Instrumentation for pressure measurements

1. Units of pressure, types of pressure Among many process variables pressure is that parameter which is critical for safe and optimum operation in hydraulic equipment, separating processes (such as filtration, distillation, etc.), vacuum processing, etc. Using pressure measurements we are able to measure level of liquids in tanks, or flowrate of liquids or gases in the pipes. In order to keep pressure within desired range we need to be able to accurately measure this process variable, and then control it. It is not easy to use instrumentation for pressure measurements without knowledge of a fundamental concept of pressure. Pressure is equal to the force divided by the area over which it is applied. In the International System (SI) the unit for pressure is called Pascal (Pa) and is equal to the force of one 1, N N 1, Pa = 1, 2 . There are other units, which are not within divided by an area of one 1, m 2 : m SI, namely: 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa; 1 atm = 101325 Pa - (standard or physical atmosphere); 1 kgf/cm2 = 98066.5 Pa = 0.0980665 MPa - (technical atmosphere); 1 lbf/in2 = 1 psi = 6894.76 Pa = 0.00689476 MPa; 1 mm Hg = 133.322 Pa - (760 mm Hg = 101324.7 Pa 101325 Pa). The advantage of the Pascal is that it does not depend on the gravitational acceleration. It means that this unit is the same in places with various values of gravitational acceleration. Even on other planets it does not change. There are various types of pressures. Figure 1 gives illustration of terms used in pressure measurements. Absolute pressure in a system is equal to the total pressure of a liquid or a gas which acts on the walls of this system. The difference between absolute and atmospheric pressure is called gage or manometric pressure and is read by ordinary pressure gauge: Pg = Pabs Patm . (1) If Pabs < Patm , then the difference between atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure is called vacuumetric pressure and is read by ordinary vacuum gauge:
Pvac = Patm Pabs . (2) Instrumentation for pressure measurements may be classified regarding to the operational principle used or type of pressure to be measured. If we consider operational principles employed, then process instrumentation for pressure measurements may be categorised as follows:

liquid filled pressure instrumentation: U-tube manometers, well manometers, belltype manometers, liquid barometer, absolute pressure manometer; elastic-element mechanical pressure gages: Bourdon tube pressure gages, bellows-type pressure gages, diaphragm-type pressure gages;

Pressure above atmospheric pressure Absolute pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure, Pabs

Ordinary pressure gage reads difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure, Pg Atmospheric pressure Ordinary vacuum gage reads difference between atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure, Pvac Pressure less than atmospheric pressure Absolute pressure that is less than atmospheric pressure, Pabs

Barometer reads atmospheric pressure, Patm

Zero pressure

Figure 1. Illustration of terms used in pressure measurements. dead-weight pressure gages; electrical-type pressure gages: piezoelectric pressure gages, capacitance pressure gages, straintype pressure gages. Here is the classification of instrumentation for pressure measurements with respect to the type of the measured pressure: pressure gages, for measurements of pressures above atmospheric pressure; vacuum pressure gages, for measurements of pressures below atmospheric pressure; vacuum manometers, for measurements of both pressures above and below atmospheric pressure; barometers, for measurement of atmospheric pressure; differential pressure and vacuum gages, for measurements of difference of pressures. 2. U-tube liquid filled manometers These manometers are used for measurement of gauge pressures (up to 0.1 MPa), vacuumetric pressures (down to 0.1 MPa below atmospheric pressure) and for differential pressures of liquids and gases. The principle is based on the static balance between the measured pressure and the head of the liquid column. Fig. 2 shows the schematic of this manometer. A glass tube 1, bended

to the U-shape, is filled by one half of its volume with liquid 2 (water, mercury). This tube is placed vertically, and a scale 3 (usually in mm) is attached along its height. Pressures P 1 and P2 are supplied to legs of the tube, and levels of liquid in the legs change their position. When static balance between a measuring pressure and the head of the liquid column is reached, this pressure can be evaluated according to the equation:
P = P1 P2 = g loc H = g loc (h1 + h2 ) ,

(3)

where,
P - pressures supplied to the legs of the manometer, Pa ; 1 and P 2 h1 and h2 - deviations of liquid levels from the zero point of the scale in two legs of the manometer, m ; H = h1 + h2 - total length of the liquid column corresponded to the measuring differential pressure, m ; kg - density of liquid filled the U-tube, 3 ; m m g loc - local gravitational acceleration, 2 . s We need always make two readings of the liquid level, namely, in each leg of the tube, because in reality due to non-uniformity of the tube diameter along its length, values of h1 and h2 are not equal. As the result of such reading the error introduced during pressure measurement will be reduced. When this type of manometer is used for pressure measurements three cases may take place:

