MORPHOLOGY: THE WORDS OF LANGUAGE morphe (Greek) = shape, form -ology = "science of" MORPHOLOGY The study of the

internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed. To know a word, is to know

spelling pronunciation definition part of speech history non-standard/slang whether the word is vulgar / rude / bad whether the word is obsolete / outdated examples

LEXICON

The component of the grammar containing speakers knowledge about morphemes and words. a speakers mental dictionary.

Each word stored in our mental dictionaries must be listed with its unique phonological representation, which determines its pronunciation, and with its meaning. For literate speakers, the spelling or orthography of most of the words we know is also in our lexicons. Other information listed in our mental lexicon includes:

Grammatical category, or syntactic class such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and so on Semantic properties (meanings). bare

Homonyms (homophones) ? Different words with the same sounds: bear I. CLASSES OF WORDS 1. Lexical Content Words (Open Class Words)

The classes of words that are defined as words which have stateable LEXICAL MEAING - The majority of words in the language apart from the few FUNCION words. Lexical Content Words are also called pen class words, since we can add new words to these classes. Example: download : means to transfer information from one computer system to another (This entered English with the computer revolution) Nouns (attached by the suffix -s to mark plural, take s to mark possessive) One book, two books John'sbook

Verbs (attached by the suffixes -ed, -s, -ing, -en): walked, walks, walking, brighten Adjectives (attached by the suffixes -er, -est or use with more, most; occur with verbs like be, seem, appear) taller , tallest, morebeautiful, most beautiful be happy, seem happy Adverbs (attached by the suffix -ly; or use with more, most)
nicely , more beautifully We can and regularly do add new words to these classes 2. Function Words (Grammatical Words) -- closed class words

The class of words whose role is largely or wholly grammatical and do not carry the main semantic content. They are also called closed class words since the number of function words are limited in a language. articles the, a/an, some, lots of, few can, could, shall, should, may, might, must no, not subordinate conjunction while very, too and, or, but (connect two independent clauses) in, of I, me, mine, he, she, and so on

Determiners Auxiliary Negation Relations Intensifier Connectors Preposition Pronouns II. MORPHEME

the smallest unit of linguistic meaning. A single word may be composed of one or more morphemes.

Example: un+system+atic+al+ly ( the word unsystematically can be analyzed into 5 separate morphemes) A grammatical unit in which there is an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning that cannot be further analyzed. Every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes. boy (one syllable) desire, lady, water (two syllables) crocodile (three syllables) salamander (four syllables), or more syllables boy + ish desire + able boy + ish + ness desire + able + ity gentle + man + li + ness un + desire + able + ity un + gentle + man + li + ness anti + dis + establish + ment + ari + an + ism

One morpheme

Two morpheme Three morpheme Four morpheme More than four

1. Free Morphemes : Morphemes which can be used as a word on its own (without the need for further elements, i.e. affixes) Example: girl, system, desire, hope, act, phone, happy. . 2. Bound Morphemes: Morphemes which cannot occur on its own as an independent (or separate) word.

Affixes (prefix, suffix, infix and circumfix) are all bound morphemes. Prefixes Suffixes Bound morphemes which occur following other morphemes. Examples: -er (singer, performer) -ist (typist, pianist) -ly (manly, friendly) Infixes Bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes. Example: fikas "strong" fumikas "to be strong" (Bontoc Language) Circumfixes (discontinuous morpheme) Bound morphemes that are attached to a root or stem morpheme both initially and finally. Example: chokma "he is good" ik + chokm + o "he isnt good" (Chickasaw Language)

Bound morphemes which occur only before other morphemes. Examples: un- (uncover, undo) dis- (displeased, disconnect), pre- (predetermine, prejudge)

3. Root vs. Stem

Root Non-affix lexical content morphemes that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts (ex.) cran (as in cranberry), act, beauty, system, etc.. Free Root Morpheme: run bottle, phone, etc. Bound Root Morpheme: receive, remit, uncount, uncouth, nonchalant, etc.

Stem When a root morpheme is combined with affix morphemes, it forms a stem. Other affixes can be added to a stem to form a more complex stem.

