WELDING COURSE - PRIMER.

Table of Content
Introduction DNV documents related to welding of ship Welding Processes based on ISO 4063 Arc welding processes Shielded metal arc welding Submerged Arc Welding Gas Metal Arc Welding Flux Cored Arc Welding Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Plasma Arc Welding Qualification of welding procedures Introduction Quality assurance Welding Procedure Specifications Welding Procedure Qualifications Essential variables Additional impact testing Recommendations for Production Welding Welding of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Welding of Stainless Steels Welding of Aluminium Welding of Copper and Copper Alloys Welding of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Welding of Titanium and titanium Alloys Welding on primer Two run welding Qualification of welders Standards for certification

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Introduction
The purpose with this lecture is to give a summary of the most applied welding processes where the most commonly used arc welding processes are covered. The weldability of the ferrous and non-ferrous alloys is also covered. The information is basically extracted from information available on The copper page and TWI Home page on Internet and in AWS handbooks.

DNV documents related to welding of ship

Rules Rules for classification of ships Pt.2 Ch.3 Fabrication and Testing of Ship Structures cover requirements for welding procedures, qualification of welders, welding consumables, fabrication and tolerances, NDT, structural and tightness testing. Standard for Certification no.2.9 Type approval program no. 1-401.1 Welding Consumables

Following Instruction to Surveyors is fully or partly related to welding: IS I-B2.2 Welding Welding and assembly. Welding at low temperatures and the influence of wind. Underwater welding and welding with water on the outside. Examples of fusion welds made with different type of joints and joint preparations. Non destructive testing, NDT. References. Appendix A: Certification scheme Qualification and certification of NDT personnel. Appendix B: Non destructive testing Details to focus on during follow up of NDT. Hull Survey (High Speed and Light Craft only) Aluminium alloys. Welding. Distortion. Repair Welding. Corrosion Protection. Acceptance criteria. Chemical carriers. Austenitic stainless steels, welding, inert gas purging, survey, corrosion, pickling and passivation. Type Approval of Welding Consumables. Type approval certificates, approval procedures, documentation.

IS I-B3.3.1

IS I-B5.1

IS III-C2.2.2

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Welding Processes defined in ISO 4063:1998

A wide range of joining or welding processes exists. Welding processes (incl. related joining processes) may be grouped in many different ways considering whether the joined materials are melted or not, how the required energy is applied and whether the weld pool is protected from the surrounding atmosphere by slag and/or a shielding gas. Different processes may also be used for different materials or combinations of materials. The fare most applied welding processes belongs to the group of arc welding processes, which involves melting of the base materials and normally with the application of a filler material. Some of the arc welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and plasma arc welding (PAW) are using non-consumables electrodes and may be applied without addition of filler material. In building of steel structures and hulls for ship the most common arc welding processes are Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Submerged Arc Welding, Flux Cored Arc Welding and Gas Metal Arc Welding. Considering the many possibilities for naming and grouping the welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding processes, ISO standards have been established. ISO 4063:1998 establishes a grouping system for processes while ISO 857-1:1998 defines the welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding processes by text, sketches and the terminology standard established in ISO 4063:1998. The ISO standards define the main groups as:

Table 1

ISO system for numbering of arc welding processes 101 111 112 114 121 122 123 124 125 131 135 136 Metal-arc welding Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW/ MMA) Gravity arc welding Flux cored wire without gas shield (FCAW) Submerged arc welding with wire electrode Submerged arc welding with strip electrode Submerged arc welding with multiple wire electrodes Submerged arc welding with metallic powder addition Submerged arc welding with tubular cored electrode Metal-arc inert gas (MIG) Metal-arc active gas (MAG) Flux cored arc welding with active shielding gas (FCAW) 137 Flux cored arc welding with inert gas (FCAW) 141 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW/TIG/WIG) 151 Plasma MIG welding (inert gas) 152 Powder plasma arc welding 185 Magnetically impelled arc butt welding

1 Arc welding processes 11 Metal-arc welding without gas protection 12 Submerged arc welding

13 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

14 Gas shielded welding with non-consumable electrode 15 Plasma arc welding (PAW) 18 Other arc welding processes

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Table 2

ISO systems for numbering and grouping of welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding processes ISO ref. No. 21 22 23 24 25 29 311 312 41 42 44 45 47 48 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 91 93 94 96 97 Process name See Table 1 Spot welding Seam welding Resistance projection welding Flash welding Resistance butt welding Other resistance welding Oxy-acetylene gas welding Oxy-propane gas welding Ultrasonic welding Friction welding (FW) Welding by high mech. energy Diffusion welding Oxy-fuel gas pressure welding Cold pressure welding Alumino-thermic welding Electro-slag Welding Electro-gas welding Induction welding Light radiation welding Electron beam welding (EB) Percussion welding Stud welding Brazing Other brazing processes Soldering Other Soldering processes Braze welding

Process group 1 2 Arc Welding Resistance welding (RW)

3 4

Gas welding (fuel gas) Pressure Welding

Other Welding Processes

Brazing, Soldering and Braze Welding

Detailed description of the different welding, brazing and soldering processes may be found in the literature, on the Internet or as multi-media programmers on CD-ROM. This presentation is mention as an introduction, which is a useful basis for further reading. Where to look for detailed information may depend on the application, type of equipment and type of welding consumable in question. Books like the Welding Handbooks and the Brazing handbook from AWS may provide useful information even for skilled welding engineers.

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First it may be useful to be familiar with some of the phrases used in the welding terminology: Removal of weld metal and base material from the other side of a (partially welded) joint to ensure complete penetration upon subsequent welding from that side, (back welding). Back gouging A material placed at the root of a weld joint for the purpose of supporting the molten weld metal. The backing material may be the base material or similar to the base material (permanent) or a ceramic material. Backing Joining process which produce coalescence of materials (also dissimilar materials) by heating them to a suitable temperature and by using a filler material having a liquidus temperature above 450 o C and below the solidus temperature of the base material(s). The filler material is distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of Brazing the joint by capillary attraction. The filler material is deposited in a grove or filled at the point where it is to be used and capillary action is not a factor. The strength of the filler material may not match the strength of the base material. Braze welding HAZ. That portion of the base material which has not been melted, but whose mechanical properties or microstructure have been altered by the heat from the welding, brazing, soldering or Heat affected zone cutting. The filler wire is resistance heated to a temperature close to its melting point just before it contacts the molten weld pool. Compared with a cold wire, a preheated (hot) wire can increase the deposition rate. Hot wire Narrow gap or groove welding may be adopted for welding of heavy thickness by use of a fully automated welding process. The bevel preparation is square or close to square which offer the advantage of minimum weld metal deposition and low residual stresses. Use of this bevel configuration may increase the risk for Narrow gap lack of sidewall fusion defects. welding Arc welding with equipment which controls only the filler metal feed. The advance of the welding and the welding technique are Semiautomatic manually controlled. welding As for Brazing with the difference that the liquidus temperature Soldering for the filler material is below 450 oC. Depositing a filler metal (material) on a base material (substrate) to obtain the desired properties (corrosion: cladding, wear: hard facing) or dimensions. Surfacing A general term for the joining of a metal stud, bolt or similar part to a work piece. Arc, resistance, friction or other suitable process with or without external gas shield may accomplish the welding. Stud welding Application of a fully mechanised process with two (or more) wires into the same weld pool. The wires are fixed on a line parallel with the travelling direction. Tandem welding A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment Tack weld until the final weld is made

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ARC WELDING PROCESSES

Shielded Metal Arc Welding - SMAW (111 and 112)
Shielded metal arc welding was first invented in Russia in 1888. It involved a bare metal rod with no flux coating to give a protective gas shield. The development of coated electrodes did not occur until the early 1900s when the Kjellberg process was invented in Sweden and the Quasi-arc method was introduced in the UK. It is worth noting that coated electrodes were slow to be adopted because of their high cost. However, it was inevitable that as the demand for sound welds grew, manual metal arc welding became synonymous with coated electrodes. When an arc is struck between the metal rod (electrode) and the workpiece, both the rod and workpiece surface melt to form a weld pool. Simultaneous melting of the flux coating on the rod will form gas and slag which protects the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere. The slag will solidify and cool and must be chipped off the weld bead once the weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited). The welding process is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA), welding with covered electrodes, stick electrodes or gravity welding. The latest (gravity/112) is using a relative long covered electrode in contact with the workpiece. The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode needs to be inserted in the holder. Weld penetration is low and the quality of the weld deposit is highly dependent on the skill of the welder. SMAW may be used for welding of carbon steel, low alloy steel, cast iron, stainless steel, nickel based alloys and repair welding of copper based alloys. The welding process is often used for tack welding or local repair welding due to simplicity and lightness of the equipment. The process may be used for surfacing although the deposition rate is not very high. Depending on the core wire size and type of electrode coating the welding process may be used for welding in all positions. Types of flux/electrodes Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional capability are greatly influenced by the chemical composition of the flux coating on the electrode. Electrodes can be divided into three main groups: Cellulosic Rutile Acid Basic

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Cellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are characterised by a deeply penetrating arc and a rapid burn-off rate giving high welding speeds. Weld deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can be difficult. These electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted for their use in the 'stovepipe' welding technique. Features: deep penetration in all positions suitability for vertical down welding reasonably good mechanical properties high level of hydrogen generated - risk of cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ)

Rutile electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating. Titanium oxide promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These electrodes are general-purpose electrodes with good welding properties. They can be used with AC and DC power sources and in all positions. The electrodes are especially suitable for welding fillet joints in the horizontal/vertical (2F/PB) position. Features: moderate weld metal mechanical properties good bead profile produced through the viscous slag positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride) easily removable slag

Acid electrodes have an electrode coating, which mainly consists of oxides, silicates and carbonates of iron and manganese. A main ingredient is silica (SiO2) or quarts. This type of electrode is normally welded with DC, and the electrode being attached to the negative pole. The electrode welds hot, with good running characteristics, resulting in good bead appearance with smooth transitions to the base material. Acid electrodes have a fine dropped spray metal transfer from the electrode to the weld pool, and are easily welded. Among the disadvantages of acid electrodes are a considerable amount of slag inclusions in the weld deposit and no refining action of the slag system. This increases the risk for solidification cracking and formation of pores. The electrode coating also develops considerable amounts of hydrogen during welding. Normally the best impact toughness properties are not achieved. Acid electrodes are mainly used for welding of mild steel and primarily used in the flat position. Features: moderate weld metal mechanical properties good bead profile not for positional welding easily removable slag

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Basic electrodes contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride (fluorspar) in the coating. This makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile coatings - this is also fast-freezing, which assists welding in the vertical and overhead position. These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy section fabrications where higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and resistance to cracking (due to high restraint) are required. Electrodes with a basic coating may provide low hydrogen in the weld metal provided that they are baked and handled in accordance with the manufactures recommendations. Electrodes are now available in hermetically sealed containers. These vacuum packs obviate the need for baking the electrodes immediately prior to use. However, if a container has been opened or damaged, it is essential that the electrodes are re-dried according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Features: low weld metal hydrogen content requires high welding currents/speeds poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile) slag removal difficult

Metal powder electrodes contain an addition of metal powder to the flux coating to increase the maximum permissible welding current level. Thus, for a given electrode size, the metal deposition rate and efficiency (percentage of the metal deposited) are increased compared with an electrode containing no iron powder in the coating. The slag is normally easily removed. Iron powder electrodes mainly used in the flat and horizontal (2F/PB) positions to take advantage of the higher deposition rates. Efficiencies as high as 200% can be achieved for rutile and basic electrodes without marked deterioration of the arcing characteristics but the arc tends to be less forceful which reduce bead penetration. Power source Electrodes can be operated with AC and DC power supplies. Not all DC electrodes can be operated on AC power sources, since the no-load voltage may be to low on the power source. However AC electrodes are normally used on DC. Transistor (inverter) technology is now enabling very small and comparatively low weight power sources to be produced. These power sources are finding increasing use for site welding where they can be readily transported from job to job. As they are electronically controlled, add-on units are available for GTAW and GMAW welding which increase the flexibility.

