More Than Words Its been nearly 6 years since I started studying a second language and I havent finished

yet. I am supposed to have been graduated one year ago, but Id rather reflect on my learning to find out the circumstances on which it had a marked improvement. Ive been trying to retrace my steps to identify the things I did or the strategies I chose to do to master a second language. Now, Ive came to see that acquiring vocabulary rather than grammar has been my key to success. Besides, I intend to know the theories and literature on the subject that help me explain and discover the arguments and principles that lie behind my feelings and experiences of learning. For a start, Id like to compare my particular learning with a luxuriant tree. Its trunk is the scaffold where I can walk on and reach the upper branches. But they are limited and the ways to get anywhere have been already visited so many times. And so is grammar for me. Meanwhile, leaves grow and fall but the tree will always blossom. Leaves represent the words that can be recalled and forgotten, but with many more growing at my disposal so as to have native-like proficiency. Unfortunately, learning of grammar is deeply-rooted among teachers and students throughout all the levels of instruction at UQROO. It amazes me such strong preference. Maybe, vocabulary can only take place in small doses or it cant be taught at all as suggested by Harmer, who also argues that vocabulary should be acquired not learnt, through exposure to language. Anyway, students are usually let to their own devices. Ive noticed they focus on grammar mostly, at all levels, but it is essential that I mention English grammar consists of a limited set of rules, like the branches of my tree (Schmitt). By contrast, more leaves are added to the tree and branches that counting them would be rather useless (Ive never got round to testing how many words I know). However, its been estimated that English language stands at 500,000 words- or even more since new words are coined every year. Trying to learn them all would be far too ambitious and would also take longer than planned. Vocabulary continues to be learned throughout ones lifetime (Schmitt: 2000, pg 4). That is why I said I havent finished yet with my own learning and I dont think I will in the short run. Words are not to be learned in isolation. Even if we tried hard to do so, it could be difficult to retrieve all of them as well as their meanings unless you a have computer in your mind that stores them permanently which makes me think there should be ways of avoiding painful learning. By painful learning I mean the way students make an

effort to learn words by committing them to memory or repeating them without taking into account other aspects that entails knowing a word. In my case, my best friend has been my memory. Memory is one of the issues I will touch on later in this work. Knowing a word can be misleading. One may be tempted to believe that finding the equivalent of a L2 word into L1 is enough to learn it. Unluckily, English vocabulary is a bit of a problem. Vocabulary on no account should be regarded as only single lexical units since there are other lexical items that could be considered as a single lexical unit regardless of the many words that comprise them, namely, phrasal verbs and idioms. There seems to be no correspondence one-to-one between meaning and a single word. In fact, knowing a word doesnt mean knowing the word form or the meaning of a word only. I keep looking on that students rush into looking up an unknown word in the L2 that is close in meaning to the L1. But instead of using one word, many of them can have the same meaning. Nation (1990, p.31) described six different types of word knowledge: The meanings of the word Written form of the word Spoken form of the word The grammatical behaviour of a word Collocations of a word Register of a word These are not learned simultaneously because of the incremental nature of language. That is, from numerous exposures and while students become more skilful and mature. Schmitt (2000, p.3) says a small fraction of words are likely to be learned trough formal study and the rest of them through exposure. This reminds me that I ve never been taught by a teacher about the collocations of a word or the different meanings of a word. So I guess autonomy also plays a role on learning. Regarding Nations classification, the crunch comes when activating the amount of knowledge we must know about a word (we can call it receptive learning) so that we can reproduce it either orally or in writing (productive learning). Macaro and Cohen (2008, p.251) say that vocabulary has a crucial role in productive skills associated with

