In defence of the passive voice

GeoffreyMarnell Infactualwriting,plainEnglishisgoodEnglish. That,onthefaceofit,isincontrovertible.Soitis worthyofattentionwhenThePlainEnglish FoundationinAustraliatellsusthatplainEnglishis writingthatpreferstheactivevoiceoverthepassive.1 Theactivevoicehasindeedbecomethevoice recommendedincontemporarylanguagemanuals, includingthosethatgiveadvicetotechnicalwriters:

Usetheactivevoice.2 Wherepossible,documentationdevelopersshould usetheactivevoice.3

Thesubjectistheerror,theverbiswasfoundandthe personorthingthatdidthefinding(thechief technician)isnotthesubjectofthesentence. Wheretheagentisnotmentionedatall,thesentence isintheagentlesspassivevoice: [3]Theerrorwasfound. So,wheretheagentisthesubjectwehaveanactive sentence,andwheretheagentisnotthesubject,or notmentionedatall,wehaveapassivesentence. Thatisthecommonviewofactiveandpassivevoice. Linguists,however,haveatighterdefinition:the passivevoiceischaracterisedbyaperiphrasticverb thatcombinesanauxiliaryverb(suchaswas,were, got,etc.)andapastparticiple(found,eaten,questioned, etc.).Sentencesorclauseswithoutanauxiliaryverb andpastparticiplearenecessarilyactive.ThusThe cakeswereeatenbythestudentsispassiveandThe studentsatethecakesisactive.Inmostcases,the commonviewandthelinguistsviewcoincide. However,thelinguistsviewallowstheretobeactive sentenceswithoutagents. Finally,voiceisapropertyofverbs,althoughweoften seesentencesorclausesreferredtoasactiveorpassive. Whereasentencehasonlyoneverb,itisrelatively harmlesstocallthesentenceactiveorpassive.Buta sentencemayhavemorethanoneverbandtheymay differinvoice.Onemightcallthesesentencesof mixedvoice,yetthepresenceofapassiveverbina multiverbsentenceisusuallysufficientforlinguists tocallsuchasentenceapassivesentence.

Technicalwritersseemtohaveadoptedthisadvice withenthusiasmperhapsalittletoomuch enthusiasm.Forthereisaplaceforthepassivevoice, evenintechnicalwriting.

What is voice?
Acommondefinitionofactiveandpassivevoice andonethatcoversmostcasesisonethattiesvoice totherelationshipbetweenagentandsubject.In simpleterms,thesubjectofasentenceiswhateveris beingsingledoutfordiscussion.PamPeters EmeritusProfessorofLinguisticsatMacquarie Universitydescribesitasthepersonorthing whichoperatestheverb.4Tofindthesubject,simply locatetheverbinthesentenceandmakeitthefocus ofawhoorwhatquestion: [1]Thedogsbarkedloudly.[verb=barked;whoor whatbarked?Thedogs.] [2]Theerrorwasfoundbythechieftechnician. [verb =wasfound;whoorwhatwasfound?The error.]5 Inanactivesentence,thepersonorthingthatdoes theactionexpressedbytheverbthatis,theagent is,ingeneral,thesubjectofthesentence.Inapassive sentence,thepersonorthingthatdoestheaction expressedbytheverbisnotmentionedinthesubject. Thusexample[1]aboveisanactivesentence.The subjectisthedogs,theverbisbarkedandthepersonor thingthatdidthebarking(thedogs)happensalsoto bethesubjectofthesentence.Example[2]ispassive.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Seehttp://www.plainenglishfoundation.com/ WhatisplainEnglish/tabid/3058/Default.aspx.Viewed8June 2009. MRoze,Technicalcommunication:Thepracticalcraft,Prentice Hall,3rdedn,1997,p.25. ISO/IEC26514(2008):Systemsandsoftwareengineering Requirementsfordesignersanddevelopersofuserdocumentation. PamPeters,TheCambridgeguidetoAustralianEnglishusage, CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge(UK).,2ndedn,2007, p.767. Inlinguistics,wasfoundiscalledaperiphrasticverb,onethatis madeupofanauxiliaryverbandaparticiple:was[auxiliary verb]+found[pastparticipleoffind].

Why worry about passive voice?

Forastart,technicalwritersdisposedtowardsthe activevoicecanlimittheirworry,formuchofwhat theywritenamely,proceduralstepshas traditionallybeenexpressedintheactivevoice.For example: EntertheASICcode. Replacethecrossovertube. Onthefaceofit,suchimperativesdonotlooklike activesentencesastheyhavenostatedsubject.But imperativessuchasthesehaveanimpliedsubject, namely,thepersontowhomtheyareaddressed. ThusEntertheASICcodeisshorthandforYoucan(or should)nowentertheASICcode,withyoubeingthe subject.Sointerpreted,thesubjectisclearlythe agent,andthussuchimperativesexpresstheactive voice.Moreover,proceduralsteps,astraditionally expressed,donothaveaperiphrasticverb comprisinganauxiliaryandapastparticiple,and thuslinguistswouldclassifythemasactive.