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Welding current Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode - the normal operating range and current are recommended by manufacturers. Typical operating ranges for a selection of electrode sizes are illustrated in the table.

As a rule of thumb when selecting a suitable current level, an electrode will require about 40A per millimetre (diameter). Therefore, the preferred current level for a 4mm diameter electrode would be 160A, but the acceptable operating range is 140 to 200A.

Submerged Arc Welding - SAW (121 to 125)

The first patent on the submerged-arc welding (SAW) process was taken out in 1935 and covered an electric arc beneath a bed of granulated flux. Developed by the E O Paton Electric Welding Institute, Russia, during the Second World War, SAW's most famous application was on the T34 tank. Process features

Similar to GMAW welding, SAW involves formation of an arc between a continuously-fed bare wire electrode (or strip for surfacing) and the work piece. The process uses a flux to generate protective gases and slag, and to add alloying elements to the weld pool. A shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer of flux powder is placed on the work piece surface. The arc moves along the joint line and as it does so, excess flux is recycled via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can be easily removed after welding. As the arc is completely covered by the flux layer, heat loss is extremely low. There is no visible arc light, welding is spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction.

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Operating characteristics SAW is usually operated as a fully-mechanized or automatic process, but it can be semiautomatic. The welding head is normally mounted on a tractor or a welding crane. Welding parameters: current, arc voltage and travel speed all affect bead shape, depth of penetration and chemical composition of the deposited weld metal. Because the operator cannot see the weld pool, greater reliance must be placed on parameter settings. Process variants According to material thickness, joint type and size of component, varying the following can increase deposition rate and improve bead shape. SAW is normally operated with a single wire on either AC or DC current. Common variants are: twin wire (twin arc) tandem (two wires) triple wire single wire with hot wire addition metal powdered flux addition

All contribute to improved productivity through a marked increase in weld metal deposition rates and/or travel speeds. Twin arc (electrode) welding used two smaller wires connected to the same power source (normally DC+) and feed into the welding pool from the same (double bore) contact tube. The arc is oscillating from one wire tip to the other and an increased deposit rate is achieved due to higher current density. Tandem welding use two separate welding power supplies each connected to separate wire feeding unit. The two wires are feed into the same weld pool. There are two configurations used, one with DC+ lead electrode and AC tail electrode and the second with both lead and tail electrode connected to AC power sources. Also triple-arc SAW exist in two configurations. One use all three electrodes connected to AC power sources. This configuration is often used for welded line pipes or for one side welding in shipbuilding. The welding process may be equipped with feeding units for cold wire, hot wire or metal powder/cut wire supply. The metal powder may be added ahead of the weld pool or directly into the pool.

Flux Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of manganese, silicon, titanium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and other compounds such as calcium fluoride. The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a given electrode wire type so that the combination of flux and wire yields desired mechanical properties. All fluxes react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal chemical

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composition and mechanical properties. It is common practice to refer to fluxes as 'active' if they add manganese and silicon to the weld, the amount of manganese and silicon added is influenced by the arc voltage and the welding current level. The main types of flux for SAW are: Bonded fluxes - produced by drying the ingredients, then bonding them with a low melting point compound such as a sodium silicate. Most bonded fluxes contain metallic deoxidisers, which help to prevent weld porosity. These fluxes are effective over rust and mill scale. Bonded fluxes provide the lowest diffusible hydrogen content in the weld metal, although it has the highest moisture absorption. Fused fluxes - produced by mixing the ingredients, then melting them in an electric furnace to form a chemical homogeneous product, cooled and ground to the required particle size. Smooth stable arcs, with welding currents up to 2000A and consistent weld metal properties, are the main attraction of these fluxes. Mixed fluxes where two or more bonded or fused fluxes are mechanically mixed for highly critical or proprietary welding operations. A disadvantage may be segregation of the combined fluxes during shipment, storage and handling. This may also occur in the feeding and recovery system during the welding operation. Applications SAW is ideally suited for longitudinal and circumferential butt and fillet welds. However, because of the size and the high fluidity of the weld pool, molten slag and loose flux layer, welding is generally carried out on butt joints in the flat position and fillet joints in both the flat and horizontal-vertical positions. For circumferential joints, the work piece is rotated under a fixed welding head with welding taking place in the flat position. The welding process is cost effective for weld length above a certain length (approximately 1 meter). Depending on material thickness, either single-pass, two-pass or multipass weld procedures can be carried out. There is virtually no restriction on the material thickness, provided a suitable joint preparation is adopted. Most commonly welded materials are carbon-manganese steels, low alloy steels and stainless steels, although the process is capable of welding some non-ferrous materials with judicious choice of electrode filler wire and flux combinations.

Gas Metal Arc Welding - GMAW (131 and 135)

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) welding was first patented in the USA in 1949 for welding aluminium. The arc and weld pool formed using a bare wire electrode was protected by helium gas, readily available at that time. From about 1952 the process became popular in the UK for welding aluminium using argon as the shielding gas, and for carbon steels using CO2 as shielding gas.

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When welding non-ferrous alloys using argon and/or helium as shielding gas, the process is known as the metal inert gas (MIG/131) process. Use of a solid wire with CO2 and argon- CO2 mixtures as shielding gas are known as metal active gas (MAG/135) processes. GMAW is an attractive alternative to SMAW, offering high deposition rates and high productivity. Process characteristics GMAW is similar to SMAW in that heat for welding is produced by forming an arc between a metal electrode and the work piece; the electrode melts to form the weld bead. The main difference is that the metal electrode is a small diameter wire fed from a spool. As the wire is continuously fed, the process is often referred to as semi-automatic welding. The welding process may easily be fully mechanized for all positions or by use of a robot. Metal transfer mode The manner, or mode, in which the metal transfers from the electrode to the weld pool, largely determines the operating features of the process. There are three principal metal transfer modes: short circuit transfer where the electrode contacts the molten weld pool globular drop transfer spray drop transfer

Short circuit transfer uses the lowest range of welding current and wire diameters. This type of transfer is related to low heat input with a small fast freezing weld pool which is suitable for joining thin sections, out of position welding and for bridging of large root gaps. Metal is transferred from the electrode to the work only during a period when the electrode is in contact with the weld pool. No metal is transferred across the arc gap. Selection of shielding gas affects the drop size and the frequency (duration) of short circuits. The shielding gas composition also influence on the spatter levels and penetration. CO2 produces higher spatter levels but promote a higher penetration compared to inert gases. To achieve a good compromise between spatter and penetration, mixture of CO2 and argon are often used when welding carbon and low alloyed steels. Globular transfer is characterized by a drop size with a diameter equal or greater than the wire diameter. The large drop is easily acted on by gravity, generally limiting successful transfer to the flat position. When a substantial inert shielding gas is used with a current slightly higher than for short circuiting transfer, may globular-axial direction transfer be able to be achieved. If the arc length is too short (low voltage) the enlarging drop may short to the work piece, become superheated and disintegrate, producing considerable spatter. The arc must therefore be long enough to ensure detachment of the drop before it contacts the weld pool. However, a weld made using higher voltage (longer arc) is likely to be unacceptable because of lack of fusion, insufficient penetration and excessive reinforcement. This generally limits the globular transfer in production application. If CO2 shielding gas are used at the same current (slightly higher than for short circuit transfer), this results in randomly directed globular transfer. With CO2 shielding the

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welding current is conducted trough the molten drop and the wire tip is not enveloped by arc plasma. Electromagnetic forces generated by the welding current are acting upon the molten tip. The most important of these are the electromagnetic pinch force (P) and the anode reaction force (R). P is the magnetic squeezing force on a conductor produced by the current flowing through it, and determines the way a molten drop detaches from the wire. High current results in excessive pinch effect and the molten drop will separate violently from the wire. High-speed photography shows that the arc (between the molten tip and the weld pool) moves over the surface of the molten drop and the work piece, because force R tends to support the drop. The spatter (when using CO2) can be reduced significantly by increasing the current. The arc force will then be sufficient to maintain a depressed cavity in the weld pool, which traps most of the spatter. This results in deep penetration and makes the metal transfer to become almost like a spray. With argon rich shielding gas it is possible to produce a very stable, spatter free axial spray transfer. This requires use of DC (+) electrode and a current above the critical value called transition current. Above this current level the transfer occurs in the form of very small drops that are formed and detached at rate of hundreds per second. The spray transfer mode results in a highly directed stream of discrete drops that are accelerated axially across the arc gap by the arc forces to velocities which overcome the effect of gravity. This makes the process, under certain conditions, to be used for all positions. Welding of thin sections becomes difficult because of the high current required for the spray arc. By using special designed welding machines for high speed wire feeding (high current) and a long wire stick out together with a special argon rich gas compositions, it is possible to increase the deposition rate significantly. This type of welding is only suitable for welding in the flat position due to the large weld pool. Other welding machines provide pulsing arc, which produce carefully controlled current waves at frequencies in the range of 60 to 120 Hz. One of the two current levels produced are representing the peak current with spray transfer while the other back ground current just maintain the arc without producing enough energy to cause drops to form on the wire tip. The advantage is better control of the weld pool in out of position welding combined with the advantages from the spray transfer. A synergic pulsing machine are a more sophisticated and used friendly (one knob) welding machine which automatically provides the optimum combination of background and pulsing current, for any given setting of the wire feeding speed.