effective communication. My question is: How can I put to use the words Ive learned to speak and write as a native? I know that receptive learning consists of reading and listening and productive learning of speaking and writing, but sometimes I dont succeed in orally using a word that I am successfully able to recognize and understand in texts or when I hear it. My guess is that students also struggle with this to such extent. Why receptive learning is less difficult than productive knowledge is out of my depth. Nation says the answer lies in three explanations: 1. The amount of knowledge explanation 2. The Practice explanation 3. The Access explanation The first one refers to productive learning being more difficult because of requiring extra learning of new spoken or written output patterns. This is noticeable for languages which use different writing systems from the first language and which use different sounds or sound combination (Learning French). Receptively, learners only need to know a few distinctive features of the form of an item. For productive purposes their knowledge of the word form has to be more precise. The form of items is more likely to influence difficulty than meaning, because there is much more shared knowledge of meaning between two distinct languages than there is shared form. Words in two languages might not have precisely the same meaning but in most cases the overlap is much greater than the distinctions. Initially, this knowledge of the word form is more likely to be the factor affecting difficulty than knowledge of meaning, and more precise knowledge of the word form is required for productive use, thus making productive learning more difficult than receptive learning. The second one refers to the fact that receptive use generally gets more practice than productive use. In fact, both of them require particular practice to be properly learned (Dekeyser and Sokalsk, 1996, quoted in Nation) The third one is a bit more complicated to explain. Ellis and Beaton (1993:548549) suggest that a new foreign language word in the early stages of learning has only one simple link to its first language (L1) translation (the receptive translation).

On the whole, I go along with Schmitts viewpoint when he says that one of the common problems that second language learners face is lack of exposure.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) To better understand why we consciously choose to do things that permit us to take control of our learning; I need to make another distinction about the two ways of acquiring vocabulary, namely, explicit and incidental learning. Unlike L1 vocabulary knowledge that is picked through exposure, L2 learners acquired vocabulary knowledge explicitly and incidentally. The former refers to the focused study of words and the latter to the exposure when ones attention is focused on the use of language rather than learning itself. (Schmitt: 2000, pg 116). Regarding Nations classification of types of word knowledge, it might take ages to master them if exposures were to trickle. On the other hand, learning vocabulary from a native environment might speed up the process but most learners just cannot afford to get on a plane and go abroad. Thus explicit learning has to be time-consuming and effortful whereas incidental learning is mainly used for communicative purposes but lacks the focused attention of explicit learning. Both entail relearning what one has learned in the L1. Ideally, one should start learning explicitly but a person can be able to start learning incidentally from verbal interaction but may fail when it comes to reading. Therefore learning explicitly is like a prerequisite because the most uncommon (infrequent) words are used in the written language than in the spoken one. Likewise teachers play a role in providing the students with the most frequent words so that they learn incidentally from reading. Most students may get distressed and demotivated by not knowing the words from a text or by not guessing successfully. In sum, words not explicitly focused upon can be learned incidentally from exposure, facilitated by the use of vocabulary learning strategies. Learners certainly do something to facilitate vocabulary learning but teachers are not sure what it is or they are not aware of their learning strategies (ELT Journal Vol. 61/2 April 2007). At least, at UQROO, teachers dont seem to care what they do or they just keep to the vocabulary section of the students book. What s more, they dont follow up vocabulary learning by testing knowledge taken from outside the class nor do

they provide opportunities to consolidate it by recycling words. There is no real challenge other than the international certifications themselves. In determining which VLS are suitable for learners, we must take into account the level of proficiency, motivation and purposes. Ive noticed that beginners have a strong preference for translation, rote repetition and memorization. Some of them can be considered shallow in that it doesnt require a deeper processing as opposed to deeper vocabulary learning strategies such as forming associations or using the Keyword Method. In principle, language learning strategies were reported to be six: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social (Oxford 1990). All of which helped Schmitt to outline one of the most complete strategies inventory (there are more than one classification of VLS) that are derived from Oxfords. The list is as follows:

