Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 6 am TAs = Elizavetha & Pete Systemic circulation Pulmonary circulation = circulation

tion of the lungs Heart o Receiving chamber = atria Receive blood from Veins (Vena Cava or Pulmonary) ***PULMONARY VEIN = Only vein that has OXYGENATED blood to the heart All other veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart o Dispersing chamber = ventricle Send blood away via Arteries ***PULMONARY ARTERY = Only artery that carries DEOXYGENATED blood away from the heart o Right Atrium Receives blood from Superior and Inferior Vena Cava Sends blood to Right Ventricle o Right ventricle Sends blood from Right atrium to lungs o Lungs Blood comes back via pulmonary circulation to Left Atria thru pulmonary veins Left = Oxygenated o Left Atria Receives oxygenated blood from lungs (pulmonary veins) o Left ventricle Receives blood from atria Pumps blood to body Thicker b/c of greater resistance Systemic circulation Goes to Aorta (biggest)

Valves o Atriaventricular Valve Right = Tricuspid Valve Left = Bicuspid Valve (Mitral Valve) Try before you buy LAB RAT Left Atria Bicuspid Right Atria Tricuspid o Semilunar valves A.k.a. Aortic or Pulmonary valve Closed when Heart is RELAXING In arteries, prevent blood backflow into heart

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 o If AV valve is OPEN, Semilunar valve is CLOSED When we need to fill the ventricles When we need to disperse blood from the heart o Cuspids Chordae tendinae o Papillary muscles Attached at chords that control the leaflets of the valves Pull on leaflets of valves Prevents blood flow of blood to atria Cardiac muscles When they contract, they pull on chords, which pull on leaflets, which inhibits blood flow from atria to ventricle o These two Prevent Backflow! Pericardium o 2 layers o Space in between layers = pericardial cavity Somewhat lubricated to prevent damage due to friction Pericardial fluid or Blood (diseases) o Pericardial Tamponade Filled with blood = constricts heart (muscle doesnt stretch properly, not very well compressible)

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Heart Model o Female = 300 g, Male = 350 g o Auricles Ears of the heart Extension of the atria Appendages of upper chambers of heart Sometimes we need extra space, when heart does not require as much pumping Storage of blood Used under extraneous activity conditions (not used normally under daily conditions) o Base of the heart (back) = flatter o Kidney Renal artery Originally much branched, but collects usually into 2 (L & R) o Smaller you are, the higher your heart rate o Infant doesnt have a developed circularity system, so heart just keeps working (without a lot of resistance) Dont freak out unless infant heart rate is >200 bpm o Apex Pointed edge of heart @ bottom Cardiac Muscle o Intermediate between skeletal & smooth muscle o Can receive impulses from nervous system & can create its own impulses Specialized cells that discharge signal Concentrated in SA (sinoatrial) node Depolarize and disperse signal thru Right Atria, which causes it to contract and dump blood into RV Signal travels to the AV (Atriaventricular) Node Signal dispersed to bundle of branches to bulbs of ventricle This causes ventricles to contract Septum o Walls between the R & L sides o Between ventricles = Interventricular Septum Heart Stimulation o SA Node = Pacemaker of the heart (stimulate signal to cause heart to contract) Once pacemaker potential reached, stimulates action potential, which travels down to the AV node and subsequently Purkinje fibers (neurons) o SA Node AV Node Purkinje fibers (located in ventricular portion) o Myogenic activity Activity originates in the muscle of the heart SA Node can receive impulses from CNS

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251

Heart contraction o Atria contracted simultaneously o 0.1 s later, Ventricles contract o Valves propel blood to ventricles from atria o When heart contracts, blood pushes against valves and creates a sound (heard using a stethoscope) 1st sound = AV valve (louder)

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 When blood reaches ventricles, valves close. Ventricles contract and the blood pushes against the valves, creating a loud sound Blood exits via arteries (Aorta or Pulmonary) When blood going to Aorta or Pulmonary Arteries, semilunar valves are closed (when heart relaxes) Relaxes so blood in arteries does not return back to the heart 2nd sound = Blood against semilunar valve (softer) Need blood to leave heart Semilunar valves prevent blood backflow into heart Semilunar valves close as blood exits via arteries While Heart relaxes, blood pushes back against the Semilunar valves, creating a sound o Semilunar valves = located in arteries CLOSED during RELAXATION OPEN during CONTRACTION Blood Arteries o AV Valves CLOSED during CONTRACTION OPEN during RELAXATION Blood: Atria Ventricles