Shielding gas In addition to general shielding of the arc and the weld pool, the shielding gas performs a number of important functions: forms the arc plasma stabilizes the arc roots on the material surface ensures smooth transfer of molten droplets from the wire to the weld pool

The shielding gas will have a substantial effect on the stability of the arc and metal transfer and the behaviours of the weld pool, in particular, its penetration. The shielding

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gas may be a single gas or a mixture of two or several gases. Some of the shielding gases used are inert gases (for MIG) like argon (Ar), helium (He) or a mixture of these. Other gases considered as active are carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2) or mixtures of active and/or inert gases. Argon based gases, compared with CO2, is generally more tolerant to parameter settings and generates lower spatter levels with the dip transfer mode. However, there is a greater risk of lack of fusion defects because these gases are colder. As CO2 cannot be used in the open arc (spray transfer) modes due to high back-plasma forces, argon based gases containing oxygen or CO2 are normally employed.

Applications GMAW is widely used in most industry sectors and accounts for almost 50% of all weld metal deposited. Compared to SMAW, GMAW has the advantage in terms of flexibility, deposition rates and suitability for mechanization. However, it should be noted that while GMAW is ideal for 'squirting' metal, a high degree of manipulative skill is demanded of the welder.

Equipment The welding equipment is consisting of a DC power source, a wire feeding unit, watercooling unit, gas supply and a welding gun. Lightweight equipment may use air-cooled welding gun, which do not require the water-cooling unit. Where a long operating radius for the equipment is required, an intermediate wire feeder may be applied (wire push and pull).

Flux Cored Arc Welding - FCAW (114,136 and 137)

Flux core arc welding has become quite commonly used for ship and offshore in Japan, Korea, USA and in Scandinavia. Flux cored arc welding is a semi automatic process as the gas metal arc welding process. The flux cored wire is a tubular electrode consisting of a metal sheath and a core of various powdered materials. The flux ingredients are generating a protective gas (CO2) and a protective slag on top of the weld bead. The process may be used with (136 and 137) and without (114) external shielding gas, which will effect the need for gas and slag generating ingredient in the wire core. Alloying element in the form of metal powder are also mixed in the flux. Metal cored wires contain only a fraction of gas and slag forming elements, which makes them fully depending on the external gas shielding as for gas metal arc welding. The external shielding gas is normally a mixture of argon and CO2 or plain CO2. The flux cored wire may be manufactured from a strip, which gives the wire a longitudinal seam or from a small seamless tube. The most commonly used wires for normal strength and high strength steel are based on a rutile type flux. This gives a wire with good usability in all welding position and a smooth weld bead. Some of the wires for high strength steel and low temperature application are micro alloyed with titanium (Ti) and boron (B). It should be beard in

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mind that these flux cored wires may not be suitable for post weld heat treatment (stress relieving). The result of the PWHT may be a significant drop in the impact toughness of the weld metal mainly as a result of precipitation of boron carbides on the grain boundaries in the weld metal. Flux cored wires with a basic type of flux (normally welded with DC-) are generally suitable for PWHT. The poor usability and somewhat lower deposition rate for these wires are however a disadvantage. Effect of electrical stick-out When welding with the FCAW process, it is a combination of resistance heating of the wire extension and the current which help to melt the wire, With a constant wire-feed speed, an increase in electrical stick-out produces more resistance heating of the wire and hence reduces the current, increases the deposition rate and decreases penetration. Therefore, it is very important to maintain the proper electrical stick-out to achieve the current necessary for required penetration. For gas-shielded FCAW, recommended electrical stick-out is generally 15 to 25 mm, depending on the application, nozzle size and wire diameter and type. When low hydrogen weld deposit is required is should be beard in mind that the wirestick out may effect the hydrogen level. This is considered to be related to the resistance heating mentioned above and the welding current (wire speed). Increased resistance heating combined with reduced wire speed is considered to allow vaporization of moisture from the wire surface and the flux core. Specification of the wire stick out on the welding procedure is important where low diffusible hydrogen is required. Material cleanliness Excessive mill scale, rust, dross from flame-cutting operations, paint from pre-primed surfaces and cutting lubricants should be removed from the parent metal before welding in the FCAW process. Gas shielded FCAW is generally considered as more sensitive to material cleanliness than SMAW. However, some FCAW electrodes are specifically designed to weld onto heavy mill scale and even primer, but in most cases, this is considered poor welding practice. Also, FCAW electrodes should be kept clean and dry at all times. Because they are susceptible to moisture pick-up, which can result in porosity, the electrodes should be returned to the original packaging and stored in a dry place when not in use. The basic welding equipment is the same as used for gas metal arc welding with the exception of no shielding gas supply for the self shielded flux cored wire. The gas shielded flux cored wire offer advantages as higher deposition rate, better mechanical properties, less spatter, lower diffusible hydrogen content, less welding fume and a smother weld bead compared with the self-shielded flux core wire. The self-shielded wire, on the other hand, offer better usability under out-doors conditions and where the excess is limited, i.e. in narrow bevels (no gas nozzle). However, the disadvantages of increased levels of fumes, gasses and spatter, make the welders environments poorer.

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding - GTAW (141)

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding became an overnight success in the 1940s for joining magnesium and aluminium. Using an inert gas shield instead of a slag to protect the weld pool, the process was a highly attractive replacement for gas and manual metal are welding. GTAW has played a major role in the acceptance of aluminium for high quality welding and structural applications. Process Characteristics In the GTAW process the arc is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the work piece in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium. The small intense arc provided by the pointed electrode is ideal for high quality and precision welding. Because the electrode is not consumed during welding, the welder does not have to balance the heat input from the arc as the metal is deposited from the melting electrode. When filler metal is required, it must be added separately to the weld pool. Power Source GTAW must be operated with a drooping, constant current power source - either DC or AC. A constant current power source is essential to avoid excessively high currents being drawn when the electrode is short-circuited on to the work piece surface. This could happen either deliberately during arc starting or inadvertently during welding. If, as in GMAW welding, a flat characteristic power source is used, any contact with the work piece surface would damage the electrode tip or fuse the electrode to the work piece surface. In DC, because arc heat is distributed approximately one-third at the cathode (negative) and two-thirds at the anode (positive), the electrode is always negative polarity to prevent overheating and melting. However, the alternative power source connection of DC electrode positive polarity has the advantage in that when the cathode is on the work piece, the surface is cleaned of oxide contamination. For this reason, AC is used when welding materials with a tenacious surface oxide film, such as aluminium. Arc starting The welding arc can be started by scratching the surfaces, forming short-circuit. It is only when short-circuit is broken that the main welding current will flow. However, there is a risk that the electrode may stick to the surface and cause a tungsten inclusion in the weld. This risk can be minimized using the 'lift arc' technique where short-circuit is formed at a very low current level. The most common way of starting the GTAW arc is to use HF (High Frequency). HF consists of high voltage sparks of several thousand volts, which last for a few microseconds. The HF sparks will cause the electrode - work piece gap to break down

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or ionize. Once an electron/ion cloud is formed, current can flow from the power source. Note: As HF generates abnormally high electromagnetic emission (EM), welders should be aware that its use could cause interference especially in electronic equipment. As EM emission can be airborne, like radio waves, or transmitted along power cables, care must be taken to avoid interference with control systems and instruments in the vicinity of welding. HF is also important in stabilizing the AC arc; in AC, electrode polarity is reversed at a frequency of about 50 times per second, causing the arc to be extinguished at each polarity change. To ensure that the arc is reignited at each reversal of polarity, HF sparks are generated across the electrode/work piece gap to coincide with the beginning of each half-cycle. Electrodes Electrodes for DC welding are normally pure tungsten with 1 to 4% thorium oxide to improve arc ignition. Alternative additives are lanthanum oxide and cerium oxide, which are claimed to give superior performance (arc starting and lower electrode consumption). It is important to select the correct electrode diameter and tip angle for the level of welding current. As a rule, the lower the current the smaller the electrode diameter and tip angle. In mechanized or orbital welding it is essential for the correct welding parameters to apply correct preparation (grinding) of the electrode tip. In AC welding, as the electrode will be operating at a much higher temperature, tungsten with a zirconium addition is used to reduce electrode erosion. It should be noted that because of the large amount of heat generated at the electrode, it is difficult to maintain a pointed tip and the end of the electrode assumes a spherical or 'ball' profile. Shielding gas Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded. The following guidelines may help: Argon - the most commonly-used shielding gas which, can be used for welding a wide range of materials including steels, stainless steel, aluminium and titanium. Argon + 2 to 5% H2 - the addition of hydrogen to argon will make the gas slightly reducing, assisting the production of cleaner-looking welds without surface oxidation. As the arc is hotter and more constricted, it permits higher welding speeds. Disadvantages include risk of hydrogen cracking in carbon steels and weld metal porosity in aluminium alloys. Therefore, the gas should only be an option when welding austenitic steels. Helium and helium/argon mixtures - adding helium to argon will raise the temperature of the arc. This promotes higher welding speeds and deeper weld penetration. Disadvantages of using helium or a helium/argon mixture is the high cost of gas and difficulty in starting the arc. Applications

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GTAW is applied in all industrial sectors but is especially suitable for high quality welding. In manual welding, the relatively small arc is ideal for thin sheet material or controlled penetration (in the root run of pipe welds). Because deposition rate can be quite low (using a separate filler rod) SMAW or GMAW may be preferable for thicker material and for fill passes in thick-wall pipe welds. GTAW is also widely applied in mechanized systems either autogenously or with filler wire. However, several 'off the shelf' systems are available for orbital welding of pipes, used in the manufacture of chemical plant or boilers. The systems require no manipulative skill, but the operator must be well trained. Because the welder has less control over arc and weld pool behavior, careful attention must be paid to edge preparation (machined rather than hand-prepared), joint fit-up and control of welding parameters.

