Engineering Notes 11ES (Beginner: Term 1)

Effects of Engineering Innovations 20th century Electronics: used in information/signal processing Advantages: - Convenience instantaneous information processing - Extreme accuracy e.g. aided in work in many professions and in sensitive volatile markets like in finance - Large storage capacity, aided by search engines, databases, scanners - Fast communications revolution, in text, speech, or video replaces traditional forms of mail (snail mail) - Automation of tasks: robotics and microwave ovens less knowledge is required to perform fundamental activities - Lifesaving technologies e.g. bionic eye, pacemaker - Entertainment, such as music, film, and computer games (video game culture) - Cheaper costs of previous technologies like in photography expanding consumer markets Disadvantages: - Dependency lifestyle factors change, including poorer health from excessive computer usage (eye/muscle strain, joint problems, blood circulation) and television (obesity) Mental laziness lower problem solving ability e.g. calculator replaces thinking development done by the young - Addictive content e.g. internet/gaming addiction - Abnormal sleeping patterns (change in melatonin) from bright computer screens - Excessive electricity consumption drains resources, damages environment (pollution, global warming, e-waste) Agricultural mechanisation: any form of machine used to perform agriculture tasks, including planting, cleaning, applying fertiliser/pesticide, and harvesting. Substituted human and animal (horses, oxen) labour Advantages: - Increase in agricultural production change in lifestyle from subsistence to commercial farming, greater profits for farmers, society benefits from more food - Efficiency of machines lowers labour and fuel costs while maximising production - Automated processes provide convenience and reliability e.g. water sprinklers - Less reliance on animals space allocated for living and food (grass) can be used for more crops and produce more food - Ability to do tasks human labour cannot, including lifting heavy objects - Fewer complaints from workers over repetitive work - Promote growth in rural communities modern farming equipment = modern development Disadvantages: - Loss of jobs - High costs debt - Pollution from diesel 21st century

Space Exploration: process of exploring and discovering space, beginning from WW2 Advantages: - Research for future generations and for unlikely warnings of meteor strikes/showers - Application of space technology to other areas e.g. solar energy, robotics, water purification systems, high density batteries - Satellite imaging to record physical changes on Earth and GPS - More accurate weather forecasts - Aesthetics and art - Space tourism education, research, recreation (economy) - Potential future mining resolves non-renewable resource issue Disadvantages: - Expensive funded by government money and tax (unfair usage does not improve quality of life within that area) - Space competition promotes aggression e.g. Space War during Cold War, along with space technology potentially used for military purpose Virtualisation: virtual simulation of computer infrastructure Advantages: - Maximises efficiency of underutilised servers/hardware - Fewer physical servers more space, less equipment, saves energy - Faster establishment and configuration (software only, not hardware) - Ability to move virtual severs from hardware to hardware backup, portability - Security if virtual server fails, it is a software issue only - Lack of dependency on specific hardware no compatibility issues - Compatible with older software Disadvantages: - Greater dependency on less hardware failure of multiple virtual servers if hardware fails - Strain on hardware - Capable hardware required if too much is needed to be replaced, virtualisation is not worth the costs and e-waste - Usage of VPNs for unfair purposes e.g. geo-blocking online to restrict who can purpose products - Problems with virtual servers more difficult to diagnose and fix - Increased training expertise Virtual Reality: interaction with natural senses/movements and software, OR creation of new virtual worlds. Advantages: - Real-time information distribution (internet) Google Glasses - Realistic simulations aid in industries, casual usage, entertainment (games), fitness (e.g. Wii Fit) Disadvantages: - Psychological problems virtual worlds allow escapism from reality dangerous e.g. Second Life - Google Glasses potentially limited to those with good eyesight discrimination - Health issues e.g. Wii Fit people see no need

Types of Engineering Chemical engineering: o Materials Civil engineering: o Environmental o Geotechnical, Mining Electrical engineering: o Computer, Software, Hardware o Electronic, Telecommunications Mechanical engineering: o Aerospace/aeronautical o Vehicle, Automotive Other (specialised fields): o Agricultural o Biological, Genetic o Industrial, Safety

o o o

Mechatronics Nuclear Petroleum

Fields of Engineering: - Electrical: deals with electrical machines (generators, motors, transformers) and power transmission high voltage o Bachelor of Engineering degree o Fields: construction, power generation/distribution, telecommunications and broadcasting, computing, manufacturing, electronics, transport, defence, aerospace, research/education - Environmental: aims to find sustainable solutions to improve conditions in natural/human environments (pollution, waste disposal, land/resource management, sustainable energy, global warming) o High school diploma, but associate's/bachelor's degree preferred, OR civil engineering degree o Fields: construction, mining, process engineering, energy industries, air/water quality control and soil testing, noise control, waste disposal Engineering Mechanics Scalar and vectors: - Scalars: defined by magnitude (number) only o E.g. distance (20m), time (30s), mass (22kg), speed (100km/h) - Vectors: defined by magnitude and direction (+ point of application and sense)