Heart contraction o During filling, need to relax the heart o Once filled, heart needs to contract o AV valve closes, Semilunar valve opens o Blood goes to arteries Coronary Circulation o Provides blood supply (oxygenation) to heart & Removes deoxygenated blood o Coronary arteries Provides oxygenated blood to heart Aorta L & R Coronary arteries Myocardium o Coronary Veins Coronary Arteries Capillaries Coronary Veins Arterie o Branch to form arterioles Have a smaller lumen (hole) o Arterioles branch to Capillaries Gas & nutrient exchange Endpoint where O2 and nutrients dumped & collect CO2 & waste o Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins Veins 6

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 o Have valves that open only 1 way o When blood from capillaries are collected by venules, blood collected in veins o Skeletal muscle contraction assists with blood flow back to heart Why pregnant women have leg swelling (edema) Lymphatic system o Collects excess interstitial fluid & dumps extra fluid back to circulatory fluid (to prevent edema) o Acts vs. proteins & fluids that leak out of capillaries o Elephantitis = blockage of lymphatic system Artery vs. Vein o 70% blood on venous side (reservoir) o Due to the thinner wall o Arteries thicker than veins? Aorta Right & Left Coronary arteries Anterior Interventricular artery o Between R & L ventricles o Branch of Left Coronary Circumflex Artery o Semicircle at the top of the heart (superior heart) Marginal artery o Branch off Right Coronary Posterior Interventricular Artery o Posterior/dorsal heart o Runs in between ventricles o Off of Right Coronary artery Openings in semilunar valve area = openings to coronary arteries o Sinuses of Valsalva Small depressions on the walls, making the wall/lumen of the aorta larger On the inside part (inner lining) of the aorta itself, not at the site of the aortic valve (semilunar valve) Great Cardiac Vein o Next to Anterior Interventricular artery o Drains into Coronary sinus Middle Cardiac vein o Drains into Coronary sinus o Follows Posterior Interventricular artery

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Fetal Circulation Lungs & liver dont operate yet, so rely on placenta Placenta used for oxygenation of blood o Takes oxygen from blood of moms circulation o Blood never meets (unless tear/accidental exposure due to injury) o Baby sends blood to placenta and oxygen from moms blood Higher affinity for oxygen than adult blood Fetus o Umbilical cord plugged into baby (***Newborn if not plugged in!!!) Circulation o Since lungs not functional yet, must bypass lung Once blood drained into Right Atria, there is a hole in the wall between R & L Atria Foramen Ovale = Hole between Atrias Since the pressure of R Atria higher than L, Blood goes thru hole in the wall o ****Switches when baby is born! Most blood in R Atria goes straight thru Foramen Ovale L Atria Newborn: o Foramen Ovale (hole) Fossa Ovalis (depression) AV valve not shut down on R side; this allows blood to travel to R Ventricle & to Pulmonary artery Must bypass blood from Pulmonary Artery Aorta 2nd shunt located between these 2 areas o Ductus Arteriosis Bypasses Pulmonary Circulation (to lungs) & shunts blood to Ascending Aorta Newborn: o Ductus Arteriosis Ligamenum Arteriosis Blood still leaking to the lungs, enough to nourish the lungs Umbilical Veins ***Bring oxygenated blood to fetus (Opposite from adults!) *RED! One vein Umbilical Arteries ***Collect deoxygenated fetal blood and bring it to placenta Blood oxygenated in placenta via Mothers circulation *BLUE! 2 Arteries Newborn: o Lateral Umbilical Ligaments

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 o Placental Liver function Blood must bypass liver Ductus Venosus Oxygenated blood from Umbilical vein Inferior Vena Cava Newborn: Ligamentum Vennosum o Umbilical Vein Ductus Venosus Inferior Vena Cava R Atria L Atria & R Ventricle Pulmonary Artery Ductus Arteriosis Ascending Aorta