Plasma welding - PAW (151)

Process characteristics Plasma welding is very similar to GTAW as the arc is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the work piece. However, by positioning the electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding gas envelope. Plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle, which constricts the arc. Varying bore diameter and plasma gas flow rate can produce three operating modes: Microplasma: 0.1 to 15A. The microplasma arc can be operated at very low welding currents. The columnar arc is stable even when arc length is varied up to 20mm. Medium current: 15 to 200A. At higher currents, from 15 to 200A, the process characteristics of the plasma arc are similar to the GTAW arc, but because the plasma is constricted, the arc is stiffer. Although the plasma gas flow rate can be increased to improve weld pool penetration, there is a risk of air and shielding gas entrainment through excessive turbulence in the gas shield. Keyhole plasma: over 100A. By increasing welding current and plasma gas flow, a very powerful plasma beam is created which can achieve full penetration in a material, as in laser or electron beam welding. During welding, the hole progressively cuts through the metal with the molten

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weld pool flowing behind to form the weld bead under surface tension forces. This process can be used to weld thicker material (up to 10mm of stainless steel) in a single pass. Power source The plasma arc is normally operated with a DC, drooping characteristic power source. Because its unique operating features are derived from the special torch arrangement and separate plasma and shielding gas flows, a plasma control console can be added on to a conventional GTAW power source. Purpose-built plasma systems are also available. The plasma arc is not easy to stabilize with a sinus formed wave AC. Arc reignition is difficult when there is a long distance between the electrode and the work piece since the plasma arc is constricted, Moreover, excessive heating of the electrode during the positive half-cycle causes balling of the tip which can disturb arc stability. Special-purpose switched DC power sources are available. By imbalance the waveform to reduce the duration of electrode positive polarity, the electrode is kept sufficiently cool to maintain a pointed tip and achieve arc stability. Arc starting Although the arc is initiated using HF, it is first formed between the electrode and plasma nozzle. This 'pilot' arc is held within the body of the torch until required for welding then it is transferred to the work piece. The pilot arc system ensures reliable arc starting and, as the pilot arc is maintained between welds, it obviates the need for HF, which may cause electrical interference. Electrode The electrode used for the plasma process is tungsten with 2% thorium oxide and the plasma nozzle is copper. The electrode tip diameter is not as critical as for GTAW and should be maintained at around 30-60 degrees. The plasma nozzle bore diameter is critical and too small a bore diameter for the current level and plasma gas flow rate will lead to excessive nozzle erosion or even melting. It is prudent to use the largest bore diameter for the operating current level. Note: too large a bore diameter may give problems with arc stability and maintaining a keyhole. Plasma and shielding gases The normal combination of gases is argon for the plasma gas, with argon plus 2 to 5% hydrogen for the shielding gas. Helium can be used for plasma gas but because it is hotter this reduces the current rating of the nozzle. Helium's lower mass can also make the keyhole mode more difficult. Applications

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Microplasma welding Microplasma was traditionally used for welding thin sheets (down to 0.1 mm thickness), and wire and mesh sections. The needle-like stiff arc minimizes arc wander and distortion. Although the equivalent GTAW arc is more diffuse, the newer transistorized (GTAW) power sources can produce a very stable arc at low current levels. Medium current welding When used in the melt mode this is an alternative to conventional GTAW. The advantages are deeper penetration (from higher plasma gas flow), and greater tolerance to surface contamination including coatings (the electrode is within the body of the torch). The major disadvantage lies in the bulkiness of the torch, making manual welding more difficult. In mechanized welding, greater attention must be paid to maintenance of the torch to ensure consistent performance. Keyhole welding This has several advantages, which can be exploited: deep penetration and high welding speeds. Compared with the GTAW arc, it can penetrate plate thicknesses up to l0mm, but when welding using a single pass technique, it is more usual to limit the thickness to 6mm. The normal method is to use the keyhole mode with filler to ensure smooth weld bead profile (with no undercut). For thicknesses up to 15mm, a V-joint preparation is used with a 6mm root face. A two-pass technique is employed and here, the first pass is autogenous with the second pass being made in melt mode with filler wire addition. As the welding parameters, plasma gas flow rate and filler wire addition (into the keyhole) must be carefully balanced to maintain the keyhole and weld pool stability, this technique is only suitable for mechanized welding. Although it can be used for positional welding, usually with current pulsing, it is normally applied in high speed welding of thicker sheet material (over 3 mm) in the flat position. When pipe welding, the slope-out of current and plasma gas flow, must be carefully controlled to close the keyhole without leaving a hole.

Qualification of welding procedures

Introduction Welding processes are widely used to fabricate many of the constructions of the engineering industry and in some companies they are the key feature of production. Such construction may range from ships, offshore constructions, pipelines, pressure vessels, domestic and agricultural equipment including items such as cranes bridges and other welded structures. As such, welding exerts a profound influence on the cost of fabrication and performance on the product. It is important, therefore, to ensure that welding is carried out in the most effective way and that appropriate control is exercised over all aspects of the operation.

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Quality Assurance Welding and brazing which are a variety of processes or operations are normally to be performed in accordance with a written procedure, a Welding Procedure Specification, by a qualified operator, a welder. There are also a variety of standards, rules and regulations, which purpose is quality assurance of the final product. Traditionally has US Standards within the field of welding such as ASME IX (Boiler and pressure vessels) and AWS D1.1 (structural welding) been widely recognised. This because they have been considered to represent a suitable quality level for many areas within welded structures and because they are integrated in other US standards related to design and purchase of components. During several years the European Comity for Standardisation (CEN) has been working on development of common European standards or EN-standards which is to replace former national standards. Within welding and fabrication this work has lead to the development of new standards. Most of the new standards are combined as EN ISO standards. A list of EN ISO standards related to welding are shown in next section. Welding is by the EN ISO 9000:2000 series of standards considered as a special process since welds cannot be fully verified by subsequent inspection and testing of the product to assure that the required quality standards have been met. EN 729:1994 (Quality requirements for welding part 1 to 4) provides interpretations and guidelines for specification and establishment of the part of the quality systems related to control of welding as a special process. EN 729:1994 is to be applicable where welding is considered as an important part of the manufacturing process and where ISO 9001:2000 applies. EN 729:1994 is specifying requirements for welding co-ordinations and gives detailed quality assurance requirements for welding, from contract review, during the fabrication process and for documentation of the work. EN standards are also prepared for welder qualification, welding inspectors and welding technicians/engineers (welding co-ordinators EN 719:1994/ISO 14731:1997). The new EN standards may be considered to represent quality requirements beyond the requirements represented by the previous mentioned US standards. As stated in EN 7291:1995 Quality cannot be inspected into a product; it has to be built into it. Even the most extensive and sophisticated non-destructive testing does not improve the quality of welds. To ensure an effective welded fabrication, management needs to appreciate the source of potential trouble and to introduce appropriate quality procedures. Welding Procedure Specifications A requirement for written Welding Procedure Specifications, (WPS) has been one of the most common ways for quality assurance of the welding operations. Welding Procedure Specifications are a specified course of actions to be followed in making a weld, including reference to materials, preparation, preheating (if necessary), welding parameters, equipment and post weld heat treatment (if relevant). It is normally a prerequisition that welders or operators have the required skill and qualifications. The welding procedures are normally a document to be prepared by the manufacturer and the department responsible for the quality assurance related to the welding (welding

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engineer or welding co-ordinator). Acceptance or approval of the welding procedure is in some cases also to be obtained from the client and/or any classification society or third parties company involved in the fabrication. A WPS not qualified, are recognised as a preWPS Welding procedure specifications are normally prepared and approved based on contractual requirements and any applicable standard or rule (codes). Based on the type of welding process, the material and the applicable contract/code requirements, the welding procedure may be prepared and approved based on one of the following methods: a) b) c) d) e) Based on previous welding experience (ISO 15611:2003) Approved welding consumables (ISO 15610:2003) Welding procedure test (ISO 15614-1:2004.) Standard welding procedure (EN ISO 15612:2004, AWS D1.1) Pre-production welding test (EN ISO 15613:2003)

DNV Rules for Ship require approval of welding procedures based on DNV Type Approval of the welding consumables (b) or welding procedure testing (c). Pre-production testing (e) may be performed on a prototype or a muck-up where traditional testing can not be considered as representative for the product. Approvals based on (e) are typically applied for manufacturing of welded pipes, line pipes, piping components and other welded components. Within the DNV Rules for ship the requirements for welding procedure qualification testing is to be found in the different chapters. In some areas the Rules requires the WPS to be part of the plan approval, e.g. for rudders, important welded constructions in diesel engines, LNG tanks and piping systems and hull structures. In some cases the Rules also calls for production testing. The different parts of EN ISO 15614 (-1 to -13) cover special aspects and different metallic materials for specification and approval of welding procedures. However, here is a list over some of the important standards: 1 2 General rules for fusion welding EN ISO 15607:2003 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - Welding procedure specification - Part 1: Arc welding (NS-EN ISO 15609-1:2004) Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - Welding procedure test - Part 1: Arc and gas welding of steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys (NS-EN ISO 156141:2004) Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials -- Welding procedure test -- Part 2: Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys (ISO 15614-2:2005) Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - Qualification based on tested welding consumables (ISO 15610:2003)

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9 10

11

12

Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - Qualification based on previous welding experience (ISO 15611:2003) Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials Qualification by adoption of a standard welding procedure (ISO 15612:2004) Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials Qualification based on pre-production welding test (ISO 15613:2003) Welding - Guidelines for a metallic materials grouping system (ISO/TR 15608:2000) Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic materials - Part 10: Welding procedure specification for electron beam welding (ISO 9956-10:1996) Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic materials - Part 11: Welding procedure specification for laser beam welding (ISO 9956-11:1996) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded) - Quality levels for imperfections (ISO 5817:2003)

It is important not to mixing the standards: e.g. Welding procedure specification in according to American standards, please qualify the welders by use of American standards. The same rules to be applied for EN ISO standards. Why? American standards place emphasis on the requirement for the welders. EN ISO standards place emphasis on the requirement for welding qualification. Welding procedure qualifications When required by the contract or the relevant code, the manufacturer may be requested to prove the feasibility of the welding procedure by performing testing, Welding Procedure Qualifications (WPQ). How to prepare the testing, extent of testing, acceptance criteria and essential variables are all defined by the applicable code. Extent of any microstructure evaluation, corrosion- and mechanical testing is normally decided by type of service, material, welding process, thickness and design temperature. Where qualification of the welding procedure specification is required, any approval of the WPS (and WPQ) is limited to the manufacturer or the workshop performing the qualification.

Essential variables
Essential variables are limitations defined by the relevant code, which are restricting the application of the welding procedure. Essential variables may typically be; type of material, thickness, welding process, welding consumables and manufacturing organisation. Where one or several of the essential variables are changed outside the limitations as defined by the code, new approval or testing may be required. Where the reference code requires reduction in impact test temperature, as the plate thickness is increased, this should also be considered as an essential variable. If the required impact test temperature is 20 oC for thickness up to 25 mm and 40 oC for

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thickness above, then the thickness qualification range is to be considered. Impact testing performed on plate thickness 20 mm should in this case be performed at the lowest temperature in order to take advantage of the full qualification range, which may be up to 40 mm (depending on referenced code). For testing performed at 20 oC, the qualified thickness range should be limited to maximum 25 mm. Other test requirements such as selection of specimen for side bend or root/face bend should only consider the thickness for the test plate in question. The essential variables for the welding procedure qualification testing may for some codes vary depending on the welding procedure or whether the welding is butt-welding or overlay welding.

