b) The mot ion of a pendulum bob is approximately simple ha rmo nic. (e) T he mo tion of a saber saw blade is simple harmonic.

...blade moves up and down.

470

CHAPTER 15

Oscillations

the x axis is assumed to be vertical); furth er suppose that the blade c.=. pletes 50 up-and-down cycles each second. Figure 15.2 gives a plot :--posi tion of the tip of the blade as a fun ction of tim e. The plot in 15.2 has th e mathematical form of a cosin e function of the time t.
x = 0.8COS(1007Tt)

wh ere it is assumed th at dist ance is measured in centimeters and -in seconds, and it is assumed th at th e "angle" 1007Tt in the cosine r - tion is reckoned in radi ans. [The factor 1007T multiplying t in Eq. (": -0.8 has been selected so as to obtain exactly 50 complete cycles each sec - M otion is simple harmonic which is typical for saber saws; we will see below in Eq. (15 .5) ho w u; if position is a cosine (or factor multiplying tin E q. (15.1) is related to the period of the mo ues sine) function of time. Cosines and sines are called harmonic functions, which is why we _ FIGURE 15 .2 P lot of positionvs. time the motion harmonic. For the harm onic motion plotted in Fig. 15.2, ar . = for a case of sim ple harmonic m otion up 0, the blade tip is at its maximum upward displacement [evaluating Eq. (15.1) at t = and down along th e x axis. we have cos 0 = 1, so x = 0.8 ern] and is just starting to move; at t = 0.005 S, it P" through the midpoint [since coS(1007T X 0.005) = cos (7T/ 2) = 0, Eq . (15.1) gives x = 0]; at t = 0.010 S, it reaches maximum downward displacement [COS(7T) = -1, so x = em]; at t = 0.015 S, it again passes through midpoint . Finally,at t = 0.020 s, the tip rercrr, to its maximum upward displacement, exactly as at t = O-it has completed one the mot ion and is ready to begin the next cycle.Thus, the period T, or the repeat ti . the moti on (th e number of seconds for one complete cycle of the motion), is

T = 0.020 s
and the frequencyf of the motion, or the rate of repetiti on of the motion (the nu ru: of cycles per second), is

f = - = - - = 50/s
The points x = 0.8 em and x = -0.8 em, at whi ch the x coordinate attains its mac mum and minimum valu es, are the turning points of the motion ; and the po.r.' x = 0 is the midpoint. Equation (15.1) is a special example of simple harm onic motion. More genera.' the mot ion of a particle is simple harmonic if the dependence of position on tim e 1-._ th e form of a cosine or a sine fun ction, such as
simple harmonic motion

1 T

1 0.020 s

x = A cos(wt + 0)

(15.-

The quantities A, co, and 0 are consta nts. The quantity A is called the amplitude .the motion; it is simply th e distance between the midpoint (x = 0) and either of '._ turning points (x = +A or x = -A) .The quantity w is called the angular its value is related to the period T To establish the relation ship between wand T, northat if we increase the time by T (from t to t + T), the argument of the cosine in Eq. increases by w T. For this to be one cycle of the cosine function, we must require w T = 2-;T hus, the repetition tim e of th e motion, that is, the peri od Tofthe motion, is relate i to the angular frequen cy by

period and angular frequency

T= 27T
W

or

W =

27T T

(15.5

The repetition rate, or th e frequency of the motion, is l iT, so we may write

15.1

Simple Harmonic Motion

471

or

= 27rf

(15 .6)

frequency and angular frequency

N ote th at th e angu lar frequency w and th e frequency f differ by a facto r of 27r, -.vhich corresponds to 27r rad ians = 1 cycle. The units of angu lar frequ ency are radi m s per second (radia ns/s) ,The units of frequency are cycles per secon d (cycles/s) . Like the label revoluti on th at we used in revl s in rotational mot ion , th e label cycle in cyclels . an be o mitted in th e course of a calculation, and so can th e label radian in radian/so 3 ut it is useful to ret ain the se lab els wh erever th ere is a chance of confus ion. The 51 urut offrequency is called th e hert z (Hz): 1 hert z

= 1 H z = 1 cyclels = l i s

(15 .7)

hertz (Hz)

For ins tance, in the example of the motion of th e saber saw blade , the per iod of th e 'lotion is T = 0.020 s, th e frequ en cy isf = l / T = 1/ (0.020 s) = SOls = 50 Hz, and .he angular frequency is
w

= 27rf = 27r X

SOl s = 314 radiansls

ere, in th e last step of the calculati on, th e label radians has been insert ed , so as to ':i5tingu ish th e angul ar frequ ency w fro m the ordin ary frequ encyf T he argu ment (wt + 8 ) of the cosine funct ion is called th e phase of the oscilla. n, and th e quantity 8 is called th e phase constant. This cons tan t determi nes at what mes th e part icle reaches th e point of maxim um displacement, wh en cos(wt + 8) = 1. ne such inst ant is when

at is, whe n (15.8)

H ence th e particle reach es th e po in t of maximum di splacem ent at a time
phose constant and time of maximum displacement

0/w before

= 0 (see Fig. 15.3) . O f course, the particl e also passes th rough thi s point at periodic

ntervals before and after this tim e. If the pha se constant is zero (8 = 0), th en th e max:::1Um displacem ent occurs at t = O. N ote that th e precedi ng equ ations con necting angularfrequ ency, peri od , and frecu ency are formally th e same as the equa tions connecting angular velocity, period, and :iequency of u niform rot ati onal motion [see E qs. (12.4) and (12.5)]. This coincidence
(b) x

(c)
x

0= - rr/ 4

Positive phase constant advances cosine peak to before ! = O.

Negative phase constant delays cosine peak to after! = O.

GURE 15.3 Examples of cosin e fu nction s cos(wt + 8) for sim ple harm on ic moti on wi th d ifferent -hase cons tants. (a) 8 = O. The par ticl e reac hes maximu m displacem ent at t = O. (b) 8 = 71'/4 (or 45). Th e parti cle reach es maximu m displaceme nt befor e t = O. (c) 8 = -71'/4 (or -45). T he particle -eaches maxi mu m dis placem en t af ter t = O.

472

CHAPTER 15

O scillation s

arises from a special geometrical relation ship between simple harm onic and un iform circular mot ion . Sup pose that a particle moves with si monic motion according to Eg . (15.4), with amplitude A and angular \ and consider a "satellite" particle th at is constrained to move in un if :lar motion with angular velocity w along a circle of radius A, centere midp oint of the harm onic motion, that is, centered on x = O. F igure 1:,thi s circle, called th e reference circle. At time t = 0, both th e par ri cie _ satellite are on the x axis at x = A . Mter this time, the particle move th e x axis, so its position is
x = A cos(wt)

M eanwhil e, th e satellite moves around the circle, and its angular posi
FIGURE 15.4 Par ticle oscilla ting along
th e x axis and satelli te p article mov in g around referen ce circle. T he particle and th e satellite are always aligned verti cally; that is, th ey h ave th e sam e x coordinat e.

e=

wt

Now note that the x coordinate of the satellite is the adjacent side of the tria ngl: in Fi g. 15.4:
x sat

= A co s e = A cos(wt)

Co m paring thi s with E g. (15.9), we see th at th e x coordinate of the satelli e coincides with the x coordi nate of th e particle; th at is, the particle and th e : always have exactly the same x motion. This mean s that in Fi g. 15.4 the S;1: _ always on that point of th e referen ce circle directly above or directly below the r _This geomet rical relation ship between simple harmonic motion and uni fo:cular mo tion can be used to generate simple harm onic moti on from uniform _ _ moti on . Figur e 15.5 shows a simple mech anism for accomplishing this by mea slotted arm placed over a peg that is attached to a wheel in uniform circular rn The slot is vert ical, and the arm is constrained to move horizontally.The pc the role of "satellite," and th e midp oint of the slot in th e arm plays th e role or"; _cle." The peg drags the ar m left and right and makes it move with simple harrr i moti on. A mechanism of thi s kind is used in electr ic saber saws and other dcv convert the rotational motion of an electric motor int o the up-and-down motion :' saw blade or other moving component. Finally, let us calculate th e instanta neous velocity and instant ane ous acceler in simp le harm onic motion. If the displ acement is
x = Acos(wt + o )
(F _

th en differentiation of thi s displacement gives th e velocity

v

=- =
dt

dx

- w/l sin( wt

+ 0)

Circular motion is converted into linear motion.

FIGURE 15.5 Rotating w heel with a peg driving a slotted arm back and forth .

Slotted arm is constrained to move horizontally.

_ I
(a) (b)

15.1

Simple Harmonic Motion

473

MATH HELP

DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOME TRIC FUNCTIONS

Under the assump tion tha t the argumen t of each trigo nometri c function is expressed in rad ians, the derivatives or the sine, cosine, and tan gent are
- srn bu = b cos bu du

d .

d - cos bu = - b sin bu du

d 2 b - tan bu = b sec bu = - -2du cos bu

and differentiation of th is velocity gives the accelerat ion

a

d 2x dt
2

=-

dv dt

- w A cos(wt

+ 0)

(15.13)

Here we have used the standa rd form ulas for the derivatives of the sine function and the cosine func tion (see M ath H elp: D erivatives of Tr igonometric Function s). Bear in mind that the argu ments of the sine and cosine func tions in this chapter (and also the next) are always expressed in radians, as required for the validity of the standard for:nulas for derivatives. As expected, the instantaneou s velocity calculated from Eq. (15.12) is zero for wt + 0 = 0, when the particle is at the turn ing point. Furthermore, the ins tantaneous velocity attains a maximum magnitude of (15 .14) .or co: + 0 = 7T/ 2, when the particle passes thr ough th e midpoi nt (note th at the maxunum magn itude of sinwt is 1). F igure 15.6 shows a multiple-exposure photograph of the oscillations of a particle .n simple harm onic motion .The picture illustrates the variationso f speed in simple har:nonic motio n: the particle moves at low speed (smaller displacements between snapshots) :-.ear the turn ing points, and at high speed (larger displacements) near the midpoint . The velocity (15.12) is a sine function, whereas the displacemen t (15.11) is a cosine .u nction , When t he co sine is at its max im um (say, cos O = 1), th e sine is small sin 0 = 0); whe n the cosine is smal l (say, cos 7T/ 2 = 0) , the sine is at it s maxim um
maximum velocity

fiGURE 15 .6 Seq uence of snap sho ts at

uniform tim e in tervals of an oscillating mass on a spring (a- h). N ote t hat the mass moves slowly at the extreme s of its moti on.
(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

474

CHAPTER 15

Oscillati ons

(sin 7T/ 2 = 1). Hence the displacement and the velocity are out of step- whehas a large magnitude, th e other h as a small magnitude, and vice versa. Figure, and b compare the velocity and the displacem ent for simple harmonic moti on a :.... ferent tim es. Graphically, th e velocity is the slope of the position vs. time curve. 1 , th e position goes through a maximum or minimum, the slope is zero; when the tion goes through zero , th e magnitude of th e slope is a maximum . Comparison of Eqs. (15.11) and (15.1 3) shows that

acceleration in simple harmonic motion

(a)

Thus, the acceleration is always prop ortional to the displacement x, but is in th e o :r site direction; see Fi g. 15.7 c. This proportio nality is a characteristic feature of si harmonic motio n, a fact th at will be useful in the next section. Even when a nomenon does not involve motion along a line (for example, rotational motion c behavior of electric circuits), harmonic beh avior occurs wh enever the second tive of a qu antity is proportional to the negative of that quantity, as in Eq. (15. The sine and cosine functions (or a combination of them) are the only fun ctio ns . . have thi s property.
When displacement has a large magnit ude, velocity has a small magnitude.

(b)

EXAMPLE 1

Consider the blade of a saber saw m oving up and dow:" . simple harmonic moti on with a frequ enc y of 50.0 H z, or angular frequen cy of 314 radians/so Suppose that the amplitu de of the morioc 1.20 em and th at at time t = 0, the tip of the blade is at x = 0 and its velocin positive. What is the equation describing the position of the tip of the blade function of time? How long does the blade take to travel from x = 0 to x = 0.60 To 1.20 em?
SOLUTION : The pos ition as function of time is given by Eq. (15.4):

(c)

x =A cos(wt

+ 0)

1 :" """'i

:
!

with to = 314 radians/s and A = 0.0120 m. Since x = 0 at t= 0, we must adop; value of 0 such that cos 0 = O. The smallest values of 0 th at satisfy thi s cond itio , _ 0= 7T/2 and 0 = -7T / 2 (other possible values of 0 differ from the se by ::27T, = ,:etc.). From Eq . (15.12), we see th at to obtain a positive value of vat t = 0, we nee; a negat iv e value of 0; that is, 0 = - 7T/ 2. So the equation describing the motion "

If
W hen displacemen t is large and positive, acceleration is large and negative.

= (0.0120 m) cos [ (314/s)t = 0.00 60 m when

;]

The tip of the blade reache s x

FIGURE 15 .7 (a) Position , (b) veloci ty,
and (c) acceler ation of a particle in simple harmo nic m ot ion as fun cti on s of tim e.

0.0060 m

(0.0120 m) cos [ (314/s) t - ; ]

that is, when cos[(314/ s)t - 7T/2] = With our calculator we obtain cos - 1 = - 1.05 radians (here, we have to select a negative sign, since th e argu me nt of t1:: cosine is initially negative, and remains negative until the motion reache s the fu:.: amplitu de, x = 0.0120 m). So

m .
7T

(314/ s)t - -2

-105 .