Mass and Force: - Mass: amount of matter in a body SI unit: kg (kilogram). This is typically constant. - Force: defined a push or pull SI unit: N (newton) - Gravity: acceleration towards the centre of a body gravity of earth: 9.8m/s2 - Weight: force of gravity acting on a mass o W = mg, where weight in N, mass in kg, gravity is 9.8m/s2 - Lift: a mechanical aerodynamic force caused by interactions with a fluid (liquid/gas). In simple terms, when a wing deflected air downwards, reaction forces push the wing up. o Lift can occur in any direction e.g. horizontally on a sail, down on a race car - Thrust: a mechanical force that is opposite of the acceleration of a mass o Thrust to move the aircraft forward is caused by reaction forces from accelerating a mass of gas (fluid) through a propulsion system (propellers) - Drag: a mechanical force that acts opposite to the movement of an object through a fluid (air/fluid resistance) resists the movement of an object o Unlike friction, drag force increases as the object moves faster

Downforce: downwards thrust/lift created by aerodynamics (front wings) of car vertical force on tires creates more grip Friction: an opposing force that acts to stop the movement between two touching objects o Static friction: strong enough to stop movement o Kinetic friction: not strong enough to stop all motion Buoyancy: force on an object making them move upwards opposes gravity. Caused by differing pressure the fluid/air places on the object. o Net buoyancy equals the weight of fluid that has been displaced by the object o E.g. used in boats, ships, balloons, blimps Normal force: a force that prevents any object from sinking/penetrating into its resting surface

Other Forces: - Stress: a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that particles of an object exert on one another. These internal forces are a result of the actions of external forces. o Measured by [force/unit area], e.g. Newtons/m2 (Pascals) SI unit for pressure - Compression: external pushing forces acting to compress/collapse an object o Buckling: an object's ability to endure compression forces - Tension: internal pushing forces within an object, attempting to expand it 4

o Snapping: when tension surpasses an object's ability to handle the lengthening force o This dealt with by dissipating or transferring the force Torsional: twisting motion shear stress (any stress not in a straight line) Mechanics

Mechanics: the study of the behaviour of a body under the influence of a force or a system of forces o Statics: concerns the body at equilibrium (at rest) o Dynamics: concerns the body in motion (due to a system of unbalanced forces) Kinematics: considers the motion of a body without consideration the causes for the motion no reference to the forces acting on it Considers aspects of motion excluding mass and force Kinetics: considers the motion of a body with reference to the forces Considers the forces and energy associated with it Newton's Laws: 1. Inertia: when forces are balanced, there is no acceleration (constant velocity) or the object is at rest 2. F = ma: external forces are dependent on mass and acceleration. This equation only applies when the mass is constant, if it is not there is a second portion of this equation involving momentum (as a decrease in mass causes acceleration, e.g. deflated balloon) 3. Reaction forces: for every action force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force.

Energy is defined by the ability to do work. Work is a change in energy caused by an applied force moving an object a distance. W = Fs*cos (work in joules, force in newtons, distance in metres) - cos: where is the angle between the force vector and the direction of movement. - When a force moves an object in exactly the same direction, cos = 1 and is not considered. Six Classical Simple Machines Force-Distance Trade-offs Lever: a force is applied over a distance to magnify the user's effort (e.g. crowbar) or magnify the distance the effort carries (e.g. fishing rod) - Construction: a beam where the effort, load, and pivot point (fulcrum) are placed. - In each class, each one of these (L, E, F) exists on the left, centre, and right portions of the beam. - Mechanical advantage: an input produces an amplified output (the law of the lever)

Class 1 Magnifies force OR distance, depending on which side of the arm is longer. E.g. see-saw

Class 2 Magnifies force when distance (of arm) is increased. E.g. wheelbarrow

Class 3 Magnifies movement when force is increased. E.g. arm, sweeping of a broom 5