Additional requirements for impact testing

When considering the test requirements and the extent of testing also the essential variables of the applicable code should be considered. Requirements like additional impact testing in root area should be carefully considered. If the testing is performed on plate thickness 40 mm this may give a qualification range 20-80 mm for the WPS (depending on referenced code). In this case, the scope of testing should include additional impact testing in root. If this testing is not performed, additional limitations to the essential variables should be considered. The approval of the WPS shall be limited upwards to the maximum limit where this additional testing is required. Where dissimilar material grades are joined e.g. welding of rolled plate material to casting or forging, testing such as impact testing shall be required in the HAZ on both sides of the joint.

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Recommendations for production welding

Welding of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
Imperfections in welds Commonly used steels are considered to be readily welded. However, these materials can be at risk from the following types of imperfection: Porosity solidification cracking hydrogen cracking Reheat cracking.

Other fabrication imperfections are lamellar tearing and liquation cracking but using modern steels and consumables, these types of defects are less likely to arise. In discussing the main causes of imperfections, guidance is given on procedure and welder techniques for reducing the risk in arc welding. Porosity Porosity is formed by entrapment of discrete pockets of gas in the solidifying weld pool. The gas may originate from poor gas shielding, surface contaminants such as rust or grease, or insufficient deoxidants in the parent metal (autogenous weld), electrode or filler wire. A particularly severe form of porosity is 'wormholes', caused by gross surface contamination or welding with damp electrodes. The presence of manganese and silicon in the parent metal, electrode and filler wire is beneficial as they act as deoxidants combining with entrapped air in the weld pool to form slag. Rimming steels with high oxygen content can only be welded satisfactorily with a consumable which adds aluminium to the weld pool. To obtain sound porosity-free welds, the joint area should be cleaned and degreased before welding. Primer coatings should be removed unless considered suitable for welding by that particular process and procedure. When using gas shielded processes, the material surface demands more rigorous cleaning, such as by degreasing, grinding or machining, followed by final degreasing, and the arc must be protected from draughts. Solidification cracking Solidification cracks occur longitudinally as a result of the weld bead having insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses within the weld metal. Sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon pick up from the parent metal at high dilution increase the risk of weld metal (solidification) cracking especially in thick section and highly restrained joints. When welding steels with high carbon and sulphur contents; a thin weld beads will be more susceptible to solidification cracking. However, a weld with a large depth to width ratio can also be susceptible. In this case, the centre of the weld, the

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last part to solidify, will have a high concentration of impurities increasing the risk of cracking. Solidification cracking is best avoided by careful attention to the choice of consumable, welding parameters and welder technique. To minimise the risk, consumables with low carbon and impurity levels and relatively high manganese and silicon contents are preferred. High current density processes such as submerged-arc and CO2, are more likely to induce cracking. The welding parameters must produce an adequate depth to width ratio in butt welds, or throat thickness in fillet welds. High welding speeds also increase the risk as the amount of segregation and weld stresses will increase. The welder should ensure that there is a good joint fit-up so as to avoid bridging wide gaps. Surface contaminants, such as cutting oils, should be removed before welding. Hydrogen cracking A characteristic feature of high carbon and low alloy steels is that the HAZ immediately adjacent to the weld hardens on welding with an attendant risk of cold (hydrogen) cracking. Although the risk of cracking is determined by the level of hydrogen produced by the welding process, susceptibility will also depend upon several contributory factors: material composition (carbon equivalent) section thickness arc energy (heat) input Degree of restraint.

Several carbon equivalents have been developed. The two most referred are CE developed by IIW and Pcm developed by the Japanese steel industry. CEIIW = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Cu + Ni)/15 Pcm = Si/30 + (Mn + Cu + Cr)/20 + Ni/60 + Mo/20 + V/10 + 5B The value of the carbon equivalent may be considered as the relative weldability of a given chemical composition when compared with one other composition. The maximum carbon equivalent is sometimes specified in material specifications. A maximum carbon equivalent may also specify as an essential variable for a welding procedure qualification. The maximum increase in carbon equivalent is typically 0.03 for CE and 0.02 for Pcm. The amount of hydrogen generated is determined by the electrode type and the process. Basic electrodes generate less hydrogen than rutile electrodes (SMAW) and the gas shielded processes (GMAW and GTAW) produce only a small amount of hydrogen in the weld pool. Steel composition and cooling rate determines the HAZ hardness. Chemical composition determines material hardenability, and the higher the carbon and alloy content of the material, the greater the HAZ hardness. Section thickness and arc energy influences the cooling rate and hence, the hardness of the HAZ. For a given situation therefore, material composition, thickness, joint type, electrode composition and arc energy input, HAZ cracking is prevented by heating the material.

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Using preheat which reduces the cooling rate, promotes escape of hydrogen and reduces HAZ hardness so preventing a crack-sensitive structure being formed; the recommended levels of preheat for various practical situations are detailed in the appropriate standards such as EN 1011-2+A1:2004, BS5135 or AWS D1.1. Other methods for determinations of the minimum preheat temperature have been developed by the Japanese steel industry. N. Yurioka at Nippon Steel has developed one of the most referred methods. This method are considered the more reliable for low carbon steel (C <0,16 %) than the above referred standards. As cracking only occurs at temperatures slightly above ambient, maintaining the temperature of the weld area above the recommended level during fabrication is especially important. If the material is allowed to cool too quickly, cracking can occur up to several hours after welding, often termed 'delayed hydrogen cracking'. After welding, therefore, it is beneficial to maintain the heating for a given period (hold time), depending on the steel thickness, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area. When welding C-Mn structural and pressure vessel steels; the measures which are taken to prevent HAZ cracking will also be adequate to avoid hydrogen cracking in the weld metal. However, with increased alloying of the weld metal e.g. when welding alloyed or quenched and tempered steels, more stringent precautions may be necessary. The risk of HAZ cracking is reduced by using a low hydrogen process, low hydrogen electrodes and high arc energy, and by reducing the level of restraint. Practical precautions to avoid hydrogen cracking include drying the electrodes and cleaning the joint faces. When using a gas shielded process, a significant amount of hydrogen can be generated from contaminants on the surface of the components and filler wire so preheat and arc energy requirements should be maintained even for tack welds. Methods for determinations of the risk for weld metal hydrogen cracking are less acknowledged. The same factors as for preventing hydrogen cracking in the HAZ are considered valid for preventing hydrogen cracking in the weld metal. It has, however, been seen that the risk for weld metal cracking may be increasing with increased heat input. Empirical equations for determinations of minimum preheat temperature for prevention of weld metal cracking have been developed. In these equations are based on hydrogen content, thickness and weld metal tensile strength. When welding low-carbon extra high strength steel with welding consumables having a tensile strength above 600 MPa, the risk for hydrogen induced cracking in the weld metal is to be considered and may be governing with respect to selection of preheat temperature. Reheat cracking Reheat or stress relaxation cracking may occur in the HAZ of thick section components, usually of greater than 50mm thickness, Fig. 4. The more likely cause of cracking is embrittlement of the HAZ during high temperature service or stress relief heat treatment. As a coarse grained HAZ is more susceptible to cracking, low arc energy input welding procedures reduce the risk. Although reheat cracking occurs in sensitive materials,

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avoidance of high stresses during welding and elimination of local points of stress concentration, e.g. by dressing the weld toes, can reduce the risk. Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) Post weld heat treatment is generally desired in order to relax and redistribute residual stresses, which may have some negative effect on; fatigue life brittle fracture in low toughness situations stress corrosion cracking resistance to buckling (presents of compressive residual stresses) distortion during machining

However, for modern micro alloyed structural steels and weld metals it is possible to obtain sufficient toughness in the as-welded condition and it is important to be ware of that PWHT may reduce the weld metal toughness. This is particularly applicable for welding consumables using a TiB (titan boron) micro alloying system which is the case for several high strength flux cored wires with low temperature toughness. The toughness in the weld metal will be reduced by the PWHT due to precipitation of boron carbides on the grain boundaries. High strength and extra high strength steel plates may be delivered as thermomechanical control processed (TMCP) or quenched and tempered (QT). PWHT of TMCP materials has to be performed strictly in accordance with the recommendations from the steel manufacturer, which in most cases will result in a temperature in the range of 560 to 590 oC. Austenitic stainless steel may be welded to C-Mn steel using an austenitic welding consumable type 309, 312 or Duplex. These types of welding consumables (and other with higher Cr and Mo content) should not be PWHT or exposed to high service temperature. PWHT in the range of 600-700 oC will reduce the toughness (and corrosion resistance) in the weld metal depending on the ferrite number in the weld metal as a result of sigma formation. An austenitic welding consumable with lower ferrite composition like type 316 will be less vulnerable for toughness reduction due to PWHT, compared with 309. The ideal welding consumable for welding C-Mn steel to stainless steel where PWHT or high temperature service (>475 C) is Ni based welding consumables. Welding consumables recommended are AWS A5.14 class ERNICr-3 bare wire or A5.11 class ENiCrFe-2 and ENiCrFe-3 is recommended used as well as Inconel 625 (ERNiCrMo-3). For low alloy steels, PWHT is considered to improve mechanical properties in the HAZ. For QT steels and low alloy steel Forgings CrMo (AISI type 4xxx) it is important to pay attention to the selection of the PWHT temperature. The quenched and tempered steels (plate or Forgings) should as a general rule be stress relived at a temperature not higher than 30 oC below the actual tempering temperature for the steel (is to be stated on the material inspection certificate). For low alloy Forgings of AISI 4xxx grade, it is important to be ware of that the actual tempering temperature may vary from one forging to one other within the range from

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610 to 670C. This may in some cases create problems for welding procedures qualified on a material with a tempering temperature in the upper range. If the WPQ material has a tempering temperature at 660C the PWHT may be selected as 630C which is fully acceptable. The problem may occur when that WPQ is to be used for a material with a relative low tempering temperature, i.e. 620C. PWHT at a temperature 630C (10C above the tempering temperature) will affect the mechanical properties on the base material and the mechanical properties documented on the material certificate may not longer be relevant for the forging. PWHT temperature is generally considered as an essential variable, which implicate that any increase or decrease requires requalification of the WPQ. In order to avoid this has every certificate to be verified with respect to the selected PWHT temperature. Weldability of steel groups Normal strength, high strength and extra high strength steel For thin section, unalloyed materials, these materials are normally readily weldable. However, when welding thicker section material with a flux process, there is a risk of HAZ cracking, which will needs low hydrogen welding consumables. The more highly alloyed materials also require preheat, or a low hydrogen welding process, to avoid HAZ cracking. Chromium-Molybdenum (CrMo) and/or Chromium-Molybdenum-Vanadium (CrMoV) Creep Resisting Steel Thin section material may be welded without preheat but using a gas shielded process (GTAW and GMAW); for thicker section material, and when using a flux process, preheat with low hydrogen consumables is needed to avoid HAZ and weld metal cracking. Post-weld heat treatment is used to improve HAZ toughness. Fine-Grained Structural Steels and Nickel Steels (2% to 5%) The weldability is similar to CrMo and CrMoV steels in that preheat is required for welding thick section material with flux processes.