***Cat circulation: 8 QUESTIONS!!! Hepatic Portal System Originates at capillaries of Gastrointestinal system Ends at capillaries of Liver NO ARTERIES! (just veins) Stomach o Gastric veins in stomach absorb nutrients Alcohol absorbed in stomach, along with aspirin Nutrients drained by R & L Gastric Veins Small Intestine o Superior Mesenteric vein drains most of this o Yellow veins o Drains most of the nutrients, toxins, etc. Large Intestine o Most drained by Inferior Mesenteric vein Hepatic Portal Vein o Superior Mesenteric vein joins splenic vein to form this o Located at the bottom of the liver o Drains gastric veins, mesenteric veins, and cystic vein o Where veins converge o ***Brings nutrients TO THE LIVER!!! o Connects at the bottom of the liver Hepatic Vein o Superior portion of liver o ***Transports nutrients AWAY FROM THE LIVER!!! o Dumps products in Inferior Vena Cava Cystic vein o Located in liver, where gall bladder is

Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Blood Plasma (55%) o Most proteins produced by liver (albumins, globulins, & fibrinogens Albumins = maintain Osmotic Pressure (important regulators of water movement) Globulins = Most for immune system (Ig), transport other molecules (lipids) Fibrinogens = clot formation (serum = plasma w/o clotting factors) Formed Elements (45%) o Cells found in suspension: o Leukocytes phagocytic and produce antibodies Protect body against microorganisms and remove dead cells and debris Have nucleus, mitochondria Movements Ameboid Diapedesis Chemotaxis (chemical attraction of phagocytes) Agranulocytes o Lymphocytes Important Immune system roles T & B cells o Monocytes Somewhat larger Become macrophages In response to immune system Migrate to skin tissue during scrape Specific name depending on tissue allocated Ex. peripheral tissue of skin = macrophages Migrate to tissue & differentiate Phagocytize antigen Microglia in CNS Granulocytes (contain granules in cytoplasm) Neutrophils (somewhat neutral stain) o Somewhat neutral (blue) o *Most abundant granulocytes o Small phagycytic cells o Release heparin o Very short-lived o Multi-lobulate (nucleus consists of many lobes) o Can tell gender by looking at this Extra extension off drumstick in Females sticks out of one of the lobes of nucleus Eosinophils (eosin acidic stain)

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 o Pinkish o Reduce inflammation o Release heparin Basophils (stain basic) o Purplish o Release histamine and heparin o Increase inflammatory response *Multinucleated, consist of several levels

Platelet Smallest component of formed element Cell fragments Megakaryocyte (big cell in bone marrow) sheds platelets Erythrocytes (RBCs) Non-nucleated No mitochondria (glycolytic!) Bi-concave disc (flattened) Lives ~90 days Contains: o Hemoglobin (each RBC contains 280 million Hb molecules) o Lipids, ATP, carbonic anhydrase o ***Anaerobic metabolism (to maximize oxygen delivery) Transport oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs Deformability, increased surface area for diffusion, maximizes transport of Hb ~300-500 billion RBCs are produced each day (2.5 million/s) Must be flexible o Hematopoesis Formation of blood cells from stem cells in bone marrow (myeloid tissue) All formed elements derived from single population (stem cells) o Erythropoiesis Formation of RBCs (stimulated by erythropoietin from kidney) o Leukopoiesis is Formation of WBCs Stimulated by a variety of cytokines = Autocrine regulators ***

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Blood groups o Vary depending on antigens o Antigens (agglutinogens) present on RBC surface specify blood type o Antibodies (agglutinins) can bind to RBC antigens, resulting in agglutination (clumping) or hemolysis (rupture) of RBCs o Major antigen group is ABO system A has only A antigens B has only B antigens AB has both A & B antigens O has neither A nor B antigens o Rh factor (+) Have Rh (D) antigens present on surface of RBCs (-) Do not have these antigens present

Granulocytes: o Neutrophils Rush in to eliminate invading microbe Alkaline phosphatase, lactoferrin, lysozyme, myelopero xidase, NADPH oxidase Multi-lobed nuclei o Eosinophils Parasitic infections (trypanasoma) Bi-lobular nuclei o Basophil Induce inflammation Heparin, histamine (not directly cytotoxic) Granules cover nuclei, so mostly granules visible (dark spots) o Innate Immune Response (non-specific) Agranulocyte o Lymphocyte Adaptive Immune Response B/T cells Nucleus takes up nearly entirety of cell (sliver of cytoplasm visible) Homogenous nucleus As large as a RBC (7.9 8.1 u) o Monocytes Innate Immune Response In Blood (circulate) Once they leave blood (i.e. in tissues) Macrophages In liver = cuffer cells In lungs = dust cells In CNS = Microglia

