Course in Mechanic Drawing John Reid

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A COURSE
IN
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
BY
JOHN
Sibley College,
S.
REID,
Instructor in Mechanical
Drawing and Designings

N,
V.
Cornell University,
Ithaca,
FIRST EDITION.
FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK.
JOHN WILEY & SONS. London CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.

:
Copyright, 1898,
BY
JOHN
S.
RE ID.
Ûu^
C^w
'
-

c c
t*
c*
ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK.
PREFACE.
In the course of a large experience as an instructor

drawing and designing, the author of
called
this
in
work has often been

drawing to
upon to teach the elements
of mechanical
students in marine, electrical, railway, and mechanical engineering.

ject that
Having
tried
and
failed to find a
book on the subhe
was entirely suitable

it
for his use as a text-book,
has found
necessary to prepare the present work.

in
This course contains,

plete and
the author's
judgment, a com-
concise statement, accompanied
by examples,
of
the essential principles of mechanical drawing
all
that
any
young man
ful study,
of ordinary intelligence needs to master,
by
care-
the more advanced problems met with in machine
construction and design.
Such works
as the author has tried,
although most excellent from certain standpoints, were either

incomplete in some of the divisions of the subject or too volu-
minous and elementary
in the
treatment of details.
this
is
The author does not imagine

believes that
it
work
is
perfect, but he
in
comes nearer what
needed
teaching the
schools, high
elements
of
mechanical drawing
in
technical
schools, evening drawing schools,
and colleges than any work
he has examined.
The chapter on Conventions
will
be appreciated by students
PREFA CE.
when
work.
called
upon
to execute
working drawings
in
practical
The methods
described are considered by the author
to be those which have
met with general approval by the
experienced American draftsmen of the present time.
My
of
acknowledgments are due to E. C. Cleaves, professor
drawing, Sibley College, Cornell University, for reading
the manuscript and

April
making some valuable suggestions.
The Author.
I,
1S98.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
The Complete
Outfit, Illustrated
CHAPTER
Instruments Use of Instruments
Pencil
I.
7
7 7
Drawing Pen
Triangles
1
9
11 11
Square
Drawing Board
Sibley College Scale
Scale Guard
12 12
13
Compasses
Dividers or Spacers
13
Spring
Bows
14 14
Irregular Curves
Protractor
14
CHAPTER
Geometrical Drawing
II.
16
CHAPTER
Conventions
III.
56.
CHAPTER
Lettering and Figuring
IV.
64
CHAPTER
Orthographic Projection
Shade Lines and Shading Conventions Shading Isometrical Drawings Working Drawings
V. 74 103
104 106
ii2
118
iii
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
INTRODUCTION.
A NEED has been felt by instructors and students, especially

in technical courses, for a
text-book that would illustrate the

in
fundamental principles of mechanical drawing

tical,
such a pracenable the
lucid,
direct
and progressive way
as
to
instructor to teach, and the student to acquire, the greatest
number
of time.
of the essential principles involved,
and the
ability to
apply them, in a draftsman-like manner,
in the shortest
space
With
this in
mind, the present work has been prepared
from the experience of the writer, a practical draftsman and

teacher for over fifteen years.
THE COMPLETE OUTFIT.

The complete
Sibley College
(i)
is
outfit for students in
mechanical drawing
in
as follows
for
The Drawing-board
freshman work
is
if
26"
y^22"
the same as that used for free-hand drawing.

is
The
board for sophomore and junior drawing
20"
not
more than \"
in thickness.
The
material should be soft pine

i.
and constructed as shown by Fig.
MECHANICAL DRAWING,
(2) (3)
Paper, quality and

Pencils, one.
size to suit.
6H
and one
4H
Koh-i-noor or Faber,
tip.
is
also
one Eagle Pilot No. 2 with rubber
(4)
The T-Square
for
freshman work
furnished by the
department
all
a plain
pearwood T-square with a fixed head
is
that
is
necessary for sophomore or junior work.
Length
to suit drawing-board.
(5)
Instruments.
''The Sibley College Set," shown by

writer,
Fig. 2,
was compiled by the

medium-priced
and
is
recommended
It
as a
first-class
set of instruments.
contains*
Fig.
2.
Compass,
^\" long, with fixed needle-point, pencil,

bar.
pen
and lengthening
Spring
'*
Bow
''
Pencil,
3''
long.
A
A A A A
Pen, i" long.
"
"
Spacer, i" long.

length.
Drawing-pen, medium
nickel-plated
Hair-spring Divider, ^"
long.
box with
leads.
INTRODUCTION.
(6)
Triangular
Boxwood
Scale graduated
as
Fig.
3.
follows: ^' and 2", i" and i^' 1 "
\" and
|^ ^' and %"
-J/'
and
Fig.
4.
Fig.
5.
MECHANICAL DKA WING.

(7)
I
Triangle
''
30
60, celluloid, 10" long.

''
Fig. 4.
45,
"
"
(8)
(9)
''Sibley College Set" of Irregular Curves.
Glass-paper Pencil Sharpener.
Fig.
6.
(10) Ink, black waterproof,
S.&H.
Higgins.
Fig. 7. Fig.
8.
(11)
(12)
"
''
red
''
blue
''
,
Fig.
7.
Fig.
8.
(13)
(14)
Ink Eraser, Faber's Typewriter.

Pencil Eraser, Tower's Multiplex Rubber.
Fig.
IN TROD UCTION.
(15)
Sponge Rubber
or
Faber's
Kneaded Rubber.
Pig.
10.
Fig.
9.
(16)
(17)
Tacks,
a small
box
of
oz. tacks.
Water-colors, \ pan each

Fig. 11.
of Payne's Gray,
Crim-
son Lake, Prussian Blue, Burnt Sienna, and

sor
Gamboge. Wind-
& Newton.
Fig. 10.
Fig. ii.
(18)
Tinting Brush, Camel's Hair No.
10.
Fig. 12,
Fig. 12.
(19)
Tinting Saucer.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
-
(20)
(21)
(22)
sides.
Water
Glass.
Arkansas Oil-stone. '^" Y^ \" V^t^" Piece of Sheet Celluloid No. 3000,
dull
on both
6
(23) (24)
MECHANICAL DRA WING.

Protractor, German silver, abouts^diam.
Fig.
15,
Scale Guard,
*'
Fig. 13.
Fig.
14.
(25)
(26)
Sheet of Tracing-cloth,
Writing-pen,
18''
24''.
point, ''Gillott"
No. 303.
\i?i,i.i,y,i,u.ih7,i.i,i,i,iTi
Fig.
15.
Fig. 16.
(27) Piece of
SHEET BRASS, 4''X4".

handles.
(28)
Needles, two with
The
all
following numbers of ''The Complete Outfit" are
that the student will be required to purchase for freshman

2, 3, 5, 6, 7,
mechanical drawing (No. 2 Register, 'qZ-'qS):

8, 9,
10,
13,
14,
16, 26.
The remainder
of the outfit
may
be purchased during the
sophomore and junior years.
CHAPTER
I.
INSTRUMENTS.
It
is
common
belief
among
students that any kind of
cheap instrument
will
do with which to learn mechanical
drawing, and not until they have acquired the proper use of
the instruments should they spend
class set.
money
in
buying a
first-
This
is
one of the greatest mistakes that can be
made.
Many
a student has been discouraged and disgusted
because, try as he would, he could not
make
good
draAving,
using a set of instruments
with which
it
would be
difficult for
even an experienced draftsman to make a creditable showing.

If it is
necessary to economize in this direction
it is
better
and easier to get along with a fewer number, and have them
of the best, than
it is
to have an elaborate outfit of question-
able quality.
are
The instruments composing the ''Sibley College Set" made by T. Alteneder & Sons, and are certainly as good
See Fig.
17.
.
as the best.
USE OF INSTRUMENTS.
The
Z*^;?^//.^Designs of all
first,
kinds are usually worked out
in pencil
and
if
to be finished
and kept they are inked

if
in
and sometimes colored and shaded; but

to be finished in pencil, then
center,
all
the drawing
is
only
the lines except construction,
and dimension
lines
should be
made broad and

7
dark,
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
v/ill
SO that the drawing
stand out clear and distinct.
It will
be noticed that this

first
calls
for two kinds of pencil-lines, the
a thin, even line
made with
(either
a hard, fine-grained lead-
pencil, not less than
6H
Koh-i-noor or Faber's), and
sharpened to a knife-edge
in the following
manner: The lead

a knife for about
;
should be carefully bared of the
wood with
and the wood neatly tapered back from that point
then
lay the lead

outfit,
upon the glass-paper sharpener
illustrated in the
and carefully rub to and
fro until the pencil
assumes a
over and
last
long taper from the wood to the point; now turn
it
do the same with the other

slightly oscillating
side,
using toward the
motion on both sides

thin, knife-edge
until the point has

elliptical
assumed a sharp,
endwise and an
contour the other way.
This point should then be polished on a piece of scrap
drawing-paper until the rough burr
left
by the glass-paper
for
is
removed, leaving a smooth, keen, ideal pencil-point

ing straight lines.
draw-
With such
hands
of the
a point but
little
pressure
is
required in the
draftsman to draw the most desirable Hne, one
that can be easily erased
when necessary and inked

if
in
to a
much
nation
better advantage than
the line had been

is
made with
blunt point, because,

is
when
the pencil-point
it
blunt the
a line.
incli-
to press hard
in the
upon
when drawing
it
This
forms a groove
paper which makes
very
difficult to
draw an even inked
line.
The second kind

explained above
pencil, say
;
of a pencil-line
is
the broad
line,
as
it
should be drawn with a somewhat softer

a thicker point.
4H, and
All lines not necessary to explain the drawing should be
INSTRUMENTS.
erased before inking or broadening the pencil-lines, so as to
make
minimum
of erasing
and cleaning
after the
drawing
is
finished.
When
drawing pencil-lines, the pencil should be held

of
in a
plane passing through the edge
the T-square perpen-
dicular to the plane of the paper and
making an angle with
the plane of the paper equal to about 60.
Lines should always be drawn from
left to right.
soft
conical-pointed pencil should be used for lettering, figuring,
and
all
free-hand work.
The Drazving-pen.
is
The best form,

The
in the writer's opinion,
that
shown
in
Fig. 17.
spring on the upper blade
Fig. 17.
spreads the blades sufficiently apart to allow for thorough

cleaning
and sharpening.
The hinged
blade
is
therefore
unnecessary.
The pen should be
held in a
plane passing
through the edge of the T-square
at right angles to the plane
of the paper, and making an angle with the
plane of the
paper ranging from 60 to 90.
The
point,
best of drawing-pens will in time wear dull on the

until the student has learned
and
from a competent
lO
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
how
to sharpen his pens
it
teacher
would be better to have
them sharpened by the manufacturer.

It is difficult to
explain the
method
of sharpening a
draw-
ing-pen.
If
one blade has worn shorter than the other, the blades,
should be brought together by means of the thumb-screw, and.

placing the pen in an upright position draw the point to
fro
and
and
on the oil-stone
in a
plane perpendicular to
it,
raising
lowering the handle of the pen at the same time, to give the
proper curve to the point.

of
''
The Arkansas
oil-stones (No. 2
The Complete
Outfit ") are best for this purpose.
The
blades should next be opened slightly, and holding"
the pen in the right hand in a nearly horizontal position, place
the lower blade on the stone and

slightly turning the
move
it
quickly to and
fro,
pen with the
fingers
and elevating the
handle
a. little
at the
little,
end of each stroke.
Having ground the
lower blade a
turn the pen completely over and grind,
the upper blade in a similar

of time
;
manner
for
about the same length
then clean the blades and examine the extreme^

if
points,
and
there are
still
bright spots to be seen continue
the grinding until
they entirely disappear,
and
finish
the
sharpening by polishing on a piece of smooth leather.
The
paper.
blades should not be too sharp, or they will cut the
The grinding should be continued only

show on the points
of the blades.
as long as the
bright spots
When
men
inking, the pen should be held in about the
same
position as described for holding the pencil.
hold the pen vertically.
The
position
Many may be
drafts-
varied
with good results as the pen wears.
Lines made with the
pen should only be drawn from
left to right.
lA^S TR
UMEN TS.
THE TRIANGLES.
The
triangles
shown
at Fig.
(in
" The Complete Outfit ")
are lo'^ and y" long respectively, and are

celluloid.
made
of transparent
The
black rubber triangles sometimes used are but
very
little
cheaper (about 10 cents) and soon become dirty
when
in use; the
rubber
is
brittle
and more easily broken than
the celluloid.
Angles of
15, 75, 30, 45, 60,
and 90 can readily be

Lines parallel to
drawn with the triangles and T-square.
oblique lines on the drawing can be drawn with the triangles
by placing the edge representing the height

hypotenuse
first,
of
one of them
so as to coincide with the given line, then place the edge rep-
resenting
the
of
the
other against the corre-
sponding edge of the

lower
and by sliding the upper on the

left
when holding
of lines
the lower firmly with the
hand any
line.
number
may
of
be drawn parallel to the given
The methods
drawing perpendicular
lines
and making
angles with other lines within the scope of the triangles and T-
square are so evident that further explanation
is
unnecessary.
THE T-SQUARE.
The
use of the T-square
is
very simple, and

left
is
accom-
plished by holding the head firmly with the
hand against
the
right
the left-hand end of the drawing-board,
leaving
hand
lines.
free to use the
pen or pencil
in
drawing the required
THE DRAWING-BOARD.
If
the left-hand edge of the drawing-board

is
is
straight
and
even and the paper
tacked
down square with
that edge and
12
MECHANICAL DRAWING,
the T-square, then horizontal lines parallel to the upper edge

of the paper and perpendicular to the left-hand edge
may be
they
drawn with the T-square, and
lines
perpendicular to these
set squares^ as
can be made by means of the triangles, or

are sometimes
called.
THE SIBLEY COLLEGE SCALE.

This
fit
scale, illustrated in Fig. 3 (in/'
The Complete Outin Sibley
"),
was arranged to
It is
suit the
needs of the students
College.
triangular and
made
of
boxwood.
The
six
edges
are
graduated as follows;
I
-^-^"
or full size, -g-V^ ^'
and ^'
4''
=
2''
ft.,
I
i''
and
i''
ft.,
3''
and
li''
ft.,
and
and
ft.
Drawings of very small objects are generally shown enlarged
e.g.,
if
it is
determined to make a drawing twice the
full size of
an object, then where the object measures one inch
the drawing would be
made
2^\ etc.
full
Larger objects or small machine parts are often drawn

size
is
i.e.,
the same size as the object really
is
and the drawmade

to a to the scale of
rule
ing
said to be
made
to the scale of full size.

details are usually
is
Large machines and large

reduced scale
e.g.,
2^'
if
a drawing
to be
made
2"
ft.,
then
measured by the standard
would be
*
divided into 12 equal parts and each part would represent i^\
See Fig. Sib.
THE SCALE GUARD.

This instrument
Outfit ").
It is
is
shown
in Fig.
16 (in
"The Complete
employed
to prevent the scale from turning,

it
so that the draftsman can use
without having to look for
INSTRUMENTS.
the particular edge he needs every time he wants to lay off

a measurement.
THE COMPASSES.
When
fingers,
about to draw a
circle
or an arc of a circle, take
hold of the compass at the joint with the
thumb and two
first
guide the needle-point into the center and set the
pencil or pen leg to the required radius, then
move the thumb

at the
and forefinger up to the small handle provided
top of
the instrument, and beginning at the lowest point draw the

line
clockwise.
The weight
of the
compass
will
be the only
down pressure required. The sharpening of the

commencing
them always
a drawing
lead for the compasses
is
a very im-
portant matter, and cannot be emphasized too much.

it
Before
pays well to take time to properly
sharpen the pencil and the lead for compasses and to keep
in
good condition.
The
same
as
directions for sharpening the compass leads are the
has already been given for the sharpening of the
straight-line pencil.
THE DIVIDERS OR SPACERS.

This instrument should be held
scribed for the compass.
It is
in the
same manner as dein laying off equal
very useful
distances 'on straight lines or circles.

into
is
To
divide a given line

it
any number
of equal parts with the dividers, say 12,

first,
best to divide the line into three or four parts
say 4,
and then when one of these parts has been subdivided accurately
into
three equal parts,
it
will
be a simple matter to
step off these latter divisions on the remaining three-fourths
14
cf the given line.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Care should be taken not to make holes
it is
in
the paper with the spacers, as
difficult to
ink over
them
without blotting.
THE SPRING BOWS.