Welding of stainless steels

The unique properties of the stainless steels are derived from the addition of alloying elements, principally chromium and nickel, to steel. Typically, more than 12% chromium is required to produce a stainless steel. The four types of stainless steel have been classified according to type of structure, which is determined by their chemical compositions: Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic Austenitic-ferritic (duplex)

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The alloy groups are designated largely according to their microstructure. The first three consist of a single phase but the fourth group contains both ferrite and austenite in the microstructure. As nickel (plus carbon, manganese and nitrogen) promotes austenite and chromium (plus silicon, molybdenum and niobium) encourages ferrite formation, the structure of welds in commercially available stainless steels can be largely predicted on the basis of their chemical composition. The predicted weld metal structure is shown in the Schaeffler diagram in which austenite and ferrite promoting elements are plotted in terms of the nickel and chromium equivalents. Because of the different microstructures, the alloy groups have both different welding characteristics and susceptibility to defects. For welding of stainless steel tubes and pipes, the internal surface and the root pass require protection from the surrounding air by an inert shielding gas. The use of such internal gas shield (purging gas or backing gas) prevents formation of heavy oxides, which impair the corrosion properties. The use of purging gas is also necessary to get a smooth root bead without weld defects. Prevention of oxidation is most important for those stainless steel grades, which have the highest corrosion resistance. For welding of stainless steel pipes the gas shield of the root may be obtained by filling the complete piping system with the purging gas or by blocking the pipe bore on both sides of the weld and fill this compartment with purging gas. The first mentioned is normally used for small bore and installation welds with a large diameter. The second one is normally used where the access allows fitting and removal of gas dams. Gas shielding of the root may also be provided by use of internal line up clamps, which may have provisions for gas shielding of the root. To prevent oxidation of the root, the oxygen content of the purging gas must be sufficiently low. Where gas dams are used it is recommended to purge the enclosed volume sufficient to bring the oxygen content down at an acceptable level. Recommended maximum oxygen content for the purging gas is 25 ppm for AISI grade 304, 316 and duplex stainless steel. This is normally obtained by a gas-purging period sufficiently to replace the blocked volume 8 to 15 times. The degree of oxidation should be considered at the start of the project in order to establish a minimum standard for the work. This may also be verified by corrosion tests. Austenitic Stainless Steel Austenitic stainless steels typically have a composition within the range 16-26% chromium (Cr) and 8-22% nickel (Ni). A commonly used alloy for welded fabrications is Type 304 which contains approximately 18%Cr and 10%Ni. These alloys can be readily welded using any of the arc welding processes (GTAW, GMAW, SMAW and SAW). As they are non-hardenable on cooling, they exhibit good toughness and there is no need for pre- or post-weld heat treatment.

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Avoiding Weld Imperfections Although austenitic stainless steel is readily welded, weld metal and HAZ cracking can occur. Weld metal solidification cracking is more likely in fully austenitic structures, which are more crack sensitive than those containing a small amount of ferrite. The beneficial effect of ferrite has been attributed largely to its capacity to dissolve harmful impurities, which would otherwise form low melting point segregates and interdendritic cracks. As the presence of 5-10% ferrite in the microstructure is extremely beneficial, the choice of filler material composition is crucial in suppressing the risk of cracking. An indication of the ferrite-austenite balance for different compositions is provided by the Schaeffler diagram. E.g. when welding Type 304 stainless steels, a Type 308 filler material is used. Type 308 has a slightly different alloy content, then Type 304. Ferritic Stainless Steel Ferritic stainless steels have Cr content typically within the range 11-28%. Commonly used alloys include the 430 grade, having 16-18% Cr and 407 grade having 10-12% Cr. As these alloys can be considered to be predominantly single phase and non-hardenable, they can be readily fusion welded. However, a coarse grained HAZ will have poor toughness. Avoiding Weld Imperfections The main problem when welding this type of stainless steel is poor HAZ toughness. Excessive grain coarsening can lead to cracking in highly restrained joints and thick section material. When welding thin section material, (less than 6mm) no special precautions are necessary. In thicker material, it is necessary to employ a low heat input to minimise the width of the grain coarsened zone and an austenitic filler to produce a tougher weld metal. Although preheating will not reduce the grain size, it will reduce the HAZ cooling rate, maintain the weld metal above the ductile-brittle transition temperature and may reduce residual stresses. Preheat temperature should be within the range 50-250 deg.C depending on material composition. Martensitic Stainless Steel The most common martensitic alloys e.g. type 410, have moderate chromium content, 12-18% Cr, with low Ni but more importantly have relatively high carbon content. The principal difference compared with welding the austenitic and ferritic grades of stainless steel is the potentially hard HAZ martensitic structure and the matching composition weld metal. The material can be successfully welded providing precautions are taken to avoid cracking in the HAZ, especially in thick section components and highly restrained joints.

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Avoiding Weld Imperfections High hardness in the HAZ makes this type of stainless steel very prone to hydrogen cracking. The risk of cracking generally increases with the carbon content. Precautions which must be taken to minimise the risk, include:

using low hydrogen process (GTAW or GMAW) and ensure the flux or flux coated consumable are dried (SMAW and SAW) according to the manufacturer's instructions; preheating to around 200 to 300 deg.C. Actual temperature will depend on welding procedure, chemical composition (especially Cr and C content), section thickness and the amount of hydrogen entering the weld metal; maintaining the recommended minimum interpass temperature. carrying out post-weld heat treatment, e.g. at 650-750 deg.C. The time and temperature will be determined by chemical composition.

Thin section, low carbon material, typically less than 3mm, can often be welded without preheat, providing that a low hydrogen process is used, the joints have low restraint and attention is paid to cleaning the joint area. Thicker section and higher carbon (> O.1%) material will probably need preheat and post-weld heat treatment. The post-weld heat treatment should be carried out immediately after welding not only to temper (toughen) the structure but also to enable the hydrogen to diffuse away from the weld metal and HAZ. Duplex Stainless Steels Duplex stainless steels have a two phase structure of almost equal proportions of austenite and ferrite. The composition of the most common duplex steels lies within the range 22-26% Cr, 4-7% Ni and 0-3% Mo normally with a small amount of nitrogen (0.1-0.3%) to stabilise the austenite. Modern duplex steels are readily weldable but the procedure, especially maintaining the heat input range, must be strictly followed to obtain the correct weld metal structure. Avoiding Weld Imperfections Although most welding processes can be used, low heat input welding procedures are usually avoided. Preheat is not normally required and the maximum interpass temperature must be controlled. Choice of filler is important as it is designed to produce a weld metal structure with a ferrite-austenite balance to match the parent metal. To compensate for nitrogen loss, the filler may be overalloyed with nitrogen or the shielding gas itself may contain a small amount of nitrogen.

Welding

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Welding of aluminium
As pure aluminium is relatively soft, small amounts of alloying elements are added to produce a range of mechanical properties. The alloys are grouped according to the principal alloying elements; Specific commercial alloys have a four-digit designation according to the Aluminium Association (AA) or the ISO alpha - numeric system. The alloys can be further classified according to the means by which the alloying elements develop mechanical properties, non-heat-treatable or heat-treatable alloys. Non-heat-treatable alloys Material strength depends on the effect of work hardening and solid solution hardening of alloy elements such as magnesium, and manganese; the alloying elements are mainly found in the 1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx series of alloys. When welded, these alloys may lose the effects of work hardening, which results in softening of the HAZ adjacent to the weld. Heat-treatable alloys Material hardness and strength depend on alloy composition and heat treatment (solution heat treatment and quenching followed by either natural or artificial ageing produces a fine dispersion of the alloying constituents). Principal alloying elements are found in the 2xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx and 8xxx series. Fusion welding redistributes the hardening constituents in the HAZ, which locally reduces material strength. Most of the wrought grades in the 1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx and medium strength 7xxx (e.g. 7020) series can be fusion welded using GTAW (TIG) and GMAW. The 5xxx series alloys, in particular, have excellent weldability. High strength alloys (e.g. 7010 and 7050) and most of the 2xxx series are not recommended for fusion welding because they are prone to liquation and solidification cracking. Filler alloys Filler metal composition is determined by: weldability of the parent metal minimum mechanical properties of the weld metal corrosion resistance

Nominally matching filler metals are often employed for non-heat-treatable alloys. However, for alloy-lean materials and heat-treatable alloys, non-matching fillers are used to prevent solidification cracking. The choice of filler metal composition for the various 5xxx and 6xxx alloys is specified in Rules for Ships Part 2 Chapter 3 Section 2.

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Imperfections in welds Aluminium and its alloys can be readily welded providing appropriate precautions are taken. The most likely imperfections in fusion welds are: Porosity Cracking poor weld bead profile

Porosity Porosity is often regarded as an inherent feature of GMAW welds; typical appearance of finely distributed porosity in a GTAW weld is shown in the photograph. The main cause of porosity is absorption of hydrogen in the weld pool, which forms discrete pores in the solidifying weld metal. The most common sources of hydrogen are hydrocarbons and moisture from contaminants on the parent material and filler wire surfaces, and water vapour from the shielding gas atmosphere. Even trace levels of hydrogen may exceed the threshold concentration required to nucleate bubbles in the weld pool, aluminium being one of the metals most susceptible to porosity.

To minimise the risk, rigorous cleaning of material surface and filler wire should be carried out. Three cleaning techniques are suitable; mechanical cleaning, solvent degreasing and chemical etch cleaning. Mechanical cleaning Wire brushing (stainless steel bristles), scraping or filing can be used to remove surface oxide and contaminants. Degreasing should be carried out before mechanical cleaning. Dipping, spraying or wiping with organic solvents can be used to remove grease, oil, dirt and loose particles. In gas shielded welding, air entrainment should be avoided by making sure there is an efficient gas shield and the arc is protected from draughts. Precautions should also be taken to avoid water vapour pickup from gas lines and welding equipment; it is recommended that the welding system is purged for about an hour before use.