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Function = Phagocytosis Name based on location Horseshoe-shaped nucleus (U) About the size of 2 RBCs (15 u) No other cell is that big

Platelets o Thrombocytes o Thrombosis = blood clotting o Origin = Bone marrow (megakaryocyte)

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 HISTOLOGY Blood Erythrocytes Thrombocytes (a.k.a. Platelets) Neutrophil o 3 lobes; nuclei in lobes Monocyte o Can see cytoplasm (large nucleus, cytoplasm on the side) o Only one Lymphocyte o Cant see cytoplasm (dark purple) In the field of view: o Agranulocyte o Connective Tissue o Cell shape characteristic of sickle cell

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Erythroblastosis Fetalis Spiked RBCs Rh antibodies attach to fetal RBC Lymphocyte Know mechanism Monocyte Magnified 100x!!! Erythroblastosis Fetalis o Hemolytic disease of the Newborn (HDN) o Can cause problems when Rh- mother has Rh+ babies o At birth, mother may be exposed to Rh+ blood of fetus In later pregnancies, mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal RBCs o Steps Mother exposed to Rh+ blood of fetus (ex. during birth) Mom forms anti-Rh antibodies (immune system builds up) In second pregnancy, Rh antibodies from mom cross placenta and combine with Rh+ antigens on fetal blood cells causing hemolysis of fetal RBCs

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Sickle Cell Looking for a crescent moon-shaped cell o Not in high concentration, but present o Looks like clumped blood NOT every RBC is affected Not uniform Decreased blood flow & decreased diffusion Clog capillaries Beneficial vs. Malaria (BB parasite) Can clog capillaries Affected by altitude Decrease storage of hemoglobin (decrease oxygen delivery) Only affects RBCs Carrier is still affected, just not to a large degree (point mutation, resulting in an amino acid substitution)

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Trypanosoma Blood-borne parasite (looks like worms) Silent until you develop Chagas disease Kissing bug South America, but can still get in Southern US Can cause sleeping sickness

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Skeletal Muscle Multinucleated, Peripheral Nuclei, Striated

Cardiac Muscle (monkey heart) Artery RBCs Multinucleated (up to 2) Interwoven arrangement (gives heart specific strengths) Longitudinal cut Intercalated disc Smooth muscle (vessel)

Intercalated Discs Atrial natriuretic peptide hormone made by heart to regulate blood volume (pushes Na+ out of system, water follows)

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Vena Cava (Monkey) Vein Stained blue-purple & pink (3 slides) 3 layers: o (1) Tunica Intima: (A) Innermost Endothelium Simple Squamous Epithelium (B) Sub-endothelium layer Dark Layer Veins are stretchier so will have more elastic fibers (C) Internal elastic lamina Elastic fibers o (2) Tunica Media Smooth Muscle ***Thinner in Veins! Fibroelastic connective tissue Reticular & collagen fibers o (3) Tunica adventitia Outermost layer Collagens Elastic fibers Fibroblasts Loose connective tissue ***May see Blood Vessels in this layer (last pic) Called vasa vassorum (also in aorta) Only in large veins or arteries Artery giving blood to a big vein (to keep vein alive and working) 40X

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251

(dark line = tunica intima elastic fibers)

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Arteries Tunica Intima o Slightly thicker than artery (not one distinguisng layer) o Sub-endothelium layer o Internal elastic lamina o Curly elastic fiber layer Tunica Media o Much thicker layer (more pressurized) Systolic pressure (Vein = Diastolic pressure) Elasticity prevent popping artery Constant pumping of high pressure blood stretches arteries a little bit Artery vs. Vein o L = Artery o R = Vein o Top = Nerve (no empty lumen)

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Capillaries Only 1 layer No Smooth muscle

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251 Bone Marrow Where blood is made In the field of view: o Hematopoiesis (makes RBCs & WBCs) o Leukopoiesis o Erythropoiesis (makes RBCs) o White bulb = fat cell o A lot of stages of maturation of cells o RBC with a nuclei (prior to erythropoiesis) Proerythroblast o Megakaryocyte Large cell that sheds platelets Red spots = RBC o Nucleated o Nucleus ejected in last step of differentiation

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Juhi Ramchandani Lab Exam I Biol 251

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