15.1

Simple Harmonic Motion

475

from which
t =

-1.05

+ (1T/2)

314 /s

0.0017 s

To find when the tip of the blade reaches x = 0.0120 m, we can use Eq. (15.8), which gives
t = - -

= -

(-1T /2) 314 / s

0.0050 s

COMMENT: Note that the time taken to reach a distance of one-half of the ampli-

tude is not one-half of the time taken to reach the full amplitude, because the motion does not proceed at constant speed.

EXAMPLE 2

In an atomic-force microscope (AFM), a cantilever beam with a sharp tip (Fig . 15.8a) oscillates near a surface. We can map the topog raphy of a surface (see Fig . 15.8b) by slowly moving the tip laterally as it oscillates vertically, much like a blind person tapping a cane on the ground. The AFM tip shown in Fig . 15.8 a oscillates with a period of3.0 X 10- 6 s. The tip moves up and down with amplitude 9.0 X 10- 8 m. What is the maximum vertical acceleration of the tip? It s maximum vertical velocity?

(a)

(b)

SOLUTION : As discu ssed above, the largest acceleration occurs at the point of

FIGURE 15 .8 (a) Atom ic-force microscope (AFM) cantilever and tip . (b) AFM image of the surface of a crystal, obt ained by scanning the vibrating tip across the surface. The area shown is 2 fLm X 2 us. The ragged terr aces are single atomic "steps."

maximum displacem ent. From Eq . (15.13) thi s maximum acceleration is [since the maximum value of cos(wt + 8) is 1]
- w2 amax A

(15.16)

From Eq . (15.5) and the period T

w

= 3.0 X 10- 6 s, we obtain the angular frequency

=-

21T T

21T 6 3.0 X 10- s

= 2.1

10 radians/s

Thus, with A

= 9.0 X

10- 8 m, the maximum acceleration is

This is more than 40000 standard g's, an enormous acceleration. The maximum velocity is, from Eq. (15.12),
v max = wA = 2.1 X 10 6 radians/s X 9.0 X 10- 8 m = 0.19 m/s

476

CHAPTER 15

O scillation s

Checkup 15.1

QUESTION 1: I s th e rotation al motion of the E arth abou t its axis periodi c m o ti O scillator y moti on? QUESTION 2 : For a particle with sim ple harmoni c motion, at what point of the m does th e velocity attain maximum magnitude? Minimum magnitude? QUESTION 3 : For a particle with simple harmonic moti on, at what point of th e m doe s the acceler ati on attain maximum magnitude? M inimu m magnitude ? QUESTION 4 : Two particles execute simple harmoni c moti on with the same an:,.

tude. One particle ha s twi ce the frequenc y of the oth er. Comp are th eir maxim velocities and accelerations .
QUESTION 5 : Are the x coordin at es of the particle and the satellite particle in
t: -

15.4 alwa ys th e same? The y coo rd ina tes? The veloc ities ? The x comp onents 0:' :: velocities? The accelerations? The x co mpo nents of the acceleratio ns?
QUEST ION 6 : Suppose that a particle with sim ple harm onic moti on passes th r

the equ ilibrium point (x = 0) at t = O. In thi s case, wh ich of the followin g is a ble valu e of th e phase constant 8 in x = A cos(wt + 8)?

-r -

(A) 0

(B) 7T/4

(C) 7T/2

(D) 37T/4

(E -

15.2 THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

When displaced and released, the mass will oscillate about equilibrium.

The simple harmonic oscillator consists of aparticle coupled to an ideal, massle ssspri ,obeys Hooke's Law, that is, a spring th at provide s a forc e prop ortional to the elongazi
or compression of the spring . One end of the spring is attached to th e part icle. - _ the other is held fixed (see F ig. 15.9). W e will ign ore gravity and friction , so th e SFi - _ force is th e only force acting on the particle. The system has an equilibrium posi - . corresponding to the relaxed len gth of the spring. If th e particle is initially at s distance from this equilibrium position (see Fig. 15.10 ), then the stretc he d sori _ supplies a restoring force that pull s th e particle toward th e equilibrium positio n. -=--particle speeds up as it moves tow ard th e equ ilib riu m p ositi on , and it overs the equilibrium positi on. Then, th e particle begins to com press the spring and ,,: down, coming to rest at the other side of the equilibriu m p ositi on, at a distan ce ec to its initial distanc e. The compressed spring then pushes the particle back towar " equilibrium position .The particle again speeds up, overshoot s the equilibrium posio and so on. The result is that the particle oscillates back and forth about the equili b ' position-forever if th ere is no frict ion . The great importance of the simple harm onic oscillato r is that many physical ,tem s are mathe matically equivalent to simple harmonic oscillators; that is, th ese ' . . ' tems have an equation of motion of the same mathematical form as the simple harmo oscillator. A pendulum, the balance wh eel of a watch, a tuning fork, the air in an or", pipe, and the at om s in a diatomic molecule are systems of thi s kind ; the restor ing fo r and the inerti a are of the same math em atical form in these systems as in the simple moni c oscillato r, and we can tran scribe th e ge neral mathem atic al results dir ectly fr the latter to th e fo rmer. To obtain the equation of motion of the simple harmonic oscillator, we begi n \,.i' Hooke's Law for th e restoring force exerted by the spring on the particle [co mpare Eq. (6.11)]:

FIGURE 15 .9 A mass atta ched to a spring slides back and forth on a frict ionless surface . W e reg ard the m ass as a par ticle, whose position coincides with th e cen ter of th e ma ss.

F= -kx

15.2

The Simple Harmonic Oscillator

477

Here the displacement x is measured from the equilibrium position, which corresponds to x = O. The con stant k is the spring constant. Note th at the force is negative if x is positive (stretched spring; see Fig . 15. LOa) ; and the force is positive if the displacement is negative (compressed spring; see Fig. 15. lOb). With the force as given by Eq. (15.16), the equ ation of motion of the particle is
equation of motion for simple harmonic oscillator

(15.18)

This equation says that the acceleration of the particle is always proportional to the distance x, but is in the opposite direction. We now recall, from Eq. (15.15), that such a proportionality of acceleration and distance is characteri stic of simple harmonic motion, and we therefore can immediately conclude that the motion of a particle CQU?led to a spring must be sim ple harmonic motion. By comparing Eqs. (15 .18) and 15.15), we see that these equations become identical if

w=m

and we therefore see that the angular frequency w of th e oscillation of the particle on J spnng IS

Con sequently, the frequency and the period are

(15 .19)

(15.20)

angular frequency, frequency, and period for simple harmonic oscillator

"-TId
1
=

T=

{;z 27T\j1;

(15.21)

(a)

With the value (15.19) for the angular frequency, the expression (15.4) for the posi20n as a function of time becomes (15.22)
(b)

-A

+A

Spring force always acts toward equilibrium position.

According to Eq. (15.20) the frequency of the 'motion of the simple harm onic osciltor depends only on the spring con stant and on the mass. The frequency ofthe oscilla:?T is unaffected by the amplitude with which it has been set in motion-if th e oscillator has -' frequency of, say,2 Hz when oscillating with a small amplitude, then it also has a fre-=Juency of 2 Hz when oscillating with a large amplitude. This property of the oscilla:or is called isochronism. Note that the period is long if the mass is large and the spring constant is small. This is as expected, since in each period the spring must accelerate and decelerate the :nass, and a weak spring will give a large mass only little acceleration.

I'
I

jF "
I

..

-A

+A

x=o
FIGURE 15.10 (a) Positive d isplacement of the particle; th e force is negati ve. (b) Negativ e displ acement of th e particle; th e for ce is positive.

478

CHAPTER 15

Oscillations

Spring scale oscillates about its shifted equilibrium.

EXAMPLE 3

When you place a heavy encyclopedia, of mass 8 kg, on a kitchen scale (a spring scale; see F ig. 15.11), you notice th at before comi ng to equilibrium , the pointer of the scale oscillates back and forth aroun d the equilibrium positi on a few time s with a period of 0.4 s. What is the effective spring constant of th e internal spring of th e kit ch en scale? (N eglect other m asse in the scale.)
SOLUTION : The mass of8 kg in conjunction with th e internal spring of th e scale forms a ma ss- and-spring system, to whi ch we can apply E q. (15.2 1). Ifwe square both side s of th is equat ion, we obtain

FIGURE 15.11 A h eavy book on a spring

scale osc illates up and dow n.

which gives us

k = 47T With m

T2

(15 .23

= 8 kg and

T
k

= 0.4

s, th is becom es
-

= 47T 2 X

8 kg
-

(0.4

S) 2

=2

X 10 3 N /m

COMMENT: In thi s example, th ere is not only th e for ce of th e spring acting or. the mass, but also the force of gravity on the mass (the weight) and friction forces. The force of gr avity determines whe re the spring will reach equilibrium, but this force has no dir ect effect on the frequency of oscillation arou nd equilibrium. T he

fricti on forces cause the oscillations to stop aft er a few cycles , but only slig h tl:" redu ce the freq uenc y (see Secti on 15. 5). For negli gible friction, th e frequ en cv depe nds exclusively on the m ass and th e spri ng constant.

Con<"pl. In Context

EXAMPLE 4

Suppo se th at the astro naut in th e chapter ph ot o has a mass 0 '58 kg, including the ch air device to whi ch she is attached . She and the chair move und er the influence of th e force of a spri ng with k = 2.1 X 10"' N/m . There are no other forces acting. C ons ider th e motion to be along th e x axis. with the equilibrium point at x = O. Suppose th at at t = 0, she is (instantaneously at rest at x = 0.20 m . Where will she be at t = 0.10 s? At t = 0.20 s? What will her veloci ty be when she passes th rou gh the equilib rium point ?
SOLUTION : Since the astronaut is initially at rest at x = 0.20 m , th is mus t be one of th e turni ng points of th e mo tion; thus, the amplitude of th e moti on mu st be

A = 0.20 m . Furth erm ore, since at t = 0 the astronau t is at the turning po int, the phase cons tan t [) = 0 [see E q. (15.8)]. C onsequ entl y, at tim e t = 0.10 s, th e position of th e astro naut will be
x = A cos wt = 0.20 m X cos( w X 0.10 s)

To evalu ate thi s, we need the angu lar frequ en cy of th e oscillation. By E q. (15.19) thi s is
w

- = \ / 2. 1
m

X 10

N /m

58 kg

= 6.0 radian s/ s

15.2

The Simple Harmonic O scillator

479

With this value of w,

x = 0.20 m X cos(6 .0 radian s/s X 0.10 s) = 0.20 m X cos(0.60 radian) = 0.20 m X 0.83 = 0.17 m

Likewise, at time
x

I =

0.20 s, the position will be m

= A cos (WI) = 0.20 m X cos (6.0 radian s/s X 0.20 s) = 0.20 m X cos(1.2 radian) = 0.20 m X 0.36 = 0.072

The astronaut passes through the equilibrium point when wI = ni2 (which makes cos wI = 0). To find her velocity when she passes through the equilibrium point, we take the derivative of x with respect to I, and then evaluate the resultin g expression at wI = tt /2 :

v = -

dx

dl dt -6.0 radians/s X 0.20 m X sin (n / 2)

= -(Acoswl) = -wAsinwI

(15.24)

- 1.2 m/s

Simple harmonic oscillatorsare used as the timekeeping element in modern watches. These watches use a quartz crystal as a spring-and-mass system. The crystal is elastic, with a high Young's modulus, and it therefore acts as a very stiff spring.The mass is not attached as a lump to the end of thi s spring, but it is uniformly distributed over the volume of the crystal (hence this spring-mass system is said to be "distributed," in contrast to a "lumped" system with separate springs and masses). The crystal is set into vibration by electric impulse s, instead of mechanical pushes .The electric circuits attached to the crystal not only keep it vibrating, but also sense the frequency of vibration and control the display on the face of the clock. The advantage of the quartz crystal as a timekeeping element is that the vibr arions of the crystal are extremely stable , because any accelerations from bumping the watch are completely negligible compared with the immense accelerations of the oscillating masses in the crystal. Ordinary quartz clocks are accurate to within a few seconds per month; high-precision clocks are accurate to within 10- 5 s per month.

Checkup 15.2

QUESTION 1: For a particle with simple harmonic motion, at what point of the motion does the force on the particle attain maximum magnitude? Minimum magnitude? QUESTION

2: Suppose we replace the particle in a simple harmonic oscillator by a particle of twice the mass. How does this alter the frequency of oscillation?

QUESTION 3 :

If we suddenly cut the spring of a simple harmonic oscillator when the particle is at the equilibrium point (x = 0), what is the subsequent motion of the particle? If we suddenly cut the spring when the particle is at maximum displacement (x = A)?
QUESTION 4 : Suppose we replace the spring in a simple harmonic oscillator by a stronger spring, with twice the spring constant. What is the ratio of the new period of oscillation to the original period ?