Inclined Plane: a ramp. Distance is extended to decrease the effort required to move a load. - It is easier to raise something progressively than to lift it up the same distance in one hit. - On an inclined plane, W = mg*sin, where sin is angle of the ramp off the ground/resting surface. Screw: an inclined plane wrapped around a shaft (a long narrow beam) - Screws magnify effort, but distance is greatly increased. Wedge: two inclined planes joined back to back. The two planes meet to form a sharp edge. - Used to push two objects apart (including slicing through a surface) - Mechanical advantage is determined by the ratio of the length of its slope to its width. Short wedges with wide angles do jobs faster but require more force. (length/width) Wheel and axle: a large wheel/crank is connected to an axle, allowing heavy objects to be moved more easily. - The wheel reduces the amount of friction to the ground (as opposed to the flat surface of an object) o A larger wheel converts to a more powerful motion at the axle - It also acts as a lever: o Force arm: radius of the wheel o Resistance arm: radius of the axle o Fulcrum: the axis of the axle (the line where the body rotates) - Mechanical advantage is found in the ratio of the radial dimensions of the wheel and the axle (wheel radius / axle radius). o Bigger wheel -> more distance travelled -> more force. - Wheels are different to a rolling object: wheels require an axle. Pulley: a wheel used to transmit force through the use of a belt/rope/cable - Allows a change in direction of a force o E.g. a rope is pulled down (rather than up) to move a load up o E.g. a vehicle (horizontal movement) pulls something out of the ground (vertical m.) - Block and tackle: an arrangement of pulleys and rope, allowing a trade of force for distance. o Also transfers rotational movement from one shaft to another o In simple calculations, friction and elasticity is not considered. o More pulleys mean more mechanical advantage, but there will also be more friction and thus more resistance.

Simple Machines continuum Gears: circular devices with teeth that intermesh with one another - Allows rotational motion to be transferred from shaft to shaft o No. of gear teeth is proportional to radius of its circle. This allows the gears to roll without slipping. - Speed reducer: if the input gear (GA) has fewer teeth than the output gear (GB), GA must fully rotate more often to make one full rotation of GB. - Speed amplifier: if the input has more teeth than the output, then the output magnifies the input torque. - Types of gears: o Peg wheel gear: rounded pegs act as teeth. Uneven gaps cause a constant acceleration and deceleration. o Spur gear: small, straight teeth with slanted edges o Helical gear: small, straight teeth that are cut an angle to the face of the gear (slanted) diagonal rather than vertical teeth o Bevel gears: straight/spiral teeth that allow gears to be well-connected at perpendicular angles. (shaped like a mushroom) o Worm gear: used to create gear reductions. Worms can turn gears, but gears cannot turn worms due to its shallowness, causing friction. (a long cylindrical shape, shaped like a screw's shaft) o Rack and pinion gears: converts rotational movement into linear movement (shaped like a tenon saw-blade) - Involute: a special tooth profile that allows a constant speed ratio. The contact point between teeth starts at the middle of one tooth and goes to its tip. During this, the other gear's tooth contacts from the tip to the middle. Mechanism: a device that transforms input forces into a desired set of output forces and movement Materials ENGINEERING VIEWPOINT: structure -> properties -> uses Classification of Materials: classified by their properties, in terms of their natural occurrence (iron ore), preparation (mild steel), atomic/crystal structure (thermoset), or in industrial applications. - Element: most simple material (cannot be further broken down). These simple matters compose all matter, and often do not exist purely in their natural form. - Solution: one substance dissolves into another. Exist as solids/liquids. - Compound: two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions - Mixture: two or more pure substances (element/compound) mixed mechanically without any regard of fixed proportions Metals and Non-metals Metals Usually solid at room temp. (except Mercury, Hg) Lustrous (when freshly cut) Malleable, ductile

Non-metals Solid/liquid/gas at room temp. Dull (if solid, except diamond) Brittle (generally) 8

Thermal/electrical conductivity (generally) Forms alloys

Thermal/electrical insulators (usually) May form compounds (not alloys)

Types of Materials - Metals: most exist as ores and then refined to their pure form. Most are used as alloys (mixtures with at least one metal component) o Natural occurring: e.g. gold, silver, copper, platinum o Ore-refinement: e.g. iron, aluminium, copper, lead, titanium o Alloys: steel (iron, carbon), brass (copper, zinc), bronze (copper, tin), aluminium bronze (copper, aluminium) duralumin (aluminium, copper), solder (tin, lead) - Ceramics: naturally occurring materials (rocks) that are often used where metals are suitable (e.g. furnace linings, turbine/diesel engine). o Igneous (volcanic rock): granite o Sedimentary (compacting sediment): sandstone, shale o Metamorphic (any rock converted to another structure by extreme temperature/pressure): slate, marble o Clays o Synthetic ceramics: requires purification/mixing/firing e.g. clay-body, glass, refractories (non-metallic materials that retain strength at high temperatures), cement - Polymer: organic materials containing carbon as the primary constituent o Natural polymers: shellac (resin organic secretion from plant/animal that is sticky, flammable, insoluble in water), natural rubber, cellulose fibres o Synthetic polymer o Consider: Bakelite - Biological: materials that are the result of plants/animals (organic, carbon-based) o Natural: wood, wax, leather, limestone (fossils, shells, sedimentary), diatomite (soft, silicon dioxide sedimentary rock) o Manufactured: paper, seasoned timber, wood products, lime, diatomite bricks o Biofuels o Wool, silk, cotton - Composite: different materials combined together o Fibreglass: thermosetting matrix (main material) with glass fibres that offer tensile strength.