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Solidification cracks Cracking occurs in aluminium alloys because of high stresses generated across the weld due to the high thermal expansion (twice that of steel) and the substantial contraction on solidification - typically 5 % more than in equivalent steel welds. Solidification cracks form in the centre of the weld, usually extending along the centreline during solidification. Solidification cracks also occur in the weld crater at the end of the welding operation. The main causes of solidification cracks are as follows: incorrect filler wire/parent metal combination incorrect weld geometry welding under high restraint conditions

The cracking risk can be reduced by using non-matching, crack-resistant filler (usually from the 4xxx and 5xxx series alloys). The disadvantage is that the resulting weld metal may have a lower strength than the parent metal and not respond to a subsequent heat treatment. The weld bead must be thick enough to withstand contraction stresses. Also, the degree of restraint on the weld can be minimised by using correct edge preparation, accurate joint set up and correct weld sequence. Liquation cracking Liquation cracking occurs in the HAZ, when low melting point films are formed at the grain boundaries. These cannot withstand the contraction stresses generated when the weld metal solidifies and cools. Heat treatable alloys, 6xxx, 7xxx and 8xxx series alloys, are more susceptible to this type of cracking. The risk can be reduced by using a filler metal with a lower melting temperature than the parent metal, for example the 6xxx series alloys are welded with a 4xxx filler metal. However, 4xxx filler metal should not be used to weld high magnesium alloys (such as 5083) as excessive magnesium-silicide may form at the fusion boundary decreasing ductility and increasing crack sensitivity. Poor weld bead profile Incorrect welding parameter settings or poor welder technique can introduce weld profile imperfections such as lack of fusion, lack of penetration and undercut. The high thermal conductivity of aluminium and the rapidly solidifying weld pool make these alloys particularly susceptible to profile imperfections.

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Welding of copper and copper alloys

Copper Copper is normally supplied in the form of: xygen bearing, tough pitch copper phosphorus deoxidised copper oxygen-free copper

Tough pitch copper contains stringers of copper oxide (<0.1% oxygen as Cu2O) which does not impair the mechanical properties of wrought material and has high electrical conductivity. Oxygen-free and phosphorus deoxidised copper are more easily welded. GTAW and GMAW are the preferred welding processes but oxyacetylene and SMAW welding can be used in the repair of tough pitch copper components. To counteract the high thermal conductivity, helium and nitrogen-based gases, which have higher arc voltages, can be used as an alternative to argon. Avoiding Weld Imperfections In fusion welding tough pitch copper, high oxygen content leads to embrittlement in the heat affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal porosity. Phosphorus deoxidised copper is more weldable but residual oxygen can result in porosity in autogenous welds especially in the presence of hydrogen. Porosity is best avoided by using appropriate filler wire containing deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si, P and Ti). Thin section material can be welded without preheat. However, over 5mm thickness all grades need preheat to produce a fluid weld pool and avoid fusion defects. Thick section components may need a preheat temperature as high as 600 deg.C. Copper with small alloying additions Low alloying additions of sulphur or tellurium can made to improve machining. However, these grades are normally considered to be unweldable. Small additions of chromium, zirconium or beryllium will produce precipitation hardened alloys which, on heat treatment, have superior mechanical properties. Chromium and beryllium copper may suffer from HAZ cracking unless heat treated before welding. When welding beryllium copper, care should be taken to avoid inhaling the welding fumes. Brasses (copper-zinc alloys) and nickel silvers When considering weldability, brasses can be conveniently separated into two groups, low zinc (up to 20% Zn) and high zinc (30 to 40% Zn). Nickel silvers contain 20 to 45% zinc and nickel to improve strength. The main problem in fusion welding these alloys is the volatilisation of the zinc, which results in white fumes of zinc oxide and weld metal

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porosity. Only low zinc brasses are normally considered suitable for fusion welding using the GTAW and GMAW processes. Avoiding Weld Imperfections To minimise porosity, a zinc-free filler wire should be used, either silicon bronze (C9) or an aluminium bronze (C13). High welding speeds will reduce pore coarseness. GTAW and GMAW processes are used with argon or an argon-helium mixture but not nitrogen. A preheat is normally used for low zinc (<20% Zn) to avoid fusion defects because of the high thermal conductivity. Although preheat is not needed in higher zinc content alloys, slow cooling reduces cracking risk. Post weld heat treatment also helps reduce the risk of stress corrosion cracking in areas where there is high restraint. Bronzes (tin bronze, phosphor bronze, silicon bronze and gun metal) Tin bronzes can contain between 1% and 10% tin. Phosphor bronze contains up to 0.4% phosphorus. Gunmetal is essentially a tin bronze with up to 5% zinc and may additionally have up to 5% lead. Silicon bronze contains typically 3% silicon and 1% manganese and is probably the easiest of the bronzes to weld. Avoiding Weld Imperfections These are generally considered to be weldable, apart from phosphor bronze and leaded gun metal, and a matching filler composition is normally employed. Autogenous welding of phosphor bronzes is not recommended due to porosity, but using a filler wire with a higher level of deoxidants can reduce the risk. Gun metal is not considered weldable due to hot cracking in the weld metal and HAZ. Aluminium bronze There are essentially two types of aluminium bronzes; single phase alloys containing between 5 and 10% aluminium, with a small amount of iron or nickel, and more complex, two phase alloys containing up to 12% aluminium and about 5% of iron with specific alloys also containing nickel and manganese and silicon. Gas shielded welding processes are preferred for welding this group of alloys. In GTAW welding, the presence of a tenacious, refractory oxide film requires AC (argon) or DC with a helium shielding gas. Because of its low thermal conductivity, preheating is not normally required except when welding thick section components. Avoiding Weld Imperfections Rigorous cleaning of the material surface is essential, both before and after each run, to avoid porosity. Single phase alloys can be susceptible to weld metal cracking and HAZ cracking can occur under highly restrained conditions. It is often necessary to use matching filler metals to maintain corrosion resistance but a non-matching, two phase, filler will reduce the cracking risk. Two phase alloys are more easily welded. For both types, preheating and interpass temperatures should be restricted to prevent cracking.

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Cupro-nickels Cupro-nickel alloys contain between 5 and 30% nickel with specific alloys having additions of iron and manganese; 90/10 and 70/30 (Cu/Ni) alloys are commonly welded grades. These alloys are single phase and generally considered to be readily weldable using inert gas processes and, to a lesser extent, SMAW. A matching filler is normally used but 70/30 (C18) is often regarded as a 'universal' filler for these alloys. As the thermal conductivity of cupro-nickel alloys is similar to low carbon steels, preheating is not required. Avoiding Weld Imperfections As the alloys do not contain deoxidants, autogenous welding is not recommended because of porosity. Filler metal compositions contain titanium, typically 0.2 to 0.5%, to prevent weld metal porosity. Argon shielding gas is normally used for both GTAW and GMAW but in GTAW welding, an argon-H2 mixture, with appropriate filler, improves weld pool fluidity and produces a cleaner weld bead. Gas backing (usually argon) is recommended, especially in pipe welding, to produce an oxide-free underbead.

Welding of nickel and nickel alloys

The alloys can be grouped according to the principal alloying elements. Although there are National and International designations for the alloys, trade names such as Inconel and Hastelloy are more commonly used. In terms of their weldability, these alloys can be classified according to the means by which the alloying elements develop the mechanical properties, namely solid solution alloys and precipitation hardened alloys. A distinguishing feature of precipitation hardened alloys is that mechanical properties are developed by heat treatment (solution treatment plus ageing) to produce a fine distribution of hard particles in a nickel rich matrix. Solid solution alloys Solid solution alloys are Nickel 200, Monel alloy 400 series, Inconel alloy 600 series, Incoloy alloy 800 series, Hastelloys and some Nimonic alloys (such as 75, and PE13). These alloys are readily fusion welded, normally in the annealed condition. As the heat affected zone (HAZ) does not harden, heat treatment is not usually required after welding. Precipitation hardening alloys Precipitation hardened alloys are the Monel alloy 500 series, Inconel alloy 700 series, Incoloy alloy 900 series and most of the Nimonic alloys (such as 80,90,263 and PE16). These alloys may susceptible to post-weld heat treatment cracking.

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Weldability Most nickel alloys can be fusion welded using gas shielded processes like GTAW or GMAW. Of the flux processes, SMAW is frequently used but the SAW process is restricted to solid solution alloys (Nickel 200, Inconel alloy 600 series and Monel alloy 400 series) and is less widely used. Solid solution alloys are normally welded in the annealed condition and precipitation hardened alloys in the solution treated condition. Preheating is not necessary unless there is a risk of porosity from moisture condensation. It is recommended that material containing residual stresses be solution-treated before welding to relieve the stresses. Post-weld heat treatment is not usually needed to restore corrosion resistance but thermal treatment may be required for precipitation hardening or stress relieving purposes to avoid stress corrosion cracking. Filler alloys Filler composition normally matches the parent metal. However, most fillers contain a small mount of titanium, aluminium and/or niobium to help minimise the risk of porosity and cracking. Imperfections and Degradation Nickel and its alloys are readily welded but it is essential that the surface is cleaned immediately before welding. The normal method of cleaning is to degrease the surface, remove all surface oxide by machining, grinding or scratch brushing and finally degrease. Common imperfections found on welding are: Porosity oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion weld metal solidification cracking microfissuring

Additionally, precautions should be taken against post-welding imperfections such as: post-weld heat treatment cracking stress corrosion cracking

Porosity Porosity can be caused by oxygen and nitrogen from air entrainment and surface oxide or by hydrogen from surface contamination. Careful cleaning of component surfaces and using a filler material containing deoxidants (aluminium and titanium) will reduce the risk. When using argon in GTAW and GMAW welding, attention must be paid to shielding efficiency of the weld pool including the use of a gas backing system. In GTAW

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welding, argon-H2 gas mixtures which provide a slightly reducing atmosphere are particularly effective. Oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion As the oxide on the surface of nickel alloys has a much higher melting temperature than the base metal, it may remain solid during welding. Oxide trapped in the weld pool will form inclusions. In multi-run welds, oxide or slag on the surface of the weld bead will not be consumed in the subsequent run and will cause lack of fusion imperfections. Before welding, surface oxide, particularly if it has been formed at a high temperature, must be removed by machining or abrasive grinding; it is not sufficient to wire brush the surface as this serve only to polish the oxide. During welding, surface oxide and slag must be removed between runs. Weld metal solidification cracking Weld metal or hot cracking results from contaminants concentrating at the centreline and an unfavourable weld pool profile. Too high a welding speed produces a shallow weld pool, which encourages impurities to concentrate at the centreline and, on solidification, generates sufficiently large transverse stresses to form cracks. Careful cleaning of the joint area and avoiding high welding speeds can reduce this risk. Microfissuring Similar to austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys are susceptible to formation of liquation cracks in reheated weld metal regions or parent metal HAZ. This type of cracking is controlled by factors outside the control of the welder such as grain size or content impurity. Some alloys are more sensitive than others. For example, the extensively studied Inconel 718 is now less sensitive than some cast super-alloys, which cannot be welded without inducing liquation cracks. Post-weld heat treatment cracking This is also known as strain-age or reheating cracks. It is likely to occur during postweld ageing of precipitation hardening alloys but can be minimised by pre-weld heat treatment. Solution annealing is commonly used but over-ageing gives the most resistant condition. Inconel 718 alloy was specifically developed to be resistant to this type of cracking. Stress corrosion cracking Welding does not normally make nickel alloys susceptible to weld metal or HAZ corrosion. However, when the material will be in contact with caustic soda, fluosilicates or HF acid, stress corrosion cracking is possible. After welding, the component or weld area must be given a stress-relieving heat treatment to prevent stress corrosion cracking.