(A) 1/2

(B) 1/v2

(C) 1

(D) v2

(E) 2

480

CHAPTER 15

Oscillations

15.3 KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

We know from Section 8.1 that the force exerted by a spr ing is a conservative f . for whi ch we can construct a potential energy. With thi s potential energy, we can :', ' mulate a law of conservation of th e mech anical energy: the sum of the kineti c en, _ and the potential energy is a constant; th at is,

E= K+ U= [constant]

(15.: :

In this section we will see how to calculate the kineti c energy and the potential ener of the simple harmoni c oscillator at each instant of time, and we will verify explici: that the sum of the se energies is constant . The kineti c energy of a moving particle is
1 2 K - 2 mv

(15.:-

For simple harmonic moti on, the speed is given by Eq. (15.12) , and the kinet ic ene: "become s K = =
1 w 2n,, 2 sin . 2( wt = 2m

sin(w t

+ 8)]2

") u

Since mw 2 = k [see Eq . (15.1 8)], we can also write this as

The potential energy associated with the force F

= -kx is [see Eq. (8.6)]

(1L

For simple harmonic motion, with x = A cos(wt

+ 8), this becomes

(15,3

The kineti c energy and the potenti al energy both depend on time. Accordin g Eq s. (15.28) and (15.30), each oscillates between a minimum value ofzero and a maximum value of k A 2 . Figure 15.12 plots the oscillations of the kinetic energy and c' . _ potent ial energy as functions of time; for simplicity,we set the pha se constant at 8 = ( At the initi al time t = 0, the particle is at maximum distance from the equ ilibriu m point and its instantaneous speed is zero; thu s, the potential energy is at its maxirnurr, value, and the kinetic energy is zero. A quarter of a cycle lat er, th e particle passe; throu gh the equilibrium point and attains its maximum speed; thu s, the kineti c energy is at its maxim um value and the potential en ergy is zero . Thus energy is traded back and forth betw een potential energy and kinetic energy. , Since the force F = - kx is conservative, the total mech anical energy E = K + Cis a constant of the motion. To verify this conservation law for the energy explicitly,we take the sum of Eqs. (15.28) and (15.30),

E=K+U
=

+ 8) + +

=

+ 8) 8) + cos 2(wt + 8)]

(15.31)

15.3

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy

481

zero K.E . maximum P.E .

intermediate K.E . intermediate P.E.

.. 'I '!) y\'l;

, , , , , : ,_ . , ,
I
I

maximum K.E. zero P.E .

zero K.E. maximum P.E.

max.imum K.E. zero P .E.

, ,
T

zero K.E. maximum P.E.

, ,
I
I

I I

", "t f. f t : rJ)' ----!.-

, ,
I I

"' -

kinetic energy

M2

tM2
0

T/2

1M 2

potential energy

TI2

E=K+ U

1M 2
tkA 2

total energy

TI2

T
Total energy remains constant.

FIGURE 15.12 Kinetic energy and potential energy of a sim ple harm onic oscillator as a function of time.

W e can simplify thi s expression if we use the trigon ometric identity sin2e + cos = 1, which is valid for any angle e. With this identity, we find that the right side of Eq. (15.31) is simply ! kA 2:
2

(15.32) Th is shows th at the energy oJth e motion is constant and isp roportio nal to th e square oJthe
amplitude oj osciffat ion .

energy of simple harmonic oscillator

482

CHAPTER 15

Osc illati ons

By means of Eq . (15.32), we can express th e maximum displacement in terms or th e energy. For this, we need only solve Eq. (15.3 2) for A:

xmax = A = V2E/k

(15.33'1

Lik ewise, we can express the maximum speed in term s of the energy. For this, we note that when the particle passes through the equilibrium point , the energy is purely kinetic:

EIf we solve this for

V m ax '

1m V 2
2

m ax

(15.34,

we find
V rn ax

V2E/m

(15.35)

These equati ons tell us th at both the maximum displacement and the maximum speed increase with the energy-they both increase in prop orti on to th e square root of th e energy.

Concepts

In Context

EXAMPLE 5

For the 58-kg astronaut (with chair) moving under the influence of the spring in the body-m ass measurement device described in Example 4, what is th e total mechanical energy? What is the kinetic energy and what is the potential energy at t = O? What is th e kinetic energy and what is the potential energy at t = 0.20 s?
SOLUTION: From Example 4, the amplitude is A = 0.20 m and the sprin g constant is k = 2.1 X 103 N /m . The total mechani cal energy is

=

=

X 2.1 X 10

3N

/m X (0.20 m) 2 = 42J
m.The kineti c energ y is zero and

At t = 0, the astronaut is at rest at x the potential energy is at its maximum,

= 0.20

At t = 0.20 s, the astro naut has nonzero speed, and the kinetic energy is given by Eq. (15.28 ). With 8 = 0 (see E xample 4), we find

K = =
= X
X

2.1 X 103 N/m X (0.20 m) 2 sin 2(6.0 radians/s

X

0.20 s) (15.36)

36J

The potential energy is given by Eq . (15.30) , again with 8 = 0:

U = kA 2cos\wt)
=

X 2.1 X 10 3 N /m X (0.20 m) 2
X cos 2(6.0

radian s/s X 0.20 s) (15.37)

= 6J
COMMENT: Note th at th e sum of th e kineti c and potential energi es is K

36 J

+ 6J=

+U= 42 J, which agrees with our result for the total mechanical energy.

15.3

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy

483

EXAMPLE 6

The hydrogen molecule (H 2) may be regarded as two particle s join ed by a spring (see Fi g. 15.13). The center of the spring is the center of m ass of th e mole cule . This point can be assumed to rem ain fixed , so this molecul e co nsists of two identical simple harm oni c oscillators vibr ating in opp osite dir ection s. The spring constant for each of the se oscillators is 1.13 X 103 N/m , and th e mass of each hydrogen atom is 1.67 X 10- 27 kg. Find the frequency of vibration in hertz. Suppose th at the tot al vibrational energy of the molecule is 1.3 X 10 - 19 J. Find th e correspo nd ing amplitude of oscillation and th e maximum speed. SOLUTION: The frequ ency is given by Eq. (15.20):

half of

H - '

,

,- H

FIGURE 15 .13 A hnirogen molecule,

rep resenred a; two ?:J:ci.: s jo i cd bv a spri ng . Th e parti cle- move svrn me tri callv relative to th e ce nter 0 :' :: 1l;;.

.L {i =
2'Tf \j;; 2'Tf

X
X

1.67

10 N /m) 112 = 1.31 X 1014Hz 10- 27 kg

Thus molecular vibrational frequ encie s can be quite high, about a hundred thousand billion cycles per second. E ach atom has half the total energy of the molecule; thu s, the energy per atom is

E = X 1.3 X 10 - 19J = 6.5 X 10 - 20 J

According to Eqs. (15 .33) and (15.35), th e amplitude of oscillation and th e maxim um speed of each atom are then
x
max

J
-

6.5 X 10 - J = l.lX lO 3 1.13 X 10 N /m

X 20

11

and

max

J
E
m

2 X 6.5 X 10 20 J 1.6 7 X 10- 27 kg

8.8 X 10 m / s

Checkup 15.3
Two harmonic oscillators have eq ual masses and spring con stants. One of them oscillates with twice the amplitude of the other. C ompare the energies and compare the maximum speeds attain ed by th e particles.
QUESTION 1: QUESTION

2: Two harmonic oscillators have equal spring constants and amplitudes of oscillation . One has twice th e mass of the other. C ompare the energies and the maximum speeds attained by the particles.

QUESTION

3: The period of a simple harmonic oscillator is 8.0 s. Suppose that at som e tim e the energy is purely kinetic. At what later time will it be purely potential? At wh at later time again purel y kineti c?
QUESTION 4 :

If the particle in a simple harmonic oscillat or experi en ces a frictional force (say, air resist ance), is the ener gy con stant? Is the amplitude A constant?

QUESTION 5 :

The mass, frequency, and amplitude of one oscillator are each twice that of a second oscillato r. What is the ratio of their stor ed energies, E 1 / Ez? (A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 8 (D) 16 (E) 32

484

CHAPTER 15

Oscillations

Online

15 .4 THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

A simple pendulum consi sts of a bob (a mass) suspended by a string or a ro . .:. som e fixed point (see Fig. 15.14). The bob is assumed to behave like a particle oi rn, and the string is assumed to be massless. Gravity acting on the bob provides a res; ing force . When in equilibrium, the pendulum hangs vertically, just like a plu mb ' -When released at some angle with the vertical, the pendulum will swing back forth along an arc of circle (see Fig. 15.15). The motion is two-dimensional; how. the position of the pendulum can be completely described by a single paramett :-: . angle between the string and the vertical (see Fig. 15.14) . We will reckon thi s _:: _ as positive on the right side of the vertical, and as negative on the left side . Since the bob and the string swing as a rigid unit, the motion can be regard - _ rotation about a horizontal axis through the point of suspension, and the equati motion is that of a rigid body [see Eq. (13.19)):

Concept Tutorial

I I
r

I I I I I
I

Swinging mass m is assumed concentrated at a distance I.

ie
I I I I I I I
I

fa =
Wh en released, mass will swing down toward equilibrium.

(E ..=. -

FIGURE 15.14 A pendulum swing ing about a fixed suspension point. The angle is reckoned as positive if the deflection of the pendulum is toward the right, as in this figur e.

Here the moment of inertia L and the torque T are reckoned about the horizontal s through the point of suspension, and a is the angular acceleration. Figure 15.16 shows the "free-body" diagram for the string-bob system w itr; the external forces. These external forces are the weightw of magnitude w = mg acti . on the mass m and the suspension force S acting on the string at the point of sup. The suspension force exerts no torque, since its point of application is on the axis rotation (its moment arm is zero). The weight exerts a torque [see Eq. (13.3)]
T

= -mglsin

(15.

where 1 is the length of the pendulum, measured from the point of suspension to c. center of the bob. The minus sign in Eg. (15.39) indicates that this is a restoring whi ch tends to pull the pendulum toward its equilibrium position. The moment of inertia 1 of the string-bob system is simply that of a particle ma ss m at a distance 1from the axis of rotation:

FIGURE 15.15 Stroboscop ic ph otograph of a sw inging pendulum . The pendulum moves slowly at the extremes of its mot ion .

\5 ,
r r

Suspension force 5 exerts no torque.

I I
r

Ie
I r I r r r

I
r

I
r I

FIGURE 15.16 "Free-body"

Component of weight perpendicular to string exerts a torque wi sin e, or mglsin e.

elI

di agram for the string-bob system. The torque exerted by the weight w has magnitude wi sin

e,

or mglsin e.

15.4

The Simple Pendulum

485

Hence th e equation of rotational moti on (15 .38) becom es (15.40)

Jr

g Sin . e a = -1

(15.41)

sinfJ =fJ.

For small anz les.

We will solve thi s equation of motion only in the special case of small oscillations about the equilib rium positi on. If is small, we can make the approximation

sine

=e

(15.42)

-- Q

where the angle is measured in radians (see M ath Help: Small-Angle Approximation s ror Sine , Cosine, and Tan gent; and see Fig. 15.17). With this approximation, th e equation of mot ion become s
a =

R!

g - -e
1

FIGURE 15.17 lf the angle 13 is length of the straigh t line PQ is app roxiraa te:v the same as the length of th e circular .'..1' R.

(15.43)

or, since th e angular acceleration is a = d 2

e/ dt 2,
- -e 1
g
(15.44)

This equation has the same mathematical for m as Eq. (15.17) . Comparin g the se two equations, we see th at th e angle replace s the distance x, the angular acceleration replaces the linear acceleration, 1replaces m, and g replaces k. H ence the angular motion is simple harmonic. M aking the appropriate replacements in Eq. (15.4), we find that (he moti on is described by the equ ation

A cos(wt

+ 8)

(15.45 )

with an angular frequency [comp are Eq s. (15.19) and (15.44)]

=17

(15.46)

MATH HELP

SMALL-ANGLE APPROXIMAT IONS FOR SINE , COSINE , AND TANGENT

With the assumption th at an angle is expressed in radians and that this angle is small, th e trigonometric functions have th e simple approximations sine =

e e

cose

= 1 - e 2/2

tane =

To und erstand how thes e approxim at ion s come about, consider the small angle shown in Fig. 15.17. The sine of

this angle is sin = PQ/ I. If is small, the length of (he st raight lin e PQ is appr oxim ately the same as the length of the curved circular arc PR (for small angles, the curved arc is almost a straight line). Thus, sin e = PR JI. But the ratio PR / ! is the definition of the angle expressed in radian s, so sin e. Simil ar arguments give the above approximations for the cosine an d the t an gent. Th ese approxim ati o ns are usually sati sfactory if is less th an ab out 0 .2 rad ians, or about 10.

486

CHAPTER 15

Osc illatio ns

The frequen cy and the period of the pe ndu lum are the n

angular frequency, frequency, and period for simple pendulum

and (1

No te that these expressions for th e freque ncy and th e period depen d only 0 . - . length of the pendulu m and on the acceleration ofgravity; they do not depend on th of th e pendulum bob or on th e amplitude of oscillation (but, of course, our calculac depends on the assumption th at th e angle 0, and thu s the amplitude of motion, is S::'__ Like the simple harmonic oscillator, the pendulum has the property of isochronis-a-eitsfreque ncy is (approximately) independent of the amplitude w ith which it is suiins: This prope rty can be easily verified by swinging two pe nd ulu ms of equal lengths ; by side , wit h different ampli tudes. The pe ndulums will continue to swing in stt ._ ;a lon g wh ile.

EXAMPLE 7

A woman sits in a swing oflength 3.0 m (see Fig. 15.18) . \ \ :is the period of oscillatio n of thi s swing?