o o o o o

Carbon fibre: polymer with carbon fibre Concrete: cement, water, aggregate (rocks) Asphalt: mineral aggregate and bitumen Cermet: ceramic (cer-) and metallic (-met) materials, e.g. used in electronics that experience high temperatures Galvanised steel: iron (strength), zinc (sacrificial protection)

o o o o o o

Plywood: natural and synthetic composite (laminate, glue, differing layers of wood veneers placed with grains placed perpendicularly) Advantages: resistance to cracking, shrinking, splitting, twisting/warping, and high strength Laminex/HPDL: plastic laminate (paper), plastic resin. Applied on woods Fibreboard (MDF): wood fibres combined with wax, resin binder (adhesive) no grain pattern Particle board/chipboard: wood chips, sawmill shavings, saw dust combined with pressure and glue resin Geotextiles: permeable fabrics made from polymer (geo-)grids, used in environmental engineering Cemented tungsten carbide: carbide aggregate and metal matrix composite Bone: calcium phosphate (mineral) in a collagen (protein) matrix

Engineered product: any man-made product (does not necessary contain a simple machine) - Polymers: any synthetic - Composites: fibreglass, carbon fibre Properties of Materials - Mechanical: mechanical testing, resistance to mechanical loading o Strength: ability to withstand applied loads without failure Compressive, tensile, shear, torsional. o Hardness: resistance to scratches, abrasion, indention o Elasticity: ability to return to original shape and dimensions after subjected to a load o Stiffness: ability of material to resist elastic deformation under a load o Plasticity: ability to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without rupture o Malleability: ability of a material to be hammered and rolled (shaped) o Ductility: ability to be drawn into a thin wire o Fatigue: tendency for a material to break when subject to stress o Notch Toughness: measure of energy required to cause failure - Chemical: chemical reactions o Metals: knowledge of alloying elements and impurities Naturally exist as oxides, sulphides, carbonates metastable in metallic form Revert to stable forms when exposed to aqueous solutions and atmospheric gases corrosion o Polymers and ceramics: chemical breakdown from UV light - Physical: measured in terms of physical science o Density: amount of matter packed per given volume (mass/volume) [kg/m3] Symbol of density () given by Greek letter rho Measures how heavy something is o Porosity: measure of no. of voids/pores in a material Natural: timber Manufactured: porous bearings made by powder metallurgy 10

Moisture content: moisture present in the material's structure Moisture has effect on strength and thermal and electrical conductivity Thermal: thermal properties (note conductivity is only one property) o Conductors: metals o Insulators: non-metals Electrical: electrical properties o Conductors: metals, carbon o Insulators: air, glass, polymers, ceramics o Semiconductors: manufactured as poor conductors only allow small amounts of current through. Silicon/germanium is infused with boron/arsenic, and produces a deficiency [holes] or surplus of electrons to allow low current flow. Magnetic: magnetic behaviour from unpaired electrons. When electrons are paired the spin in opposite directions and their magnetism is cancelled. o Diamagnetic: ionic/molecular materials o Paramagnetic: materials with a single valence electron (one outer shell electron) o Ferromagnetic: materials with large amounts of unpaired electrons, becoming permanent magnets Only iron, nickel, cobalt exist in this group Atom Structure

Electrons: smallest particle (mass) o Single negative charge o Orbit the nucleus in shells (1st shell: 2 electrons, 2nd onwards: 8 electrons, although more can exist in sub-shells) o Valence electrons are used in bonding to make full shells Neutrons: heaviest particle (mass) o No charge o Located in the nucleus o Creates isotope atoms if the regular number of neutrons is different Protons: o Single positive charge o Located in the nucleus o Mass 0.992 times that of a neutron

Atom Equations - Atomic number: no. of protons o In a neutral atom: no. of protons = no. of electrons - Mass number: no. of protons and neutrons Solids/Liquids/Gases - Solid: ordered atomic structure, low energy level (lack of atom movement) o Incompressible o Definite shape and volume o Slow diffusion (spreading) o Crystalline 11

Engineering Notes 11ES (Beginner: Term 1) Liquid: random atomic arrangement with no order, high energy level o Minimally compressible o Takes shape of its container o Fast diffusion Gas: random arrangement, very high energy level o Compressible o Expands to the limits of a o Rapid diffusion sealed container