These instruments are valuable
cles
for
drawing the small

all
cir-
and arcs
of circles.
fillets,
It is
very important that

etc.,
the
small arcs, such as
round corners,
should be care-
fully pencilled in before
beginning to ink a drawing.
Many
between
good drawings
are spoiled because of the bad joints
small arcs and straight lines.
When commencing
circles,
to
ink a drawing,
first,
all
small arcs and
small circles should be inked
then the larger arcs and
and the straight
lines last.
This
is
best, because
it is
much
easier to
know where
to stop the arc line,

it,
and to draw
the straight line tangent to
than vice versa.
IRREGULAR CURVES.
The
Sibley College Set of Irregular Curves
shown
in
Fig.
5 are useful for drawing irregular curves through points that
have already been found by construction, such as

cycloids, epicyloids, etc., as in the
outlines, rotary
ellipses,
cases of gear-teeth,
cam
pump
wheels, etc.
When
using these curves, that curve should be selected
that will coincide with the greatest

line required.
number
of points
on the
THE PROTRACTOR.
This Instrument
It
is
is
for
measuring and constructing angles.

used as follows when measuring
shown
in Fig. 15.
It is
INSTRUMENTS.
an angle: Place the lower
which forms one
straight edge on the straight line
of the sides of
the angle, with the nick
exactly on the point of the angle to be measured.
Then
the
number
the
left,
of degrees contained in
the angle
may
be read from
clockwise.
In constructing an angle, place the nick at the point from
which
it is
desired to draw the angle, and on the outer circum-
ference of the protractor, find the figure corresponding to the
number
after
of degrees in the required angle,
and mark a point on
the paper as close as possible to the figure on the protractor;
removing the protractor, draw a
line
through
this point
to the nick, which will give the required angle.
CHAPTER
II.
GEOMETRICAL DRAWING.
The
pose
:
following problems are given to serve a double pur--
to teach the use of drawing instruments,

in practical
and to point
out those problems

in
geometry that are most useful
mechanical drawing, and to impress them upon the mind of
the student so that he
may
readily apply
them
in practice.
The drawing-paper
tangles as
for this
work should be divided tem-
porarily, with light pencil-lines, into as
many
squares and rec-
may
be directed by the instructor, and the drawings

as the size of the squares will permit.
less
made
as large
The
average size of the squares should be not

a sheet of drawings
erased.
It will
all
is
than
4''.
When
may be
finished these
boundary
lines
be noticed in the illustrations of this chapter that
construction lines are
made very narrow, and given and

This
is
required lines quite broad.
sufficient
to
distinguish
if
them, and employs
less
time than would be necessary
the
construction lines were

If
made broken,
it is
as
is
often the case.
time will permit,
advisable to ink in
some
of these
drawings toward the
last.
In that event, the given lines
may
be red, the construction lines blue, and the required lines

black.
But even when inked
in in black, the
broad and narrow

16
lines
\J
of col-
would serve the purpose very well without the use
ored inks.
The
ings
is
principal thing to be
aimed
at in
making these draw-
accuracy of construction.
All dimensions should be

Straight lines join-
laid off carefully, correctly,
and quickly.
ing arcs should be exactly tangent, so that the joints cannot
be noticed.
It is the little
if
things like these that
make
or
mar
a drawing, and
attended to or neglected they will make or
mar the draftsman.

should be to
quicker and better
The constant endeavor

every
of the student
make every drawing he begins more

in
accurate,
way than
the preceding one.

in as finished until the
it
drawing should never be handed

is
student
perfectly sure that he cannot improve

is
in
any way
whatever, for the act of handing in a drawing
the same, or
I
should be the same, as saying This

I
is
the best that
can do;
cannot improve
this drawing.
it
it
is
a true measure of
my
ability to
make
If
these suggestions are faithfully followed throughout this
course, success awaits
any one who earnestly desires
it.
Fig.
8.
To
Bisect a Finite Straight Line.
With
A
of
and
B in
turn as centers, and a radius greater than the half

arcs intersecting at
AB^ draw
E and
F.
Join
EF bisect-
ing
AB
An
at C.
arc of a circle
Fig. 19.
may be bisected in the same way. To Erect a Perpendicular at the End of

line as center
THE Line.
radius
Assume the point E above the

describe an arc
and
EB
CBD
cutting the line
AB
in the
point C.
From C draw
a line through
E cutting
the arc in
D.
Draw
DB
the perpendicular.
Fig. 20.
The Same Problem: a Second Method.
i8
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
center
With
and any radiuS as

;
BC
describe an arc
CDE
with the same radius
measure
off
the arcs
CD and DE. With
and
D as
centers and any convenient radius describe arcs in-
tersecting at F.
FB
is
the required perpendicular.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 2
1.
To Draw a Perpendicular to a Line
FROM A Point above or below It. Assume the point C above the Hne. With center C and any suitable radius From E and F describe arcs cut the line AB in E and F. Draw CD the perpendicular required. cutting in D.
Fig. 22.
19
as center
To Bisect a Given Angle.
With A
and any convenient radius describe the arc BC.
With
and
C as
at
centers and any convenient radius draw arcs intersecting
D.
Join
AD,
then angle
BAD = an^le DAC.
Fig. 22.
To Draw a Line Parallel to a Given Line ^4^ Through a Given Point C. From any point on AB as B with radius BC describe an arc cutting AB in A,
Fig. 23.
From
lel to
^ with the same

cut arc
radius describe arc
BD. From
Line
with
AC as radius
AB.
BD in D.
Draw CD.
CD
is
paral-
\7^
Fig. 23.
Fig. 24.
Fhom a Point
on the Line
DE
to set
off an Angle equal to the given Angle BAC.
From
20
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
with any convenient radius describe arc BC^
From
D with
the same radius describe arc
EF,
With
center
is
BC cut
arc
EF in
F.
Join
DF. Angle
EDF
E and radius = angle ^^(7.
Fig.
.24.
Fig. 25.
To Divide an Angle
into
two equal
Parts,
Point.
when the Lines do not Extend to a Meeting Draw the line CD and CE parallel and at equal dis5
Fig. 25.
tances from the lines

radius
AB
draw
arcs 1,2.
and EG. With C as center and any With i and 2 as centers and any con-
venient radius describe arcs intersecting at H.
21
A line
through
C and
H divides the angle into two equal parts.
To Construct a Rhomboid having Adjacent Sides equal to two Given Lines AB and AC, and AN Angle equal to a Given Angle A. Draw line DE
Fig. 26.
equal to
AB.
Make
D=
angle
A. Make
/^with line
AB
as radius
and from
Join
DF ^ AC. E with line AC

and EG.
From
radius
2ls
describe arcs cutting in G.
FG
Fig. 27.
To Divide the Line AB into any Number

15.
OF EQUAL Parts, say

of
Draw a
From C
line
CD
parallel to
AB,
any convenient length.

of equal parts into
set off along this line the
number
E.
which the line^îîs to be divided.

until they intersect at
i,
Draw CA and B>B and produce them

Through each one
of equal parts.
is
of the points
2,
3, 4, etc.,
draw
lines to the point
E, dividing the Hne
AB
into the required
number
required
This problem
is
useful in dividing a line
when
the point
difBcult to find accurately
e.g., in Fig.
28
AB is
the ptU/i of the spur gear, partly shown, which includes a
22

is
space and a tooth and

cast gears the space
is
measured on the pitch
circle.
In
made
larger than the thickness of the

5
tooth, the proportion being about 6 to
i.e.,
if
we
divide
the pitch into eleven equal parts the space will measure y^Y
and the tooth

tooth
is
-f^.
The jV which
parallel
it
1 1
the space
is
larger than the
called the backlasJi.
Let A' B' be the pitch chord of

to
the arc
AB.
Draw CD
A' B'
at
any convenient
distance and set off on

length.
5
equal spaces of any convenient
Draw CA' and DB'

line to
y^y
j5"
intersecting at E.
From
point
draw a
which will divide A' B' as required; the

y\-.
one part
and the other
To Divide a Given Line into any Number OF Equal Parts: Another Method. Let AB be the
Fig. 29.
given
line.
the required
From A draw AC 2X any angle, and lay off on it number of equal spaces of any convenient length.
Join
to
CB
and through the divisions on
AC draw, lines
2\ 3^
parallel
4', etc.
CB, dividing ^^
Fig. 30.
as required in the points I^
To Divide a Line AB Proportionally to
the Divided Line CD.
Draw AB
parallel to
CD
at
any
GEOMETRICAL DRA WING.

distance from
it.
23
Draw
lines
through
CA and i^ând produce

from
them
till
they meet at E.
i,
Draw
lines
through the
divisions
2, 3, 4, etc., of line
CD, cutting
line
AB
in
the
2 3 4-5 Q 7 8 9 10 1112 13
Fig. 29.
UB
points
5, 6,
7, 8, etc.
The
divisions on
AB
will
have the
same proportion
to the divisions on
line
CD
that the whole line
AB has
to the
whole
CD i.e.,
the Hnes will be propor-
tionally divided.
Fig. 30
Fig. 31.
the divided
The Same: Another Method.

make any
angle with
Let
BC,
line,
BA,
the line to be di-
24
vided at B.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Draw
from
2, 3,
line
CA
joining the two ends of the lines.

to
Draw
lines
i,
5, 6,
7, 8, parallel
CA^ dividing
line
AB
in points
4, proportional to
BC
A
and
Fig. 32.
To Construct an Equilateral Triangle

the points
ON A Given Base ^4^. From

The
triangle yî^^'
with
AB
as radius describe arcs cutting in C.

is
Draw
lines
AC and BC
equilateral
and equiangular.
Fig. 32
Fig. 33.
To Construct an Equilateral Triangle
OF A Given Altitude, AB.

lines perpendicular to
it
From
A
both ends of
AB
draw
as
CA
and DB.
From A
its
i,
with any
radius describe a semicircle on CA' d.nd with

arcs 1,2.
radius cut off
Draw
lines
from
through
2,
and produce
them
until they cut the base
BB.
Fig. 34.
To Trisect a Right Angle ABC.
From
the angular point
with any convenient radius describe an
arc cutting the sides of the angle in
C and
2.
A.
with the same radius cut
off arcs
and
From C and A Draw lines iB and
2B, and the right angle will be trisected.
Fig. 35.
25
its
Sides
as
AB
To Construct any Triangle, and C being given. From one end
Three
the
of the base
describe an arc with the line
as radius.
From
line
other end with Hne

first
as radius describe an
lines to the
its
arc, cutting the
arc in
D.
From D draw
ends of
A, and a
triangle will be constructed having
sides equal to the sides

sides
given.
To
<:onstruct
any triangle the two shorter
B and
must together be more than equal to the
largest side ^4.
Fig. 34-
Fig. 55-
Fig. 36.
Fig. 37.
Fig.
36.
To Construct a Square,
its
Base
AB
being given.
Erect a perpendicular
at
B,
Make
BC equal
26
to
From A and C with radius AB describe arcs cutting]om DC ^wd. DA. \x\D. Fig. 37. To Construct a Square, given its Diagonal AB. Bisect AB in C. Draw DF perpendicular to
AB.
\,
AB
at C.
Make CD and
6^/^
each equal to CA.
Join
AD,
DB, BF, andi^^. Fig. 38. To Construct a Regular Polygon of any Number of Sides, the Circumscribing Circle being GIVEN. At any point of contact, as (7, draw "a tangent y^^ to the given circle. From 6" with any radius describe a semi-
circle cutting
the given
circle.
Divide the semicircle into as

is
many
I,
equal parts as the polygon
required to have sides, as
2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Draw
lines frorn
through each division^
cutting the circle in points which will give the angles of the
polygon.
Fig. 39.
Fig. 39.
the given
Another Method.
Divide
Draw
a diameter
AB
of
circle.
is
AB
into as
the polygon
to have sides, say 5.
many equal From A and B
parts as
with the
GEOMETRICAL DRA WING.

line
27
AB
as radius describe arcs cutting in C,
draw
a line
from
it
C through
polygon.
the second division of the diameter and produce
cutting the circle in D.
BD
will
be the side of the required
The
line
C mu^t
always be drawn through the
second division of the diameter, whatever the number of

sides of the polygon.
Fig.
40.
To Construct any
Regular
Polygon
WITH A Given Side AB. Make BD perpendicular and With B as center and radius AB describe arc equal to AB. DA into as many equal parts as there are Divide arc DA.
sides in the
required polygon, as
i,
2, 3, 4,
5.
Draw B2.
describe a
Bisect line
AB
C.
and erect a perpendicular
at the bisection cut-
ting
B2
in
With C
as center
and radius
CB
circle.
With
AB
as a
chord step
off
the remaining sides of
the polygon.
Fig. 40.
Fig. 41.
Fig. 41.
center
Another Method. Extend

many
Hne AB.
With
'
and any convenient radius describe a semicircle.

equal parts as there are
Divide the semicircle into as
sides in the required polygon, say 6.
Draw
lines
through
every division except the
first.
With
as center
and
AB
as
28
radius cut off
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
A2
in C.
in D. From Z^, ^4 in Join AC, CB, D, F, and FB. Fig. 42. To Construct a Regular Heptagon, the Circumscribing Circle being given. Draw a radius AB.
From C with the same ^. From j5, ^5 in Z^.
radius cut
A^
With
1,2;
B
it
as center
will
and
BA
as radius, cut the circumference in

in C.
be bisected by the radius
Ci or C2
is
equal
to the side of the required heptagon.
ri;
Fig. 42.
To Construct a Regular Octagon, the Circumscribing Circle being given. Draw a diameter AB, Bisect the arcs AB in C and D. Bisect arcs CA and CB in, and 2. Draw lines from and 2 through the Center
Fig. 43.
of the circle, cutting the circumference in 3 and 4.
Join Ai,
iC, C2, 2B, B2>, etc.
Fig. 44.
To Construct a Pentagon, the Side AB
BEING given.
Produce
radius, describe arc
AB. With B as center and BA as AD2. With center A and same radius,
first
describe an arc cutting the
arc in
D.
Bisect
AB
in
E.
29
line
Draw
center
circle.
line
DE.
Bisect arc
BD
in F.
Draw
i,
EF,
With
and radius
line
EF cut
;
off arc
Ci and
on the semi-
Draw
B2
it
will
be a second side of the penta-
FlGf 44.
gon.
Bisect
it
and draw a
line perpendicular to
it
at
the
bisection.
The
perpendiculars from the sides
AB
and B2
will cut in G.
circle
With G
as center
and radius
GA
describe a
it
will contain the
pentagon.
Fig. 45.
30
Fig.
45.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
To Construct a Heptagon on a Given

line
Line AB.
Extend
DE.
AB
to C.
From
with radius
AB
E.
describe a semicircle.
With
center
and same radius de-
scribe an arc cutting the semicircle in
D.
Bisect
AB
in
Draw
arc
I
line
With C
Bisect
as center and
DE
;
as radius, cut off
on the semicircle.
it
Draw
line j5i
it is
a second side of
of the circum-
the heptagon.
and obtain the center
scribing circle as in the preceding problem.
Fig.
46.
Square.
A, B,
C,
To Inscribe an Octagon in a Given Draw diagonals AD, CB intersecting at O. From
and
B with
radius equal to
AO
describe quadrants
cutting the sides of
th,e
square in
i,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
Join
these points and the octagon will be inscribed.
Fig. 46.
Fig. 47.
To Construct a Regular Octagon on a
Given Line AB.

perpendiculars
Sit
Extend
A
and B.
i
line
AB in
both directions.
Erect
With
centers
and
and radius
-^^ describe the semicircle

rants
CEB
2-,
and AE2.
Bisect the quad-
CE
and
and
DE in
and
then
Al
"and
B2
will
be two
more
I,
sides of the octagon.

2,
4 equal to
AB.
At i and 2 erect perpendiculars Draw 1-2 and 3-4. Make the
perpendiculars at
31
and
equal to 1-2 or 3-4
viz.,
A^ and
B^.
Complete the octagon by drawing 3-5, 5-6, and 6-4.