SOLUTION: W e can regard the swing as a pendulum of an approx ima te ler-z -

3.0 m. From Eq . (15.47) we then fin d

T = 21T

Jl

-: = 21T

9.81 m / s

2 =

3.5 s

EXAMPLE 8
For simplicity, we assume all of mass is concentrated at one point .

The "second s" pend ulum in a pend ulum clock built for an a:;::- _ nomi cal ob servatory has a pe riod of exactly 2.0 s, so each way mo tion of the pen dulum takes exac tly 1.0 s. What is th e len gth of such , "secon ds" pendulum at a place whe re th e acceleratio n of gravity is g = 9.81 m :;: . 2? At a place wh ere the acceleration of gravity is 9.79 m / s
SOLUTION : If we squa re bo th sides of E q. (15 .47 ) and th en solve for th e leno ":'
f, we find

FIGURE 15 .18 W oman on a swing .

W ithg

= 9.81 m / s an d th e kn own per iod

= 2.0 s, this gives

1 = ( 21T

2.0

s)2 X 9.81 m/s2=

0.994 m

W ith g

= 9.79 m /s' , it gives

2.0 S) 2 2 1= ( X 9.79 m / s 21T

0.992 m

15.4

The Simple Pendulum

487

FIGURE 15.19 T h is elec tro mec ha n ical clo ck, regul at ed by a pendu lum, served as the U.S. frequency sta nd ard in th e 1920s. It s mas ter pendulum is encl osed in the can ister at right .

The most familiar application of pendulums is the construc tion of pendulum clocks. Up to about 1950, the most accurate clocks were pendulu m clocks of a special design , which were kept inside airt ight flasks placed in deep cellars to protect th em from disrurbances caused by variations of th e atmospheric pressure and temp eratur e (see Fig . 15.19). The best of these high-precision pendulu m clocks were accurate to within a tew thousandths of a second per day. Later, such pendulu ms were superseded by quartz clocks (see Section 15.2) and then by atomic clocks (see Sectio n 1.3). Ano ther impor tant application of pendulums is th e measureme nt of th e acceleration of gravity g. For th is pur pose it is necessary only to time th e swings of a pendulum of kn own len gt h; the value of g can then be calculated from Eq . (15.4 7). The pendulums used for precise determin ations of g usually consist of a solid bar swinging about a kn ife edge at one end, instead of a bob on a string. Such a pendulu m consisting of a swinging rigid body is called a physical pendulum; its period is related to its size and shape.

(a)

Rigid body hangs from pivot.

\ "1
I

1 ---'

"> .,

'

1'\ , -,
When displaced from \\
equilibrium and released, ' '" body swings back and forth. , / ;;.",,/

EXAMPLE 9

A physical pendulu m has a mome nt of inertia I about its point of suspension, and its cent er of mass is at a distance d from this point (see Fig. 15.20a). Fi nd th e period of thi s pendulum.

(b)

SOLUTION : Figure 15.20b shows the "free-body" diagram for th e pendulum .The suspension force S has zero mo me nt arm about the pivot, and so exert s no torqu e. The weight acts at th e cent er of mass, at a distance of d from th e point of suspe nsion, and it exerts a torque [see Eq. (13.3)]
T

= - mgdsin e
d is distance from pivot to center of mass.

H ence the equation of rot ational motion (15.38) is

fa

- mgd sin e

where a = d 2 dt 2 is the angu lar acceleration for the rotatio nal mo tion . With the usual small-angle appr oxima tion sin e"" e, this becomes

e/

-e t
As in the case of the simple pendulum, we compare this with Eq. (15.17). Since the second time derivative of e is proportional to the negative of e, the mo tion will again be simple harmonic. Hence th e angular frequency of oscillation is

mgd

FIGURE 15.20 (a) A ph ysical pe ndulum

consisting of a rigi d bodv swing ing about a point of suspe nsion . (b) "Free-bodv' diagr am for the p hysical pe ndulum . The weigh t acts at th e cen ter o f ma ss.

488

CHAPTER 15

O scillatio ns

(15..1"-" and th e period is

T = 27T
w

=

J mgd

(15.':'

COMMENT: N ote that for a simple pendulum, th e moment of inertia about

point of suspension is J = m Pand the distance of the center of mass from this poir., is d = f. Accordin gly, Eq. (15.4 9) yields T = 27T V mf 2jmgf = 27TV/fi, whi '-shows th at the formul a for the period of the simple pendul um is a special case the gen eral formula for th e physical pendulum.

0:

Fi nally, we must emp hasize th at th e appr oximation con tained in Eq. (15.43 ' valid only for small angles. If the amplitud e of oscillation of a pendulum is more tha; a few degrees-say, more than lOO - the approximation (15.4 3) begins to fail, and t:.-: motion of th e pendulum begins to deviate from simpl e harm oni c motion . A t amplitudes, th e perio d of th e pendulu m depen ds on th e ampl itud e-th e larger .;- -:amplitud e, th e larger th e period. For instance, a pendulum oscillating with an arnpiitude of 30 has a period 1.7% longer th an th e value given by Eq. (15.47).

Checkup 15.4

QUESTION 1:

If we shor ten the string of a pendulum to half its original length , wh, is the altera tion of the period?The frequency?
_

QUESTION 2 : Two pendulums have equal length s, but one has 3 tim es the mass of rc

other. Ifwe wa nt the energies of oscillation to be the same, how much larger must v, make the amplitude of oscillation of the less massive pendulum? small am plitude . Such a rod, rotating about one end, has momen t of inertia J = (Table 12.3). What is io, the angular frequency of oscillation? (A)

QUESTION 3 : A un iform metal rod oflength fhangs from one end and oscillates wit...

t m. :

ViiI

(B) V3g/2f

(C)

V3ii!

(D)

V6ifi

15.5 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS

So far we have proceeded on the assumption th at th e only force act ing on a simp le harmonic oscillator or a pendulum is th e restori ng force F = - kx or the restor ing torque T = - mgf sin e. H owever, in a real oscillator or a real pendulum, th ere is alwavs some extra force caused by friction. For instance, if the pendulum start s its swingio", mot ion with some initial ampli tude , the friction against the air and against the point of suppo rt will grad ually brake th e pendulum, redu cing its amplitud e of oscillation. Although good oscillators have low friction, some times more friction is desirable for damping out unwanted oscillations, as with th e kitchen scale of Exa mple 3, so that a steady, equilibrium positio n can be att ained.

15.5

Damped Oscillations and Forced O scillations

489

envelope.

decaying

....

7/ - - _... ...

Ol---+----r-----\---+ - - -"t------,r - -

FIGURE 15.21 Plot ofposition vs.time for a particle with damped harmon ic mot ion.

If the friction force is proportional to the velocity, the equation of motion becomes

d 2x m- 2 dt

dx -kx-b dt

(15.50)

where b is called the friction constant , or the damping constant . Figure 15.21 is a plot of the position as a fun ction of tim e for a harmonic oscillato r with fairly strong friction. The amplitude of oscillation suffers a noticeable decrease from on e cycle to the next. Such a gradually decreasing oscillation is called damped harmonic motion. The oscillation amplitude decreases exponentially with time, as indic ated by th e dashed line in Fig. 15.21. Increasing the friction shortens the time it take s for the amplitude to decrease, and slows the frequency of oscillation somewhat. If the damping is very large, a displaced "oscillator" merely moves back to its equilibrium position, without oscillating. In Section 32.4, we will exami ne the damped harmonic oscillator in detail. Since the oscillator must do work against the friction , the mech anical energy gradually decreases. The energy loss per cycle is a constant fraction of the energy E that th e oscillator has at the beginn ing of the cycle. Ifwe represent the energy loss per cycle by ti E , then !i.E is proportional to E :

!i.E =

27f ) , (Q E

(15.51)

Q of oscillator

H ere, the constant of proportionality has been written in the somewhat compli cated form / Q, which is th e form usually adopted in engineering.The quantity Q is called th e quality factor of the oscillator. In terms of the damping constant b,

27f

Q=

(15.52)

An oscillator with low friction ha s a high value of Q, and a small energy loss per cycle; an oscillator with high friction has a low value of Q, and a large energy loss per cycle. The value ofQ rou ghly coincides with the number of cycles the oscillator completes before the oscillations damp away sig nificantly. M echanical oscillators ofl ow friction, such as tuning forks or pian o strings, have Q values of a few th ousand; th at is, they "ring" for a few thousand cycles before their oscillation s fade not iceably.

490

CHAPTER 15

Osc illations

Con cepts - In Context

EXAMPLE 10

The maximu m displacement from equilibrium of the .. mass measurement device described in Examples 4 <1 ': ; 0.200 m. Suppose that, because of friction, th e amplitude one cycle later is O. . : What is the quality factor for this damped harmonic oscillator?
SOLUTION : We can solve for the quality factor Q by rearrangin g Eq. (1.5 ..i :

E 2'1TtJ.E

A t maximum displacement, the tot al energy is all potential energy, so E = . The spring constant k = 2.1 X 10 3 N/m was given in Example 4. We to .. .:. Example 5 th at the when th e amplitude was A = 0.200 m, the energy storec E

=

X 2.1 X 103 N/ m X (0.200 m)2 = 42J

I
I

The energy lost dur ing the cycle is the difference between the energy whe;. .. amplitude was A = 0.200 m and the energy one cycle later, when the arnplire ' .. A'= 0.185 m:

=

2.1 X 103N /m X [(0.200m)2 - (0.185 m)2] = 6.1 J

Hence the quality factor is

Q = 2'1T = 2'1T tJ.E

X --

42J

6.1 J

= 43

k

Amplitude at natural &equencyi s enhanced by quality factor Q.

To maintain th e oscillations of a damped harmonic oscillator at a constant le. .. it is necessary to exert a periodic force on the oscillator, so the energy fed into the oscxlator by th is extra force compensates for the energy lost to friction. .." extra force is also needed to start the oscillations of any oscillator, dampe.; or not , by supplying the initial energy for the motion. A ny such exrrc force exerted on an oscillator is called a driving force. A familiar exam pie of a driving force is the "pumping" force that you must exert on a pia:" ground swing (a pendulum) to start it moving and to keep it movi r.z at a constant amplitude. This is an example of a periodic drivin g force, _ Q = 10 With th e addition of a harm onic driving force of amplitude Foa . " angular frequency to , the equation of motion (15.50) become s dx d 2x m - 2 = - kx - b dt dt

+ F. cos wt
0

(15.53

3-

Fa
k

yt------------------w

Naturalfrequency Wa

FIGURE 15 .22 Am plitude of a forced damped harmonic oscillator as a function of the frequency of the oscillating force.

If the frequency w of the driving force coincides with the frequen cv W o of the natural oscillations of the oscillator, then even a quite small 00 \'ing force can gradually build up large amplitudes. Under thes e condi .. tions the driving force steadily feeds energy int o the oscillations, and th e amplitude of th ese grows until the friction becomes so large that it inhibits further growth. The ultimate amplitude reached depend s on the amount of friction; in an oscillator oflow friction, or high Q, this ultimate amplitude can be extremely large. The buildup of a large amplitude by the action of a driving force in tune with the natural frequency of an oscillator is called resonance. Figu re 15.22 shows the value of th e final amplitude of oscillation att ained as a function of the frequency of

15.5

Damped Oscillations and Forced Oscillations

491

the harmonic driving force for two mass-and-spring system s with th e same natural but different values of Q, th e quality factor. Notice angular frequency W o = that large amplitudes occur over a range of driving frequen cies, and that some enh ancement over the stati c Hooke's-Law displ acement x = - Fo/ k occurs for any frequ ency of forced oscillati on near or below th e natural frequ ency wo.lf the oscillator is forced precisely at reson ance, th e amplitude can be shown to tak e th e value (15 .54) This is simply the magnitude of the static displa cement x = - Fo/ k multiplied by Q; thus th e quality factor is equi valent to an amplitude enhancement facto r for a system at reson an ce. The phenomenon of reson ance plays a cruci al role in m any piece s of industrial machinery-if on e vibrating part of a machine is driven at resonance by a perturbing force origi nating from some oth er part , th en th e amplitude of oscillation can build up to violent levels and shake the machine apart. Such dangerous resonance effects can occur not only in moving pieces of machinery, but also in structures th at are normally regarded as static. In a famou s accident that took place in 1850 in Angers, Fran ce, the stomping of 487 soldiers marching over a suspension bridge excit ed a reson ant swin gin g motion of the brid ge; the moti on quickly rose to a disastrous level and brok e the brid ge apart, causing the death of 226 of the soldiers (Fi g. 15.23).
amplitude at resonance of damped, driven harmonic oscillator

FIGURE 15 .23 Resonance disaster: th e

collapse of the bridge at An gers, as illustrated in a contemporary newspap er.

m
:l
It

Checkup 15.5

QU ESTION 1: Suppose that the driving force has a frequ en cy half as large as th e

frequ ency of th e oscillator. Would you expect a buildup of oscillations by reson an ce?
QUESTION 2 : Suppose that th e driving force ha s a frequency twice as large as th e

frequency of the oscillator. W ould you expect a bu ildup of oscillations by resonance ?

QUESTION 3: Suppose th at a bell has a high Q (it continues to ring for a long tim e

e
1 -

after you strike it) . If you rest your hand against the bell after striking it, how doe s thi s alter th e Q?
QUESTION 4 : An oscillator begin s with 1.00] of mechanical energy.