Bonding: where electrons attempt to lost/found in order to create full shells - Noble gases: atoms with full shells unreactive at normal temp/pressure - Primary bonds: metallic, ionic, or covalent - Secondary bonds: van der Waals - Metallic: o Occurs between atoms with 1-3 valence electrons (metals). Bonding occurs (creating positive ions) and all valence electrons form an 'electron cloud'. The positive ion (surface) repels each other but is held together by attraction to the electrons. This equilibrium causes a crystalline structure (from three-dimensional bonding). o Free electrons good thermal/electrical conductivity, and light photons are repelled giving metals an opaque colour o Differing forms of bonding causes malleability Carbon content adds strain cannot readjust, adds strength and brittleness - Ionic: o Occurs between atoms with large differences in valence electrons (metals and nonmetals). Bonding creates a compound with an ordered structure from electrostatic attraction (attraction between atoms of opposite charge). o Donor atom: loses electrons, removing its outer shell o Recipient atom: gains electrons, creating an outer shell o Three dimensional bonding creates a lattice structure o E.g. ceramics (including glass) electrical insulators (no free electrons) - Covalent: o Occurs between non-metals. Valence electrons are shared and both atoms receive a full outer shell. o E.g. polymers - Inter-molecular forces: van der Waals o Imbalance in electron distribution to one side causes a weak charge in the overall atom o Van der Waals are weak: 1% strength of a primary bond o London Dispersion Force: classifies all noncovalent van der Waals, such as in individual atoms. This occurs because electron movement is rarely in a balanced formation. o Especially seen in dipoles: there are two poles from unevenly distributed molecules two electrical charges (positive and negative) e.g. H2O (water) o Any van der Waal force containing hydrogen is also known as a stronger hydrogen bond, because the hydrogen atom only has one electron 12

Strength and type of bonds: 1. London Dispersion (temporary) 2. Dipoles (permanent) 3. Hydrogen Bonds (permanent) -

As order decreases: - Higher molecular strength - Higher boiling point (more energy is required to break bonds)

Polymorphism (allotropes): for any material that can exist in many different crystal structures o Can be vastly different in strength and behaviour o E.g. tin: soft metal at 13+ degrees Celsius, and a grey powder below this temp. o E.g. carbon: graphite (brittle, soft, self-lubricates), diamond (hardest substance)

Crystal structures: - Crystalline materials: any structure with a regular ordered pattern o E.g. all metals, some polymers, most ceramics, most minerals o Body Centred Cubic (BCC) o Face Centred Cubic (FCC) o Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)

BCC -

FCC

HCP

Non-crystalline material: o When a material's solid state is non-crystalline/amorphous o Often unstable o E.g. sine polymers, ceramics, glass (cooled to rigidness without crystallising) Metals

Period table: 92 elements, 70 metals

Ferrous material: contains iron as the primary constituent (as the main element) - E.g. iron, cast iron (iron, carbon, silicon) , carbon steel, stainless steel (iron, chromium metal) - Also classifies pure iron (rarely used) and steels - Steels can also be grouped by carbon content - Mild steel: commonly used in domestic homes 0.15-0.25% carbon & manganese o Easily formed, machined, and welded. Does not harden much. Ductile. o Uses in appliances: power plugs, screws (assembly), motor shafts (non-corrosive environments), housing sheet steel appliances - All steels (except stainless) will corrode (for ferrous materials, this is known as rusting). o Rust (metal oxide) is flaky (porous), causing further corrosion 13

Painting or electroplating is required for steels exposed to fluids, acidic/salty foods, unless stainless steel or tin plating is used What? (Content)
2-4% carbon

Ferrous Metal Cast Iron

Where? (Application)
White C.I: for abrasion and wear resistance Grey C.I: castings Ornamental ironwork, e.g. fences, handrails Iron sheeting (due to easy welding and tooling) Machining and forging of parts Machine and hand tools Manufacturing of chisels, blades, taps, tools, razors Cutting tools Many uses, both as low- and high- alloy

Why?
White: hard, cheaper than malleable iron Grey: flows easily into complex shapes Easily welded and painted, slow rust factor, tough and malleable Soft, ductile, easily machined and welded, easily case/surface hardened, worked hot or cold Surface hardness and strength Withstands high shear stress and wear High hardness required to maintain sharp cutting edges Hard at high temperatures, allowing deeper cuts Hardness, toughness, machinability, etc.