1). P 1 is above atmospheric pressure, P2 = P atm . In this case the manometer measures the difference between absolute and atmospheric pressures: P1 = Pg = g loc (h1 + h2 ) . 2). P2 is below atmospheric pressure, P 1 =P atm . In this case manometer measures the difference between atmospheric and absolute pressures: P2 = Pvac = g loc (h1 + h2 ) . 3). In this case the equation (4.3) refers to measurements of differential pressures. Since the gravitational acceleration is used for the evaluation of pressure, then, when using Utube manometers, it is necessary to introduce correction which takes into account the difference between gravitational acceleration in the place where this manometer was calibrated from that where it is used. Another source of the error is the deviation of liquid temperature in the tube from that temperature when this manometer was calibrated. Due to thermal expansion of the liquid in the tube the volume of liquid will change and this inevitably introduces an error. But the most common mistake is made by not correct reading the scale in respect to the meniscus of liquid in legs of the tube. Fig. 3 gives examples how operator should make readings when using U-tube manometer with various liquids. We should always read a surface of the meniscus in its centre. In the case with water - in the bottom, and in the case with mercury - in the top of the meniscus. But in everyday industrial measurements the first two corrections (gravitational and thermal) are not always used, whereas the last one (the meniscus correction) must always be taken into account.

P2 1

P1

h2 0 2 h1 H

Figure 2. Liquid filled U-tube manometer. When one measures low pressures several modifications of U-tube manometer are used, namely, well or reservoir manometer, inclined manometer, absolute pressure gauge.

Water wets glass

Mercury does not wet glass

Figure 3. Correct reading of the U-tube manometer.

3. Bourdon and diaphragm gages

3.1. Bourdon gauge The most widely used in industry for pressure and vacuum measurements (from 20 kPa to 1000 MPa) is a pressure gauge with sensitive element made of a metallic (various stainless-steel alloys, phosphor bronze, brass, beryllium copper, Monel, etc.) Bourdon tube 1 (see Figure 4). The tube was named after its inventor, E. Bourdon, who patented his invention in 1852. This tube has an elliptical or oval cross-section A A and has the shape of a bended tube. When the pressure inside the tube 1 increases, its cross-section dimension b1 also increases by the value of

b1 , whereas the cross-section dimension a1 reduces its length by the value of a1 . Therefore,

the tube tends to straighten (if pressure has increased) or twist (if pressure has decreased, for example, during vacuum measurements), and the tip 2 of the tube moves linearly with applied pressure. The movement of the tip is transmitted to the pointer 3 through a mechanism 4. The

tube tends to return to its original shape (the pointer returns to the starting position) after pressure is removed. A relationship between the value of the tip movement x and the measured pressure is linear, so the scale of this pressure gauge is uniform.

A
1

A-A A
b1 a1

3 2 b1+ b1

4 P

a1- a1

Figure 4. Bourdon tube pressure gauge. Some degree of hysteresis still exists during operation of these pressure gages, because metals cannot fully restore their initial elastic properties. If we have two Bourdon tubes made of the same metal, the tube with a bigger radius and a smaller thickness of the wall will have higher sensitivity. An accuracy of a typical Bourdon-tube pressure gauge is equal to 1%, whereas a specially designed gauge may have better accuracy which varies from 0.25 to 0.5%. 3.2. Diaphragm gauge Another type of pressure gauge, which utilises elastic-element properties, is a diaphragm pressure gauge. These gages are used when very small pressures (from 125 Pa to 25 kPa) are to be sensed. Fig. 5 shows a sensitive element for this type of pressure gauge. A flexible disc 1 made of trumpet brass, or phosphor bronze, or beryllium copper, or titanium, or tantalum, etc., is used to convert the measuring pressure to the deflection of the diaphragm. Deflection vs pressure characteristic should be close to linear as much as possible. In reality for a flat diaphragm this characteristic is non-linear. So, flat membranes are not used as sensitive elements. To linearise this relationship special diaphragms with concentric corrugations 6 are designed. Linearisation of a static characteristic of the membrane can be achieved by using a flat spring 2, which is connected, to the diaphragm through the mechanism 3. The movement of the mechanism 3 is transmitted by the link 4 to a pointer of the gauge. The measuring pressure is supplied to the pressure chamber 5 and causes the diaphragm to move upwards until the force developed by this pressure on the diaphragm is balanced by the force acted from the spring. To increase the sensitivity of this type of pressure gauge, we may increase the diameter of the diaphragm, to lengthen the spring, to change the material of the diaphragm and the spring to more elastic, to increase the depth and the number of corrugations of the diaphragm.