:y

After 10 oscillations, th e energy stored has dropped to 0.90]. What is the approximate Q of the system?
(A) 6.3 (B) 10 (C ) 63 (D ) 100 (E ) 630

r1m l

.'

.'

SUMMARY
MATH HELP D erivatives of trigonometric functions MATH HELP Small-a ngle approxima tions for sine, cosine, and tangent PHYSICS IN PRACTIC E C haos SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

( _0(p . x

= A cos(wt + 8)

where A is the amplitude (the maximum displacement from x = 0); w is the angular frequency, and 8 is the phase constant.
PERIOD

(time for one cycle) (number of cycles per second)

= 27T/ W
=

FREQUENCY

f= l /T

W/ 27T

PHASE CONSTANT AND TIME OF MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT

MAX IMUM VELOCITY

{E o -

MA XIMUM ACCELERATION

(15.: .

EQUATION OF MOTION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

(15.: ;

wh ere k is the spring constant .

ANGULAR FREQUENCY AND PERIOD OF SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

w= [ f m E =

T = 27T

..
k
,
:
, " l.:" , , ,
I

(15.19, 15._:

ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

=

(15.3_

ANGULAR FREQUEN CY AND PERIOD OF SIMPLE PENDULUM

T = 27T J}

(15.46, 15.47

",
ANGULAR FREQU ENCY AND PERIOD OF PHYSICAL PENDULUM

wh ere I is the mom ent of inerti a of the pendulum.

T=

I mgd

<

;,'.t

(15.48, 15.49)
,, ,.

Ima.

...--=.-

ENERGY LOSS PER CYCLE OF DAMPED OSCILLATOR w h ere

Q is th e q u ali ty fa ctor.

f::, E= - -

21T E Q

(15.51)

AMPLITUDE AT RESONANCE OF DAMPED HARMONIC OSCillATOR w here

Fa is th e

F.
k

(15.54)

am pli tu de of a h armo n ic driving force .

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Is th e mo tion of th e piston of an au tomobile engine simple
harmo nic mo tion- H ow does it differ from simple h arm oni c motion ?
2. I n our calculatio n of th e freq uency of the simple harm o nic

7. W hy would you expect a pendu lum oscillatir g with an am piitu de of nearly (but no t quite) 180 ro have a very , = 8. Can a pend ulum oscillate with an amp litude of n r chan l 9. F igu re 15.25 shows a "tilted pendu lum" des ign ed bv

ill' - '

1'1

oscillato r, we igno red the m ass of the spring. Qu alitatively, how do es th e mass of th e spri ng affect the freque ncy? 3. A gra ndfa th er clock is reg ulated by a pen d ulum . I f the cloc k is ru nni ng lat e, how mu st we adjust th e length of the pe nd ulum ? 4. F igure 15.24 shows the escapement of a pendulum cloc k, i.e., the linkage th at pe rmits the pendulum to co ntro l the rota tion of the whee ls of the clock. Explain how the wheel turns as th e pen d ulum swings .

H uygens in the seve nteenth century. W hen the pc idulum is til ted , it s period is longe r than when the pcn d u u rn i, vertic Expl ain.

gear of clock

FIGURE 15.25 H uygens' tilted pendulu m .

10. M ost grandfather cloc ks have a lenticular pend ulum bob which supp osedly mi nimi zes frictio n by "slicing" through the air. H owever, expe rie nce has shown that a cylindr ical pendulum bo b expe rien ces less air friction . C an you sugg est an explanation?

11. Gali leo descr ibed an expe rime nt to co mpare th e acceleration

of g ravity of lead and of cork: I took tw o balls, o ne of lead and one of cork , th e former
pendulu m bob

FIGURE 15.24 E scapement mechani sm of a

pendu lum clock. At the instant shown, th e toot h at the left has escaped from the left arm, and the toot h on the right is pushing against the right arm .

bei ng m o re than a hund red tim es as heavy as th e latt er, and suspend ed th em from two equal th in strings, each four or five br acchi a long. P ulling each ball aside from the vertical, I released them at th e same instant, and the" . falling along th e circumferences of the circles having the ' trings as radii , passed th roug h the vertical and retu rned along the same pa th .T his free oscillation, repea ted more than a hu ndr ed times, showed clearly that th e heavv bod ,' kep t time with th e ligh t body so well th at neither in a hund red oscillati on s, nor in a thousand , will the former anticipate the latt er by even an ins tan t, so pcrfecrlv do th ev keep step. Since air friction affects the cork bali mu ch more t han t he lead ball, do you think G alilee 's result s are credible-

5. W ou ld a pen d ulum clock keep goo d time o n a ship? 6. G alileo claim ed th at th e oscillato rs of a pend ulum are isoch ronous, even fo r an amp litud e of oscillation as large as 30. W hat is yo ur opinion of th is claim ?

_______

__-

Iillm " "

.' .

N ewt on reported a more careful experiment th at avoided the inequality of fricti on: I tried the thing in gold, silver, lead, glass, sand, common salt, wood, water, and wheat. I provided two equal wooden boxes. I fIlled th e one with wood, and suspended an equal weight of gold (as exactly as I could) in the centre of oscillation of the other.The boxes, hung by equal threads of 11 feet, made a co u ple of pendulum s perfectly eq ual in wei ght and figure . . . and, placing the one by the other, I observed them to play together forw ards and backward s for a long while, with equal vibrations. . . . And by th ese experime nts , in bodies of the same weight , one could have discovered a difference of matter less than the thousandth part of the whole. Explain how Newton's experiment was bett er th an Galil ee's. 13. Shor ter people have a shorter length of stride, but a rate of step when walking "naturally." Explain.

14. A girl sits on a swing who se ropes are 1.5 m long. Is this . simple pendulum or a physical pendulum? 15. A sim ple pendulum consists of a part icle of mass m att acz to a string oflength I. A physical pendulum consists of _ _ of mass In attach ed to a string in such a way that th e ce mass is at a distance 1from th e point of supp ort. Which re dulum has th e sho rte r period ?
16. Suppose that th e sprin g in the front-wh eel suspension 0:automobile has a natural frequency of oscillation equal to " frequency of rotation of the wheel at, say, 80 km/h. W hy i. th is bad? 17. When march ing soldie rs are about to cross a bridge , th e:' break step. Why?

12. A simple pendulum hangs below a table, with its strin g through a small hole in th e tabletop. Suppose you gr adually pull the string while the pend ulu m is swinging. W hat happens to the frequ ency of oscillation - T o th e (angular) amplitu de?

PROBLEM S
15 .1 Simpl e Harmonic Motion t
1. A particle moves as follows as a funct ion of time:
x = 3.0 cos (2.0t)

(a) What is the frequen cy of th e motion ?The angular frequency? (b) What is th e amplitude of th e mot ion ? (c) At wha t time will th e part icle reach the point x = 0; At wha t time will it reach the point x = -0.10 m? (d) What is the speed of the particle when it is at x = O? What is the speed of the parti cle when it reaches the point x = -0.10 m? 4. Suppose that the peg on the rot atin g wheel illustr ated in Fig. 15.5 is located at a radiu s of 4.0 cm. The wheel turns at :. rate of 600 rev/m in. What is th e amplitude of the simple harmon ic moti on of the slot ted arm? What are th e period , the frequency, and the angula r frequency? 5. Co nsider that the particle in Fi g. 15.4 is executing simple harmonic motion according to Eq, (15.1). (a) What is the speed of th e satellite for this case? (b) At t = 0.050 s, th e particle is at the midp oint and its in stant aneous velocity is parallel to tha t of the satellite. What is the speed of th e particl e? How does it comp are with the speed of th e satellite? 6. A given point on a guitar string executes simple harm onic motion with a freque ncy of 440 Hz and an amplitu de of 1.2 mm. What is the maximum speed of thi s mo tio n? The maximum acceleration ? 7. A piston in a windmill-dr iven water pump is in simple harmonic motion. The moti on has an amplitu de of 50 ern and the mass of th e piston is 6.0 kg. Find th e maximum net force on

where distan ce is measured in meters and time in seconds. (a) What is the amplitude of thi s simple harm onic motion? T he frequency?The angular frequency? The period ? (b) At wha t time does the par ticle reach the midp oint , x T he tur ning point ?

= O?

2. A particl e is performing simple harm oni c motion along the x axis according to the equation
x = 0.6 cos (

where the distance is measured in meters and the time in seconds. (a) C alculate th e position x of th e particl e at t = 0, t = 0.50 s, and t = 1.00 s. (b) C alculate th e instant aneous velocity of the particle at th ese time s. (c) Cal culate th e in stantan eou s accelerati on of the particle at thes e tim es. 3. A particle moves back and forth along th e x axis betwe en th e points x = 0.20 m and x = -0.20 m. T he period of the moti on is 1.2 s, and it is simpl e harmoni c. At the time t = 0, th e particle is at x = 0.20 m and its velocity is zero. For help. see Online Concept Tutorial 16 at www .wwnorron.comlphysics

Ill nI

...:.. ,

the piston when it oscillates 80 times per min ute. Find the maximu m velocity. 8. A particl e moves in simple harmonic mot ion according to x = A COS (WI + 8 ). At I = 0, the particl e is at x = 0 with initial velocity Vo > O. W hat is the phase constant 8 ? 9. T he position of a body can be described by x = A cos (WI + 8). The angular frequency w, the initial position xo, and th e initial velocity Vo are known. Find the amplitude A and the pha se constan t 8 in term s of to, xo' and vo' 10. The central par t of a piano string oscillates at 261.7 H z with an am plitu de of 3.0 mm . What is the angular frequency of the motion?The period? W hat is the maximu m velocity? What is the maximu m acceleration? 11. In a mod ern nonlinear dynamics experiment, small beads (spheres) are vibrated on a plate; when the beads start to move, inter esting patterns form (see Fig . 15.26). If the plate vibrates at 250 H z, for what amplitud e of motion will the beads star t to lift off? (Hi nt: This will occur when th e maximum acceleration of the plate equals g = 9.81 m / s2 .)

*15. The frequency of a mass attached to a spring is 3.0 H z. At time 1= 0, th e mass has an ini tial displacement of 0.20 m and an initial velocity of 4.0 m /s. (a) W hat is the positio n of the mass as a 'unction of time: (b) W hen will th e mass first reach a turning: point? \ Vhar will be its acceleration at that time?

15 .2 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator

16. A man of mass 70 kg is boun cing up and dow n on a t :,0 s6c k (see Fig. 15.27). H e finds that if he holds himself rigi -1 lr,,:i lets the stick do the bouncing (after getting it starte d). period of the up- and- down moti on is 0.70 S. What is the spring constan t of the spring in th e pogo stick? Assum e tha t the bottom of the stick rem ains in touch with the floor an :l igno re th e mass of the stick.

m e

FIGURE 15.27 M an on pogo stick.

FIGURE 15.26 Oscillating beads.

12. A mass moves in a circle of radius 10 ern , centered on th e origin in the x- y plane, with an angu lar velocity of 7T/ 4 radian / soAt 1= 0, the mass is on th e positive x axis. What are the x compone nts of th e position, velocity, and acceleration of the mass at I = 1.0 s? At I = 2.0 s? 13. A particle executes sim ple harmonic moti on. Its displacement is given by x = A cos (WI + 8), where as usual, the amplitude A is a positive constant. A t I = 0, the particle is in the origin and moving in th e positive x direction. What is the appropri ate choice of the phas e constant 0 in thi s case? *14. Ex perience shows that from one- third to one- half of the passengers in an airliner can be expected to suffer motion sickness if the airliner bounces up and down with a peak acceleration of 0.4 g and a frequency of about 0.3 Hz. A ssume that thi s upan d-down mo tion is simple harmoni c. W hat is the am plitude of the mot ion?

17. T he cable described in Example 8 in Chapter 14 can be regarded as a spring. What is the effective spring constant of this spring? What is the frequency of oscillatio n whe n a mass of7 .1 X 103 kg is attached to th e lower end of the cable and allowed to oscillate up and down? N eglect the mass of the cable in your calculation. 18. A simple harm onic oscillator consists of a mass sliding on a frictionless surface under the influence of a force exerted by a spring connected to th e mass. T he frequency of this har monic oscillator is 8.0 H z. If we connec t a second, identical spring to the mass, parallel to the first spring, what will be the new frequency of oscillation? 19. T he body of an automobile of mass 1100 kg is supported by four vertical springs attac hed to the axles of the wheels. In order to test the suspension, a man pushes down on the body of the automo bile and then suddenly releases it. T he body rocks up and down with a period of 0.75 s. What is the spring constant of each of the springs? Assume that all the springs are ident ical and that the compressio nal force on each spring

,I:

is the sam e; also assume that the shoc k absor bers of the automobil e are completely worn out so that th ey do not affect th e oscillation freque ncy. (a) What is th e frequency of up-and-down oscillation; : wh eel? Regard the wh eel as a mass on one end of a ; c and regard th e bod y of the car as a fixed su PPOft for :.::. oth er end of the spring. (b) Suppose th at the whe el is slightly out of round, havi r-. bump on one side. As the wheel rolls on the street, it receives a periodic push each tim e th e bump come s ir, contact with the street. At wh at speed of the rransla : motion of the car will the frequen cy of this push coi ._ with the natu ral frequen cy of the up-and- down oscili ' tion s of the wheel? What will happen to the car at rhi: speed ' (N ote: This problem is not qui te realist ic becae the elasticity of the tire also contributes a resto ring for c to the up-and-down motion of th e wheel.) *29. A mass m slides on a frictionless plan e inclined at an ang e with the horizontal. The mass is attached to a spring, parai.e to th e plane (F ig. 15.28); th e spring constant is k. H ow rnu is the spring stretched at eq uilibri um? Wh at is th e freque n _ of the oscillations of the mass up and down on th e plane ?