Wrought Iron Low carbon Steel Medium carbon Steel High carbon Steel Tool Steel High-speed Steel Alloy Steels

0.1% carbon (or less) 1-2% slag Up to 0.3% carbon

0.3-0.5% carbon 0.5-1.05% carbon 0.9-1.7% carbon ? Various elements between 1-50%

Table Summary: - All steels are an alloy of iron and carbon. They are called carbon steel or simply steel. o Alloy steel: refers to a steel that is further made a new alloy with one or more other elements added E.g. tungsten -> tungsten steel or tungsten alloy - Pattern: steel contains less than 2% carbon, while cast iron contains more than 2% Properties of Metals (applicable to any material): refer back to Mass and Force, and Mechanics - Tensile Strength: resistance to being pulled by opposing forces - Shear Strength: resistance to opposing forces not acting in a straight line, e.g. scissors o Controlled by the hardness of the metal - Compressive Strength: ability to withstand pressures acting on it in a given plane - Elasticity: ability of a metal to return to its original shape after forces have been applied on it (stretching/pulling out of shape) - Ductility: ability of a metal to be drawn or stretched permanently without rupture/fracture o Metals lacking ductility crack and break before bending - Malleability: ability of a metal to be hammered, rolled, or pressed into a shape without rupture/fracture - Toughness: ability of a metal to resist fracture, and failure when damage has begun o Tough metals can withstand stress either slowly or suddenly applied. They will deform before failure. - Hardness: ability of a metal to resist penetration and wear o Can be controlled by heat treatment o Greater hardness means machining the metal becomes more difficult o As hardness increases, toughness decreases, and thus, brittleness increases - Machinability and Weldability: Ease or difficulty a metal can be machined or welded o Interlinked with toughness - Corrosion resistance: resistance to wearing away from exposure to air, moisture, agents 14

Heat and electrical conductivity: ease of heat and electrical transfer Brittleness: tendency of a metal to fracture or break with little or no deformation, bending or twisting. This is not a desired mechanical property. o Usually, a harder material means a more brittle material

Methods of Marking Metals - Stencilling: a stencil is a sheet with cut-out holes that make up text and images. Paint is used to quickly mark this information on a metal surface (the paint only passes through the holes). - Stamping: used only when stencilling not applicable. A portion of metal is cut out to indent the required markings. Waste material should be kept at a minimum. Non-ferrous material: where iron is not a primary constituent. (note it can contain iron) - Copper: o High electrical conductivity good for electronics (second to silver) o Red-orange colour o High ductility and malleability o Good corrosion resistance - Brass: (copper and zinc) o Can contain up to 40% zinc, but beyond this, it becomes brittle Cartridge brass: 70% copper/ 30% zinc Muntz steel: 60/40 o All brasses are corrosion-resistant o Electrical appliances: switch gears, brass contacts o Harder than copper, more durable in certain applications - Bronze: (copper and tin) o An alloy of copper, tin and additions to improve corrosion resistance o Used as commuters in motors, low maintenance bearings (using bronze powder) o Phosphorus phosphor bronze: 0.1-1% phosphorous additive, used for spring and switch contacts - Aluminium and its alloys: o Lightweight o Corrosion-resistant under most conditions (due to layer of aluminium oxide) o Can be cast-forged, machined, and easily welded - Aluminium bronzes: excellent corrosion properties at room temp, good wearing prop, golden colour. Used as brush holders in electric motors, gear wheels, moving contacts. - Magnesium: strength, lightweight, shock/vibration resistance, good machinability - Lead: low strength, heavy weight. Used in electrical equipment, various chemical compounds, X-ray protection (radiation shields). - Tin: Can be die cast (see below), cold worked, machined, soldered, but cannot be welded. Used to coat steel or as an alloying element (bronze [copper-tin], solder [tin-lead]). Basic forming processes Casting: melting (furnace) -> pouring (moulding) -> cleaning (inspection) -> finishing (machining/cutting, heat treatment, painting/coating, assembly)

15

Material, such as a metal alloy, is heated up. This is placed in a mould made of metal or sand (expendable moulds), either by gravity pouring or through pressure. Die casting uses permanent moulds and is used in non-ferrous alloy casting. Molten metal is forced into the mould cavity at high pressure. Investment casting/lost-wax casting is an old technique. A wax model is made and then a ceramic shell is formed around it. The wax is then melted and the hollow shell is left behind, for casting.

Polymers are also formed in their molten state, but this is called moulding, not casting. - Injection: material injected into a mould and forced to cool. - Blow (for hollow containers): plastic is melted within a sealed mould and compressed air is passed in, pushing the plastic to the edges of the mould. - Extrusion: plastic is melted through a screw and forced out through a hole (die), before cooled to shape the final product. Extrusion: in a water-cooled mould, metals at an elevated temperature are passed out a die and form a final tube-structure in the shape of the die. - A ram applies the compressive force that forces out the metal - No tensile forces mean high deformations without the risk of fracturing the extruded material. Gives the desired cross-sectional area and a good surface finish, meaning no machining is required. - E.g. aluminium alloy window construction Rolling: metal is passed through smooth rollers to change its thickness and cross-section into longer lengths, before it is then water cooled with spray. - Rolling changes casted ingots/bars into more useful forms, e.g. short rectangular bars into long circular cross-sections - Hot rolling: rolling done at high temp. o Easier to do, resultant bar is unstressed by deformation. o Dimensions are less accurate and often covered in scale and oxide (that forms at the elevated temperature) - Cold rolling: rolling done at a slightly elevated temperature o Harder to do, resultant bar stressed by deformation o Better surface finish and dimensional accuracy Cutting: see Joining and Cutting Methods Joining: see Joining and Cutting Methods Fabricating: the process of assembling an item from various components - This is used when casting of an item is too difficult/impossible - E.g. welding of mild-steel components Joining and Cutting Methods Metallurgical Methods: - Soft soldering: tin-lead alloy (probably out-dated) joins two pieces of metal together, with little microstructural change. 16