Strategy group

Strategy

Strategies for the discovery of a new word are meaning

DET DET DET DET DET DET SOC SOC Analyze part of speech Analyze affixes and roots Check for L1 cognate Analyze any available pictures or gestures Guess meaning from textual context Use a dictionary (bilingual or monolingual) Ask teacher for synonym, paraphrase, or L1 translation of new word Ask classmates for meaning

Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered

SOC SOC MEM MEM MEM MEM MEM Study and practice meaning in a group Interact with native speakers Connect word to a previous personal experience Associate the word with its coordinates Connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms Use semantic maps Image word form

MEM MEM MEM MEM MEM MEM COG COG COG COG COG MET MET MET MET MET

Image words meaning Use Keyword Method Group words together to study them Study the spelling of a word Say a new word aloud when studying Use physical action when learning a word Verbal repetition Written repetition Word lists Put English labels on physical objects Keep a vocabulary notebook Use English-language media (songs, movies, newscasts, etc) Use spaced word practice (expanding rehearsal) Test oneself with word tests Skip or pass new word Continue to study word over time

My favorites ones have been highlighted to show what strategies are used in my particular case. I wonder whether students are able to say which ones they have (if ever) used. Another classification by Nation (1990) includes interesting strategies that fall into three main general classes of strategies: planning, sources and processes. The last of which provides three important strategies that Ive used myself in my learning of words. General class of strategies
Planning: choosing what to focus on and when to focus on

Types of strategies
Choosing words Choosing the aspects of word knowledge Choosing strategies Planning repetition Analyzing the word Using context Consulting a reference source in L1 or L2 Using parallels in L1 and L2 Noticing Retrieving Generating

Sources: finding information about words

Processes: establishing knowledge

These three might well fit into Schmitts memory strategies. And I ascribe my success to my good memory.

The principles that lie behind to what Ive been doing throughout my schooling center on my capacity to retrieve information about words and my skill to turn it into productive learning. These are what I consider the things that helped me do well in my language learning: 1. Making words more salient (noticing) 2. Retrieval 3. Organizing words into groups so they can be easily retained in memory 4. Lexical chunking (lexical phrases) 5. Expanding rehearsal (reviewing) The first one refers to the amount of attention devoted to words in the first encounter (noticing). One way to help me learn words is by making them salient. I personally highlight them in a text. Noticing also occurs when learners look up a word in a dictionary, deliberately study a word, guess from context, or have a word explained to them (Nation: 2001, pg 63). Ideally, a teacher should help students notice words by doing activities such as story telling in which unknown words are written on a blackboard and giving the meanings or L1 translations (I personally dont support L2L1 translation). Noticing involves decontextualisation and it occurs when learners give attention to a language item as part of the language rather than as part of a message. It can occur in a variety of ways. While listening or reading, the learner notices that a word is new or thinks, I have seen that word before, or thinks, That word is used differently from the ways I have seen it used before. The teacher or learner nightlights a word while writing it on the blackboard. The learner negotiates the meaning of a word with each other of with the teacher. The teacher explains a word for the learners by giving a definition, a synonym, or a first language translation. Dexcontextualised does not mean that the word does not occur in a sentence context, it means that words are removed from its message context to be focused on as a language item. The focus can be very brief or can be for a long time. This is a good example of how Ive learned using this strategy.

Definition is one of the kinds of decontextualization that have comes into handy in my learning. It establishes that vocabulary learning is increased if vocabulary items are briefly explained while learners are listening to a story or looking up words in a dictionary (Hulsting, 1993, quoted by Nation), as shown in the above example. It helps if definitions are simple rather than complex. It might be due to the frequency of words. Translation is the most simple kind of definition and the one the students prefer using when beginners. Retrieval Retrieval may be receptive or productive. Receptive retrieval involves perceiving the form and having to retrieve its meaning when the word is met in listening or reading. Productive retrieval involves wishing to communicate the meaning of the word and having to retrieve its spoken or written form as in speaking or writing. Retrieval does not occur if the form and its meaning are presented simultaneously to the learner. The key here is repetition. It is not simple repetition which is important but the repeated opportunity to retrieve the item which is to be learned. When learners hear or see the form of the word, they need to retrieve what they know of its meaning. A learner might need to know a certain amount of vocabulary in order for there to be an opportunity to meet a recently met word again before the memory of the previous meaning fades. If too much time has passed between the previous meeting and the present encounter of the word, then the present encounter is not effectively a repetition but is like a first encounter. If the memory of a previous meeting remains, then the present encounter can add to and strengthen that memory. There are two major factors