20 . Deuterium (D ) is an isoto pe of hydr ogen. The mass of the deuterium atom is 1.998 tim es larger th an the mas s of th e hydrogen atom. G iven th at the freq uency of vibration of th e H 2 molecule is 1.31 X 10 14 Hz (see Example 6), calcul ate th e frequency of vibrat ion of the D 2 molecule. A ssume the "spring" con nec ting the atoms is t he same in H 2 and D 2 . *21. C alcul ate the frequency of vibration of the HD molecule consisting of one atom of hydrogen and one of deuterium. See Problem 20 for necessary data. (Hint: The center of mass is stationary.) 22. A mas s attach ed to a spring oscillates with an amplitude of 15 cm; th e spring constant is k = 20 N /m. When the position is half the maximum value, the mass moves with velocity v = 25 cm /s. Determ ine the peri od of th e moti on. Find the value of the mass. 23 . A mass of 150 g is attac hed to a spring of con stant k = 8.0 N /m and oscillates without fricti on . The mass is displaced 20 cm from equilibrium and, at t = 0, is released from rest. If the position as a functi on of time is written x = A cos (w t + 8 ), determine the values of A, w, and 8. What is th e maximum velocity of the mass? Its maximum accelerati on? 24. The equilibrium position of the bottom end of a light, hanging spring shifts downward by 15 cm wh en a 200-g mass is hu ng from it. The mass is then displaced an addi tional 5.0 cm and released . What is the period of moti on ? 25. A th ick ness m on itor is a laboratory instrument used to determin e th e thickness of a thin film that is d eposit ed on the sur face of a qu art z crystal. W e may treat the crystal as a spring- and -mass system with k = 6.0 X 105 N /m and m = 0.50 g. Wh at is the frequ enc y of oscillation of thi s system? This frequ ency changes slightly as mass is added to the crystal. If th e frequency decreases 0 .010 %, how much ma ss was dep osited' If the area of the crystal is 2.0 cm 2 and the mass density of the film mat erial is 7.5 g/ cm 2 , how thi ck was the dep osit ed film ? *26. A thin metal rod is attached to the ceiling and a mass M = 15 kg is attached to the bottom of the rod. The rod is 2 .0 m long and has a 9.0-mm 2 cross -sectional area. Regar d the rod as a (stiff) spring. I f th e Youn g's modulus of the rod material is 22 X 1010 N /m 2 , what is its spring con stant (for small elon gati ons and com pressio ns)? If the mas s is dis placed verti cally, wh at is its frequen cy of oscillation (in H z)? Ne glect the mass of the rod. *27. A mass III = 2.5 kg han gs from th e ceiling by a spring with k = 90 N /m . Initially, the sp ring is in its unstretched configuration and the mass is held at rest by your hand . If, at time t = 0, you release the mass, what will be its posit ion as a fun cti on of time ? *28. The wh eel of a spo rts car is suspended below the body of th e 4 car by a vertical spring with a spring con stant 1.1 X 10 N /m . The mas s of th e wheel is 14 kg, and the diam eter of the wheel is 61 cm .

..

e
FIGURE 15.28 Mass slidi ng on a frictionless inclined plane.

**30 . Two identical masses slide with one-dimension al motion on a frictionless plane under the influence of thr ee identical springs attached as show n in Fig. 15.29 . The magn itude of each mass is m, and the spring constant of each spring is k.

- \ .\ ':. ,II., '."'"

ml

I.

i t.

.J

m2

FIGURE 15.29 Two masses sliding on a frictionles s plane.

(a) Suppose that at time t = 0, the ma sses are at th eir equ ilibrium positions and thei r instantaneous velociti es are VI = - v 2 . Find th e position of each mass as a function of time. What is the frequen cy of the motio n? (b) Suppose that at time t = 0, the ma sses are at their equilibrium positions and their instan taneous velocit ies are V I = v 2 Find the position of each mass as a fun ction of time . What is the frequency of th e motion ?

" 3 1. A cart co nsists of a body and four wheels on frictionl ess axles . The bod y ha s a m ass m . The wheels are un ifo rm di sks o f mass

3 8. A ma ss oscillate s o n a ; pO lg. :\ t the po int s in a cvcle wh en the kin et ic is on e- half o f the po tenti al cn ergv, th e d isplacement from eq ilib rium is 15 em anti the ins ran ta neous velocity is ::':25 cm/ s. \ \ hat i, the other end is attached to a m ass : L

M and rad ius R . The cart ro lls, without slip ping, ba ck an d

forth on a horizontal plane under th e influen ce of a spri ng attache d
to

riod o r ' he motion '

1

one end of th e cart (F ig. 15. 30 ). Th e spr ing con-

*39. O ne end o f a hori zontal 'pri!:':: 0 " constant k tixed an d th e

.

stan t is k. Taking in to account the moment o f inertia o f the wh eels, find a formula for th e frequ ency o f th e back- and-forth mo tion of the cart .

niess su rface . T he

spring is in itially in its eq uilib rium i 'iri ; . , ; : = J. a :' rce F, constant th ereafte r, is applied in ' di rectio 0;' e' of the spri ng. Sometime later, the mas; in the d irecti on o f the for ce. What is he V. eti e
time ?

T . 2'

'40 . A mass o f 3.0 kg slid ing along a frict ionless , om T ':: . m , strikes and com presses a spring o f co nstant k

= .300 . . . .
[ ;1,, ::

The spri ng stops the ma ss. How far does th e mas, rrav : wh o

FIGURE 15.30 A cart attached to a sp ri ng .

bein g slowed by th e sp ring ? H ow long does th e mas; stop? *41. Two masses m j and
111 2

r'

are joined by a spri ng of spr ing co n-

15 . 3 Kinetic Energy and Potentia l Energy

32 . Suppose that a pa rt icle of m ass 0.24 kg act ed upon by a spring undergoes simple harm onic motion with th e paramet ers given in Problem 3. (a) What is th e total en ergy of thi s motion ? (b) At what tim e is th e kin eti c e ne rgy zero ? At what time is th e potential energy ze ro? (c) At what ti me is th e kin etic energy equ al to th e po te n tial energy? 33 . A ma ss of 8.0 kg is attach ed to a spri ng and oscillates with an amplitude o f 0 .25 m and a frequ en cy o f 0.60 H z . What is th e energy of the mo tio n? 34. A simple harm on ic oscill at or co nsists of a m ass of 2.0 kg sliding back and fo rt h alon g a hori zontal frictio nless tr ack wh ile pushed and pull ed by a spr ing with k

stant k. Sh ow th at the frequ ency of vib ra tio n o f th ese masse, along th e line co nnecting them is

w =
(H int: The cen ter o f ma ss remains at rest. ) "42 . Alth ough it is usually a goo d app roximatio n to negl ect the ma ss of a spring , so me times thi s mass mu st be tak en in to account. Suppose that a un iform spring has a relaxed length I and a mass m'; a mass m is attach ed to th e en d of th e sp ring . The m ass m ' is uniformly distributed along the sp ring . Suppo se that if th e mov ing end of the spring has a spee d v, all othe r points o f th e spring have sp eed dir ectl y pro po rtio nal to their di stanc e from th e fixed end ; for in stance, a point midway between the moving and the fixed end ha s a speed (a) Sh ow that th e kin et ic energy in the spring is

t, m' v 2

and

= 8.0 X 10 N /m.

that the kinetic ene rgy of th e mass m and the sp ring is

Suppo se th at wh en the mass is at th e equilibrium point, it has an inst antan eou s speed o f 3. 0 m / s. What is the ene rgy of th is harmoni c oscill at or? Wh at is the am plitu de of oscill ation? 35 . A sim ple harmon ic oscillato r of mass 0.60 kg oscillates with a frequ en cy of3.0 Hz and an amplitu de of 0.15 m. Su p pose that, while th e ma ss is ins tant aneously at rest at it s turni ng poi n t, we quickly attach ano ther mass of 0.60 kg to it . H ow does thi s change the amp Iirude of the motion ?The frequency? The energy? The maximum sp eed ? The maximum accelera tio n? *36. The sepa ration be tween the equili brium positions of th e tw o ato ms o f a hyd rog en m olecule is 1.0 X 10- 10 m. U sin g the dat a g iven in Ex ample 6 , calculate the value o f the vibr a tio nal energy that corresponds to an am plitude of vibration of 0.5 X 10- 10 m for each ato m . Is it valid to treat th e mo tion as small oscillatio n if the ene rgy has thi s value ? 3 7. A 500-g mas s is co nnecte d to a sp rin g and execu tes sim ple harmon ic moti on . Th e period of th e motion is 1.5 s, a nd th e total mec h anical energy o f the system is 0 .50 J. Find the amplitude of mot ion. t For help, see O nline Concept Tu torial 17 at www.wwno rton.corn/physics C o nsequently, the effective mass of th e com bina tio n
Is m
.

'

I ' un-

(b) Sh ow that th e frequ ency of oscillatio n is

co = Vk/ (m

+ tm' ).

(c) S up pose th at a spr ing has a mas s of 0 .05 kg. Th e freque ncy of oscillatio n of a 4.0-kg mas s attached to this sp ring will th en be so mewha t smaller than calcula ted for a m assless spr ing. H ow much sma ller? Ex press your ans wer as a percent age of th e value o btained for a ma ssless spring .

15 .4 The Simple Pendulum "

43 . The lo ngest pen dulum in existe nce is a 27- m Fou cault pendulum in Portland, Orego n. What is th e peri od of this pendulum?


44. At a constructio n site, a bucket full of concrete hangs from a crane . You observe th at the bucket slowly swings back and forth, 8.0 tim es per minute. What is th e length of the cable from which the bucket hangs? 45. The elevator cage of a skyscrape r hangs from a 300- m-long steel cable. The elevator cage is guided with in the elevator shaft by railin gs. If we remove these railings and we let the elevator cage swing from side to side (with small am plitude), what is its period of oscillation? 46. On the Earth, a pendulum oflength 0.994 m has a period of 2.00 s (compare Example 8). If we take this pendulum to the surface of Jup iter, whe re g = 24.8 m/ s2, what will be its period ? 47. A mass suspended from a parachute descendin g at constant velocity can be regarded as a pendulum. What is the frequency of the pendulum oscillations of a hum an body suspended 7.0 m below a parachute? 48. A "seconds" pe nd ulum is a pendulum that has a peri od of exactly 2.0 s; each one-way swing of th e pen dulum th erefore takes exactly 1.0 s. What is the length of th e seconds pendulum in Paris (g = 9.809 m/s 2) , Buenos Aires (g = 9.797 m/s''), and W ashin gt on , D .C. (g = 9.80 1 m/ s2)? 49. A gran dfather clock controlled by a pendulum ofl ength 0.9932 m keeps good time in N ew York (g = 9.803 m/ s"). (a) Ifwe take thi s clock to Austin, Texas (g = 9.793 m/s"), how man y minutes per day will it fall beh ind? (b) In order to adjust the clock, by how many millim eters must we short en the pen dulum ? 50 . The pe ndulum of a grand fath er clock has a length of 0.994 m. If th e clock run s late by 1.0 minute per day, how much must you short en th e pendulum to make it run on tim e? 51 . A small model of a 10- story constructio n crane used on a Hollywood movie set sho uld appear realistic in motion .T o make it look large, th e mass hanging from the crane "cable" (actually, a rod) is constrained to oscillate with a period of 10 s. H ow long does thi s make the cable seem ? 52 . An astronaut land s on an asteroid and sets up a pendulum that has a period of 1.0 s on Earth. She finds that th e pendulum has a period of8 9 s on the aste roid. What is the local value of the accelerati on due to gravity on the asteroid? 53 . A circular painting is 2.00 m in diameter and has uniform thi ckn ess. It hangs on a wall, suspended by a nail 10 cm from the top edge. If it is pushed slightly, wh at is the period of small oscillations of the painting? 54. A hul a hoop (a thin, uniform toy hoop ) of radius 1.0 m hangs over a nail. If it is set to swinging with small amplitude, what is th e period of motion ? *55. A torsional oscillator consists of a horizontal uniform disk of mass M and radius R attached at its cent er to the end of a massless vertical fiber. Some such oscillators can execute simple harmonic (twisting) motion with very large amplitudes (amp litudes greater than one rotati on are possible). The restoring torque of the fiber is proportional to the angular rotation; that is, T = - Ke, where K is called the torsional constant of the system. (a) Find th e angul ar frequency of oscillation in terms or' .' R, and K. (b) If the disk is tu rned through an initial ang le of eoanc released, what is the maximum rotational angul ar ve of the subsequent motion ? (c) For wh at value of eo do the answers to (a) and (b) hav- '. same value? *56. The balance wheel in a clock is a torsional oscillator with a pe:of0.50 s.The restoring torque of the wheel spring is T = - Kwhere K is th e torsional constant. If the wh eel is essenriallv hoop, that is, all of its mass m = 8.0 g is concentrated at its radius R = 1.0 ern, what is th e value of K (in N un/radian)? *57. A pendulu m hangs from an inclined wall (see Fig. 15.31). Suppose that this pendulum is released at an initial angle of , . and it boun ces off the wall elastically when it reaches an ang c - 5. What is the period of this pendulum?