Solder melts at 183 degrees Celsius 60% tin, 40% lead: solder optimised for joining electrical wires More tin, more expensive o Provides joint strength, optimised with a flux (cleaning agent) e.g. resin. Solder in wire form places resin at the centre of the wire to wet the joint and clean it - Brazing/silver soldering: stronger joints than soft soldering, but requires higher temp. Still requires a flux to alloy at the interface. o Brazing: brass melted onto a ferrous metal, at 860 degrees Celsius. Surfaces must be clean and the joint design must use capillary action (molten filler metal is drawn into a small gap) to draw the molten brazing alloy into the joint and maximise joint strength. o Silver: similar to brazing, allows the molten alloy to flow more smoothly. Melts at 620-750 degrees Celsius. Used to join dissimilar parent metals. - Welding: similarities are colour-coded Method Type Method Uses Electrical current melts metal sheets Joining sheet-metal Spot welding Pressure under pressure and makes spots. cases Butt welding Electrical current welds two metal Pressure Joining tubes sheets by their edges instantaneously. (butted -> joined) Electrical current welds two metal Seam welding Pressure sheets by their edges progressively. Manufacturing pipes (uses rotating wheels) Metal melted by an oxy-acetylene Oxy-acetylene welding Fusion flame and a filler metal added. Joining steel fan cages (now rarely used for appliances) A flame (usually oxy-acetylene) heats the parent metal, and a bronze filler Like oxy-acetylene Fusion metal is added into the joint. Bronze welding welding, used in low Alloying (parent metal not melted, unlike oxystrength applications acetylene welding) (similar to brazing) Filler metal is melted by an electrode's arc (electrical spark) into Joining steel in thick Electric arc welding Fusion the joint of another metal. Flux sections, in small run prevents the weld metal oxidising appliances. when melted. Filler metal is melted by a continuous Welds aluminium. feed wire into another metal's joint. Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Fusion (more automated Inert gas protects from oxidation. process) (quicker welding) Filler metal is melted by a tungsten Welds aluminium and Tungsten Inert Gas electrode and filler rod into another stainless steel Fusion (TIG) metal's joint. Inert gas protects from (cross of electric arc oxidation. and MIG welding) (Argon) gas is passed through an electric arc and ionises electrons and Speciality use, due to Plasma arc welding Fusion positive ions (creating plasma). The metals and costs ions recombine and cause a hot flame. (used for refractory metals) 17

o o

Rivets Mechanical joining: used instead of metallurgical joining when structural change (in melting the metal) is to be avoided - Fastening of metals: bolts and nuts, screws, studs and rivets (types of bolts) - Special types of nuts and washers (metal rings) resist being undone - Drawback: metals are weakened due to drilling. Greater possibility of corrosion from exposure and from usage of dissimilar metals. Cutting methods: the removal of unwanted material Operation Turning Grinding Sawing Drilling Boring Reaming Interior grinding Shaping Outline of processes Rotation of work piece and a tool piece removes unwanted material. Abrasive wheel removes unwanted material Saw tears/cuts material away Drill piece creates a hole in the material Modified cutting piece creates a hole in the material Removal of burrs (ragged edge)/scratches from a drilled hole, using a cutting tool Removal of burrs/scratches from a drilled hole using an abrasive tool A machine moves a tool horizontally across a stationary work piece. After each pass the work piece is moved. Slab milling: a tool removes waste from a horizontal work moving into a spinning cutter Face milling: a tool removes waste from a work piece by using a spinning tool with a cutting tip Machines used Lathe Grinder Hacksaw Bandsaw Cold cut-off saw Drill press Lathe Boring mill Lathe Drill press Boring mill Cylindrical grinder Shaper

Milling

Milling machine

Polymers (plastics) Polymer:

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Solid materials made from long molecular chains composing smaller molecules connected together o Many (poly-) small repeating units (-mer) connected together Usually covalently bonded, as a result they are good insulators of electricity and heat, but low temperature stability

Formation of Polymers - Addition polymerisation: monomers combine together using heat, pressure, or a catalyst. Unsaturated bonds (repeated bonds with themselves e.g. double bonds) are broken and reformed - Condensation polymerisation: monomers combine together but small molecules are lost in the process to condense and form a by-product