Fig.
48.
To Draw a Right Line Equal to Half
THE Circumference of a Given Circle. Draw a diamDraw line AC perpendicular to AB and equal to eter AB.
three times the radius of the
dicular at
circle.
Draw another perpenand radius of the

line
circle
to
AB.
bisect
With
it
center
cut
off arc
BD,
and draw a
from the center of
the circle through the bisection, cutting line
in
E.
Join
EC.
circle
Line
EC
\n\W.
be equal to half the circumference of
A,
G
Fig. 49.
To Find a Mean Proportional to two
Given Right Lines.

equal to CD.
Bisect
scribe a semicircle.
Extend the
AE in
At
E.
line
From
AB to E making BE F with radius E'A delines
where the two given
are
joined erect a perpendicular to
AE
cutting the semicircle in
G.
BG
will
be a mean proportional to
CD
and AB,
(less)
Fig. 50.
To Find a Third Proportional
to
the
two Given Right Lines ^^ and CD. Make î^= Draw EG making an angle with EF=z DC. îven line AB.
Join
EG.
From
with
EG
as radius cut
EF m
H.
Draw
32
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
to
H parallel
FG, cutting
EG
in /.
EI is
the third propor-
tional (less) to the
two given
lines.
B
C
Fig. 50.
D
Fig. 51.
f
Fig. 51.
To Find a Fourth Proportional to three
Given Right Lines AB, CD, and î^. Make

given
line
GH =
the
angle to
AB. Draw GI CD, making any convenient GH. Join HI. From G lay off GH = EF. From draw a parallel to HI cutting GI in L. GL is the fourth
proportional required.
Fig. 52.
Fig. 53-
Fig. 52.
To Find the Center of a Given Arc ABC.

chords
Draw the
AB and^B
and bisect them.
Extend
the bisection lines to intersect in Z^ the center required.
Fig. 53.
33
To Draw a Line Tangent to an Arc of a Circle. (ist.) When the center is not accessible. Let B
be the point through which the tangent
is
to
be
drawn.
From
ter
B
is
lay off equal distances as
BE^ BF.
(2d.)
Join
EF
and
through
draw
ABC ABC
parallel to
EF.
When
the cen-
given.
Draw BD
is
and through
draw
ABC perpenthe point B.
dicular to
BD.
tangent to the
circle at
To Draw Tangents to the Circle C from THE Points without It. Draw ^(f and bisect it in ^. From E with radius EC describe an arc cutting circle C \n B
Fig. 54.
and D.
circle C.
Join CB, CD.
Draw
AB
and
AD
tangent to the
Fig. 54.
Fig. 55.
Fig.
cles.
55.
To Draw a Tangent between two

the centers
Cirline
Join
A
as
A
1-2
and B.
Draw any
C2D.
radial
from
A2 and make
the
radius of circle B.
From
with radius
A2
describe a circle
From
center
34
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
draw tangents
BC and BD
to circle
C2D
and
at the points
and
by preceding problem.
Join
AC
and ^Z> and through
the points
i^6^
and
F draw
parallels i^6^
EH to BD and ^C
and
Fig.
EH are the tangents
required.
cles
56. To Draw Tangents to two Given CirA AND ^. Join A and B. From ^ with a radius
equal to the difference of the radii of the given circles de-
FiG. 56.
Fig. 57.
scribe a circle
GF.
by Prob.
37.
From B draw the tangents BF and BG, Draw AF and AG extended to E and H.
2.x^
Through
and
respectively.
H draw ^6^ and //Z> parallel to BF and ^6^ EC and DH the tangents required.
a Circle of Given Lines.
57. To Draw an Arc of Radius Tangent to two Straight
Fig.
AB
and
AC
are the
two straight
r
lines,
and r the given radius.
tance
draw
parallels 1-2
and 3-4 to
AC
At and AB,
a disinter-
secting
at
35
F.
From
With
F as
center and
F draw perpendiculars FD and FE, FD or FE as radius describe the re-
quired arc, which will be tangent to the two straight lines at

the points
D and E.
To Draw an Arc of a Circle Tangent TO TWO Straight Lines BC and CD when the MidDraw CA the bisection of the angle position G IS given.
Fig. 58.
BCD
Next
and
EF at
right angles to
it
through the given point G.

or
at
bisect either of the angles
FEB
CA
FED. The
A, which
bisection
line will intersect the central line
will
be the
center of the arc.
From A draw
perpendiculars
Ai and A2,
i
and with either as a radius and

which
will
be tangent to the
A as center describe an arc lines BC and CD at the points
and
2.
Fig.
59.
To
Inscribe a Circle within a Triangle
ABC.
in
Bisect the angles A and B,

Draw D\ = D\
perpendicular to
i,
D.
The bisectors will meet AB. Then with center D
and radius
describe a circle which will be tangent to

2, 3.
the given triangle at the points
Fig. 60.
Radius
To Draw an Arc of a Circle of Given tangent to two Given Circles A and B.
From A and
draw any
radial lines
as ^^3,
B\.
Outside
the circumference of each circle cut
off distances
1-3 and 2-4
36
each
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
the
given radius R.
Then with
center
and radius
at
yi-3, and center
and radius Ba^ describe arcs intersecting

cutting the circles at
5
C.
Draw CA,CB
and
6.
and
6.
With centre
be tangent
and radius C^ or C6 describe an arc which

5
will
at points
To Draw an Arc of a Circle of Given Radius R tangent to two Given Circles A and B
Fig. 61.
WHEN THE Arc includes the Circles. Through ^ and^

draw convenient diameters and extend them
indefinitely."
On
these measure
off
37
equal in
the distances 1-2 and 3-4, each
length to the given radius R.
Then with
and A,
5,
center
and radius
A2, center
and radius ^4, describe arcs cutting
at C.
From
and
ra-
C draw
dius
C^ and C6 through
or
6^5
With
center
C6
describe the arc 6,

5.
which
will
be tangent to
the circles at the points 6 and
Fig.
62.
To Draw an Arc of a Circle of Given
Radius R tangent to Two Given Circles A and B WHEN THE Arc includes one Circle and excludes the other. Through A draw any diameter and make 1-2 = R.
Fig. 62.
From B draw any radius and extend it, making 34 = R. With center A and radius A2 and center B and radius B^ describe
arcs cutting at C.
With C
as center
and radius
= C^
or
C6
describe the arc
5, 6.
Fig. 63.
Draw an Arc
of a Circle of Given Radraw an
dius
R TANGENT TO A STRAIGHT LiNE AB AND A CIRCLE

of the given circle,
arc of a
CD.
From E, the center

38
circle
i,
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
2
concentric with
CD
at a distance
from
it,
and
also a straight line 3,
parallel to
^^
at the
same distance
from AB.
dicular 06.
Draw 6^ intersecting CD at 5. Draw the perpenWith center O and radius 6^6 or O^ describe the
required arc.
Fig. 63.
Fig. 64.
To Describe an Ellipse Approximately

(F.
BY MEANS OF THREE Radii
R. Honey's method).
Fig.
64.
at
Draw H.
straight lines
RH ^.nd HQ,
making any convenient angle

semi-minor and
With center
H and
radii equal to the
semi-major axes respectively, describe arcs
39
Join
LM and NO.
Lay
off
LO
and draw
MK and NP
parallel to
LO.
Zi
=\
of ZiV.
//'3 for
Join 0\ and draw J/2 and A^3 parallel to Oi.

the longest radius
Take
(=
Z), and one-half the
(= sum
T),
H2
for the shortest radius
of the semi-axes for the third

radii to describe the
radius
(=
5),
and use these
ellipse
as
follows: Let
off ^4 = Z
AB
and
CD
5.
be the major and minor axes.
Lay
S.
and ^5
Then
draw
lay off
CG = T and
C6 =
With G
as center
and G6 as radius draw the arc

5,
6, g:
With
".
center 4 and radius 4,
arc 5, ; intersecting 6, g- at
it
Draw
radius
g^ 8
the line Gg- and produce

it
making GS
T.
Draw g^
4 and extend
to 7
making
g, y =: S.
With
center
and
GC {=T)
arc
draw the
arc (78.
With center^ and
radius
(=5) draw the

7^.
arc 8, 7.
With
center 4 and radius 4, 7
{= E) draw
in the
The remaining quadrants
can be drawn
same way.
Fig. 65.
To Draw an Ellipse having given the
Axes AB and CB.
Draw AB and CD
With
Divide
center
2, 3, 4, etc.
at right angles to
and
cut
of
bisecting each other at E.
C and
i^
radius
a
EA
AB
in
E and
i'''^
the foci.
i,
EE or î^' into
Then with
number
parts as
shown
at
and E^ as cen-
Fig. 65.
Fig. 67.
ters
and Ai and î, and
^2 and j52,
etc., as radii describe arcs
intersecting in R, S, etc., until a sufificient
number
of points
40
are found to
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
draw the
'^
elliptic
curve accurately throughout.

irregular curves
is
(No.
of the
Sibley College Set" of
very useful in drawing this curve.)

the ellipse at the point
of the angle
To draw
a tangent to
G\ Extend
is
FG
and draw the bisector
HOP
KG
the tangent required.
Fig. 66.
Another Method.
Let ^j5 and

AB
etc.
semi axes.
circles.
With A as center and radii Draw any radii as ^3 and A4,
and
AC be the AC describe
3 i,
Make
42,
etc.,
perpendicular to
i,
AB, and D2, E^,
etc., parallel to
AB.
Then
2,
5, etc.,
are points
on the curve.
the
Fig. 6^.
Another Method. Place

CDEF.
i,
diameters as
before, and construct the rectangle
Divide
i,
AB
2, 3
and
and
DB and BF into
B.
lines to
the same
number
of equal parts as
2,
3
Draw from C through
points
on
AB
i,
and
2, 3
BD
on
meet others drawn from ^through points
A.B and
FB
intersecting in points
GHK.
GHK
are points on
,
the curve.
Fig. 68.
Another Method.
shown
in
'1
Place
i.
the diameters
AB
and
CD
as
Drawing No.
Draw any convenient
Fig. 68.
angle
RHQ, Drawing No.
2.
With
center
ZTand
radii equal
to the semi-minor and semi-major axes describe arcs
LM and
NO.
from
Join
LO
and draw
MK and NP parallel to LO.

= //P lay A and B with
axis.
off
Then
i
C and
Z^ with a distance
the points
i^
on
the minor axis

off
and from
2'
a distance
HK\2.y
the points 2
on the major
With
centers 1,1^, 2 and

arcs of circles.
2'
and
radii
\-D and 2-^,
respectively,
draw
On
a piece of transparent
celluloid 2"
lay off from the point G,
GF
and
GE =
the semi-minor and semi-major axes respec-
tively.
Place the point iôn the major axis and the point
If
E on
the minor axis.
the strip of celluloid
is
now moved over

with the
axis, the
the figure, so that the point
is
always
in contact
semi-minor axis and

necessary
the point /^ with the semi-
major
number
of points
may
be marked through a small
hole in the celluloid at
with a sharp conical-pointed pencil,

of the ellipse
and thus complete the curve

circles.
between the
arcs of
Fig. 69.
To Construct a Parabola, the Base CD
AND THE Abscissa

parallel to
AB
CE
i,
being given.
and
Draw EF through A
to
CD
and
DF parallel
on
AB.
of
Divide
AE,
AF, EC, and

to
ED
into
the
same number
equal parts.
lines parallel
3
Through the points

and
2, 3
AF a.nd AE
draw
AB, and through A draw
lines to
the points 1,2,
on
FD
EC intersecting
Fig. 70.
the parallel lines in points 4,
5, 6,
etc., of
the curve.
Focus C TO Draw a Parabola and a Tangent to It at the Point The parabola is a curve such that every point in the curve 3.
Given the Directrix
BD and the
is
equally distant from the directrix ^Z^ and the focus C.
The
vertix
i.e.
is
equally distant from the directrix and the focus,
CE
is
= EB.
Any
line parallel to the axis is a diameter.
straight line
drawn across the
figure at right angles to the
42
axis
is
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
a double ordinate, and either half of
it
is
an ordinate.
2 is
The
distance from
to
any point upon the curve, as
always equal to the horizontal distance from that point to the

directrix.
Thus C\
\,
i',
C2
to 2, 2'
etc.
is
Through
draw
ACF
at right angles to
/
BD,
ACF
the axis of the
F
A
\1
s ^ Vt /K
n
*
1
>
Fig. 70.
curve.
Draw
parallels to
BD
through any points
in
AB^ and
i,
with center
and
radii
equal to the horizontal distances of

describe arcs cutting in the points
in
these parallels from

2, 3, 4, etc.
BD
These are points
the curve.
The tangent
:
to
the curve at the point 3
may
be drawn as follows
Produce
Make FF = the horizontal distance of ordinate 35 Draw the tangent through '^F. from F. Fig. 71. To Draw an Hyperbola, having given THE Diameter AB, the Abscissa BD, and Double Ordinate EF. Make F4. parallel and equal to BD. Divide DF and F4. into the same number of equal parts. From B draw
AB
to F.
lines to the points in 4.F

in
and from
draw
lines to the points
DF. Draw
the curve through the points where the lines
correspondingly numbered intersect each other.
Fig. ji.
43
To Construct an Oval the Width
AB
E,
in
BEING GIVEN. Bisect

and with
AB
by the
line
CD
in the point
^ as
center and radius
^^ draw a circle cutting CD
Fig. 71.
Fig. 72.
F.
From
and
B draw lines through
i^.
From A and
with
radius equal to
and H.
the arcs
From
AB draw arcs cutting the last two lines in G F with radius i^6^ describe the arc GH to meet
AG
and
Fig. 73.
BH, which will complete the oval. Given an Ellipse to Find the Axes and
parallel chords
Foci.
Draw two
E
I,
AB
and CD.
Bisect each
i
of these in
2.
and F.
Draw
will
EF touching
the ellipse in
and
This
line divides the ellipse
obhquely into equal

ellipse.
parts.
Bisect
2 in G,
which
be the center of the
From
HIJK.
of the
with any radius draw a
circle cutting the ellipse in
Join these four points and a rectangle will be formed in the

ellipse.
Lines
LM
and NO, bisecting the sides

ellipse.
rectangle, will
be the diameters or axes of the
With
iV or
6^
as centers
and radius
= GL
in
the semi-major axis, de-
scribe arcs cutting the
major axis
P and Q
the
foci.
Fig. 74.
To Construct a
circle
Sipral of one Revolu-
tion.
Describe a
using the widest limit of the spiral as
44
a radius.

Divide the
circle into
any number
of equal parts as
A^ B,
C, etc.
i
Divide the radius into the same number of equal
parts as
to 12.
From
the center with radius 12,

line
describe
an arc cutting the radial
in i^
From
the center conthe corre-
tinue to draw arcs from points
2, 3, 4, etc., cutting
4!.,
sponding
radii C,
D, E,
etc. in the points 2', 3',
etc.
From
12 trace the
Archimedes
Spiral of one revolution.
Fig. 73.
'1
Fig. 75.
To Describe a Spiral of any Number of

e.g., 2.
Revolutions,
the radius
Divide
the circle
into
any numDivide
ber of equal parts as^, B, C,
etc.,
and draw
radii.
^12
into a
number
of equal parts corresponding
with the required number of revolutions and divide these

into the
I
same number
It will
of equal parts as there are radii, viz.,
to 12.
be evident that the figure consists of two
separate spirals, one from the center of the circle to 12, and
one from 12 to A.
ing arcs from
radii,
first
i.
Commence
as in the last problem, draw-
2, 3, etc., to
the correspondingly numbered
thus obtaining the points marked i\ 2'

revolution completed, proceed in the
,
The same manner to

,
3', etc.
find the points \"
2",
2>" y
^tc.
Through these points
trace
the spiral of two revolutions.
GEOMETRICAL DRAWING,
Fig. 76.
45
Chi-
To Construct the Involute of the

the circle into any
cle O.
Divide
radii.
number
of equal parts
radii.
and draw
Draw
tangents at right angles to these

i
On
the tangent to radius
la)'-
off
a distance equal to one
of the parts into
which the
circle is
divided, and on each of
Fig. 75-
the tangents set off the
number
of parts corresponding to the 12 will then be the circumfer-
number
of the radii.
Tangent
ence of the
circle unrolled,
and the curve drawn through the
extremities of the other tangents will be the involute.
Fig. 77.
To Describe an
Ionic Volute.
Divide the
3
3,
given height into seven equal parts, and through the point
the upper extremity of the third division draw
dicular to
ter,
perpen-
AB.
From any
convenient point on 33 as a cen-
with radius equal to one-half of one of the divisions on

describe the eye of the volute
2.
AB,
at
NPNM,
shown enlarged
3,
Drawing No.
I.
iViV corresponds to line
3,
Drawing
No.
Make
PM
perpendicular to
NN
and inscribe the

11,
square
NPNM,
bisect its sides
and draw the square
12,
46
13, 14.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Draw
shown
the diagonals 11, 13 and 12, 14 and divide
in
them
the
points
as
Drawing No.
which
2.
At
the intersections of
full
horizontal with the perpendicular

I, 2,
lines
locate the
3, 4, etc.,
will
be the centers of the quadcenters for the inner
rants of the outer curve.

will
The
curve
be found at the intersections of the horizontal and per-
FiG. 77-
pendicular broken lines, drawn through the divisions on the

diagonals.
Then with
2
center
and radius \P draw arc PN,

arc
and with center
and radius
2N draw
etc.
NM^
with center
is
and radius 3^/ draw arc

in a similar
ML,
The
inner curve
drawn
indi-
way, by using the points on the diagonals
cated by the broken lines as centers.
Fig. 78.
rector,
To Describe the Cycloid.

