Human spaceflight

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Human spaceflight (or manned spaceflight or crewed spaceflight) is space travel with humans aboard spacecraft. When a spacecraft is manned, it can be piloted directly, as opposed to machine or robotic space probes controlled remotely by humans or through automatic methods on board the spacecraft. Humans have been continually present in space for 12 years and 302 days on the International Space Station. The first manned spaceflight was launched by the Soviet Union on April 12, 1961 as a part of the Vostok program, with cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin aboard. Currently, only Russia and China maintain human spaceflight capability independent of international cooperation. As of 2013, human spaceflights are only launched by the Soyuz program conducted by the Russian Federal Space Agency and the Shenzhou program conducted by the China National Space Administration. The United States lost human spaceflight launch capability upon retirement of the space shuttle in 2011. In recent years there has been a gradual movement towards more commercial means of spaceflight. The first private human spaceflight took place on June 21, 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. A number of non-governmental startup companies have sprung up, hoping to create a space tourism industry. NASA has also tried to stimulate private spaceflight through programs such as Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) and Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS). With its 2011 budget proposals released in 2010,[1] the Obama administration moved towards a model where commercial companies would supply NASA with transportation services of both crew and cargo to low Earth orbit. The vehicles used for these services would then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. NASA intended to spend $6 billion in the coming years to develop commercial crew vehicles, using a model similar to that used under COTS.[2]

The Earth at night and a person inside the ISS Cupola

Orbital human spacef light

Contents
1 History 1.1 First human spaceflights 1.2 Post-shuttle gap in United States human spaceflight capability 2 Space programs 3 National spacefaring attempts 4 Safety concerns 4.1 Life support 4.2 Medical issues 4.2.1 Effects of microgravity 4.2.2 Radiation 4.2.2.1 Radiation damage to the immune system 4.2.3 Isolation 4.3 Launch safety 4.4 Reentry safety 4.5 Reliability 4.6 Fatality risk 5 See also 6 References 7 External links 8 Literature

Name Vostok Mercury Voskhod Gemini Soyuz Apollo/Skylab Shuttle Shenzhou Name Mercury X-15 SpaceShipOne

De but 1961 1962 1964 1965 1967 1968 1981 2003 De but 1961 1962 2004

Launche s 6 4 2 10 118 15 135 5 Flights 2 13 or 2 2 3

Suborbital human spacef light

(Soyuz 18a, Soyuz T -10-1) 1975, 1983

History
Main article: History of spaceflight

First human spaceflights

The first human spaceflight took place on April 12, 1961, when cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made one orbit around the Earth aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft, launched by the Soviet space program. Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space aboard Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963. Both spacecraft were launched by Vostok 3KA launch vehicles. Alexei Leonov made the first spacewalk when he left Voskhod 2 on March 8, 1965. Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to do so on July 25, 1984. The United States became the second nation to achieve manned spaceflight with the suborbital flight of astronaut Alan Shepard aboard Freedom 7 as part of Project Mercury. The spacecraft was launched on May 5, 1961 on a Redstone rocket. The first U.S. orbital flight was that of John Glenn aboard Friendship 7, launched February 20, 1962 on an Atlas rocket. From 1981 to 2011, the U.S. conducted all its human spaceflight missions with reusable space shuttles. Sally Ride became the first American woman in space in 1983. Eileen Collins was the first female shuttle pilot, and with shuttle mission STS-93 in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft. China became the third nation to achieve human spaceflight when Yang Liwei launched into space on a Chinese-made vehicle, the Shenzhou 5, on October 15, 2003. The flight also made China the third nation to have launched its own manned spacecraft using its own launcher. The first Chinese woman, Liu Yang, was launched in June 2012 aboard Shenzhou 9. Previous European (Hermes) and Japanese (HOPE-X) domestic manned programs were abandoned after years of development, as was the first Chinese attempt, the Shuguang spacecraft.