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Welding of titanium and titanium alloy

Titanium is a unique material, as strong as steel but half its weight with excellent corrosion resistance. Traditional applications are in the aerospace and chemical industries. More recently, especially as the cost of titanium has fallen significantly, the alloys are finding greater use in other industry sectors, such as offshore. The various types of titanium alloys are identified and guidance given on welding processes and techniques employed in fabricating components without impairing their corrosion, oxidation and mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld. Alloy groupings There are basically three types of alloys distinguished by their microstructure: Titanium - Commercially pure (98 to 99.5% Ti) or strengthened by small additions of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and iron. The alloys are readily fusion weldable. Alpha Alloys - These are largely single-phase alloys containing up to 7% aluminium and a small amount (< 0.3%) of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. The alloys are fusion welded in the annealed condition. Alpha-Beta Alloys - These have a characteristic two-phase microstructure formed by the addition of up to 6% aluminium and varying amounts of beta forming constituents vanadium, chromium and molybdenum. The alloys are readily welded in the annealed condition. Alloys which contain a large amount of the beta phase, such as chromium, are not easily welded. Commonly used alloys are listed in Table 1 with the appropriate ASTM grade, the internationally recognised designation. In the industry, the most widely welded titanium alloys are the commercially pure grades and variants of the 6%Al and 4% V alloy which is regarded as the standard aircraft alloy. Table 3 Commonly used titanium alloys and the recommended filler material ASTM Grade 1 2 4 7 9 5 23 25 Composition Ti-0.15O2 Ti-0.20 O2 Ti-0.35 O2 Ti-0.20 O2-0.2Pd Ti-3Al-2.5V Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6Al-4V ELI Ti-6Al-4V-0.06Pd UTS (min) MPa 240 340 550 340 615 900 900 900 Filler ERTi-1 ERTi-2 ERTi-4 ERTi-7 ERTi-9 ERTi-5ELI ERTi-5ELI Matching Comments Commercially pure Commercially pure Commercially pure Commercially pure Tube components Aircraft alloy Low interstitials Corrosion grade

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Filler alloys Titanium and its alloys can be welded using a matching filler composition; compositions are given in The American Welding Society specification AWS A5.16 recommended filler wires for the commonly used titanium alloys are also given in Table 3. When welding higher strength grades of unalloyed titanium or titanium alloys; fillers of a lower strength are sometimes used to achieve adequate weld metal ductility. For example, an unalloyed filler ERTi-2 can be used to weld Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-5Al-2.5Sn alloys in order to of balancing weldability, strength and formability requirements. Weld imperfections This material and its alloys are readily fusion welded providing suitable precautions are taken. GTAW and plasma processes, with argon or argon-helium shielding gas, are used for welding thin section components, typically <10mm. Welding without filler material addition can be used for a section thickness of <3mm with GTAW, or <6mm with plasma. Pulsed GMAW is preferred to dip transfer GMAW because of the lower spatter level. The most likely imperfections in fusion welds are: Weld metal porosity Embrittlement Contamination cracking

Weld metal porosity Weld metal porosity is the most frequent weld defect. As gas solubility is significantly less in the solid phase, porosity arises when the gas is trapped between dendrites during solidification. In titanium, hydrogen from moisture in the arc environment or contamination on the filler and parent metal surface is the most likely cause of porosity. It is essential that the joint and surrounding surface areas are cleaned by first degreasing either by steam, solvent, alkaline or vapour degreasing. Any surface oxide should then be removed by pickling (HF-HNO3 solution), light grinding or scratch brushing with a clean, stainless steel wire brush. On no account should an ordinary steel brush be used. After wiping with a lint-free cloth, care should be taken not to touch the surface before welding. GTAW welding of thin section components, the joint area should be drymachined to produce a smooth surface finish. Normally, there is no solidification cracking or hydrogen cracking.

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Embrittlement Embrittlement can be caused by weld metal contamination by either gas absorption or by dissolving contaminants such as dust (iron particles) on the surface. At temperatures above 500 oC, titanium has a very high affinity for oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen.

The weld pool, heat affected zone and cooling weld bead must be protected from oxidation by an inert gas shield (argon or helium). The root side and the cap side of the weld must be protected against the atmosphere as long as the weld has a temperature above 450 oC. This is provided by using a trailing shoe with gas shield, which have to be purposely designed for the actual work, pipe diameter etc. Heat input and welding speed must be adjusted to prevent oxidation. When oxidation occurs, the thin layer of surface oxide generates an interference colour. The colour can indicate whether the shielding was adequate or an unacceptable degree of contamination has occurred. A silver or straw colour shows satisfactory gas shielding was achieved but for certain service conditions, light blue may be acceptable. Where the weld metal and HAZ gets a not glossy dark blue, grey and white colours it shows an unacceptable level of oxygen contamination. For small components, an efficient gas shield can be achieved by welding in a totally enclosed chamber, filled with the shielding gas. It is recommended that before welding, the arc is struck on a scrap pieces of titanium, termed 'titanium-getters', to remove oxygen from the atmosphere; the oxygen level should be reduced to <20ppm before welding the actual component. In tube welding, a fully enclosed head is equally effective in shielding the weld area and is be preferable to orbital welding equipment in which the gas nozzle must be rotated around the tube. When welding out in the open, the torch is fitted with a trailing shield to protect the hot weld bead whilst cooling. The size and shape of the shield is determined by the joint profile whilst its length will be influenced by welding current and travel speed. It is essential in 'open air' welding that the underside of the joint is protected from oxidation. For straight runs, a grooved bar is used with argon gas blown on to the joint. In tube and pipe welding, normal gas purging techniques are appropriate.

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Contamination Cracking If iron particles are present on the component surface, they dissolve in the weld metal reducing corrosion resistance and, at sufficiently high iron content, causing embrittlement. Iron particles are equally detrimental in the HAZ where local melting of the particles form pockets of titanium - iron eutectic. Microcracking may occur but it is more likely that the iron-rich pockets will become preferential sites for corrosion. Particular attention should be paid to separating titanium from steel fabrications, preferably by designating an especially reserved clean area. Welders should guard against embedding steel particles into the surface of the material by: Avoiding steel fabrication operations near titanium components. Covering components to avoid airborne dust particles settling on the surface Not using tools, including wire brushes, previously used for steel Scratch brushing the joint area immediately before welding Not handling the cleaned component with dirty gloves.

To avoid corrosion cracking, and minimise the risk of embrittlement through iron contamination, it is best practice to fabrication titanium in an especially reserved clean area.

Welding on primer
Application of (weldable) shop primers is normal practice in the ship building industry. The intention is to achieve sufficient corrosion protection of the steel surface during the fabrication phase without adversely affecting the weldability. For DNV classed objects, Type Approved shop primers are to be used. The typical problems seen from welding on primers is formation of weld metal porosity in fillet welds. The porosity is normally caused by gas developed when the shop primer is exposed to the heat generated from the welding process. Shop primed present in the gap between the two members to be welded is developing gas, which tries to escape by entering into the weld pool. When welding double-sided fillet welding the porosity is normally seen when the second side is welded. When welding the first side the gas may escape through the gap but when the second side is welded the gas may be trapped between the weld pool and the already solidified first pass. The most severe condition is where the first and second side is welded almost simultaneously which generates the highest temperature and subsequent highest gas volume. The situation is adversely affected by increasing shop primer thickness, by applying preheating and by using a welding process with high welding speed, i.e. submerged arc welding (SAW) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW). The porosity may be seen as gas bobbles forced into the molten weld metal which already has started to freeze from the sides. Flux cored wires developed for all welding positions (slag system with high freezing temperature) will normally be more prone to porosity (trapped gas bobbles) compared with wires developed of flat position only. If testing is to be performed to verify absence of porosity this may be performed on a double fillet weld applying no gap between the members and welding at high welding speed. Mechanical testing should consist of brake test as specified by AWS D1.1. Test

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requirements are also specified in DNV Type Approval program for weldable shop primers. Low-zinc primers are considered to give less porosity than zinc-rich primers.

Two run welding

Two run welding normally means welding one run from one side, turning the plate and completing the welding with one run from the opposite side of the plate. Submerged arc welding (SAW, solid or cored wire) may be applied for two run welding, sometimes also utilising multiple wires (tandem welding) or iron powder addition. Unless temporary backing is applied this technique applies a weld bevel preparation having a root face of sufficient size to prevent burn trough when welding the first side but small enough to achieve full penetration welding when welding from the second side. For this welding technique it is important to be aware of the ability to achieve good penetration (which is critical for achieving full penetration welding). Burn through is critical in the starting point where the current (amp) on the welding machine may rise from zero to a peak, before the arc is stabilised. The achieved weld penetration just after start is depending on the applied welding parameters/welding speed and the self-generated pre heat, which is accumulation around the weld pool. Due to allowable variations in heat input and plate thickness the penetration will vary just after starting and before sufficient pre heating is applied. It is therefore considered as good workmanship to back gauge and perform manual welding for the first 300-400 mm of the weld. Ultrasonic testing may not necessary detects areas where full penetration welding is not achieved (lack of wetting). It should also be noted that two-run welding might have other essential variables for thickness range compared with normal multi-run welding. DNV Rules and ISO 15614-1 give a qualified thickness range of 0.5t 1.1t.

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Qualification of welders
Welder qualifications
EN and ISO standards have been implemented for welder qualification testing. Separate qualification requirements are normally required for each individual welding position, type of joint (butt/fillet), process, materials grade and plate/pipe dimension. Compared with ASME IX (piping and pressure vessel) and AWS D1.1 (structural), EN 287-1:2004 and EN ISO 9606 standards are considered to require a higher number of qualifications due to smaller qualification range. 1 Qualification test of welders - Fusion welding Part 1: Steels (EN 287-1, 2004) Qualification test of welders - Fusion welding Part 2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys (ISO 9606-2:2004) Approval testing of welders - Fusion welding Part 3: Copper and copper alloys (ISO 9606-3:1999) Approval testing of welders - Fusion welding Part 4: Nickel and nickel alloys (ISO 9606-4:1999) Approval testing of welders - Fusion welding Part 5: Titanium and titanium alloys, zirconium and zirconium alloys (ISO 9606-5:2000) Welding - Guidelines for a metallic materials grouping system (ISO/TR 15608:2000)

The same standards are issued as EN ISO standard 9606 part 2 to 5. Please observe that grouping of metallic materials are based of same standard, regardless it is for welders qualification or for welding procedure qualifications.

Welding

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