I I I I

: }o/ I .
I I I
I

I I
I

I I I

FIGURE 15.31 Pendulu m hanging from an inclined wall.

*58. The pendulum of a pendulum clock consists of a rod of lengtl. 0.99 m with a bob of mass 0.40 kg. The pendulum bob swing; back and forth along an arc oflength 20 cm . (a) What are the maximum velocity and the maximum acceleration of the pendulum bob along the arc? (b) What is the force that th e pen dulum exerts o n its suppor when it is at the midpoi nt of its swing? A t the endpoint? N eglect th e mass of the rod in your calculation s. *59. The pendulum of a regular clock consists of a mass of 120 g at the end of a (massless) wooden stick of length 44 cm . (a) What is the tot al energy (kinetic plus potential) of this pen dulum when oscillating with an amplitude of 4? (b) W hat is th e speed of th e mass wh en at its lowest point? 60. At the Nation al Institute of Stan dards and Techn ology in G aith ersbur g, M aryland, the value of the accelerati on of gravity is 9.800 95 m/s 2 . Suppose th at at th is locat ion a very precise physical pendulum, design ed for measurem ents of the acceler ation of gravity, has a period of 2.103 56 s. If we take th is pendulum to a new locat ion at th e U.S. Coas t and Geode tic Survey,in nearby W ashington , D .C., it has a period of2.10354 s. What is the value of th e acceleration of gravity at thi s new location ? What is the percentage change of th e acceleratio n between the two locat ions?

I1 11

61. Consider a meterstick swing ing about a pivot through its upper end . Wh at is the period of oscillation of th is physical pen dul um ? ' 62 . A pendulum co nsists of a brass rod with a brass cylinder attached to the end (Fi g. 15.32).The diameter of the rod is 1.00 ern and its length is 90 .00 cm; th e diam ete r of the cylinder is 6.00 ern and its length is 20.00 cm. What is the period of thi s pendulum?

*67. A physical pen dulum co nsis ts of a massless rod of length 2/ rot ating abo ut an axis through its cen ter. A mass m I is attac hed at th e lower end of th e rod , and a sm aller mass m2 at th e upp er end (see Fig. 15.33). What is th e peri od of th is pendulum ?

90.00 em . 20.00 em I

FIGURE 15.33 A physical

pendulum with two bobs.

.J

/>
/"'6.00 em

*68. Suppose that a physi cal pendulum consists of a thi n . . ..

:c r

';./

FIGURE 15.32
A physical pendulum.

*63. To test that th e acceleration of gravity is th e same for a piece of iron and a piece of br ass, an expe rimenter take s a pendulum oflength 1.800 m with an iron bob and ano ther pendulum of th e same length wit h a brass bob and starts them swinging in un ison. After sw ing ing for 12. 00 m in, th e two pendulums are no more than o ne- q uarte r of a (o ne -way) swi ng o ut of step. What is the largest difference between the values of g for iron and br ass co nsis tent with the se dat a? E xp ress your an swer as a fractional di fferen ce. *64 . C alculate the natural period of the swinging motion of a human leg. T reat the leg as a rigid ph ysical pendulum with an axis at the hip jo in t. Pre tend th at the mass distribution of the leg can be approximated as two rod s joined rigidly end to end. The upp er rod (t high) has a ma ss of 6.8 kg and a length of 43 ern; th e lower rod (shin plus foot) has a m ass of 4.1 kg and a length of 46 ern. Using a watch, measure the period of th e natural swingi ng m otion of your leg when you are standing on on e leg and letting the other dangl e freely. Alternatively, m easur e the peri od of th e swing ing moti on of your leg when you walk at a nor m al rate (this approxim ates the natural swingi ng moti on ). Co mpare with th e calculated number. *65. A hole has been d rilled through a metersti ck at the 30- cm ma rk and th e meterstick has been h ung o n a wall by a nai l passing through thi s hole. If the m etersti ck is given a pu sh so th at it swings about the nail, what is the period of th e m oti on? *66. A phy sical pe ndulum has th e shape of a disk of radius R . The pe ndulum sw ings abo ut an axis pe rp endicular to th e plane of th e di sk at a distan ce / from the center of the disk. (a) Sh ow th at th e frequ en cy of th e oscilla tio ns of th is pendulu m is

of mass m suspended at one end . Suppose that this roc h ' 5 an initial positi on = 20 and an initial angu lar velocity tu = O. C alculate the force F that the supp ort exerts on th e pen iulu:r, at thi s initial instant (give horizontal and verti cal co m nents) .

*69. The door of a hous e is made of wood of un iform thic kn ess. T .e door has a mass 'Of 27 kg and m easures 1.90 m X 0.91 m. T he door is held shut by a tor sional spring with K = 30 N -rn/r adian arr anged so tha t it exerts a torque of 54 N 'rn whe n the do or is fully open (at right angles to th e wall of the hou se). What angular speed doe s the door att ain if it slams shut from th e fully ope n position ? What linear spee d does th e edge of th e door att ain> " 70. G alilee claime d to have verified experim entally that a pe ndu lum oscillating with an am p litu de as large as 30 has the sam e period as a pendulum of identic al length oscilla ting with a mu ch smaller amplitu de . Suppose th at you let two pendulums of length 1.5 m oscillat e for 10 min. Initially, the pendulums oscilla te in step. If the amplitu de of one of th em is 30 and the am plitu de of the ot her is 5, by wh at fraction of a (one-way) swi ng will the pendulu ms be out of step at th e end of th e 10min interval ?What can you co nclude about Galilee's claim? "*71. A thin vertic al rod of steel is clam ped at its lower end. Wh en you pu sh th e upp er en d to o ne side , be nding the rod, the 2 up per end moves (approxima tely) along an arc of circle of radiu s R and the rod opposes your push with a res to rin g fo rce F = -KO, wh ere is th e angu lar d ispla cement and K is a co n sta nt. If you att ach a m ass m to th e upper end , wha t will be th e freque ncy of smal l oscillatio ns? For wh at value of m doe s the ro d beco me un stable; th at is, for wh at value of m is w = O? Treat the rod as mas sless in your calcula tions . (H in t: T hi nk of

th e rod as an inverted pendulu m of length R, with an ext ra restori ng force - Ke.)

(b) For wha t value of / is th e frequ ency a m aximum ?

2 The

radius R of the approximating (osculating) circle is somewh at shorter than the leng th of the rod.

**72 . According to a proposal describe d in Pro blem 83 of Chapt er 1, very fast trains could travel fro m one city to anoth er in stra ight subter ranean tunnels (see F ig. 15.34). For th e following calculations, assume that th e density of th e E arth is con stant, so the acceleration of gravity as a functi on of the radial distanc e r from the center of th e Earth is g = (GM/ R 3 )r.

**74. The net gr avitati on al force on a particl e placed mid wav between two equ al sp herical bo dies is zero. H owever, if part icle is placed som e distanc e away from th is equilibriuz point, th en the gr avitati onal force is not zero. (a) Show th at if the par ticle is at a distance x from the e rium point in a direct ion toward on e of the bodies, th force is approxima tely 4 GMmx/r3 , where M is the n a;each spherical body, m is the mass of the particle, and ::. the distance betwee n the sphe rical bodi es. A ssume x (b) Show that if the parti cle is at a distance x from the equi. rium point in a direction perp endicular to the line connec the bodies, then the force is approxima tely - 2GMm x/ r where the negative sign indicates that the direction of 1-.:: force is toward the equilibrium point. (c) Wh at is the frequency of small oscillatio ns of the mass about the equ ilibriu m point wh en moving in a dire ct: pe rpend icular to th e line connecti ng the bodies? Assu: that th e bod ies remain stationary.

FIGURE 15.34 A straigh t runnel connecting rwo points on the surface of the E arth .
(a) Show th at the co mpo nen t of th e acceleration of gravity along th e track of the train is (a) Find the ten sion in the string of th is pe ndulum; assume th at (J 1. The mass of the susp ended particle is m. (b) T he tension is a function of ti me. At wha t time is the rer.sia n maximum ? What is the value of th is maximum tens:

gx = -(GM/ R 3)x
wh ere x is measured fro m th e midpo int of th e tra ck (see F ig. 15. 34). (b) N eglectin g friction, show that th e moti on of th e train along the track is simple harmonic mot ion with a period independent of the leng th of th e tra ck,

15.5 Damped Oscillations and Forced Oscillations

76. Roughl y, what is th e frequen cy of stomping of soldiers on the mar ch ? What mu st h ave been the resonan t freq uency of the brid ge at Angers th at bro ke when soldiers march ed across it: 77. A p endulum ofleng th 1.50 m is set swingi ng with an initial am plitu de of 10. After 12 min, frictio n has redu ced th e ampl itude to 4. Wh at is th e value of Q for this pendulum ? 78 . The pendulum of a g randfa ther clock has a length of 0.994 111 and a mas s of 1.2 kg. (a) If the pendulum is set swinging, th e friction of th e air reduce s its amplitude of oscillation by a factor of 2 in 13.0 min. Wh at is th e value of Q for thi s pendulu m? (b) If we want to keep thi s pendulum swinging at a con stant am plitude of 8, we mu st supply mech anic al energy to it at a rate sufficient to mak e up for the frictional loss. W hat is th e requ ired mechanical power? 79. Wh en a swing in motion is not being "pu mped," the angular ampl itude of osc illatio n decreases becau se of air and othe r fricti on. The motion of a 3.0- m-long swing decr eases in am plitu de from 12 to 10 after 5 com plete cycles. W ha t is th e Q of th e system? If the rid er and seat are treated as a point mass with m = 25 kg, at wh at average rat e is mech anic al energy bei ng dissip ate d)

T = 27T

7
GM

(c) St arting fro m rest, how long wo uld a train take to roll freely alon g its track from San Francisco to W ashingt on, D.C.? W hat wo uld be its maxi mum speed (at the m idpoint )? U se th e numbers you calculated in P roblem 83 of Chapter 1 for th e length and depth of the track. "'73. A physical pendulum consists of a long, thin con e suspended at its apex (Fi g. 15. 35). The he igh t of the cone is t. What is the pe riod of thi s pendulum ?

FIGURE 15.35
A long, thin con e.

80 . A horizo nt al spri ng of co nstant k is atta ched to a ma ss m that slides on a slig h tly frictional floor. After the ma ss is di splaced a di stan ce A from equilibrium and released, the am plitude of oscillatio n decrea ses to 0.95A after 10 cycles. W hat is the Q of th is system? 81. A har m o nic for ce F= Facos wt, where Fa = 0.20 N, is applied to a damped harm onic oscillator of spring con stant k = 15 N 1m and ma ss m, wh ere w = T he am plitude of osc illation increases rapid ly at first, and then settles to a co nstant value, A = 40 ern. W h at is the Q of the sys tem? What wou ld the am plitude be if the an gul ar frequency of th e forc e F had been mu ch less 82 . A mi croclec tromecha nical system (M EM S) consists of a microsc opic silicon mechanical oscillator (see F ig. 15.36) with

a spring co nstant k = 5 X 10- 3 N / m . When it oscillates in a vacuum- sealed device (to remove air fric tion) , the Q of such an oscill ator is larg e: Q = 5 X 10 6. What amp litude of mo tion will th e oscillator attain if an oscilla ting for ce of am plitude 18 1 X 10- N (near the curren t lim its offo rce de tection) is applied? 83 . U sing elec tro n-bea m lith ogra ph.., en g ine ers are attem pting to fabrica te na noclectro rn cchar ical svsre rn (N E M S) osc illators wi th frequenci es as hig h as 100 G H z (fo r co m municatio ns and h ig her-speed com puti ng). If rhe equivalen t mass of such an oscillato r is 1.0 X lO - F g and. m inim urnarnplirude of 0.10 nm is needed to detect an app lied harmo nic force o f 10 am plitu de 1.0 X 10 - N , wha t must the m inimum Q of such an oscillator be> *84. C onsider th e motion of the damp ed harm on ic oscillator plotted in Fig . 15.2 1. (a) A ccordin g to thi s plot , what fractio n of its am pli tu de does th e oscillator lose in its first osc illa tio n> (b) W h at fracti o n of its ene rgy d oes th e oscillator lose in irs first oscillation? (c) A ccording to E q . (15 .5 1), wh at is th e value ofQ for thi s oscillato r> *85 . If you sta nd on o ne leg an d let t he ot he r dangle freely back and fort h starting at an init ial am plitude of, say, 20 or 30, the amplitu de will decay to one -half of th e initial amplitu de after about four swi ngs . Regard ing the d angling leg as a d amped oscillator, what value of Q can you de d uce from thi s?

FIGURE 15.36 A microele ctromechanical system

(MEMS) oscillator, the silicon memb rane structure suspended above the faceted silicon tren ch .