4 3

6 5 P 1

Figure 5. Sensitive element of a diaphragm pressure gauge. When pressure is applied to both sides of the membrane, then the resultant reading is proportional to the differential pressure. The space above the diaphragm is connected to atmosphere, so the diaphragm separates a measured media from the environment. In other words, it serves as a fluid or gas barrier or as a seal assembly, thus preventing contact of corrosive and aggressive fluids with pressure elements. Accuracy of diaphragm pressure gages varies from 1.0 to 1.5% of the span. 3.3. Bellows pressure gauge These pressure sensitive elements are usually made of stainless steel; phosphor bronze, brass and are used for pressure measurements for pressures up to 6 MPa. Bellows sensors have large displacement sensitivity. Figure 6 shows this type of sensor. The effective area of a bellows can be calculated using the following formula:

When pressure is applied to the internal surface of a bellows the force is developed Fef = PAef . according the formula: (5)

( R1 + R2 ) 2 , Aef = 4

(4)

4.4. Dead-weight pressure gages

These are the most accurate pressure gages, so they are used mostly for calibration of other pressure gages or for measurements, when high accuracy is required (for scientific purposes). The accuracy achieved may vary from 0.01 to 0.02% of the measuring pressure (these instruments are used for calibration of dead-weight pressure gages), those with the accuracy of 0.05% are used for calibration of other types of pressure gages. The range of measured pressures varies from 0.1 to 250 MPa. Figure 7 shows a schematic of a dead-weight pressure gauge. A cylindrical piston 1 is placed inside a stainless-steel cylinder 2. The measuring pressure is supplied through the vent 8 to the fluid 4 of this gauge. To avoid contact of a measured media with the fluid in the gauge, U-shape separating tubes (made of stainless steel with a thick wall) are used. These tubes are filled by one half of their volume with mercury. The measuring pressure spreads throughout the fluid in the dead-weight gauge system. Transformer mineral oil

and castor oil are used for measurements of low (up to 6 MPa) and high (up to 250 MPa) pressures, respectively. The measuring pressure by acting on the piston develops a force, which tends to bring the piston upwards. The gravitational force developed by calibrated weights 3 can balance this force and the piston itself. This force acts downwards. The balance should be achieved for a certain position of the piston against a pointer 9 of the stainless-steel cylinder. A manual piston pump 5 is used to achieve approximate force balance (to increase pressure in the system), whereas a wheel-type piston pump 6 serves for accurate balancing. A Bourdon-type pressure gauge 7 is used for visual reading of pressure, but not for pressure measurements in this case.
r

P 2R1 2R2

Figure 6. Bellows pressure sensitive element.

9 7 5

3 1 8 2 2

4 6
Figure 7. Dead-weight pressure gauge.

Thus measuring pressure can be evaluated using the formula:

where,

P mp mw g loc Sp

mp + mw ) g loc ( P= Sp , - measuring pressure, Pa ; - mass of the piston, kg ;

(6)

- mass of calibrated weights, kg ;

m ; s2 - cross-section area of the piston, m 2 .

- local gravitational acceleration,

In reality, this formula is more comprehensive in order to achieve high accuracy. Therefore, several corrections should be introduced, namely: the correction for the variation of piston cross-section area with variation of its temperature; the correction which takes into account the difference between local gravitational accelerations of the place where this dead-weight pressure gauge was calibrated and where it is used for pressure measurements; the buoyancy-type correction takes into account the weight of the air displaced by the piston and calibrated weights; we need to reduce friction of the piston inside the cylinder by spinning the weight platform with the piston to keep the piston floating; head of the oil should be constant in every measurement, this corresponds to a certain position of the piston in the cylinder.

5. Piezoelectric pressure transducers

The principle of these pressure transducers is based on the well-known phenomenon, that when an asymmetrical crystal is elastically deformed along its specific axes, an electrical charge is developed on its sides. The value of this charge is proportional to the force applied to the crystal, and, therefore, to the pressure under measurement. Fig. 8 shows piezoelectric crystal circuit. An electrical charge developed on the sides of the crystal is converted into a voltage-type signal using a capacitor. This voltage is proportional to the electrical charge developed, and to the pressure to be measured. Piezoelectric sensors cannot measure static pressures for more than a few seconds, but they have a very quick response when measure dynamic pressures.