Root Stem Word Root Stem Stem Stem Word

believe believe + able un + believe + able system system + atic un + system + atic un + system + atic + al un + system + atic + al + ly

(verb) (verb + suffix) (prefix + verb + suffix) (noun) (noun + suffix) (prefix + noun + suffix) (prefix + noun + suffix + suffix) (prefix + noun + suffix + suffix + suffix)

4. Derivational morphemes vs. Inflectional Morphemes (Bound morphemes)

Derivational Morphemes 1. Derivational morphemes derive a new word by being attached to root morphemes or stems.

Inflectional Morphemes 1. Inflectional morphemes signal grammatical information such as number (plural), tense, possession and so on. They are thus often called bound grammatical morphemes

2. They can be both suffixes and prefixes in English. Examples: beautiful, exactly, unhappy, impossible, 2. They are only found in suffixes in English. recover Examples: boys, Marys , walked 3. Change of Meaning 3. No change of Meaning Examples: un+do (the opposite meaning of do) Examples: walk vs. walks sing+er ( deriving a new word with the toy vs. toys meaning of a person who sings). 4. Change of the syntactic category i) Change of category

(optionally)

4. Never change the syntactic category of the words or morpheme to they which they are attached. They are always attached to completed words

Noun to Adjective

boy (noun) + ish ---->

boyish (adj.) Elizabeth (noun) + an ----> Elizabethan (adj.) affection (noun) + ate ---->affectionate (adj.)

Examples:

walk vs. walked or walks (V--> V) boy vs. boys (N --> N) eat vs. eating (progressive) (V-->V)

Verb to Noun singer (noun) ----> prediction (noun) Adjective to Adverb exactly (adv) quietly (adv.) Noun to Verb ----> moralize (verb) Adjective to Noun ---->specificity (noun) ii) No change of category

sing (Verb) + er ----> predict (Verb) + ion exact (adj) + ly ----> quiet (adj) + ly ----> moral (noun) + ize specific (Adj.) + ity

In English, inflectional morphemes typically follow derivational morphemes unlikelihood, unlikelihoods (not

Examples: *unlikeslihood)

friend+ship (Noun --> Noun) pink+ish (Adjective --> Adjective) re+print (Verb --> Verb) 5. English Inflectional Morphemes -s third person singular present Examples She waits at home.

-ed past tense -ing progressive -en past participle -s plural -s possessive -er comparative Karin. -est superlative

She waited at home. She is eating the donut. Mary has eaten the donuts. She ate the donuts. Disa's hair is short. Disa has shorter hair than Disa has the shortest hair.

III. MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS: IDENTIFYING MORPHEMES Suppose that we collected the following sets or paradigms of forms Paku (textbook pp.96) ( the language used by the monkey people called Pakuni) me "I" ye "you(singular)" we "he" wa "she" abuma "girl" adusa "boy" abu "child" meni yeni weni wani abumani adusani abuni "we" "you(plural)" "they(masculine)" "they(feminine)" "girls" "boys" "children"

To detemine what the morphemes are in such a list, what you have to do is to see if there are any forms that mean the same thing in different words, that is, to look for recurring forms. We find -ni occuring in all the words in the right column which are plurals. Therefore, we can conclude that ?ni as a separate morpheme meaning "plural" which is attached to as a suffix to a noun. In more complex cases, the next step will be to make a list of all the morphemes we find including free morphemes (root) and bound morphemes and indicate what the meaning of each morpheme and also whether they are root morphemes or

bound morphemes. When you find bound morphemes, you also need to indicate whether they are derivational morphemes or inflectional morphemes.

Simple teaching Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes

Root Words | Suffix | Prefix COMMON ROOT WORDS AND WORD ORIGINS ROOTS alter ami, amicamphi ann, enni anthrop aqua, aque arch MEANING other love both ends or all sides year human, man water chief, leader, ruler WORD alternate, alter ego amiable, amicable amphibian anniversary, annual, biennial, perennial anthropology, anthropomorphic, misanthrope aquatic, aquarium, aqueduct archangel, monarch, archaic, archenemy

arthro aud bell biblio biobrev cap carn ced chromchroncogn cord/chord corp crac, crat cred cruc crusta crypt culp dei demodent dermdic dox duc, duct duo dynamego equ fac

joint sound war book life short take, seize meat yield, go color time know cord body rule, ruler believe cross shell hidden guilt god people tooth skin speak, say belief, opinion lead two power self equal make, do