REVIEW PROBLEMS
86. A particle per for ms simpl e ha rmonic motio n alo ng th e x axis with an am plitude of 0.20 m and a period of 0.80 s. At t = 0, the particle is at max im um di stan ce from th e origin; that is, x = 0 .20 m. (a) What is th e eq ua tio n tha t describes the position of the part icle as a func t ion of time ? (b) C alculate th e positi on of the particle at t = 0.10 s, 0.2 0 s, 0. 30 s, and 0040 s. 87 . I n an electric sab er saw, the ro tational moti o n of the elec tric mo tor is co nverted into a back-and-forth mo tion of the saw blade by a mech anism sim ilar to th at show n in Fig. 15. 5. Suppose th e peg of the rot ati ng wheel mo ves aro und a circle of d iameter 3.0 cm a t 4000 revlmin and thereby mo ves the slo tted arm to whi ch the saw blade is bolted. What are the amp litu de and the frequency of th e bac k- and- forth sim ple harm on ic mo tio n of the blade ? 88. In re spo nse to a sound wave, the middle of you r eardrum oscillates back and for th wit h a freq uen cy of 4000 H z and an amplitud e of 1.0 X 10 - 5 m . What is th e m aximum spe ed of the eardr um > 89 . Suppose that tw o particles are performing sim ple h arm onic mot ion alo ng th e x axis wi th a period of 8.0 s. The first particle moves acco rd ing to th e eq uatio n
x

= 0.3 0 cos (

:t) :t)

and th e second parti cle acco rd ing to th e eq uation

x'

= 0.30 sin (

where th e distance is m easured in m ete rs and the ti me in seco nds . (a) When doe s th e first par ticle reach th e mi dpoint? T he turning point? Draw a d iagram showing rhc pan icle and its sa telli te particle at th ese tim es. (b) Wh en do es the seco nd particle reach th e mid po int? The turning poin t? Draw a diagram showin g the p art icle and its satellite particle at these times. (c) By so me argum ent, esta blish that wh enever th e first particle passes through a point on th e x axis, th e seco nd pani cle passes th rough this sam e point 2.0 s later.

.
.
x

(a) What value of the spring constant can she de th ese da ta? (b) If she then takes a child of 20 kg in her arms ar-; _: stands on th e scale, what will be the new frequer: oscillation of th e point er? 95 . Ropes used by mo untain climbers are quite elastic, ::.:: :.. behave like springs. A rop e of 10 m has a spring COil " -k = 4.9 X 103 N/ m. Supp ose th at a mount ain climber hangs on thi s rope, whic h is stretched vert ically down. . th e freq uency of up- and -down oscillation s of the rno clim ber? 96. C onsider a particle of mass In moving alon g th e x axis th e influence of a spring of spring constan t k. T he equii": po int is at x = 0, and th e amplitude of th e motion is "i. (a) At what point x is the kin etic energy of the particle ec to its pot ent ial energy? _

90. A part icle of 6.0 kg is executing simple har monic mo tion along the x axis under the influence of a spring. T he part icle moves according to th e equ ation

= 0.20 cos (3.0t)

where x is measured in meters and t in seconds . (a) Wh at is th e frequency of the motion? W hat is the spring con sta nt of th e spring? What is the maximum speed of the mo tion? (b) Suppose we replace th e parti cle by a new part icle of2 .0 kg (but we keep the same spr ing), and suppose we start th e mo tion with th e same amp litu de of 0.20 m . What will be th e new frequency of the motion ? What will be th e new maxim um speed? 91. The mo tion of th e pisto n in an automobile eng ine is approximately simple har monic. Suppose that the piston travels back and forth over a distance of 8.50 em and has a mass of 1.2 kg. W hat are its maximum accele ration and maximu m speed if the eng ine is turni ng at its high est safe rate of 6000 rev/min? What is th e maxim um force on th e piston? 92 . A Small Mass M easurement In strument (SMMI) was used in Skylab to measure th e masses of biological samples, small ani mal s, chemicals, and other such item s used in life-sciences experiment s whil e in orbit (see F ig. 15.3 7). The sample to be measured is strapped to a tray supported by leaf springs, and the mass is de term ined from the observed period of oscillation of the tray-and-mass. To calibr ate th is instrument, a test mass of 1.00 kg is first placed on the tray; the peri od of oscillation is th en 1.08 s. Suppose th at when th e test mass is rem oved and an unknown sample is placed on the tray, th e per iod becomes 1.78 s. What is the mass of the sample? Assume th at the mass of th e tray (and th e straps) is 0.400 kg.

A, what r: :..-:(b) W hen th e particle reaches the poi nt x of its energy is potential, and what fraction is kinetic97. A simple har monic oscilla tor consists of a mass of 3.0 kg' .r: ing bac k and forth alo ng a hor izontal frict ionless track wipushed and pulled by a spring with k = 6.0 X 10 2 N/ m. Suppose that in itially the mass is released from rest at a 6:;ranee of 0.2 5 m from the equ ilibrium point. W hat is the energy of this harmon ic oscillator? W ha t is the maximum speed it att ain s when passing th rough th e equilibrium poir.:: 98. A simple har mon ic oscillat or of mass 0.80 kg oscillates wi _ frequency of 2.0 H z and an amp litude of 0.12 m . Supp ose th at , while the mass is instantaneously at rest at its turn ing po int, we qu ickly shi ft th e fixed end of the spring to a new fixed position, 0.12 m farth er away from the mass. How doe; thi s change the amplitu de of the motion? The frequen cy? energy ?The maximum speed? The maximum accelera tio n? 99. A pendulum has a length of 1.5 m. What is th e perio d of th is pendulum ? If you wanted to construct a pe ndulu m with exactly half this period , how long would it have to be? 100. A n "inte rrupted" pe ndulum consists of a simple pend ulum of length ! that encounters a nail placed at a d istanc e below th e point of supp ort. If th is pendulu m is released from one side, it will begin to wrap around the nail as soon as it passes th rough th e vertical position (F ig. 15.38). What is the period of th is pendulum ?

=!

.. _ -------

FIGURE 15.37 Small Mass M easurement Instru ment.

93. A simple harm onic oscillator has a frequency of 1.5 H z. W hat will happen to the frequency if we cut the spring in half and atta ch both halves to the mass so that both sprin gs push jointly? 94. A physicist of 55 kg stands on a bathro om scale (a spring scale, with an intern al spring). She observes that when she mount s the scale sudde nly, the poin ter of th e scale first oscillate s back and fort h a few time s with a frequen cy of 2.4 Hz.

I
\

\
\

FIGURE 15.38 An
"int errupted" pendulum.

I I I I I

11 1 1 1.1 1

Answers to Checkups
101. A phy sical pendulum consists of a uniform spherical bob of ma ss M and rad ius R suspended from a massless string of length L (see F ig. 15.39). Taking into account the size of th e bob, show th at the period of small oscillations of th is pendulum is f R2 + (R + L)2 T = 27T ) g( R + L )
::...5 _ - - , - - - -_ --,-_

505

102. A un iform rod ofl eng th L is swing ing abou t a pivot at a distan ce x fro m its cen ter (see F ig . 15.40). Fi nd th e period of oscillat ion of thi s physical pen dulum as a functi on of x. For wh at choice of x is th e period sho rtest?

<:
_ j./' <
.l"

I I I
I

/ M

FIGURE 15.39 A ph ysical pendulum with a large bob.

FIGURE 15.40 A swinging rod.

103. A swing ofle ngt h 2.0 m han gs from a horizontal b ranch or' a tree . With wh at freq uency sh ould you rock the branch to bi il(: up oscillation s of the pendulum by reson ance?

Answers to Checkups
Checkup 15 .1
1. The E arth's rot ational motion is periodic; it rep eats with each daily cycle. It is not a back-and-forth mot ion alon g a lin e or are, so it is not an oscillation.

2. The velocity attains its maximum magni tud e at x = 0, that is,

wh ere the displacement is zero; the velocity attains its mi nimum magni tude at x = A, th at is, at th e points of maximum displacement. This is because th e displacement and velocity are 90 out of phase; if one is a cosine func tion, th e other is a sin e function [see Eqs . (15 .11 ) and (15.12) ].

4. ]f th e maxim um displacem ent is A, th e maximum velocity is wA [com pare Eqs. (15.11) and (15.12)]. Thus, for the same am plitude, the particle with twi ce the frequency has twice the maximum veloc ity. Sim ilarly, the maxim um accelerati on is w 2A, so th e particle with twi ce the frequency has 4 tim es the maximum acceleratio n.

5. As described in Section 15.1, the x coor dinates of the particl e

and satellite are identical. Obviously, the y coordinates are not, since the particl e is always at y = 0, whil e th e satellite executes circu lar mo tion. The velocitie s are no t the same , since the par ticle has zero y velocity, unlike the satellite.The x com pon ent s of the velocities and accelera tio ns are th e same, since they are derived from the identical time dep en dence of the x coordina te. Sin ce the parti cle is always at y = 0, th e y compo nent s of th e veloci ty and acceleration are not th e same .

3. T he acceleration attains its maxi mum mag nitude at x = A,

th at is, at th e point of maximum displ acement from the origin; the acceleratio n attains its minimum magnitude at x = 0, that is, where th e displacement is zero . This is becau se the displacement and accelera tion are 180 out of pha se; if one is a cosine fun cti on , the ot her is a negati ve cosine fun ction [see Eq s. (15.11 ) and (15 .13)].

6. (C) 7T/2. Ifwe in sert x = 0 an d t= 0 in x =A cos(cot + 8) [Eq. (15.4)], th en we see that 0 = cos 0, whic h is tru e if = 7T/2 or if 0 = -7T / 2. Of thes e two, only 0 = 7T/ 2 is listed .

_ _

Checkup 15.2
1. The for ce on th e particle attains m axi mum magnitude at the ext reme displacem ents (the turn ing po ints) of the motion, x = :i:. A. T h e force on the part icle atta ins the minimum magnitude ofzero when the particle pa sses through the equ ilibriu m point, x = O.

Checkup 15.4
1. The period of th e sim ple pendu lum is proport ion, to th e square root of th e length (T = 27T V'!'i;;), so ' ,. of the shorter pend ulum will be decreased by a factor ' 1/ \/2. The frequency is th e inverse of the perio d ( .'= and so will incr ease by \/2. 2 . Two pendulum s of the same length have th e same 0 quency of oscillatio n, since w = But th e pendulu m is (th is formula is equ ally valid to" . pendulu m and the sim ple harm oni c oscillater). Th us : th e same energy of oscillation , a mass 3 tim es smaller move with an amplitude th at is times larger.

doub ling the mass 2 . Since th e frequency is given by w = decreases the frequ enc y by a factor of 1/ \/2.
3. If th e spring is cut whe n th e particle is at the equ ilibrium point, th e parti cle will con tin ue moving wit h the constant velocity it h ad there, 'Vm.v. = wA. I f we cut it whe n th e particle is at x = A . whe re th e par ticle is instan tan eou sly at rest, th e particle will remain at rest ther e. 4 . (B) 1/ v2. A stronger spring causes oscillation s with a high er frequ en cy, and so a sho rter peri od . The period varies inversely wi th th e square root of th e spring constant [Eq . (15.2 1)].

'Viii,

v3

3 . (B) V3g/2 1. The angular frequency of such a physical , lum is given by Eq. (15.48), w = V rngd/ I . T he disranc measured from the point of suspension to the center or' I thu s is half of the lengt h of the rod ; that is, d = 1/2. Insc this and the given mom ent of inertia yields
v

(mgl/ 2)/ (mI2/ 3) = V 3g/21.

Checkup 15.3
1. Since ene rgy is proport ion al to the sq uare of the am plitude [E q. (15 .32)], th e oscillato r wit h twice the amp litude has 4 tim es th e energy. Since th e maximum speed is proport iona l to th e ampl itude , 'V"'"" = wA [Eq . (15 .34)], the oscillator with twice the amplitude also ha s twice the maximum speed . 2 . Both oscillators have the same energy, since E = Bu t th e maximum speed is inversely pro portional to th e square root of th e mass [Eq . (15 .35)], so th e particle wit h twice th e ma ss has a smaller maximum speed by a fact or of 1/\/2. 3. T he energy is purely kinetic whe n th e oscillator passes through equilibrium. The energy will be pur ely pot ential at maximum am plitude, which is on e-q uarter of a cycle later, or 2.0 s later. An oscillato r passes th rough equilibrium twice each cycle (once in each dir ection ), so th e energy will be pur ely kinetic 4.0 s after th e initial tim e, or another 2.0 s after th e energy is purely pot enti al. 4 . Fri ction removes energy fro m th e system , so the energy will decrease wh enever th e particle is m oving, and will not remain constan t. Since E = the amp litude A will also decrease each cycle du e to friction . S. (E) 32 . T he sto red energy is E = But from Eq. (15.18), k = mw 2 , so E = mw 2A 2; if each of In, tv, and A increases by a 5 factor of 2, then th e en ergy increases by a facto r of 2 = 32.

Checkup 15.5
1. Yes, at least some sligh t buildu p always occurs at frequen below reso nance. Figur e 15.22 indicates th at forced oscili tions far below th e reson an t frequency approac h an arnplic A = F a/ k, the magnitud e of th e static-force spring displa . ment. This occurs because a slowly varying force allows the(faster) mass-spring system to follow th e force over tim e. 2 . No. In this case the slowly responding oscillator canno t fo the oscillating force; it is as if the response is averaged nearlv equally over the positive and negati ve force con tributio ns. 3. Your hand prov ides friction; you remov e energy from th e be '. Wh en 6.E, the energy lost per cycle, increases, th e Q must decreas e. 4. (E) 630 . W e can solve Eq. (15.51) for Q and obtain Q = 27TE/6. E. Since 0 .10 J is lost in 10 cycles, abou t 0.010 J is 1 0,: each cycle. Thus Q = 27T(1.0]) / (0.010 J) = 2007T 630 .

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Cc

IIII IIW I

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