Q + C R U

P -

Figure 8. Piezoelectric pressure sensor with electrical circuit.

Synthetically developed quartz crystals (barium titanate, lead zirconate) have similar properties as natural single crystal (quartz). But natural quartz still is the perfect material for manufacturing piezoelectric sensitive elements, because it has perfect elasticity and stability, it is insensitive to temperature variations and it has high insulation resistance. These pressure transducers are used for measurements of hydraulic and pneumatic pulsations, flow instabilities, fuel injection, etc. A variation of the electrical charge q piez , developed on the surfaces of a piezoelement for a change in the input variable measured pressure, P . Now we should measure this electrical charge. For this purpose two metal electrodes are attached to the opposite sides of a piezoelectric crystal. Thus, a capacitor is formed. The value of capacitance of this capacitor can be evaluated as follows:

C piez =
where,

0 Ax , d

(7)

C piez

- electrical capacitance of the piezoelement, F (Farad);

0 = 8.85,
Ax d

pF m

- the permittivity of vacuum, 1pF=10-12 F; - the relative permittivity of the material of the piezoelectric crystal, this is the dimensionless parameter; - cross-sectional area of the piezoelectric sensor in the direction, perpendicular to the axis X, m 2 ; - the thickness of the piezoelectric crystal in the direction, perpendicular to the axis X, m.

The relative permittivity, also called dielectric constant, for various piezoelectric materials is given below: for quartz (natural piezoelectric material) = 4.5 ; for tourmaline (natural piezoelectric material) = 6.6 ; for lead-zirconate-titanate (man-made piezoelectric ceramic material) = 1500 ; for lead metaniobate (man-made piezoelectric ceramic material) = 250 . It is also noted in the above mentioned reference, that natural piezoelectric materials have very low charge to force sensitivity, and therefore man-made piezoelectric ceramic materials are used as sensing elements: charge sensitivity to force for quartz charge sensitivity to force for tourmaline charge sensitivity to force for lead-zirconate-titanate

pC ; N pC pC 1.9, or 2.4, ; N N pC 265, ; N 2.3,

 charge sensitivity to force for lead metaniobate

80,

pC . N

We need to develop an electrical circuit which will allow us to convert variations of the capacitance of the piezoelectric sensor into the variation of an easy measurable electrical signal, voltage, for example. Such equivalent electrical circuit was developed, and is named after Norton.

Ipiez

+
Cpiez P Ccable Rload Vload

Figure 9. Norton equivalent electrical circuit for piezoelectric pressure/force measurements. 1- piezoelectric element, 2 connecting cable, 3 recorder. The piezoelectric element can be represented as a current source (or a charge generator) which is connected in parallel with a capacitance C piez . Then, this element is connected to a voltage recorder via connecting cables, which have the capacitance C cable . A recorder has a resistive load, Rload . The voltage measured across Rload is equal:

Vload = I piez * Z ,

(8)

where,

1 1 1 1 = + + Z RC piez RCcable Rload

- the impedance of three resistances connected in parallel, Ohm.

According to the definition, the capacitance is equal to the ratio of the charge to the voltage across the capacitor plates, according to:

C=
Lets consider capacitance C piez =

q , V
,

(9) (10)

q piez Vload

After differentiating both sides of (10) we can get:

dC piez dt

dq piez dt

1 Vload

(11)

or

C piez C piez

d I piez , = dt Vload

(12)

or, according to the Ohms Law, Similar we can get

d 1 = . dt R piez

(13) (14)

C cable

d 1 = . dt Rcable

Substitution of (4-74) and (4-75) into (4-69) will give:

Vload = I piez *
where, s =

1 + Rload

Rload , * (C piez + C cable ) s

(15)

d dt

- the Laplace operator.

Expressing variables Vload and I piez in deviation form and applying the Laplace transform to (15) we can get:
' Vload ( s ) = I 'piez ( s ) *

1 + Rload

Rload , * (C piez + C cable ) s

(16)

The transfer function for the Norton equivalent electrical circuit for piezoelectric pressure/force measurement system (see Figure 9) is as follows:

GV I ( s ) =
According to the definition:

' Vload ( s)

' piez ( s )

1 + Rload

Rload , * (C piez + C cable ) s

(17)

I piez =

dq piez dt

(18). Expressing these variables in deviation form and applying the

Laplace transform to (18) we can get:

I 'piez ( s ) = q 'piez ( s ) * s .
The transfer function relating current and charge of the piezoelectric sensor is as follows:

(19)

G I q ( s) =

I 'piez ( s ) q 'piez ( s )

=s.