circle,
AB
is
the
di-
CB
the generating
X a piece of thin
transparent
circle C.
celluloid,
with one side dull on which to draw the
At any
point on the circle
sharp needle, and place the
C puncture a small point C tangent to

is
hole with a
the director
AB at
the point from which the curve
to be drawn.
it
Hold
until
the celluloid at this point with a needle^ and rotate
the arc of the
circle
47
C intersects
the director
AB.
Through
the point of intersection stick another needle and rotate

until the circle
is
again tangent to
pencil,
AB, and through

So proceed
the punc-
ture at
C with
first
4H
sharpened to a
fine conical point,
mark
the
point on the curve.
until sufficient
points have been found to complete the curve.
(Note.
The
thin celluloid
was
first
used as a drawing
instrument by Professor H. D. Williams, of Sibley College,

Cornell University.)
Fig. 79.
To Find the Length of a Given Arc of a
Circle approximately.
its
Let BC be the
to A,
given arc.
Draw
chord and produce
it
making
BA
equal half the
> / \T
1
A
Fig. 78.
B
Fig, 79.
chord.
With
center
and radius
at
AC
describe arc
it
CD
cut-
ting the tangent line

arc
BD
Dj and making
equal to the
BC.
Fig.
80.
To Describe the Cycloid by the Old

circle into
Method.
the same
Divide the director and the generating

number
of equal parts.
Through the center a draw

and divide
e,
it
ag
parallel to
AB
<^,
for the line of centers,

d, e,f,
as
AB
in the points
c,
and
g.
With centers/,
d, etc., de-
scribe arcs tangent to
AB, and thrdugh

3, etc.,
the points of division

parallel to
on
the generating circle 1,2,
draw Hnes
48
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
cutting the arcs in the points i^ 2'
,
AB
3', etc.
These
will
be
points in the curve.
An
approximate curve
may
be drawn by arcs of
circles.
Thus, taking/"' as center and f'g' as radius, draw arc g' i'
Fig. 80.
Produce
\'f'
and
2V
until they
meet
at the
center of the
second arc
2'f', etCo
Fig. 81.
To Describe the Epicycloid and the
Hypocycloid.
Divide
i,
the generating circle into any
numfrom
ber of equal parts,
2, 3, etc.,
and
d'
,
set off these lengths

c' ,
on the directing
circle
CB as /,
draw
e,
etc.
From A
d'
,
the cenetc., cut-
ter of the directing circle
lines
d,
c,
through /,
etc.
c' ,
ting the circles of centers in
From
each of these
points as centers describe arcs tangent to the directing circle.
From
center
draw
circle,
arcs
through the points of division on
the generating
cutting the arcs of the generating circles
in their several positions at
the points
i' , 2' ,
3',
etc.
These
will
be points
Fig.
82.
in the curve.
Another Method.
roll
it
Draw
the
generating
circle
on the celluloid and
on the outside of the gener-
ating circle
BC
for the Epicycloid,
and on the inside
for the
GE OME TRIGA L DRA WING.

Hypocycloid, marking the points
similar
in the
49
3, etc., in
curve 1,2,
manner
to that described for the Cycloid.

Fig. 82.
Fig. 83.
Fig. 83.
To Draw the
to
it.
Cissoid.
Draw
circle
any
line
AB
and
BC perpendicular
C
On BC
describe a circle.
From
the extremity
at
of the diameter
draw any number
of lines,
any distance
apart, passing
i^,
through the
and meeting
the line
AB
it
in
2',
3',
etc.
Take the length from

line to g'\
to g
dis-
and
set
off
8'
from
to 8
on the same
set
it
Take the
tance from
8'',
and
off
from
on the same
S'',
line to
etc., for
the other divisions, and through g'\
6'\
etc.,
draw the curve.
so
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Fig. 84.
To Draw Schiele's Anti-friction Curve.

of the shaft
Let AB be the radius

axis.
and B\,
2, 3, 4, etc., its
Set
off
the radius
AB
on the straight edge of a piece
of
stiff
paper or thin celluloid and placing the point

i
on the
division
of the axis,
draw through point
^4
the line Ai.

coincides with
Then lower
2
the straight edge until the point
and the point
just touches the last line drawn,

find the points a,
b, c,
and draw
a2,
and so proceed to
etc.
Through
these points draw the curve.
Fig. 84.
Fig. 85.
Fig. 85.
To Describe an Interior
circle
Epicycloid.
Let the large
X be
etc.
the generator and the small circle
the director.
Divide circle
/,
into
any number
of equal
parts, as
B, H,
y,
Draw
radial lines
and make HC,
ID, JE, KF,
etc.,
each equal to the radius of the generator
X.
With
I,
centers C,
D, E,
etc.,
describe arcs tangent at
H,
J, etc.
rector as
Make Hi BH. Make I2
equal to one of the divisions of the di-
equal to two divisions, ^3, three divii,
sions, etc.,
and draw the curve through the points
2, 3, 4,
etc.
51
This curve
may
also be described with a piece of cellu-
loid in a similar
It
way
to that explained for the cycloid.
may
not be out of place here to describe a few of the
MOULDINGS USED IN ARCHITECTURAL WORK,

since they are often found applied to mechanical constructions.
Fig. 86.
To Describe the
this
''Scotia."
i
as
i,
is
the top
hne and
I,
4, 4 the bottom line.
From
drop a perpendicular
i,
4;
divide
into
2
three equal parts,

parallel to
I,
2,
and
3.
Through the point

and radius
2,
i
draw ab
i.
With
4
center 2
describe the semicircle aib, and with center b

4,
and radius ba describe the arc a^ tangent to

the
fillets i,
I
at 5,
draw
and
4, 4.
1
A
i
>^
3
\
i
Fig. 86.
Fig. 87.
Fig. 87.
3 and divide
To Describe the ''Cyma Recta." Join

it
i,
into five equal parts, bisect

i,
i,
and
2, 3,
and
with radius equal to

I,
and
2, 3 respectively describe arcs

i
and 2,3.
Draw
the
fillets i,
and
3, 3
and complete the
moulding.
Fig. 88.
To Describe the ''Cavetto" or ''Holperpendicular

i,
low."
Divide the
2, 3
2 into three equal parts
and make
equal to two of these.
From
i,
centers
i,
and
with a radius somewhat greater than the half of

arcs intersecting at the center of the arc
3,
3,
describe
52
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Fig. 89.
To Describe the ''Echinus," "Quarter Round," or " Ovolo." Draw i, 2 perpendicular to 2, 3,

and divide
it
into three equal parts.
Make
2,
equal to
two
of these parts.
From
the points 2 and 3 with a radius
greater than half 1,3, describe arcs cutting in the center of
the required curve.

3]
Fig. 90.
3,
To Describe the "Apophygee."

off five of
Divide
4 into four equal parts and lay
these parts from
3 to 2.
2, 3,
From
points 2 and 4 as centers and radius equal to
describe arcs intersecting in the center of the curve.
Fig. 90,
Fig. 91.
4, 3
To Describe the
Join
I,
"
it
Cyma Reversa."
in the point 2.
=
2
4,
I,
I.
and bisect and
Make From the

and 6
points
of
I,
and
3 as centers
radii equal to
5
about two-thirds
Points
draw
arcs intersecting at
and
6.
are the centers of. the reverse curves.
Fig. 92.
breadth.
To Describe the
"
Torus." Let
i,
i,
2 be the
it
Drop the perpendicular
2,
and bisect
in the
point
circle.
3.
53
With
3 as
center and radius
3,
i,
describe the semi-
Draw
the
fillets.
Fig. 92.
Fig. 93.
Fig. 93.
are
all
An
Arcped
shown
Window
Opening.
The
curves
arcs of circles,
drawn from the three points

in
of the equi-
lateral triangle, as
the figure.
Fig. 94.
To Describe the
is
''Trefoil."
The
i,
equi-
lateral triangle
drawn
first,
and the angle 1,2,3 bisected by

6in the
3 are
the line point 6.
2, 4,
which
also cuts the perpendicular line

i,
The
center of the surrounding circles
and
the centers of the trefoil curves.
Fig. 95.
To Describe the
3,
"
Quatre Foil." Draw

shown
5, is
i,
the square 1,2,
in the position
in
the figure.
The
center of the surrounding circles, point

of the diagonals of the square.
at the intersection
Points
2, 3,
4 of the square
are the centers of the small arcs.
Fig.
96.
To
Describe
the
''
Cinquefoil Ornafrom the

6 and draw
ment." The curves
of the cinquefoil are described

i,
corners of a pentagon
2, 6,
2, 3, 4,
5.
Bisect 4,
in
cutting the perpendicular in the point
7,
the center of
the large circles.
Fig. 97.
To Draw a Baluster.
and lay
off
Begin
by drawing
the center
line,
the extreme perpendicular height,
54
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
the intermediate, perpendicular, and horizontal dimensions,
and
finally the curves as

Fig. 94.
shown
in the figure.
Fig. 96.
Fig. 95.
Fig. 97.
DRAWING TO SCALE.
When we speak of
we mean
and accurately,
QithG^r
a drawing as having been

it
made to
scale^
that every part of
has been drawn proportionately
full
size,
reduced ov enlarged.
details of
Very small and complicated

ally
machinery are usu-
drawn enlarged
full size,
larger details
and small machines may
be made
while larger machines and large details are
shown reduced.
When
full-size
a drawing of a machine
is
made
it
to a reduced or en-
larged scale the figures placed upon
should always give the
dimensions,
finished.
i.e.,
the sizes the machine should meas-
ure
when
Fig. 98.
55
4^'=
To Construct a Scale of Third Foot. Draw upon a piece of tough white

lines
Size or
drawinglong as
4''
paper two parallel
about \" apart and about
14''
shown by
<2,
Fig. 98.
first
From A
lay off distances equal to
and divide the

Prob. 12.
it
space
AB
into 12 equal parts or inches
by
Divide
AE in
the same
way
into as
many
parts as
may
be desired to subdivide the inch divisions on
AB,
^cule
2.'j,
nio\ 8'7
!.l.l'lil.l.l^l.lilil.lil
^Jf\
|
21
S' 5lr'
FiCx. 98.
Ifoot.
Ulilil.l.l.li
usually 8.
carefully
When
the divisions a^^^bdivisions have been
and
lightly
drawn
in pencil, as
,
shown by
,
a, in
Fig.
98, then the Hues denoting \" ,^'

carefully inked
i'\ i"
and ^" should be

{b).
and numbered
i
as
shown by
By
made
a further
as
subdivision a scale of 2"=^
foot
may
easily be
shown
by
{c) in
Fig. 98.
CHAPTER
III.
CONVENTIONS.
It is often
unnecessary
if
not undesirable to represent cerin a drawing, espe-
tain things as they

cially
would actually appear

labor
is
when much time and
required to
make them
orthographically true.
So
for
economic reasons draftsmen have agreed upon con-
ventional methods to represent
many things
that would other-
wise entail
much
extra labor and expense, and serve no par-
ticular purpose.
It is
very necessary, however, that

to
all
draftsmen should
know how
often arise
sides
it
draw these things
correctly, for occasions will

will
when such knowledge
be demanded; and' be-
gives one a feeling of greater satisfaction
when using
artis-
conventional methods to
tically true
if it
know
that he could
make them
was deemed
necessary.
STANDARD CONVENTIONAL SECTION LINES.

Conventional section lines are placed on drawings to
guish the different kinds of materials used
distin-
when such drawings
are to be finished in pencil, or traced for blue printing, or to
be used for a reproduction of any kind.

Water-colors are nearly always used for finished drawings
and sometimes
for tracings
and pencil drawings.
The
color tints can be applied in
much
less
time than
56
it
CON VEN TIONS.

takes to hatch-line a drawing.
57
So that the color method
should be used whenever possible.

Fig. 99.
sections
This
is
figure
shows a collection of hatch-lined

almost universal practice
that
now
the
among
draftsmen
standard.
in this
and other countries, and may be considered
No.
rocks.
I.
To
the right
is
shown
a section of a wall
made
of
When
pen.
used without color, as
in tracing for printing,
the rocks are simply shaded with India ink and a 175 Gillott
steel
For a colored drawing the ground work

or burnt umber.
is
made
of
gamboge
To
is
the
left is
the conventional
representation of water for tracings.
For colored drawings
a blended wash of Prussian blue
added.
No.
2.
Convention
is
for
Marble,
When
colored,
the
whole section
made thoroughly wet and each

for
Chestnut.
stone
is
then
streaked wuth Payne's gray.
No.
3.
Convention
of
When
colored,
ground wash
gamboge with
a little crimson lake
and burnt
umber
is
used.
The
colors for graining should be

little
mixed
in a
separate dish,
burnt umber with a
Payne's gray and
crimson lake added

to
in equal quantities
and made dark enough

color.
form a
sufficient contrast to the
ground
No.
4.
General Convention for Wood.

light
When colored the

of burnt sienna.
ink.
ground work should be made with a
wash
The
graining should be done with a writing-pen and a dark
mixture of burnt sienna and a modicum of India
No.
5.
Convention for Black
Walnut.
A
in
mixture of
Payne's gray, burnt umber and crimson lake

ties
is
equal quantiis
used for the ground color.
The same mixture
used
for
graining when made dark by adding more burnt umber.
58
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
CON VEN TIOXS.

No.
color
6.
Convention for
a light
Hard
Pine.
For
the
ground
make
wash
of crimson lake, burnt
umber, and
gamboge, equal
of crimson. lake
parts.
For graining use
a darker mixture of
and burnt umber.

for
Building-stone.
No.
color
is
7.
Co7ivention
The
ground
lines are
a light
wash
of Payne's gray
and the shade
added mechanically with the drawing-pen or free-hand with

the writing-pen.
No.
8.
Convention for Earth.

tint.
Ground
color, India ink
and neutral
The
irregular lines to be
added with a
writ-
ing-pen and India ink.
No.
9.
Section Lining for

is
Wronght or Malleable Iron.

is
When
blue.
the drawing
to
be tinted, the color used
Prussian
No.
10.
Cast Iron.
These section
The
tint is
lines
should be drawn
equidistant, not very

lines of the drawing.
far apart
and narrowêr than the body

Payne's gray.
used for
all
No.
1.
Steel.
This
section
is
kinds of steel.
The
iron
lines
should be of the same width as those used for castlines
and the spaces between the double and single
should
be uniform.
The
color tint
is
Prussian blue with enough crimpurple.

is
son lake added to
make
warm
No.
12.
Brass.
This
section
generally used
for
all
kinds of composition brass, such as gun-metal, yellow metal,
bronze metal, Muntz metal,
etc.
all
The width
be uniform.
of the full lines,
dash
is
lines
and spaces should
The
color tint
a light wash of gamboge.
Nos.
13-20.
The
section lines and color tints for these
numbers
tion
are so plainly given in the figure that further instruc-
would seem to be superfluous.
6o
MECHANICAL DRAWING,
CONVENTIONAL LINES.
Fig. ioo.
(i)
There
size of
are four kinds:
The Hidden Line.
This Hne should be
made
of short
dashes of uniform length and width, both depending some-
what on the
be slightly
the drawing.
The width should always
less
than the body lines of the drawing, and the
length
of the
dash should never exceed

all
''.
The
spaces
between the dashes should

exceeding
(2)
be uniform, quite small, never

in
is
^-^"
This
line is
always inked
with black ink.
The Line of Motion.
This
line
used to indicate
point paths.
the hidden
The dashes should be made

line, just
shorter than those of

dots.
trifle
longer than
The
spaces
should of course be short and uniform.