Polymer Structures - Thermoplastics: (thermosoftening polymers) o Simple additional structures o Covalent bonds form the polymer chains, and weak van der Waals form the secondary bonds between the chains o Can be resoftened by heat, where the weak secondary bonds break. Thermoplastic becomes viscous (thick and sticky, between solid and liquid) o E.g. polyethylene, PVC, acrylic, PTFE/Teflon and ABS - Thermosets: (thermosetting polymers) 19

o o o o

Cross-linking covalent bonds occur for both the polymer chains and the secondary bonds These covalent bonds cannot be reheated and reshaped the energy required to break these bonds would char the material Controlling the cross-linking in thermosets, with heat/pressure or catalysts (cold setting), can create differing properties E.g. Bakelite (first synthetic thermoset), or epoxy, GRP, polyester resins

Polymer Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS

Nylon

Polycarbonate

Polyethylene Polymethylmethacrylate Acrylic Polypropylene Polytetrafluroethylene Teflon Polyvinyl chloride PVC

Properties Good tensile strength Can be chrome (electro-) plated for corrosion protection or increasing surface hardness Good impact resistance High elongation (lengthening) Good specific strength Abrasion resistant High impact resistance Low hardness Good optical properties Chemical resistance Moderate strength Available in different densities Good optical properties Good strength Poor impact resistance Good formability Tough Resistant to cyclic loading Low coefficient of friction Good strength Rigid Durable fabric with plasticisers (additives that increase plasticity/fluidity)

Uses Motorcycle helmets Mobile phone casing Car fixtures (bumpers) Lego bricks Rope Airbags, seatbelts Clothing, stocking/hosiery Screens, glasses, bottles Windows (for impact strength) Mobile phones Bottle caps Fuel containers, water pipes Garbage bins, plastic bags Reading glasses Signs Skylights Packaging Textiles Kettles Non-stick surfaces High temperature plastics Electrical insulation Seat coverings Flexible (with plasticisers)

Ceramics Ceramics are no longer extensively used in appliances replaced by polymers o Electrical and thermal insulation properties o Resistance to chemicals

Types Used 20

Clay body ceramics: wet clay is moulded to its required shape, then fired (with glaze) to a high temperature until they melt together on a molecular level. o Porcelain/china: kaolin (clay) fired to 1400 degrees Celsius 1% porosity usage in chinaware Electric insulation material Building material (tiles) Glass: made primarily from silicon oxide. It is an inorganic fusion product where molten glass is cooled without crystallising (making it non-crystalline/amorphous) o Better scratch and stain resistant o More expensive than other ceramics o Soda-lime glass: used as flat glass (windows) and container glass o Glass-ceramic: produced through controlled crystallisation of base glass. Medium alumina/silica glass (90% crystalline, pore-free) is added with a nucleation agent (promotes crystallisation) like TiO2, and then heat-treated to promote recrystallisation. Properties: Good mechanical strength and toughness (durable, impact resistant) Low thermal expansion rate (withstands sudden temperature changes) Uses: ceramic-glass cooktop Refractories: materials with stability at high temperatures. Most refractories are ceramics. o Used in ovens, furnaces. Composites

Timber: - A naturally occurring composite made up of a lignin (organic polymer) matrix and reinforced by cellulose (glucose) fibres. - It makes up many other composites, called engineered (manufactured) woods, including plywood, fibreboard, and particleboard (unlike fibreboard, it is grainier/lower quality) (see previous section) - Uses: wood fuel, construction (housing frames, support materials, boats), furniture, utensils (wooden spoon, chopsticks), sports equipment (cricket bat) - Reasons for usage: natural (non-toxic, biodegradable), renewable, low in production energy, insulation, easily available and worked (light, simple equipment) Concrete - Composite of aggregate, cement, water - Uses: architecture and foundations/walls, pavements, dams/pools, fences and poles, boats - Reasons for usage: withstands compression, workable, durable, mouldable, cheap, corrosion resistant (silo production, etc.) abrasive resistance o Disadvantage: weak under tension Drawings:

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Isometric

Oblique

Pictorial: three dimensional images in one view Orthographic: two dimensional images showing a variety of views

E.g. view from left, is on the right. FAP-O: first angle is the opposite

E.g. view from left, is on the left. TAP-S: third angle is the same (easier to read)

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Others: - Perspective: uses points in the distance rather than in isometric and oblique drawings - Sectioned view: a drawing of the object cut in half. Can be considered a cross-section - Exploded view: components are shown separated rather than combined - Freehand drawing: conveys ideas in an impromptu manner. Can be done without usage of any drawing instruments. o Start with light construction outlines and then continuous lines to firm in o Always look where you are drawing o To draw freehand circles, start drawing radiuses from the centre with dashes to mark distance, before joining the dashes together

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