(20)

The transfer function relating the voltage Vload and the measured pressure P can be determined as follows: Goverall ( s ) = GV P ( s ) = G q P ( s ) * G I q ( s ) * GV I ( s ) . (21)

After substitution of

G q P ( s) =

q 'piez ( s ) P'( s )

Kx , (17) and (19) into (21) we can 1 2 2 s + s + 1 2 n n

get an expression for an overall transfer function of the piezoelectric pressure/force measurement system:

I 'piez ( s ) Vload ( s ) GV P ( s ) = * * = P'( s ) q 'piez ( s ) I 'piez ( s )

(22)

q 'piez ( s )

Kx Rload *s* 1 2 2 1 + Rload * (C piez + C cable ) * s s + s +1 2 n n

6. Capacitance pressure transducers

Fig. 10 presents a transducer for sensing and transmitting differential pressure. Pressures to be measured act on isolating diaphragms 1 and 2 and are transmitted through a silicone oil 3, which fills the system, to a sensing diaphragm 4. This sensing diaphragm is balanced by two forces developed by measured pressures and presents the sensitive element. Capacitor plates 5 and 6 detect the position of the sensing diaphragm, which moves to the left or to the right, and, thus, the differential pressure applied to the sensitive element. The change in electric capacitance is electronically amplified and converted to the standard electrical analog or digital output signal, which is directly proportional to the difference of pressures. In order the capacitance transducer be able to measure comparatively low pressures, the device should produce about 25% change in capacitance for a full-scale pressure change. These transducers have low mass and high resolution. However, they are slightly dependent on temperature variation. Newly developed allsilicon capacitive pressure sensors have better thermal stability.
5 4 P1 P2 3 1 2 6

Figure 10. Variable capacitance differential pressure transducer. Variable separation capacitance sensors have non-linear relationship between electrical capacitance and the movement of the separating membrane according to the formula:

C=

where,

0 A , d +a

(23)

- the electrical capacitance of the pressure sensor, F (Farad);

0 = 8.85,
A

pF m

- the permittivity of vacuum, 1pF=10-12 F; - the relative permittivity of the insulating material between plates of the capacitor, this is the dimensionless parameter; - the cross-sectional area of the capacitor plate, m 2 ; - the distance between the capacitor plates, m ; - variation of the distance between the capacitor plates, m .

A three-plate differential version of the capacitive pressure sensor doesnt have such disadvantage (see Figure 11). Two fixed plates form two capacitances with the moving separating plate/membrane as follows: A A C1 = 0 , C2 = 0 . (24) and (25) d +a d a d-a d+a 2d d a

Figure 11. Three-plate differential pressure/displacement sensor (. Figure 12 shows an a.c. deflection bridge for the detection of variations of capacitances.

Z4 c I1 Vab a I2 d Z1

Z3

I1 b I2 Vcd

Z2

Figure 12. a.c. deflection bridge. In this bridge:

Z1 =

1 , (26) jC1

Z2 =

1 , (27) jC 2

Z 3 = Z 4 = R ,(28)

where, Z 1 and Z 2 Z 3 and Z 4

- reactive impedances, Ohm ; - resistive impedances, Ohm .

When I cd = 0 , then Vcd is called an open-circuit voltage of the bridge. According to the Kirchoffs laws we have:
V ab = I 1 Z 4 + I 1 Z 3 ,

(29)

Vab = I 2 Z 1 + I 2 Z 2 .

(30)

Let potential at Vb = 0 , then:

Vcd = Vc Vd = (Vab I 1 Z 4 ) (Vab I 2 Z 1 ) = I 2 Z 1 I 1 Z 4 = = Vab Vab Z1 Z 4 = Vab Z1 + Z 2 Z3 + Z4 Z1 Z4 * Z +Z Z +Z 2 3 4 1 =

= Vab

1 jC1 R * = Vab 1 1 R + R + jC 2 jC1

C2 1 * C +C 2 = 1 2

(31)

= Vab

0 A 1 d a * = Vab 0 A 0 A 2 + d +a d a
Vab 2d

1 1 d a * = 1 2 1 + d +a d a

=a*

So, the relationship between Vcd and

is linear.