(3)
Center Lines.
Most
drawings of machines and parts
of machines are symmetrical about their center lines.
When
penciling a drawing these lines
may
be drawn continuous and
as fine as possible, but on drawings for reproductions the black-
inked line should be a long narrow dash and two short ones
alternately.
When
colored inks are used the center line should
be made
a continuous red line
and
as fine as
it is
possible to
make
are
it.
(4)
Dimension Lines and Line of Section.
These
lines
made
in black with a fine long dash and one short dash
alternately.
In color they should be continuous blue
lines.
CONVENTIONS.
61
Colored lines should be used wherever feasible, because they

are so quickly
drawn and when made
fine
they give the drawing
much
neater appearance than when the conventional black
lines are used.
Colored lines should never be broken.
CONVENTIONAL BREAKS.
Fig. ioi.
Breaks
is
are used in drawings
sometimes to
it
indi-
cate that the thing
actually longer than
is
drawn, some-
^'^
3S^
^^vV.'-VV'>'>'.\'v<<'^'vV\VVV'>V'^'..'>'^'>'^'.<^
^s^^ssss^ss^s^^^^s^^^^^^^^^s^^s^^^s^y
Fig. ioi.
times to show the shape of the cross-section and the kind of

material.
Those given
in Fig.
loi
show the usual
practice.
CROSS-SECTIONS.
Fig.
102.
When a cross-section
is
of a pulley, gear-wheel
or other similar object
required and the cutting-plane passes
through one of the spokes or arms, then only the rim and hub
should be sectioned, as shown at
xx No.
2.
and zz No.
2,
and
the arm or spoke simply outlined.
Cross-sections of the arms
may be made
as
shown
at
AA
No.
In working drawings of
62
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
gear-wheels only the number of teeth included in one quadrant
need be drawn
lines, e.g., th.^
the balance
is
usually
shown by conventional
pitch line the
same
as a center line, viz., a long
Fig. I02.
dash and two very short ones alternately or a
fine
continuous
red
line.
The addendum
same
line {d)
and the root or bottom
line {b) the
as a dimension line, viz.,
one long dash and one short
dash alternately or a fine continuous blue line.

vation of the gear-teeth should be
The end
ele-
made by
projecting only
the points of the teeth, as shown at No. 2.
CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF SHOWING SCREW-THREADS IN
WORKING DRAWINGS.
Fig.
103.
No.
i,
shows the convention
for a
double
3,
thread,
U.
S. standard;
No.
2,
a single
thread; No.
a single square thread;
No.
4, a
double left-hand
thread;
6,
No.
5,
double
right-hand
square thread;
7,
No.
any
thread of small diameter;

diameter.
No.
any thread of very small
The
true
methods
for constructing these threads
are explained on pages 99-101, Figs. 99-101.
In No. 6. the short wide line

of the thread
at the bottom.
is
equal to the diameter

distance
The
between the
CONVENTIONS.
longer narrow lines
is
is
63
equal to the pitch, and the inclination
equal to half the pitch.
The
short dash lines in
No. 7 should be made to
corre-
rt
LJ^
Fig. 103.
^-^
spond
to the diameter of the thread at the bottom.
After
some
practice these lines can be
drawn accurately enough by
the eye.
CHAPTER
IV.
LETTERING AND FIGURING.

This
in
subject has not been given the importance
it
deserves
connection with mechanical drawing.
Many
otherwise ex-
cellent drawings
is
and designs
as far as their general
appearance
concerned have been spoiled by poor lettering and figuring.

All lettering on mechanical drawings should be plain and
legible,
but the letters in a
title
or the figures on a drawing
should never be so large as to

inent than the drawing
itself.
make them appear more promthat which gives
The
best form of letter for practical use
is
the neatest appearance with a

quires the least
maximum
of legibility
and
re-
amount
of
time and labor
in its construction.
" letter,
This would naturally suggest a " free-hand

fore a letter can be constructed
of efficiency,
it
''
but be-
free-hand "
with any degree
will
be necessary to spend considerable time

of the form
in acquiring a
knowledge
and proportions of the
particular letter selected.

It is
very desirable then that after the student has care-
fully constructed as
many
of the following plates of letters
and
numbers
as time
of the
''
will
permit and has acquired a sufficient

least
knowledge
form and proportions of at

letters;
the " Ro-
man
"
and
Gothic"
he should then adopt some one

64

style
65
at-
and practice that
at
every opportunity, until he has

its
tained
some
proficiency in
free-hand construction.
of letters
When
the hand.
practicing the
making
and numbers
first
free-
hand, they should be
made
quite large at
so as to train
The " Roman

appearance, but
is
"
is
the most legible letter and has the best
also the
most
difficult to
make
well, either
for
free-hand or mechanically.
its
However, the methods given
mechanical construction, Figs. 104 and 105,

its
will materially
modify the objections to

drawings.
adoption for lettering mechanical
The
''
Gothic"
it
letter is a favorite
with mechanical drafts-
men, because
construct.
is
plain and neat
and comparatively easy to
(See Fig. 106.)

the type specimens given in the following pages
Among
for a good,
the Bold-face
Roman
Italic
on page 70
is
one of the best

is
plain, clear, free-hand letter,
and
often used
with good success on working drawings.

steel
Gillott's
No. 303
pen
is
the best to use

is
when making
this letter free-hand.

is
The ''Yonkers"
a style of letter that

It
is
sometimes
used for mechanical drawings.

either F. Soennecken's
easy to construct with
Round
Writing-pens, single point, or
the Automatic Shading-pen.
But
it
lacks legibility, and
is
therefore not a universal favorite.
good
style for
"
'*
Notes" on a drawing
70.
is
the
*'
Gothic
Condensed
shown on page
When making
pencil.
notes on a drawing with this letter, the

lines,
only guides necessary are two parallel
drawn
lightly in
The
letters should
be sketched lightly
in pencil first,
66
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
and then carefully inked, improving spacing and proportions

to satisfy the practiced eye.
FIGURING.
Great care should be taken
in figuring or
dimensioning a
mechanical drawing, and especially a working drawing.
To have
is
a drawing accurately, legibly,
and neatly figured
considered by practical
men
to be the
most important part
of a
working drawing.
There should be absolutely no doubt whatever about the

character of a
number repreagnting
a dimension on a drawing.
Many
labor,
mistakes have been made, incurring loss in time,
and money through a wrong reading of a dimension.

fully
Drawings should be so
dimensioned that there
will
be no need for the pattern-maker or machinist to measure any

part of them.
Indeed, means are taken to prevent him from

liability of
doing
so,
because of the
the
workman
to
make
4''
mistakes, so drawings are often

ficult to
I
made
to scales which are dif-
measure with a
common
rule,
such as
2''
and
ft.
The following books, among the best recommended to all who desire to pursue
of
*'
of their kind, are
further the study
Lettering"
Plain Letterings by Prof.

;
Henry
S.
Jacoby,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Lettering,
by Charles
W.
Reinhardt, Chief Draftsman, Engineering News,
New York
Free-hand Lettering, by F. T. Daniels, instructor in C. E. in

Tufts College.
67
nn
U
1
mt
7/ A
y /L
r^^
~>k
'H'
<t>
<r
^
^^
/
tt f
^f^5m
0:
[y
v-
J/(^
1
m^
^3:w
,.'"
'
'm y
fM
T
1
S
i
I) O 11
1
N o
m
7-'^-
69
70
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
i8-Point
Roman.
ABCDEFOHIJKLMN OPQE STUY WX

YZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890
i8-Point
Italic.
CDEFGHIJKLMNOP QRSTUV XYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

\
i:i-Point
Gushing
Italic.
)EFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
nopqrstuvwxyz
28-Point Boldface
Italic.
abcdefghijklm
1234567890
OPQBSTUVWXYZ
rwxyz
BCDEFGHIJKL31
1234567890
1234567890
Celtic.
ahcdefghijMmtiopqrst
Two-Line Nonpareil Gothic Gondensed.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Three-Line Nonpareil Lightface
A.
BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR
ataedefghijkl
S^rUVAVXYZ
mnopqrstuvvv^xyz
1234567890

i8-Point Chelsea Circular.
Jl
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX
YZ
abcdefgl-iijl\lmr\opqrstuvwxyz
1234567890
i8-Point Elandkay.
ABCDEFGHMKLnNOFQRSTUVVXTZ
1234567890
i8-Point Quaint Open.
iMiCiEF^HyKLniNKDrilSTyf
will
fl
234 JiSJaSO
28-Pomt Roman.
ABCDEFGHIJKLM NOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghij klmnopqr stu
vwxyz
1234567890
28-Point Old-Style
Italic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP QRSTUVWXYZ abcdefg

hijklmnopqrstuvwxy^
1234567890
72
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
i2-Point Victoria
Italic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
VWXYZ
1234567890
DeVinne
Italic.
i8-Point
ABCDBFQHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
VWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrst
uvwxyz 1234567890
22-Point Gothic
Italic.
ABGDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUyWXYZ
abcdefghijk/mnopqrstuuwxyz
1234567890
Double- Pica Program.
^BGDEFGHUKLMNO PQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghi] klmnopqrstu v
wxyz 1234567890
Nonpareil Telescopic Gothic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
1284567S90

24-Point Galilean.
73
MNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ 1234567890
Two-Line
Virile
ABCDEFGHIJKL
Open.
IKPtrWlJKLnHOPQIITBWIY:
r
0)
22-Point Old-Style
Roman.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST
UVWXYZ
uvwxyz
abcdefghijklmnopqrst
1234567890
36-Point Yonkers.
y^
abcbdgI]ijkImnopqr
stuPtt)xy5
1(23^567890
CHAPTER
V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.
Orthographic Projection, sometimes
tive
called Descripis
Geometry and sometimes simply

geometry
;
Projection,
one of
the divisions of descriptive
the other divisions are
Spherical
Projection,
Isometric
Projection,
Shades
and
Shadows, and Linear Perspective.

In this course
we
will take
up only a
sufficient
number
of
the essential principles of Orthographic Projection, Isometric

Projection, and Shades and
Shade Lines, to enable the
stu-
dent to make a correct mechanical drawing of a machine or

other object.
Orthographic Projection
is
the science and the art of rep-
resenting objects on different planes at right angles to each

other,
by projecting
lines
from \h& point of sight through the
principal points of the object perpendicular to the Planes of

Projection.
There are commonly three planes

the
of projection used, viz.,

V. P. or Vertical PlanCy
H.
P. or Horizontal Plane, the
and the Pf. P. or Profile Plane.
These planes,
as will be seen
by
Figs. 107 and 109, inter-
sect each other in a line called the /. L. or Intersecting Line^
and form four angles, known
as the
first,
second, third, and

74
fourth Dihedral Angles.
Figs. 107 and
75
109 are perspective
views of these angles.
An
angles,
object
may
be situated in any one of the dihedral
and
its
projections drawn on the corresponding co-
ordinate planes.
Problems
in
in Descriptive
Geometry are
all
usually
worked out
the
first
angle,
in
and nearly
English draftsmen project
their drawings
that angle, but in the United States the
third angle
for
is
used almost exclusively.
There
is
good reason
doing
so, as will
be shown hereafter.
We
first
will consider first a
few projection problems

will
in
the
angle, after
which the third angle
be used throughout.
Fig. 107.
H.P., Fig. 107,
is
the Horizontal Plane, V.P. the Vertical
Plane, and I.L. the Intersecting Line.
The Horizontal
dicular line
Projection of a point
is
where a perpen-
drawn through the point pierces the H.P.

is
The
Vertical Projection of a point
where a
per. line
drawn through the point pierces the V.P.

Conceive the point
a,
3'^
Fig. 107, to be situated in space ^'

in front
above the H.P. and
of the
V.P.
If a line
is
passed through the point a per. to H.P. and produced until
76
it
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
pierces the
H.P.
in the point
a!",
d^ will be the Hor. Proj.
of the point a.
If
another line
until
it
is
projected through the point a per. to the

a", a" is
V.P.
pierces the V.P. in the point
the ver-
tical projection of the

If
point
a.
its
now
the V.P.
is
revolved upon
it
axis I.L. in the dilet
rection of the arrow until
coincides with the H.P. and
the H.P. be conceived
to
coincide with the
plane of the
drawing-paper, the projections of the point a will appear as
shown by
Fig. io8.
The
vertical
projection (f ^' above

2>"
the I.L.
and the
horizontal projection a^
straight line.
below the I.L. both
in the
same
In mechanical drawing the vertical projection a"
is
called
the Elevation and the horizontal projection
a!'
the Flan.
The
by
first
projections of a line are found in a similar manner,

finding the projections of the
straight line.
two ends
of the line,
and joining them with a

Let ab be a
line in
space
'^^" long, parallel
to the
V.P.
and perpendicular to the H.P.

H.P.
2^'^
One end
is
resting on the
from the V.P.
The
points
a''
points a and b will be vertically projected in the
and
b"".
Join
a^b"".
a'"b'"
is
the vertical projection of
the line ab.
When
jection,
its
a line
is
perpendicular to one of the planes of prois
projection on that plane

is
a point, and the projecitself.

its
tion on the other plane

ab, Fig. 107,
is
a line equal to the line
perpendicular to the H.P., therefore

in the direction
proj.
on the H.P. when viewed
ab will be
seen to be a point.
OR THO GRA PHIC PR OJE C TION.
/7
Conceive now the V.P. revolved as before, the V. proj.

will
be found to be at
a^.
a^b"^
Fig. io8, and the H. proj. at the
point
cd, Fig. 107, is a line parallel to
the H.P. and perpendicis
ular to the
V.P.
Its elevation or
V. proj.
the point
d"",
Fig.
108,
and
its
plan or H. proj. the line c^d^ perpendicular to

itself.
the Intersecting Line and equal in size to the line
Planes or Plane Surfaces bounded by lines are projected
by the same principles used

Let
acfb^-'b,
to project lines
and points.
Fig. 107, be a plane at right angles to and
touching both planes of projection.
The
elevation of the front upper corner a

a".
is
projected in
is
the point
The
elevation of the front lower corner b

b"
.
pro-
jected in the point

of
Join
d'b".
d"b'" is
the vertical projection
the front edge ab of the plane.

y
1'
The
plan of the front
C
*
h
c
Fig. 108.
upper corner
point
b"".
is
projected in the point b and the point a" in the

bb'" is
straight line joining
the plan or horizontal
projection of the top edge of the plane.
On
the drawing-paper the plan and elevation of the plane
ad'b a would be
Fig. 108.
shown
as a continuous straight line a" to
a!'
78
Solids
of the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
bounded by plane
a cube
surfaces are projected
by means
same
principles used to project planes, lines, and points.

is
C, Fig. 107,
faces.
bounded by
six equal sides or sur-
The top and bottom being
parallel to the
H.P. and
is
the front and back parallel to the V.P., the vert. proj.
square above I.L. equal in area to any one of the six faces
of the cube.
The
hor. proj.
is
a similar square below I.L.

at C, Fig.
These projections are shown

appear on the drawing-paper.
108, as they
would
The
foregoing illustrates a few of the simple principles of
projection in relation to points, lines, and solids

in the first dihedral angle,
when placed
is
and we
find that the plan
always
beloiv
and the elevation always above the I.L.

in
Let us now consider the same problems when situated

the
//22><3^. angle.
The
point
<3;,
Fig. 109,
is
behind of the V.P.
Fig. 109.
and below the H.P.

plane of projection.
vert. proj. at (f
Draw through a perpendiculars to The Hor. proj. is found at of" and
the
the
Conceive again the V.P. to be revolved

of the arrow until
it
in the direction
coincides with the
H.
P.
The
hor. proj.
will
79
then appear
at
a!'
above the I.L. and the vert. proj. at a"
belozu the I.L., Fig.
no.
And
so with the lines, the planes,
and the
solids.
d"
C
h
,y-
-b
-K
a-
Fig. iio.
In order to
still
further explain the use of the planes of
projection, with regard to objects placed in the third angle,

let
us suppose a truncated pyramid surrounded by imaginary
planes at right angles to each other, as shown
by
Fig. iii.
Fig. III.
With
pyramid
a
is
little
attention
it
will
easily be discerned that the
situated in the third dihedral angle, and that in
addition to the V. and H. planes,
we have passed two
profile
planes at right angles to the V. and H. planes, one at the right-
hand and one
at the left.
is
When
the pyramid
viewed
orthographically through
each of the surrounding planes, four separate views are had.
8o
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
exactly as shown by the projections on the opposite planes,

viz.,
a Front View, Elevation, or Vert. Proj. at F.
a Right-
hand View, Right-end Elevation, or Right-profile Projection

at
R.
a Left-hand
;
View, Left-end Elevation, or Left-profile
Projection at L.
If
Top View,
Plan or H. Proj. at P.
left profile
we now
consider the V.P. and the right and
planes to be revolved toward the beholder until they coincide,
using the front intersecting lines as axes, the projections of the
pyramid
will
be seen as shown by
Fig.
ii2,
which when the
"^^^
P
//
ii(
1 L\
\ / / \
I
~~^^\
^^\^
^"\
^x\
\
"N\
I \
F
Fig. 112.
\
R
)\
imaginary planes and projecting lines have been removed, will

be a True Drawing or Orthographic Projection of the truncated
pyramid.
NOTATION.
In the drawings illustrating the following problems and
their solutions the given
black.
and required
lines are
shown wide and
Hidden
lines are
shown broken
into short dashes a little
narrower than the

are
visible lines.
Construction or projectioii lines

contiîuous black lines.
drawn with very narrow full or
When
convenient very narrow, continuous bhie lines are some-
times used.
The Horizontal Plane
is
known
as the
H.P., the Vertical
Plane as V.P. and the Profile Plane as Pf.P.
point in space
is
designated by a small letter or figure,

letters or figures
their projection
by the same
with small h or
re-
V written above for the horizontal or vertical projection

spectively.
In
some complicated problems where points
are designated
by
figures their projections are
named by
the same figures
accented.
Drawings should be carefully made to the dimensions

given, the scale to be determined
by the
instructor.
The student should
continually endeavor to improve in
inking straight lines, curves, and joints.