The farthest destination for a human spaceflight mission has been the Moon. The only manned missions to the Moon have been those conducted by NASA as part of the Apollo program. The first such mission, Apollo 8, orbited the Moon but did not land. The first Moon landing mission was Apollo 11, during whichon July 20, 1969Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first people to set foot on the Moon. Six missions landed in total, numbered Apollo 1117, excluding Apollo 13. Altogether 12 men walked on the Moon, the only humans to have been on an extraterrestrial body. The Soviet Union discontinued its program for lunar orbiting and landing of human spaceflight missions in 1974 when Valentin Glushko became General Designer of NPO Energiya.[3] The longest single human spaceflight is that of Valeriy Polyakov, who left Earth on January 8, 1994, and did not return until March 22, 1995 (a total of 437 days 17 hr. 58 min. 16 sec.). Sergei Krikalyov has spent the most time of anyone in space, 803 days, 9 hours, and 39 seconds altogether. The longest period of continuous human presence in space is 12 years and 302 days on the International Space Station, exceeding the previous record of almost 10 years (or 3,634 days) held by Mir, spanning the launch of Soyuz TM-8 on September 5, 1989 to the landing of Soyuz TM-29 on August 28, 1999. For many years beginning in 1961, only two countries, the USSR (later Russia) and the United States, had their own astronauts. Citizens of other nations flew in space, beginning with the flight of Vladimir Remek, a Czech, on a Soviet spacecraft on March 2, 1978. As of 2010, citizens from 38 nations (including space tourists) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft.

Yuri Gagarin, the first person in space, 1961

Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman cosmonaut, 1963

Buzz Aldrin on the surface of the Moon during Apollo 11, 1969

Post-shuttle gap in United States human spaceflight capability

Under the Bush administration, the Constellation Program included plans for canceling the Shuttle and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the 2011 United States federal budget, the Obama administration proposed canceling Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.[4] Under a new plan, NASA would rely on transportation services provided by the private sector, such as Space X's Falcon 9. The period between the retirement of the shuttle and the initial operational capability of new systems, similar to the gap between the end of Apollo and the first space shuttle flight, is referred to as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.

Space programs
As of 2013, human spaceflight missions have been conducted by the former Soviet Union/Russian Federation, the United States, the People's Republic of China and by private spaceflight company Scaled Composites. The United States lost their human spaceflight agenda when the Space Shuttle program ended on August 2011. Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs by their own technology, including India (ISRO), Japan (JAXA), Iran (ISA) and Malaysia (MNSA). Currently the following spacecraft and spaceports are used for launching human spaceflights: Soyuz with Soyuz rocketBaikonur Cosmodrome International Space Station (ISS)Assembled in orbit; crews transported by Soyuz spacecraft Shenzhou spacecraft with Long March rocketJiuquan Satellite Launch Center Tiangong-1crews transported by Shenzhou spacecraft Historically, the following spacecraft and spaceports have also been used for human spaceflight launches: VostokBaikonur Cosmodrome MercuryCape Canaveral Air Force Station VoskhodBaikonur Cosmodrome X-15Edwards Air Force Base,[5] (two internationally recognized suborbital flights in program) GeminiCape Canaveral Air Force Station ApolloKennedy Space Center (Apollo 7 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station) Salyut space stationBaikonur Cosmodrome Almaz space stationBaikonur Cosmodrome (Almaz was a series of military space stations under cover of the civilian name Salyut) Skylab space stationKennedy Space Center Mir space stationBaikonur Cosmodrome SpaceShipOne with White KnightMojave Spaceport Space ShuttleKennedy Space Center
Countries that have had human spaceflight agendas (dark blue)

International Space Station under construction Mir orbiting the Earth, a former space station where many human spaceflight records were achieved

Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million Ansari X Prize. The first private human spaceflight took place on June 21, 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. SpaceShipOne captured the prize on October 4, 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week. SpaceShipTwo, launching from the carrier aircraft White Knight Two, is planned to conduct regular suborbital space tourism. Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, whose crew of six spends up to six months at a time in low Earth orbit. NASA and ESA now use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. Traditionally, these endeavors have been referred to as "manned space missions."

National spacefaring attempts

This section list all nations which have the technologies to travel into space. This should not to be confused with nations with citizens who have traveled into space including space tourists, flown or intended to fly by foreign country's or non-domestic private space systems these are not counted as national spacefaring attempts in this list.
Term(s) for space human (Russian) kosmonavt cosmonaut astronaut spaceflight participant astronaut spaceflight participant (Chinese) yhngyun (Chinese) hngtinyun taikonaut First launched astronaut Yuri Gagarin April 12, 1961

Nation/Organization Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (19221991) United States of America United States of America

Space agency

Date

Spacecraft Launcher

Type

Soviet space program (OKB-1 Design Bureau) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Vostok spacecraft Mercury spacecraft Mercury spacecraft

Vostok

Orbital

Alan Shepard May 5, 1961 (suborbital) John Glenn (orbital)

Redstone

Suborbital

February 20, 1962

Atlas LV3B

Orbital

People's Republic Space program of the People's Republic of China of China

...