arthritis auditorium, audible, audiologist, audiotape belligerent, bellicose bibliography, bibliophile biography, autobiography, biology, antibiotic brief, abbreviate capture, captivate, capacity carnivorous, chili con carne recede, secede, proceed, intercede, concession chromatic, monochrome, polychrome chronicle, chronology, chronometer, synchronize recognize, cognitive, incognito harpsichord corpus, corpse, corporal autocrat, democracy, bureaucrat, democracy credible, credulous, credibility, credit, credo crucifix, crucial crustacean cryptogram, cryptology, cryptic culpable, culprit deity, deify demography, democracy, epidemic dentist, dentifrice, dentin dermatology, epidermis, hypodermic dictate, predict, diction, indict orthodoxy, paradox, heterodoxy induce, deduce, seduction, conduct, abduct duo dynamo, hydrodynamics egotist, egomania equal, equity, equanimity, equate, equidistant manufacture, factory, benefactor

fil frater gamgeoglyph grad, gress graphgym gynhemo, hema, hem holo hydro, hydr iso ject jud leg, lect liter loc log luc magn man mar mater mere meta, met metri, metermin mit, miss mob, mot, mov mon mor, mort

threadlike brother marriage earth vertical groove step writing, printing naked woman blood whole, entire water equal, identical throw judge read, choose letter place word light large hand sea mother part, segment behind, between measure small send move warn death

filament fraternal, fraternize monogamy, polygamy, bigamy geopolitical, geology, geography, geothermal HieroglyphicsEgyptian sky writing gradual, progression, transgression graphology, biography, telegraph, geography gymnasium gynecologist, androgynous hemophilia, hematology, hemoglobin holograph dehydrate, hydraulics, hydroelectric, hydroplane isolate inject, reject, subject, projection judicial, judge, adjudicate legible, lectern, lecturer, election literature, illiterate, literal local, location monologue, epilogue lucid, elucidate magnify, magnate, magnificent manufacture, manual, manuscript marine, mariner maternal, maternity, matriarchy, matricide mere metacognitionbehind the thinking geometric, thermometer, odometer minority, minuscule, minute permit, submission, mission, emit, mobile, automobile, motion, promote, movie premonition, admonition mortal, mortician, immortality

morph mut neuro nomen /nomin nov nym, onym odonto orthopac pater path ped, pod pel, puls pend phon-, phonoplan pneum pod port pot psychpugna quer, quis scent, scend schizo, schiz sci sciss scrib, script sec, sect sed, sess sens, sent sequ, secu

form, structure change nerve name new word, name tooth straight, correct peace father feeling, suffering foot push hang, weigh sound, voice flat lung feet carry power soul, spirit, mind fight ask climb division, split know cut write cut sit feel, be aware follow

metamorphosis, amorphous, morphology mutant, mutability, mutate neurology, neurosis, neurobiology nominal, nominate, nomenclature novel, renovate, innovation, novella synonym, acronym, anonymous, pseudonym orthodontistone who straightens teeth orthodox, orthodontist, orthopedic pacify, Pacific Ocean, pacifist paternal, paternity, patricide, patrilineal, patriotic sympathy, apathy, empathy, telepathy, pathology pedal, pedometer, centipede, gastropod pulsate, repulsive, impulse, compel, propel pendulum, pendant, suspend, pending telephone, euphony, cacophony, phonograph planar, plantation, plane pneumatic podiatrist portable, transport, portage, report, potent, omnipotent, potentate psychology, psychic, psychobiography pugnacious, pugilist query, inquisition, ascend, ascent schizophrenic scientific scissors manuscript, scribe, proscribe, scripture dissect, section sedentary, session sensible, sentient sequence, sequel, consecutive

serv simil siphon sol son soph spec, spic spir spir spond, spons spont stat tang, tact temp ten, tent terr theo thermtrophy uro vac ven, vent ver vert vit voc zoo

serve, protect same tube sun sound wisdom, knowledge look, see coil breathe promise, answer for by one's own force stay, position touch time hold earth god, deity heat nutrition, food urine empty come, go truth turn life call animal

service similar, assimilate, simile, facsimile (fax) siphon solar sonar, resonate, unison philosophy, sophisticated, sophomore (wise fool) spectacles, spectator, inauspicious, prospect spiral inspire, respiration, conspire, perspiration respond, responsible spontaneous station tactile, tangible temporary, temporize tentative, tenable, tenuous subterranean, terrain, terrestrial, disinter theology, polytheism, atheist, monotheism thermal, thermos, thermometer atrophywithout nutrition urologist vacation, vacuum, vacuous, vacant intervene, convene, contravene veracity, verify, verity introvert, irreversible, vertigo vital, revitalize, vitamin revoke, invocation, vocal, evocative, convocation zoo, zoology, zoolatry PREFIXES