In solving the following problems the student should have
a
model
of the co-ordinate planes for his

stiff
own
use.
This can
be made by taking two pieces of

slot in the center of
cardboard and cutting a
one of them large enough to pass the

it
;
folded half of the other through
when unfolding
this half a
model
All
will
be had
like that
shown by
Fig. 107 or 109.
projections
shall
now be
is
made from
the
third,
dihedral angle.
Prob.
I.
point a
situated in the third
dihedral
angle, i" below the

It is
required to draw
H.P. and i" behind the V.P. its vertical and horizontal projec-
tions.
Draw
a straight line
a!'d",
Fig. 113, perpendicular to I.L.

o!'
and measure off the point a" \" below I.L. and the point
l" above I.L.
82
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
a" is the vertical
and
a!'
the horizontal projection in the
same
straight line a"a!\

this
The student should demonstrate

Prob.
2.
with his model.

3'^
Draw two projections

is
of a line
long parallel
to both planes, f"
below the H.P. and 2" behind the V.P.

both planes, both projections
will
As
the line
parallel to
be parallel to the I.L.
Draw
allel to
a^b""
the vert. proj. of the line

f^'
3^^
long. Fig.
14, par-
I.L. and
below
it,
it.
Draw
it
the hor. proj. 2" above
the I.L. and parallel to
making
the same length as the
Fig. 113.
Fig. 114.
Fig. 115.
Fig. 116.
Fig. 117.
vert. proj.
by drawing
b'"
lines perpendicular to
b^\
I.L. from the
points a" and
to
a^'
and
Prob.
line
3.
To draw the
is
hor.
and
vert, projs. of a straight
^" long, per. to the vert, plane, Fig. 115.
As
a point
the line
per. to the vert, plane the vert. proj. will be

proj. will be parallel to
below the I.L. and the hor.
the horizontal plane and per. to I.L.
Prob.
line
4.
To
draw the plan and elevation
of a straight
6" long making an angle of 4^ with the

par. to the hor. plane. Fig.
vert, plane
and
and
116.
The
plan or hor. proj. will be above the I.L. and
it.
83
make an
will
angle of 45 with
The
elevation or vert. proj.
be
below and
par. to I.L.
^_
a^'
Draw from Draw
the point
ci'U'
at
any convenient distance from
I.L. a straight line

a^b"'
6" long, making an angle 45 with I.L.

at a
par. to
LL=
convenient distance below

is
it.
The length
the points
of
the elevation or vert. proj.
determined by
aJ't^'
dropping perpendiculars from the end of the hor. proj.

a"b'".
to
Prob.
line
5,
Fig. 117.
To
find the true length of a straight

it
oblique to both planes of projection and the angle
m.akes with these planes.

a'b'"
and
a^'b^'
are the projections of a straight line oblique
to V.P. and H.P.

until
it
Using
a" as a pivot, revolve the line
a"b'"
becomes
parallel to I.L. as
shown by
b^'
a'b^''.
From
the
point b^ erect a per.
Through the point

b^'.
draw
a line par. to
I.L. cutting the per. in the point
The broken
and the angle
V.P.
line a^'b^' is the

is
true length of the line ab,
the true angle which the line makes with
To
find the angle

b''
it
makes with H.P,
Using
as a pivot, revolve the line
^V'
until
a^'
it
becomes
par. to I.L. as
shown by
a"
b^'a^^.
From
the point
drop a per.
Through the point

per. at the point
draw a
is
line par. to I.L. intersecting the
aô
the angle which the line ab

a^b"" is
makes
with H.P. and the broken line
again
its
true length.
Prob.
6,
Fig. 118.
To
project a plane surface of given
size, situated in
the third angle and par. to the V.P.
Let abed be the plane surface ^" long
2" wide.
If
we conceive
lines to
be projected from the four corners of the
84
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
we
plane surface to theV.P. and join them with straight Hnes

will
have
its
V. projection
a^b'"c"d'"
and shown by Fig. ii8.
And
as the plane surface
is
par. to the
V.P.
it
must be per
to the
H.P. since the planes
of projection are at right angles

will
to each other.
So the plan or H. projection
be a straight
line equal in length to
one of the sides of the plane surface.
At
a convenient distance above I.L. draw a straight line,

^^^^^
and from the points
project lines at right angles to I.L.,

al^'b}
cutting the straight line in the points
The
line aÛ'
is
the hor. proj. of the plane surface abed.
Prob.
surface of
7,
Fig. ii8.
To draw the
X
2''
projections of a plane
given dimensions when
situated in the third angle
perpendicular to the H.P. and making an angle with the V.P.
Let the plane surface be 3"

angle
it
as before
and
let
the
makes with V.P.
be 60.
To draw the plan At a convenient distance above

of 60 with
per. cutting
it,
I.L. and
making an angle
draw
a!'bl\
Fig. 118, 2" long.
From
<^/'
drop a
^
cC'b'"
in the point
b^ and
ifd'" in
the point d^ then
the rectangle d"b^d^c" will be the vert. proj. or elevation of

the plane surface abed.
Prob.
8,
Fig. 119.
(i)
To draw the projections

parallel to the
of the
same
plane surface
when
H.P.
(2)
when making
when makwhen
an angle, of 30 with H.P. and per. to V.P.,
(3)
ing an angle of 60 with H.P. and per. to V.P., and (4)

per. to
both planes.
119 shows the projections; further explanations are
Fig.
unnecessary.
Prob.
9,
Figs. 119
and
120.
To draw the projections
of
the same plane surface
the planes of projection.
85
angles with
when making compound
Let the plane make an angle of 30 with H.P.,

second position of Prob.
revolve
it
as in the
8,
Fig. 119, and in addition to that,

First,
through at angle of 30.

H.P., as shown by
al'd'V'd^^
draw the plane
parallel to
Fig. 119, the true size
of the plane.
Fig. 118.
Fig. 119.
Fig. 120.
Its elevation will
be the straight line
dÛ" parallel to I.L.
Next revolve
d^b",
using a" as a pivot, through an angle of

^
30, to the position d'b^
which
is its
vert. proj.
when making
of 30 with
an angle of 30 with H.P.
Its plan is projected in a!'bl'(^'dl\

still
Now
H.P.
as the plane
it
is
to
make an angle
after
has been revolved through an angle of 30 with
relation to the V.P., its hor. proj. will
remain unchanged.
With
a piece of celluloid or tracing-paper trace the hor.
proj. a!'bl'd'dl\ lettering the points as shown,
and revolve the
S6

is
tracing through the angle of 30, or, which
the same thing, angle of
place the tracing so that the line <^V will
make an
60 with I.L., and with a sharp conical-pointed pencil transfer
the four points to the drawing-paper and join them by
straight lines, as
shown by Fig.
120.
And
as the line <^V' retains its position relative to

its
H.P.
Fig.
after the revolution,
elevation will be found at

cfb'\ Fig.
a^C",
120, in a straight line
drawn through
<^V',
119, intersect-
ing perpendiculars from
Fig. 120.
And
the vert. proj.
of the points bl'dl' will be found at ^jV/, Fig. 120, in a straight

line
drawn through
from
b^^ Fig. 119, parallel to I.L.
and intersect-
ing pers.
<^jV/',
join
with straight lines the points
Draw
the projections of the plane
when making an angle

of 30 with
of 60 with
relation to
H.P. and revolved through an angle

V.P.
Draw
Prob.
the projections of the plane
when making an angle
of 60 with the
10.
V.P. and
per. to the
H.P., Fig. 120.
To draw
in
is
the projections of a plane surface of

(i)
hexagonal form
of
its
the following positions:

par. to the
(2)
When
one
diagonals
V.P. and making an angle of

still
45 with the H.P.
When
making an angle
of 45
with the H.P. the same diagonal has been revolved through an angle of
60"^.
Draw
=:
the
hexagon
above
be
its
i^2^3V5^'6'',
Fig.
121,
at
any concircle
venient distance
I.L.,
making the inscribed

2''4''6''i''
2\"
This
will
1^2^'
hor. proj. and
its vert, proj.,
the diagonal
I''
being par. to both planes of proj.

6'''4''2''
With
2^
as an axis revolve
through an angle of 45.
Through
the points 2Â,^6^ erect pers. to the points 6^^5/*4i^3i^ and
and join them with straight hnes.
the
first
87
projs. in
etc.,
These
are the
i^',
position.
Now
i^'2/'
trace the hor.
proj,
2/',
on
a piece of celluloid or tracing-paper and revolve the tracing

until the diagonal
makes an angle
pers.
of 60 with the I.L.,
Fig. 122.
Next draw
from the 6 points of the hexag-
onal plane to intersect hors. from the corresponding points of
the elevation in Fig. 121, join the points of intersection with
Fig. 121.
Fig. 122.
straight lines,
and so complete the projections of the second
position, Fig. 122.
Prob.
II,
Figs. 123
and
124.
is
Draw the
V.P.
projs. of a cir-
cular plane (i)
when
its
surface
par. to the vert, plane, (2)
when
still
it
makes an angle
of 45 with the V.P.,

it
and
(3)
when
re-
making an angle
of 45 with the
has been
volved through an angle of 60.

First position:
Draw
the circular plane
i",
2",
3'', 4'',
etc.,
Fig. 123, below the I.L. with a radius

ficrure it as
\^' and divide and
shown.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Since the plane
straight line
i^\
is
par. to
etc.
V.P.
its
hor. proj. will be a
2^
For the second position revolve the
said hor. proj.

a!"
. . . .
through
the required angle of 45 to the position
ij^ Fig. 123,
and through each division

a!'
. .
.
.
in
. .
i''
a^
draw
arcs cutting of
i^'
in
points
2^3^'
This
is
the
hor. proj.
the
plane
when making an angle of 45 with the V.P. The elevation is found by dropping pers. from
hor.
proj,
a!"
.
.
the points
in
the
.\^
to
intersect
hor.
lines
in
drawn
through the correspondingly numbered points
the eleva-
FiG. ^23
tion and through these intersections

vert. proj. of the
draw the elevation or
second position.
For the
third position
make
a tracing of the elevation of

all
the second position, numbering
the points as before, and

'J'^J'"
place the tracing so that the diameter
makes the required
angle of 60 with the I.L. and transfer to the drawing-paper.
The
pers.
result will
89
be the elevation of the third position shown

Its hor. proj. is
below the I.L., Fig. 124.

through the points
found by drawing
i, 2,
3,4 ... to intersect hors. drawn

in the hor. proj. of the
through the corresponding points
2d
position and through these intersections

proj. of the third position, Fig. 124.
draw the plan or
hor.
Prob.
12,
Fig. 125.
Draw the
is
projs. of a regular
circle
(2)
hexagof
onal prism,
3^'
high and having an inscribed

its
^%"
the
diam.
true
(i)
When
axis
par. to the
V.P.
Draw
base.
form of a section of the prism when cut by a plane

it
passing through
at
an angle
of 30 with
its
(3)
Draw
the projection of a section
when
cut
by
a plane, passing
through
XX,
Fig. 125, per. to both planes of proj.

of the I.L.
The drawing
For the plan
with a radius
as
may now
be omitted.
of the first part of this prob.

'2.^-^"
,
draw a
circle
it,
= to
aJ',
and circumscribe a hexagon about
shown by
at a
b^\
U\
etc., Fig. 125.
To
project the elevation,
draw
0
convenient distance from the plan a hor. line par.

3^^
a!'d!\
and
below
it
another line par. to
it.
From
the
points
a!'V'(^'d^\
drop pers. cutting these par.
lines in the points
-oyb^c'd",
thus completing the elevation of the prism.
Second condition: Draw the edge view or trace of the

cutting plane
iV> making an angle

at
of 30 with the base of the
prism, locating the lower end 4' one-half inch above the base;
parallel to
iV>
a-i"^d
a convenient distance from
it
draw a
straight line 1,4; at a distance of 2^-^"
on each side of 1,4
draw
lines
3, 2
and
5,
6 parallel to 1,4, and through the

three par. lines in
points i^2'3V
l^t fall
pers. cutting these
the points
i,
2, 3, 4, 5,
6;
join these points
by
straight lines
QO
as shown,
MECHANICAL DRAWING,
and a true drawing
of
the section of the prism as
required will result.
For the
Let
third condition of the problem
XX be
the edge
view of the cutting plane
and con-
ceive that part of the prism to the right of
XX to be removed.
Fig. 125.
Fig. 126.
From
or
elevation the hor. proj. of the' prism draw a right-hand draw the lines enprofile proj., and through the points
XX
closing the section, and hatch-line
it
as
shown.
of the lower part
Prob. 13. To draw the development

of the
prism in the elevation of the
last
problem.
,,
To
line
9I
the right of the elevation in Fig. 125, prolong the base
indefinitely
and lay
off
upon
it
the distances ab,
be, cd,
etc., Fig.
126, each equal in length to a side of the hex.
At
draw
be
these points erect pers., and through the

hor.
lines
points 1^2 '3 '4'

2,
i,
intersecting the pers. in 4,

a!'y'b^\(^'e^\dh
i,
3,
etc.
At
draw the hex.

at
I,
of the last prob. for the base,

2, 3, 4,
5,
and
draw the section

14,
6 for the top.

projs. of a right cylinits
PrOB.
Fig. 127.
3''
To draw the
(i)
der i" diam. and
long,
When
axis
is
per.,
to the
H.P.
(2)
Draw
the true form of a section of the cylinder,

per. to the
when
cut
by a plane
(3)
V.P. making an angle of 30

of the
with the H.P.

the cyl.
Draw
a development
upper part of
For the plan

2\
etc.,
of the first condition, describe the circle
\'
with a radius
will
i^" and from

3'^
it
project the eleva-
tion,
which
be a square of
sides.
i,
For the second condition:

cutting plane,
Let
7,
7 be the trace of the

cyl.
making the point
^" from the top of the

let fall pers.
it
Divide the
circle into 12
equal parts and
through
these divisions to the line of section, cutting

I,
in
the points
2,
3,4, etc.
Parallel to the line of section
i,
draw
i^'y"
at a
I,
convenient
distance
from
it,
and through the points

and extending
2, 3, 4, etc.,
draw
pers. to 1,7, intersecting

off
beyond
6'8',
i"'/".
Lay
on these pers. the distances 6'''W
and S"9"^^S'9'j ^tc, and through the points 2",
3'',
4", etc., describe the ellipse.
For the development

tion
In line with the top of the eleva-
draw the
circle,
line
^'^" equal in length to the circumference of

it
the
etc.
and divide
into 12 equal parts

pers.
a', b' , etc., a' ,
b"
Through these points drop
and through the points
92
I, 2,
I,

3, etc.,
draw
hors.
intersecting the pers. in the points
2, 3, etc.,
and through these points draw a curve.

to
Tangent
any point on
the- straight line

,
draw a
3''
circle
for the top of the cyl.
and tangent to any suitable point on

ellipse.
the curve transfer a tracing of the
Prob.
15,
Fig. 128.
Draw the projections

in diam., pierced
of a right
cone
j" high, with a base 6"
by aright
cyl. 2"^ in
Fig. 127.
diam. and ^" long their axes intersecting at right angles
3''
above the base
of the cone
and
par. to
i,\"
V.P.
Draw
first
the
plan of the cone with a radius
At
3''
a convenient distance
below the plan draw the elevation
to the dimensions required.
above the base of the cone draw the center

it
line of the
cyl.
CD, and about
construct the elevation of the cyl., which

'2\"
will
appear as a rectangle 2" wide and
each side of the
axis of the cone.
The
half only appears in the figure.
93
To
cone
in
project the curves of intersection between the cyl. and
the plan and elevation
Draw
to the right of the
cyL
on the same center

of the cyl.
line a semicircle
with a radius equal that
Divide the semicircle into any number of parts,
H^
'
Fig. 128.
Fig. 129.
as
in
I,
2, 3, 4, etc.
Through
i,
draw the
per.
length to the height of the cone, and through

to the semicircle at the point 4,
A" \" equal A" draw the

and through
line^'V' tangent
the other divisions of the semicircle
draw
lines
from
A"
to the
Hne \" A^' meeting

,
From
all
the points l"2" points on the line \" aJ' viz., \"2"i"a!\ erect
it
in
94
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
of the plan, cutting
it
pers, to the center line
in the points
1/^2/^3/^4/'^ 3.nd with i/^ as the center
draw the
arcs 2/^-2,
3/^-3, 4i^'-4 above the center line of the plan, and through the
points 2,
3,
4 draw
hors. to intersect the circle of the plan in
the points 2^3^?
a-i'id
lay off the
same distances on the other same

order, viz., 2'3^4^
circle
side of the center line of the plan in
Through each
of the plan
of these points
on the circumference of the

^
draw
radii to its center
A' and through the same

the base of the elevation
;
points also in the plan

of the cone, cutting
it
let fall pers. to
in the points 2'3'4'
and from the apex

on
A
3,
of the elevation of the cone
draw
lines to the points 2'3'4'
the base.
Hor.
lines
drawn through the points

will intersect the
of division 2,
,
4 on the semicircle
4.'
elements A~2'
A-^\
of the cone in the points 2^3'4^;
these will be points in
the elevation of the curve of intersection between the cylinder
and the cone.
The
plan of the curve
is
found by erecting pers. through
the points in the elevation of the curve to intersect the radial

lines of the plan in correspondingly figured points,
through
which trace the curve as shown.

of the curve.
Repeat
for the other half
Prob.
half cone,
16,
Fig.
129.
To
draw the development

cyl.
of the
showing the hole penetrated by the
With
center 4/', Fig. 129, and element Ai' of the cone.
Fig. 128, as radius, describe an arc equal in length to the semicircle of the
base of the cone.