1973 (abandoned)

Shuguang 1

Long March 2A

People's Republic Space program of the of China People's Republic of China European Space Agency CNES / European Space Agency (ESA)

(Chinese) yhngyun (Chinese) hngtinyun spationaute (French) astronaut ( Arabic) rajul fa ( Arabic) rib fa ( Arabic) mall faiy

...

1981 (abandoned)

Piloted FSW

Long March 2

...

1992 (abandoned)

Hermes

Ariane V

Ba'athist Iraq (1968-2003)[6]

...

...

2001 (abandoned)

...

Tammouz 2 or 3

State of Japan

National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)

(Japanese) uchhikshi or ... astoronoto (Chinese) tikng rn (Chinese) yhngyun (Chinese) hngtinyun

2003 (abandoned)

HOPE-X

H-II

People's Republic China National Space Administration (CNSA) of China

Yang Liwei

October 15, 2003

Shenzhou spacecraft

Long Orbital March 2F

Republic of India

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

vyomanaut gaganaut aakashagaami : (Sanskrit) ... brahmndagaami : (Sanskrit) antarikshyaatri : (Sanskrit) ( Persian) kayhan navard [8] ...

after 2017 [7]

Orbital Vehicle (OV)

GSLV Mk II

Islamic Republic of Iran European Space Agency

Iranian Space Agency (ISA)

2017 (planned)[9][10]

ISA manned spacecraft

...

European Space Agency (ESA)

astronaut

...

2020 (approved conceptually but full ARV phasedevelopment not Ariane V 2 [11][12][13][14] begun) 2025 (planned)[citation needed] HTV-based H-IIB spacecraft

State of Japan

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)

(Japanese) uchhikshi or ... astoronoto

Safety concerns
See also: Space habitat and Effect of spaceflight on the human body Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.

Life support
Main article: Life support system The immediate needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the life support system of the spacecraft. See also: Astronautical hygiene

Medical issues
See also: Space medicine Medical consequences such as possible blindness and bone loss have been associated with human space flight.[15] On December 31, 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that manned spaceflight may harm the brain of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.[16][17][18] Effects of microgravity See also: Weightlessness Medical data from astronauts in low earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of bone density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these deconditioning effects can impair astronauts performance or increase their risk of injury.[19] In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back muscles or leg muscles used for standing up. Those muscles then start to weaken and eventually get smaller. If there is an emergency at landing, the loss of muscles, and consequently the loss of strength can be a serious problem. Sometimes, astronauts can lose up to 25% of their muscle mass on long term flights. When they get back to ground, they will be considerably weakened and will be out of action for a

while.[citation needed ] Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get motion sickness, and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, or any other mass with gravity, they have to readjust to the gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. Importantly, those body motor disturbances after changing from different gravities only get worse the longer the exposure to little gravity.[citation needed ] These changes will affect operational activities including approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may happen while landing. This can be a major roadblock to mission success.[citation needed ] In addition, after long space flight missions, male astronauts may experience severe eyesight problems.[20][21][22][23][24] Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a manned mission to the planet Mars.[20][21][22][23] Radiation Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by solar flares. Lawrence Townsend of the University of Tennessee and others have studied the most powerful solar flare ever recorded. That flare was seen by the British astronomer Richard Carrington in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type flare could cause acute radiation sickness and possibly even death.[25] Another type of radiation, galactic cosmic rays, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond LEO.[26] See also: Health threat from cosmic rays
Radiation damage to the immune system

Bruce McCandless floating free in orbit with a space suit and Manned Maneuvering Unit.