PREFIX a-, an-

MEANING not, without

EXAMPLES amoral, anesthetic, apolitical, asocial

abadambianaantiapoautobenecata-, catcentro, centricircumcomconcontradedia-, didisdyseectoen-, emendoepiesoeuexheterohomohyperhypoilim-

away from to, toward both up, back, again against from, away from self good down, against around, center around with, together with, together against down, away through, across apart, not ill, difficult, bad out of, from on the outside in within, inside upon inward, within well, good out of, from other, different same over under not not

abduction, abstain, abnormal adjoin, adjacent (lying near to) ambidextrous, ambivalent analogy, anatomy, anagram antipathy, antiwar, antisocial apology, apologize autobiography, automobile, autocracy, automaton benediction benevolent benefactor catastrophe--a turning down concentric, centrifugal circumlocution circumference, circumvent communal, community connect, confide conspire contradict, contravene descend, deject (cast down) diameter, division disengage, discord, discomfort dysfunctional, dysentery elect (choose out of), eject (throw out) ectoderm--outer skin empathy--feeling in endoscope--instrument for observing inside epitaph epidermis, epicenter esoteric--more inward, esophagus euthanasia--good death exhume, exhale, exodus heterosexual, heterodoxy, heterodox heterogeneous homosexual, homogeneous, homogenized hypertension, hypersensitive, hyperactivity hypotension, hypodermic illegitimate, illicit, illegal, illegible imperfect, impolite, impossible

iminininterintrairmacromal, malemetamicromononeoobpalin-, palipanparaperperiphil-, philopolypostpreproprosprotopseudo reretrosesubsur-, supersyn-, sym-, syl-,

into not into between within not large bad, evil beyond small one, single new, recent against back, again all, every false through around like, lover of many, several after before for, forward toward, in front first false again, back back away from under over, above with, together

imbibe (drink in, take in) indiscreet, invisible incorporate (take into the body) intervene (come between), interstate intrastate, intramural irregular, irrational, irredeemable macrocosm, macroeconomics malediction malevolent, malnutrition metaphysical microscope, microcosm, microeconomics monologue, monotheism, monarchy, monogamy neologism, neo-liberal, neonatology. neolithic object, obstruct (build against) palindrome pantheism, Pan-Hellenic, panorama, pandemic paramilitary, paralegal, parachute percolate (flow through) perforate (punch through) perimeter, periscope philosophy, Francophile, bibliophile, philanthropy polygon, polygamy, polytechnic, polytheism postgraduate, posthumous postpone precede, predict (tell before) promote, project prospectview in front, something coming up prototype, protoplasm, protobiology pseudonym, pseudoscience repeat, recede, regress (step back) retrogression, retroactive seduce (lead away), secede submarine, subject, subhuman subterranean superhuman, superego, superintend, surpass symphony, synonym, system, syllable

systeletrans-

distant, far off across

telephone, telepathy, television, telegram transient, Transatlantic, transport (carry across)

SUFFIXES SUFFIX -agog, -agogue -cide -ectomy -ia, -y -ic, -tic, -ical, -ac -ics -isk, -iscus -ism -ist -ite -logy -oid -or, -er -phobia -sis DEFINITION leader kill(ing) cutting act, state having to do with things having to do with small the belief in one who believes in one connected with study field of resembling, like-shaped one who takes part in exaggerated fear act, state, condition of EXAMPLE demagogue, pedagogue patricide, infanticide, herbicide. suicide appendectomy, splenectomy amnesia, mania, democracy, anarchy anthropomorphic, dramatic, biblical, cardiac optics, physics asterisk--a little star pacifism, terrorism, socialism, communism pacifist, terrorist, socialist, communist meteorite, polite, cosmopolite biology, geology, etymology, cardiology asteroid, spheroid doctor, actor, teacher, driver photophobia, claustrophobia, agoraphobia analysis