I
Bisect
it
in
the line 4/^1, and
on each side of the point
lay off the distances 2, 3, 4, equal
to the divisions of the arc in the plan Fig. 128,
and from these
points draw lines to 4"

radii
the center of the arc.
Then with
Aa,
b, c, d, e,
respectively,
on the elevation Fig. 128,
and center 4/' draw
arc
arcs intersecting the lines
95
drawn from the

of intersection
XX to
Prob.
its
center 4/^
as
Through the points

Fig. 129.
draw the curve

17,
shown by
Fig. 130.
To
of the
half
of
truncated
cone, given the plan and elevation of
the cone.
Fig. 130.
Divide the semicircle of the plan into any number of parts,

then with
off
A
it
as center
and
^
i
as radius,
draw an
arc
and lay
upon
I
from the point
the divisions of the semicircle

center
from
to 9,
arc
draw
<Â.
Then with
is
and radius
AB
draw the
BC.
iBCg
the development of the half of
the cone approximately.
96

Prob.
1
8,
Fig. 131.
To draw the curve

To
the
left of
of intersection of
a small cyl. with a larger.

Fig. 131
is
the center-line of
half eleva-
a half cross-section,
and to the right a
tion of the
two
cyls.
Draw
semicircle,
the half plan of
the small cyl., which will be a
and divide
it
into
any convenient number
of parts,
say 12.
From each
of these divisions
drop pers.
On
the half cross-section these pers. intersect the circumi',
ference of the large cyl. in the points

Fig. 134.
2',
etc.
Through
Fig. 133
Fig. 132.
these points draw hors. to intersect in corresponding points
the pers. on the half elevation.
Through the
latter points
draw the curve

Prob.
19.
of mtersection C.
To
of the smaller cyl.
of the last prob.
Draw
a rectangle. Fig. 132, with sides equal to the circum-
ference and length of the cyl. respectively, and divide
it
9/
into
24 equal
parts.
i
Make AB,
2' 2",
It'l" , etc..
i',
3 3', etc., Fig.
132, equal to
AB,
\'
\"
Fig. 131,
and draw the developed curve of
intersection.
ProB. 20.
cylindrical
To
draw the orthographic projections

riveted
to
of a
dome
cylindrical
boiler
of
given
dimensions.
Let the dimensions
of
the
dome and
54''
boiler be
J-'^
dome
26\" diam.
^j" high, boiler
diam., plates
thick.
Apply
to the solution of this
problem the principles ex-
plained in Prob. No. 18, Fig. 131.
When
Figs.
your drawings are completed, compare them with

in
133 and 134, which are the projections required
the
problem.
Letter or
number the drawing and be prepared

were found.
to explain
how
the different projections
Prob. 21.
To
of the top gusset-
sheets of a locomotive wagon-top boiler of given dimensions.

First
draw the longitudinal cross-section
of the boiler to
the dimensions given by Fig.

I
135, using the scale of \"

.
ft.
Then
at
any convenient point on your paper draw a

and upon
it
straight line,
lay off a distance
AB
i^\" long
the straight part of the top of the gusset-sheet G, Fig. 135.
With
center
-j-
and a radius
2y^" (the largest radius
of the
gusset)
6" (the distance from the center of the boiler to the
center of the gusset C, Fig. 135)
33f'^ draw arc
i.
With center^ and

the gusset) draw arc
a radius
2.
26^" (the smallest radius of

arcs
Tangent to these
draw the
-*
98
Straight line
i,
MECHANICAL DKA WING.

2
extended, and through the points^ and

2,
draw
lines
i,
and
per. to
i,
2.
Take
a point on the per.
i,
2,
6" from the point
as a
center and through the point
draw an
arc with a radius
27
n_n
vVith point 2 as a center
99
and 2B
line
as a radius (26|-'^)
draw
an arc through
to
meet the
1,2.
12,
Divide both arcs into any number of parts, say
and
through these divisions draw
lines per. to
and intersecting \A
and
2B
respectively.
Through these
intersections
off
draw
in-
definite hors.
arcs,
and on these hors. step
the length of the
with a distance
one of the 12 divisions as follows:
=^
On the first Ai and Bi
hors. lay off the length of the arc
A\' and B\'
respectively.
Then from
etc.
i'
lay off the
same
points
distance to 2'
on the second hors.
Through these
12^
draw curves ^13' and Bi2\

straight line.
Join points
and
13'
with a
Then
AB 12,
13 will be the developed half of
the straight part of the gusset.
On
now
to
the two ends or front and back of the gusset
we have
add
i^'
for 'clearance
plates, total
3f'^
5^''.
for lap
i'^
allowance
for truing
up the
-J^^
And
to the sides 2^^^

3--'^
for lap
allowance for truing up, total
The
outline of the developed sheet

little
may now
is
be drawn to
include these dimensions with as
waste as possible, as
necessary in mak-
shown by
Fig. 136.
Extreme accuracy
ing this drawing, as the final dimensions must be found by
measurement.
Prob. 22.
screw and
its
To
it
draw the projections

3^^
of
a V-threaded
nut of
diam. and
f pitch.
and lay
off
Begin by drawing the center
line C, Fig. 137,
on each side of
the radius of the screw i^'^
Draw
AB
step
and 6D.
off
Draw A6
the bottom of the screw, and on
AB
the pitch
i'\ beginning at the point
A.
distance
On
pitch
line
6B
from the point 6 lay
off a
half the
f ^^
because when the point of the thread has com-
lOO
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
it
pleted half a revolution
will
have risen perpendicularly a
distance
half the pitch, viz.,
f
6D
step off as
Then from
the point 6" on
many
pitches as
may
B
be desired.
From
the points of the threads just found,
Fig. 137.
Fig. 138.
draw with the 30 triangle and T-square the

intersecting at the points b
.
.
of the threads
the bottom of the threads.

semicircles with radii
respectively.
also the pitch
'At the point

II
O on line A6 draw two

of equal parts
the top and bottom of the thread
Divide
these into any
number
of
and
Pinto
the same
number
and
equal parts.
Through these
divisions
draw
hors.
pers. intersecting each other in the points as
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION,
shown by
lOI
Fig. 137, which shows an elevation partly in section

of a nut to
fit
and a section
the screw.
Through the points
of intersection
draw the curves
of the helices shown, using
No.
of the " Sibley College Set" of Irregular Curves.
Fig. 139.
PrOB. 22.
3'^
To draw the
is
proj. of a square-threaded screw

its
diam. and \" pitch and also a section of
nut.
The method
problem, and
of construction
illustrated
is
the same as for the last

138.
by Fig.
Prob. 22.
To
3''
threaded screw of
its
draw the projections of a square double diam. and 2" pitch, and also a section of
nut.
I02
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
The
solution of this problem
is
shown by
Fig. 139, and
further explanation should be unnecessarj-.
Prob. 23.
To
draw the curve
of
intersection that
is
formed by a plane cutting an irregular surface of revolution.
Fig. 140.
Figs. 140, 141,
and 142 show examples of engine con-
necting rod ends where the curve
is
formed by the
inter-
FiG. 141.
section of the
flat
stub end with the surface of revolution of
the turned part of the rod.
103
The method
plainly
of finding the
curves of intersection are so

is
shown by the
figures that a detailed explanation
deemed unnecessary.
Fig. 142.
SHADE LINES AND SHADING.

Shade Lines are quite generally used on engineering working drawings
;
they give a relieving appearance to the projec-
ting parts, improve the looks of the drawing and
make
it
easier
to read, and are quickly and easily applied.
The Shading
of the curved surfaces of
machine parts
is
sometimes practiced on specially finished drawings,
but on
working drawings most employers

cause
it
will
is
not allow shading be-
takes too
much
time, and
not essential to a quick

if
and
correct reading of a drawing, especially

lines
is
a system of
shade
used.
Some
of
the principles of shade lines and shading are
given below, with a few problems illustrating their commonest

applications.
The shadows which opaque
objects cast on the planes of
I04
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
shown on
projection or on other objects are seldom or never
a working drawing, and
as the students in Sibley College are

it is
taught this subject in a course on Descriptive Geometry,
omitted here.
CONVENTIONS.
The Source
of
Light
is
considered to be at an infinite dis-
tance from the object, therefore the Rays of Light will be represented by parallel lines.
The Source
tance from
of Light
is
considered to be fixed, and the Point
of Sight situated in front of the object

it,
and
at an infinite dis-
so
that the
Visual Rays are parallel to one
another and per. to the plane of projection.
Shade Lines divide illuminated surfaces from dark
surfaces.
Dark
surfaces are not necessarily to be defined
by those
surfaces which are darkened
by the shadow
cast
by another
part of the object, but

to the rays of light.
It is
by reason
of their location in relation
the general practice to shade-line the different proif
jections of an object as
each projection was
in the
same
plane, e.g., suppose a cube, Fig. 143, situated in space in the

third angle, the point of sight in front of
it,
and the direction
of the rays of light coinciding with the diagonal of the cube, as
shown by Fig.
144.
Then
the edges
a^b"^ b"c'" will
be shade
lines,
because they are the edges which separate the illuminfall
ated faces (the faces upon which
the rays of light) from
the shaded faces, as shown by Fig. 144.
Now
remain
the source of light being fixed,
let
the point of sight
in the
same
position,
and conceive the object to be re-
volved through the angle of 90 about a hor. axis so that a

plan at the top of the object
is
105
elevation,
of
shown above the
and
the
as the projected rays of light falling in the direction
diagonal of a cube
make
angles of 45 with the hor., then with
the use of the 45 triangle
we can
easily
determine that the

ele-
lower and right-hand edges of the plan as well as of the

vation should be shade lines.
This practice then
will be followed in this
work,
viz.
Shade
lines shall
be applied to ^\ projections of an object,
r
-i2^_
A/
Fig. 143.
\
Fig. 144.
considering the rays of light to

the same direction.
fall
upon each
of
them, from
Shade
lines should
have a width equal to

lines
times that of
lines.
the other outlines.
Broken
should never be shade
The
lines.
outlines of surfaces of revolution should not be shade
The
shade-lined figures which follow will assist in
il-
lustrating the above principles;
they should be studied until
understood.

I06
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
SHADING.
The shade
which
light
line
is
of an object
is
that part of the surface from
excluded by the object.

is
The
of shade
the line separating the shaded from

is
the illuminated part of an object, and

of light are tangent to the object.
Brilliant Points.
face which turns
tion, the ray
is
it
found where the rays
'^
When
its
a ray of light falls

it
upon
a sur-
from
course and gives
another direcit falls

it
said to be reflected.
The
and
ray as
after
upon
the surface
is
called the incident ray,
leaves the
surface the reflected ray.
The
point at which the reflection
takes places
'^
is
called the point
of incidence.
It is ascertained
by experiment
of the incident
'*
{a)
That the plane
and reflected rays
is
always normal to the surface at the point of incidence
"
{B)
That
at the point of incidence the incident
and
re-
flected rays
make equal angles with
the tangent plane or normal
line to the surface.

/' If therefore
we suppose
it
a single luminous point and the
light
emanating from
to
fall
upon any surface and to be
re-
flected to the eye, the point at which the reflection takes place
is
is,
called the brilliant point.
The
brilliant point of a surface
then, the point at which a ray of light and a line
drawn
to
the eye
line
make
equal angles with the tangent plane or normal

of the
the plane
:
two
lines
being normal to the surface."
Davies
Shades and Shadozvs.
Considering the rays of light to be parallel and the point

of sight at an infinite distance, the brilliant point
on the
sur-
face of a sphere
is
found as follows
Let A^C"" and
A^'C^, Fig.
OR THO GRA PHIC PROJECTION.

145, be a ray of light
107
and
AÂ^"-
a visual ray.
Bisect the angles

fol-
contained between the ray of light and the visual ray as
lows
Revolve A^C^ about the axis A"

.
until
it
becomes
parallel
to the hor. plane at A'"C^
At C^
erect a per. to
intersect
a hor. through C^ at
(7/'
join CJ^L^ (L
may
be any convenient
Fig. 145.
point on the line of vision), bisect the angle Z^^^^^^ with the
line
A^D^.
Join C'V" and through the point i/, draw a hor.

is
cutting C^L!" at Dl\ then A^D^'

bisecting line.
the hor. projection of the
plane drawn per. to this bisecting line and
tangent
to 'the
sphere
touches the
surface
it.
at
the
points
B^Bl' where the bisecting lines pierce
Therefore B"B^' are
the two projections of the brilliant point.
io8
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
The point of shade can be found
as follows: of 45 with a hor.
Draw
A^'G, Fig.
145,
i^
making an angle
Join the points
and
with a straight line EF.
Lay
off
on
A^G
a distance equal to
Fig. 146.
EF, and
join
EG.
Parallel to
Fig. 147.
EG
/\\x\
j"
\
CI
i
/
^
I
at the point
L ^/r
Fig. 148.
draw a tangent to the sphere
T.
Through
draw TP'
per. to A^'G,
From
the point P^ drop a per. to
P\
P"
is
the point of shade.
Prob. 24.
arcs of circles.
To shade the elevation
of a sphere with graded
OR THO GRA PHIC PR OJECTION.

First find the brilliant point
109
of shade,
and the point
and
divide the radius
i,
2 into a suitable
number
of equal parts,
and draw
arcs of circles as
shown by
Fig. 146, grading
them
by moving the center a short distance on each
side of the
center of the sphere on the line B^'2 and varying the length of
the radii to obtain a grade of line that will give a proper
shade to the sphere.
It is desirable to
use a horn center to
protect the center of the figure.

Fig.
149 shows the stippling method
of
shading
the
sphere.
Fig. 149.
Fig. 150.
Prob. 25. To shade a right cylinder with graded right

lines.
Find the
line of light
E" by the same method used to find
the brilliant point on the sphere, except that the line of light
is
projected from the point B^ where the
bisîon
line
A^D
tan-
cuts the circle of the cylinder.
The
Fig.
line of
shade
S'"
is
found where a plane of rays
is
gent to the
cyl. at
and S\
the shading lines are graded from
150 shows
how
the line of shade to the

It will
line of light.
little
be noticed that the lines grow a

1
narrower to
the right of the line of shade on Fig.
50
this
shows where
no
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
the reflection of the rays of light partly illumine the outline

of the cylinder.
Prob. 26, Fig. 148.
To
light
shade a right cone with graded
right lines tapering toward the
apex
of the cone.
Find the elements of
and shade as shown by Fig. 148,

as
and draw the shading-lines

their width toward the light
shown by
Fig. 151, grading
and tapering them toward the
apex
of the cone.
Fig. 151.
Fig. 152.
The mixed appearance
of the lines
near the apex of the

line
cone on Fig. 151 can usually be avoided by letting each

dry before drawing another through
it,
or as
some draftsmen
do, stop the lines just before they touch.
Prob. 27^-To shade the concave surface of a section of a

hollow cylinder.
Find the element

it
of light
and grade the shading

Fig. 152.
lines
from
to both edges as
shown by
Fig. 153 shows a conventional
method
of shading a hex-
agonal nut.
Prob. 28.
To draw a front and end elevation
of a rect-
angular hollow box with a rectangular block on each face, each
OR THO GRA PHIC PROJE C TION,

block to have a rectangular opening, and
all
III
to
be properly
shade-lined and drawn to the dimensions given on Fig. 154.
Fig. 153.
Draw
the hor. center line
first,
and then the
vertical center
el-
line of the
end view.
About
these center lines on the end
FiG. 154.
Fig. 155.
êvation construct the squares
shown and
erect the edges of the
blocks.
Next draw the hidden
lines indicating the thickness
112
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
box and the openings through the
blocks,
of the walls of the
measuring the
sizes carefully to the given dimensions.
Draw
the line
the front elevation by projecting lines from the va-
rious points on the
end elevation, and assuming the position of

off
AB
measure
the lengths of the hor. lines and erect
their vert, boundaries as
shown by the
figure.
Prob. 29,
Given the end elevation

B
and
C, Fig. 155.
of the last prob., cut
by three planes A,
of these sections
Draw
left of
the projections
when
the part to the

is
the cutting plane

in the direction
has been removed, and what remains

of the arrow,
viewed
remembering that
all
all
the visual rays are parallel.

follow are to be properly
These drawings and
that
may
shade-lined in accordance with the principles given above.
ISOMETRICAL DRAWING.
In orthographic
projection
it
is
necessary to a
correct
understanding of an object to have
at least
two views, a front
and end elevation, or an elevation and plan, and sometimes

even three views are required.
Isometric drawing on the other hand shows an object completely with only one view.
for
It is
a very convenient system

his Projection
It is calls
it
the workshop.
Davidson
in
the
" Perspective of the Workshop."
more
useful than per-
spective for a working drawing, because, as
its
name
implies
(" equal measures ")

like
it
can be
made
It
to
is,
any
scale
and measured
an orthographic drawing.
however, mainly em-
ployed to represent small objects, or large objects drawn to a

small scale, whose main lines are at right angles to each other.
The
principles of isometrical drawing are founded

its
on a
base
cube resting on
lower front corner,
i.
Fig. 156,
and
its
elevated so that
plane.
its
113
diagonal
is
AB is
parallel to the horizontal

i
Then
if
the cube
at
rotated on the corner
until the
i.e.,
diagonal
AB
i,
is
right
angles
to
the
vert,
plane,
through an angle of 90, the front elevation
will
appear as
shown
at
2, 3,
4, Fig. 156, a regular hexagon.
Now we know
that in a regular hexagon, as

all
shown by
easily
Fig.
156, the lines lA, Ai,, etc., are
equal,
and are
drawn
Fig. 156.
with the 30
60 triangle.
But although these
lines
and
faces appear to be equal, yet, being inclined to the plane of
projection, they are shorter than they
would actually be on
bear the same pro-
the cube
itself.
However,
since they
all
portion to the original sizes, they can

the same scale.
all
be measured with
We
will nov/ describe the

^
method
of
making an isomet-
rical scale.
Draw
These two
the half of a square with sides

sides will
2i'\ Fig. 157.
make the angle
of 45 with the horizontal.
Now the sides of the corresponding isometrical square, we

seen,
have
will
make
the angle of 30 with the horizontal, so
we
114
dravv^

14,
3 4,
making angles
of 30 with
2,
i,
i,
3.
The
4,
differi,
ence then between the angle

15,
and the angle
3 is
and the proportion of the isometrical projection to the

is
actual object
as the length of the line 3, 2 to the line 3, 4.