There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the bodys ability to protect itself against diseases.[27] Some of the problems are a weakened immune system and the activation of dormant viruses in the body. Radiation can cause both short and long term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.[citation needed ] Isolation During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined into small spaces. Depression, cabin fever and other psychological problems may impact the crew's safety and mission success.[citation needed ] Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on their limited existing resources and medical advice from the ground.
The International Space Station

Launch safety
See also: Space launch and Pad abort test

Reentry safety
See also: Atmospheric reentry

Reliability
See also: Reliability engineering

Fatality risk
See also: Space accidents and incidents#Spaceflight fatalities As of 2010, 18 crew members have died during actual spaceflight missions (see table). Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight missions or testing. #of Year 1967 1971 1986 2003 Deaths 1 3 7 7 Mission Soyuz 1 Soyuz 11 Trauma from crash landing Asphyxia Known or likely cause

Space Shuttle Challenger Inconclusive asphyxia from cabin breach or trauma from water impact are most probable causes[28] Space Shuttle Columbia Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from object impact, or burns from re-entry heat[citation needed ]

See also

List of spaceflight records List of human spaceflights Mars to Stay Space medicine

Part of a series on Spaceflight

References
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History Space Race Timeline of spaceflight Applications Earth observation satellites Spy satellites Communications satellites Satellite navigation Space observatory Space exploration Space colonization Space tourism Spacecraft Robotic spacecraft (Satellite Space probe Unmanned resupply spacecraft) Human spaceflight (Space capsule Space station Spaceplane) Launch Spaceport Launch pad Expendable and Reusable systems Escape velocity Non-rocket spacelaunch Destinations Sub-orbital Orbital Interplanetary spaceflight Interstellar travel Intergalactic travel Space agencies ESA NASA RKA CNES DLR ISA CNSA ISRO JAXA Private Spaceflight SpaceX Orbital Technologies Virgin Galactic Planetary Resources Golden Spike Rocketplane Kistler Spaceflight portal This box: view talk edit (//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Spaceflight_sidebar&action=edit)

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(http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html). NASA Watch. Retrieved January 7, 2013. ^ "Exploration Systems Human Research Program Exercise Countermeasures" (http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/E xercise/). NASA. ^ a b Mader, T. H. et al. (2011). "Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight" (http://www.ophsource.org/periodicals/ophtha/article/S01616420(11)00564-1/abstractOph). Ophthalmology (journal) 118 (10): 20582069. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2011.06.021). PMID 21849212 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21849212). ^ a b Puiu, Tibi (November 9, 2011). "Astronauts vision severely affected during long space missions" (http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesightdamage-weightlessness-3214143/). zmescience.com. Retrieved February 9, 2012. ^ a b News (CNN-TV, 02/09/2012) Video (02:14) Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems (http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkgzarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN) ^ a b Space Staff (13 March 2012). "Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests" (http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-visionproblems.html). Space.com. Retrieved 14 March 2012. ^ Kramer, Larry A. et al. (13 March 2012). "Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging" (http://radiology.rsna.org/content/early/2012/03/07/radiol.12111 986.abstract?sid=8682af1e-b07f-4ad9-8453-ee319bad639e). Radiology (journal). doi:10.1148/radiol.12111986 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1148%2Fradiol.12111986). Retrieved 14 March 2012. ^ Battersby, Stephen (21 March 2005). "Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts" (http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142). New Scientist. ^ Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration (http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php? record_id=11760). NAP. 2006. ISBN 0-309-10264-2. ^ Gueguinou, N.; Huin-Schohn, C.; Bascove, M.; Bueb, J.-L.; Tschirhart, E.; Legrand-Frossi, C.; Frippiat, J.-P. (2009). "Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit". Journal of Leukocyte Biology 86 (5): 10271038. doi:10.1189/jlb.0309167 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1189%2Fjlb.0309167). PMID 19690292 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19690292). ^ "Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident" (http://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html). Retrieved 8 February 2012.

External links
NASA Human Space Flight (http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/) Official Constellation NASA Web Site (http://www.nasa.gov/constellation) Official Orion NASA Web Site (http://www.nasa.gov/orion) Official Ares NASA Web Site (http://www.nasa.gov/ares) Human Spaceflight Profile (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight) by NASA's Solar System Exploration (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov) Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program (http://www.nasaconstellation.com) U.S. Spaceflight History (http://www.spaceflighthistory.com)

Literature
David Darling: The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, ISBN 0-471-05649-9. Wiley J. Larson (Hrsg.): Human spaceflight mission analysis and design. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, ISBN 0-07-236811-X. Donald Rapp: Human missions to Mars enabling technologies for exploring the red planet . Springer u. a., Berlin u. a. 2008, ISBN 978-3-540-729389. Haeuplik-Meusburger: Architecture for Astronauts - An Activity based Approach. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, ISBN 978-3-7091-0666-2 Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&oldid=570920070" Categories: Human spaceflight Space policy Life in space

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