that play an important role in retrieving words: vocabulary size and the length of time that the memory of a meeting with a word lasts. Organization If words are organized in some way before memorization the recall is improved (Schmitt: 2000, pg 135). Organization is important to me in that words can be arranged into files in my memory. That is why I set out to divide words into topics and then into MWUs (Multiword Units). Every time I encounter a word when reading or listening I can recall where I have seen that word and how it was used in that context. I usually go straight to the page where I saw it. These are good examples of the aforementioned:

Lexical Chunks On the grounds that native speakers tend to use a great deal of language that is formulaic in nature. And because the ultimate attainment in a L2 can indeed be nativelike (Avonoff and Miller, pg 121) learning them are useful and low-cost for memory. In fact, these formulaic expressions are so common that they become memorized. They are prefabricated language units that can be used as wholes, rather that being composed through vocabulary + syntax. They are mainly fixed phrases and phrasal verbs and are easy to be stored and processed as individual wholes. Skehan called them exemplarbased as opposed to rule-based-system. I think he was right to do so because I normally produce language from pieces of language and expressions that I have met before and have memorized to sound fluently as a native speaker. I also have them to hand when I

compose a sentence in my mind before I utter a word. I am not always adventurous with my speaking; rather, chunks are like the foundations upon which I can stand. Learning chunks triggers off my speaking that, in turn, make me pass for a native speaker. For Skehan their importance lies in the fact they conserve precious processing resources (less demand on cognitive capacity) because they dont have to be computed, they can be accessed rapidly and relatively effortlessly. They enable language learners users to formulate speech acts when there is little time available for planning what to say. In addition, they promote fluency. On the other hand, Schmitt says that although the mind can store vast amounts of knowledge in long-term memory, it is able to process only small amounts of it in real time, as when one is speaking (pg, 101). In fact, word frequency studies indicate that a much smaller vocabulary is needed for speaking than for writing (Nation: 1990, pg 125). This is my example of chunks:

Autonomy in vocabulary learning. I hold the view that words are to be leaned individually, not collectively. However, teachers could insist that teaching vocabulary in groups is possible. Again, a distinction must be made: Learning is not the same as teaching. Autonomous learners take responsibility for their own learning. Of course it does not mean they study alone. It is possible to be an autonomous learner in a teacher-led class (Nation: 2001, pg 394). They decide what to give the greatest attention and effort, what should be looked at again later, how the material presented should be mentally processed and how interaction with the teacher and others in the class should be carried out. No matter what the teacher does or what the course book presents, ultimately it is the learner who does the learning. The more learners are aware of how learning is best carried out, the better learning is likely to be. That is why I see students reluctantly go to class, or refuse to participate in it. I have even noticed that some of them go against teachers wishes by not doing exercises and tasks that they consider unenviable. Autonomy relies on three factors: attitude, awareness, and capability.

Bibliography Nation I.S.P, Learning Vocabulary in Another language, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 2001, 477 pp. Schmitt Norbert, Vocabulary in Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press, United States, 2000, 223 pp. Stevick Earl W, Memory, Meaning and Method, Heinle & Heinle Publishers, Boston, Massachusetts, 1996,282 pp. Cohen Andrew and Macaro Ernesto, Language Learners Strategies, Oxford University Press, United Kingdom, 2008.