3, 2
And
and
if
the line
be divided into any number of equal parts,

2,
lines
be drawn through these divisions par. to
4 to cut
the line
3,
in
corresponding divisions, these

3, 2.
will divide 3,
proportionately to
Now
if
the divisions on
3,
3, 2
be taken to represent feet
and those on
to represent 2 feet, then 3,
4 would be an
isometrical scale of J.
Fig. 157-
Since isometrical drawings
may
be
made
to
any
scale,
may make This is a common

isometrical scale.
the isometrical lines of the object

practice
= their
true
and precludes the need
of a sp(
The Direction of the Rays of Light.

ray
of light in isometrical as
The projection
the angle of
drawing
will
make
with the horizontal
shown by the
line 3, 2
on the
elevation of the hex., Fig. 156.
And
the shade lines wi
applied as in ordinary projection.
Prob.
30.
To
make
the isometrical drawing of a
>
armed
cross standing on a square pedestal.
OR THO GEA PHIC PR OJECTION.

Begin by drawing a center
point
line
115
AB,
Fig. 158, and from the
draw
AC
and
AD, making
an angle of 30 with the

line
horizontal.
Measure from
on the center
tance
YV^ ^^d draw

two front
lines par. to
AC, AD\ make
AB a AC
dis-
and
AD
2^^'
long and erect a perpendicular at

sides of the base, etc.
and
C, complet-
ing the
Prob.
cube,
31.
To make
first
the isometrical drawing of a hollow
with square block on each face and a square hole
through each block, to dimensions given on Fig. 159.
As
before,
draw a center
line,
and make an isometrical

it
drawing of a 2^" cube, and upon each face of
build the
blocks with the square holes in them, exactly as shown in

Fig. 159.
Prob.
32.
To project an isometrical
enclosed
in a square, as
circle.
The
circle is
shown by
Fig. 160.
ji6

Draw
the circle with a radius
it.
2" and describe the square
I, 2,
3,
4 about
Draw
the diagonals
I,
2, 3,
4 and the diameters
5, 6,
7, 8
at right angles to each other.
Now
from the points
and
2^
draw
lines
lA, iB and 2A,
2B, making angles of 30 with
the' hor.
diagonal 1,2.
And
Fig. 159
through the center

isometrical square.
O draw CD
and
EF at
right angles to the
The
points
CD, EF, and
GH will
be points
in the
curve
of the projected isometrical circle, which will be an ellipse.
The ellipse may be drawn sufficiently accurate as follows With center B and radius BC describe the arc CF and extend
it
little
beyond the points C and F, and with center
and same
rad. describe a similar arc, then with a rad.
which
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION,
117
Fig. 160.
Fig. 161.
Fig. 162.
Fig. 163.
Fig. 164.
Fig. 165.
Il8
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
readily be found
may
by
trial,
draw
arcs through the points
and
H and tangent to the two arcs already described.

it
Figs. i6i, 162, 163, 164, 165, and 166 are for practice in
the application of the preceding principles, and at least one

of these should be drawn, or
would be better
still if
the stu-
Fig. 166.
dent would attempt to make an isometrical projection of his

instrument-box, desk, or any familiar object at hand.
figures
These
may
be measured with the
\y
scale
and drawn with
the 2" scale.
WORKING DRAWINGS.
Working drawings
paper
in
are
sometimes made on brown

cloth,
detail-
pencil, traced
on tracing-paper or
and then
blue printed.
The The
latter process
is
accomplished as follows
tracing
is
placed face
down on
is
the glass in the print-
ing-frame, and the prepared paper
placed behind
it,
with
the sensitized surface in contact with the back of the tracing. In printing from a negative the sensitized surface of the
prepared paper
is
placed
is
in
contact with the film side of the

light.
negative, and the face
exposed to the
The
blue-print
system for working drawings has many

drawing require to
drawbacks,
e.g., the sectioned parts of the
be hatch-lined, using the standard conventions already
ferred to for the different materials.
of time.
II9
re
jdfeal
This takes a great
The
print has usually to be

is
mounted on cardboard,
it
although this
not always done, and unless
is
varnished
it
the frequent handling with dirty, oily fingers soon makes

unfit for use.
Changes can be made on the prints with soda-water,

true, but
it is
they seldom look well, and when
many changes
is
or
additions require to be
tracing and take a
made
print.
it
is
best to
make them on
the
new
And
the. sunlight
not always
into con-
favorable to quick printing.

sideration the system of
So taking everything
making working drawings

is
directly on
It
is
cards and varnishing them
probably the best.
the
system used by the Schenectady Locomotive Works and
many
cards
other large
are
engineering establishments.
In size the
24'';
made
9''
12'',
12"
18'',
t8"
they are
made
paper.
of thick pasteboard
mounted with
Irish linen record-
The drawings
colors,
are pencilled
and inked on these cards
in the usual
way, and the sections are tinted with the conven-
tional
lines.
which are much quicker applied than hatchdrawing

is
The
face of the
protected with two coats of

is
white shellac varnish, while the back of the card

given a coat of orange shellac.
usually
The white
alcohol,
varnish can easily be removed with a
little
and changes made on the drawing, and when revaragain ready for the shop.
nished
it is
We
will
now
try to describe
what a working drawing
is
and what
it is for.
In the hands of an experienced

is
workman
the necesfinish
a working drawing
intended to convey to him

shape, size, material,
all
sary information as to
and
to
120
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
121
122
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
it
enable him to properly construct

structions.
without any additional ina sufficient
This means that
it
must have
num-
ber of elevations, sections, and plans to thoroughly explain
and describe the object
in
every particular.
And
these views
should be completely and conveniently dimensioned.
The
scale
dimensions on the drawing must of course give the
sizes to>
which the object

to which
it
is
to be
made, without reference to the
may
be drawn.
The
is
title of
a working drawing
should be as brief as possible, and not very large

plain, free-hand printed letter
neat,,
best for this purpose.

f,"
Finished parts are usually indicated by the letter "

if it is all
and
to be finished, then
all
below the
over."
title it is
customary
to write or print " finished
The number
ately below
of the
drawing
may be
placed at the upper
left-hand corner, and the initials of the draftsman immediit.
second-year course, entitled Mechanical

is in
Drawing and
Elementary Machine Design^

be published.
Figs. 167 and 168
preparation, and will shortly
show working drawings
of
two
shaft-
couplings, fully figured, sectioned, and shade-lined.
INDEX.
A
To Angle, To
Angle,
bisect an
PAGE 19
,
construct an
15
Anti-friction curve, " Schiele's "
50
53
5
Arched window-opening. To draw an Arkansas oil-stones
B
Baluster,
To draw
a.
.
53
.
Board, Drawing
i
-
Bow
instruments
Brass, Sheet of
6
61
Breaks, Conventional
Brilliant points
106
C
Celluloid, Sheet of thin
5
Center lines
Ciuquefoil ornament,
Circle, Circle,
Circle,
60
53
To draw the Arc of a, To find the center of an Arc of a, To draw a line tangent
32
to
an
33
31
Circle,
Circle,
Circle,
Circle, Circle, Circle,
Circle,
Circle,
To To To To To To To To To
draw draw draw draw
a right line equal to half the circumference of a
a tangent between two
33
tangents to two
34
an arc of
a,
a,
tangent to two straight lines
34
35
inscribe
within a triangle
of a, tangent to
draw an arc draw an arc
two
circles
36
of a, tangent to a straight line
and a
circle
37 45
construct the involute of a

find the length of
an arc of
a,
approximately
123
47
. . .
124
INDEX.
To draw
the
Cissoid,
PAGE 49
2
Compass
Conventions Conventions, Shading Conventional breaks Conventional lines Conventional screw-threads
Cross-sections
56
104
61
60
62
62
3
Curves, Irregular
Cycloid,
To
describe the
46
D
Dark surfaces Development of the surfaces of a hexagonal prism Development of the surface of a right cylinder Development of the surface of a cone Development of the surface of a cylindrical dome Development of a locomotive gusset sheet
Dihedral angles
Direction, The, of the rays of light.
Dividers, Hair-spring
^
104
go
92 93
96
97
75
105
2
i
Drawing-board Drawing-pen Drawing to scale
.......
12,
54
E
Ellipse,
Ellipse,
To
describe an.
38
Given an,
to find the axes
and
foci
Epicycloid,
Epicycloid,
To To
describe the
43 48
,
describe an interior
50 24 120
Equilateral triangle.
To
construct an
Examples
of
working drawings
F
Figuring and lettering
Finished parts of working drawings
66
122
G
Geometrical drawing Glass-paper pencil sharpener
Gothic
letters
^
......
16
>
4 69
INDEX.
12$
H
Heptagon, To construct a Hyperbola, To draw an Hypocycloid, To describe the
,
PAGE 28
42 48
Ink eraser
Inks
Instruments
Intersection, The, of a cylinder with a cone
Intersection, The, of
4
4
2
93
two cylinders
96
102
Intersection, The, of a plane with an irregular surface of revolution
Involute, of a circle,
To
construct the
45
113
Isometrical cube
Isometrical drawing
Isometrical drawing. Direction of the rays of light in
112
114
115
Isometrical drawing of a two-armed cross

Isometrical drawing of a hollow cube
Isometrical drawing.
116
Examples
of
117
Isometrical scale,
The
114
L
Leads for compass Lettering and figuring Line of shade Line, To draw a, parallel
Line,
13
64
106
to
another
19
21
To
divide a
Line of motion
Line of section
60 60
M
Mechanical drawing and elementary machine design
122
81
Model
of the co-ordinate planes

'
.'
.
Moulding, The Moulding, The
'
Scotia "
51
51
*'
Cyma Recta"
Moulding, The "Cavetto " or " Hollow " Moulding, The " Echinus, " " Quatrefoil," or " Ovolo " Moulding, The " Apophygee " Moulding, The " Cyma Reversa " Moulding, The ''Torus"
51
52 52
52
52
126
INDEX.
N
PAGE
Needles Notation
80
O
Octagon, To construct an Orthographic projection Oval, To construct an
.
28
.
,
74
43
P
Paper
Parabola,
Pencil
,
To
construct a
41
2
Pencil eraser
Pencil,
4
the
,
To sharpen
; Pen, Drawing Pen, To sharpen the drawing
10
28
17
75
Pentagon,
To
construct a
Perpendicular,
To
erect a
Planes of projection, The
Polygon,
To
construct a
26
82
Projection, The, of straight lines
Projection, The, of plane surfaces
84
Projection, The, of solids

Projection, The, of the cone
go
93
Projection of the helix as applied to screw-threads

Proportional,
99
31 31
Proportional,
Proportional,
To To To
find a
find
find
mean, to two given lines a third, to two given lines

z.
fourth, to three given lines.

,
32
Protractor
Q
Quatrefoil,
To draw
the
53
R
Rays
of light
.,
IC4
,
Rays, Visual
104 21
24
Rhomboid, To construct the

Right angle,
To
trisect
Roman
letters
67
INDEX,
S
Scale guard
Scale,
Scale,
PAGE 6
to
12,
Drawing
54
55
To
construct a
Schiele's curve,
To draw
Screw-threads, Conventional
Screw-threads, Regular
50 62
100
56 58
Section lines.
..
Section lines, Standard
Shade
lines
and shading
103
108
Shade, To, the elevation of a sphere

Shade, To, a right cylinder
109
Shade, To, a right cone

Shade, To, a concave cylindrical surface
no no
8
Sharpen pencil, To Sharpen pen. To

Sheet brass
Sheet celluloid
,
10
6 6
" Sibley College

*
'
" set of irregular curves
Sibley College " set of instruments
Source of light
Spiral,
104
To
describe the
44
5
,
Sponge rubber
Square,
To
construct a
,
25
Stippling
109
T
Tacks
T-square
5
2
,
Third dihedral angle Tinting brush Tinting saucer Title, The, of a working drawing
Tracing-cloth
Trefoil,
75
5 5
122
6
To
describe the
53
3
Triangles
Triangle,
To
construct a
25
3
Triangular scale
Type specimens
70
U
Use Use
of instruments
of pencil
7
8
128
INDEX.
of
Use Use Use Use Use Use Use Use Use Use
drawing-pen
PAGE g
ii
i
of triangles
of T-square
of
drawing-board
U
I2
,
of scale
of
compasses
13
13
14.
of dividers or spacers of spring
bows
of irregular curves of protractor
14
14.
V
Visual rays
Volute,
104
describe the " Ionic "
To
45
W
Water-colors
.-
5 5
Water
glass
Writing-pen
Working Working Working Working
drawings
drawings, Method of making
iiS
119
drawing,
What
is
119
1
drawings, Examples of
19
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Course in Mechanic Drawing John Reid

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Course in Mechanic Drawing John Reid

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^OK'A

Drawing and Designings

JOHN WILEY & SONS. London CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.

ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK.

In the course of a large experience as an instructor

work has often been

upon to teach the elements

students in marine, electrical, railway, and mechanical engineering.

book on the subhe

was entirely suitable

for his use as a text-book,

necessary to prepare the present work.

This course contains,

concise statement, accompanied

the essential principles of mechanical drawing

of ordinary intelligence needs to master,

the more advanced problems met with in machine

construction and design.

as the author has tried,

although most excellent from certain standpoints, were either

minous and elementary

The author does not imagine

comes nearer what

schools, evening drawing schools,

and colleges than any work

The chapter on Conventions

described are considered by the author

to be those which have

met with general approval by the

experienced American draftsmen of the present time.

acknowledgments are due to E. C. Cleaves, professor

drawing, Sibley College, Cornell University, for reading

the manuscript and

making some valuable suggestions.

A NEED has been felt by instructors and students, especially

text-book that would illustrate the

fundamental principles of mechanical drawing

such a pracenable the

and progressive way

instructor to teach, and the student to acquire, the greatest

of the essential principles involved,

apply them, in a draftsman-like manner,

mind, the present work has been prepared

from the experience of the writer, a practical draftsman and

THE COMPLETE OUTFIT.

outfit for students in

the same as that used for free-hand drawing.

board for sophomore and junior drawing

more than \"

material should be soft pine

and constructed as shown by Fig.

Paper, quality and

one Eagle Pilot No. 2 with rubber

pearwood T-square with a fixed head

necessary for sophomore or junior work.

''The Sibley College Set," shown by

was compiled by the

^\" long, with fixed needle-point, pencil,

Pen, i" long.

Spacer, i" long.

Hair-spring Divider, ^"

follows: ^' and 2", i" and i^' 1 "

|^ ^' and %"

MECHANICAL DKA WING.