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Buttechnicalwriterswritemorethanjustcommands, soitisworthwhileconsideringobjectionsthathave beenraisedtothepassivevoice.Themostprominent oftheseappeartobethatthepassivevoice:

Byretainingallthebloatandformalitypresentin passivesentence[5],sentence[7],althoughactive,is nolessuglythansentence[5]. Sothepassivevoicehasnomonopolyontortuous language.

isinelegant,evenugly isnotournaturalvoice canleadtoambiguity canunintentionallychangethefocusofa sentence isdullandmonotonous

Active is our natural voice

JohnKirkmanclaimsthattheactivevoiceisour naturalvoiceandthusshouldbeourpreference.3 Kirkmancallsthesubjectverbobjectorder normalinEnglish,buthemakesitclearthatby subjecthemeanstheactororagent.(Thisisnotthe sameasthegrammaticalsubjectdiscussedon page 3.)Evenso,Kirkmanisdismissingasnotnormal agooddealofstandardEnglish,suchasquestions andstatementsbeginningwiththeexistentialthere: Areyoualreadyathome?[question] Therearefivecasesalreadypacked.[statement beginningwiththeexistentialthere] Thesesentencesarenormalsentences,despitethem notbeinginthesubjectverbobjectorder.

What is wrong with the passive voice? Apparently its downright ugly.
InarecentpaperonplainEnglish,DrNeilJames,the executivedirectorofPlainEnglishFoundationin Australia,statesthatthepassivevoicecanreduce precisionandclarityandincreasethedemandson readersincomprehendingatext.1Toshowthe differencebetweentheactiveandpassive,heusesthe followingexample:
[4]Ithinkyoucanfundthisprojectfromyour existingbudget.

IsuspectthatKirkmanisreally onlyclaimingthatsentencesin Thissentenceisintheactive theactivevoicearemore The passive voice has no monopoly on voice,andJamesgoesonto commonthansentencesinthe tortuous language. givewhatheclaimstobethe passive.Andthatistrue.But passiveequivalentofit: howimportantisthatin deciding what voice toadopt?Imperativesareless [5]Itissuggestedthatconsiderationbegiventothe common than declaratives inEnglish,butthat implementationoftheprojectoutofexisting doesntmeanthatweshouldavoidallimperatives. budgetaryresources.2 Howcouldwe?Thusthepredominanceoftheactive Butsentence[5]isinnowaythepassiveequivalentof voice,onitsown,isnogoodreasonforabandoning [4].Itisapassivesentenceanditisanuglysentence. thepassive. Butitsuglinessdoesntstemfromitsvoice:itstems Onceuponatime,classicalharmonywasconsidered fromalltheadditionalbloatandexcessiveformality natural, indeednormal,music.Themajorandminor thatJameshasaddedtoit,bloatandformalitythat keys of early classicalmusicwereconsideredto onedoesntfindinthesocalledactiveequivalent. define all that wasbestandnaturalinmusic.Buthow Convertingtheactivesentencetothepassiveand dull it would be ifthatviewwasstilldominant,ifthe notaddingthebloatandformalityabsentinthe voice of music that wasapparentlynatural250years originalyieldsthefollowingsentence: agointheeraofHandelandHaydnwasstillthe [6]Ithinkthisprojectcanbefundedfromyour voiceofmusictoday.GoodbyeDebussy,Stravinsky existingbudget. andPrt;hellomonotony. Strippedofallitsbloatandformality,thetruepassive equivalentoftheoriginalsentenceisnotasuglyas Passive can lead to ambiguity Jamesmakesout. Itissometimesarguedthatthepassivevoiceshould Moreover,activesentencescanbeuglytoo.Hereis beavoidedbecauseitleadstoambiguity.Hereare anactiveequivalentof[5],thesentencethatJames someexamplesfromsoftwareuserguides: claimsisthepassiveequivalentof[4]: Anameisgiventoeachpricecategory.
[7]Isuggestthatyougiveconsiderationtothe implementationoftheprojectoutofexisting budgetaryresources.

Isthisaninstructiontothereadertogiveeachprice categoryaname?(Ifso,thetextshouldreadEntera nameforeachpricecategory.)Orisitmerelya

3. JKirkman,Goodstyle:Writingforscienceandtechnology, Routledge,London,2ndedn,2005,p.51.Thisisechoedin ScientificStyleandFormat,publishedbyCouncilofScience Editors(1994,p.38):Theactiveisthenaturalvoice,theonein whichpeopleusuallyspeakorwrite.

1. 2.

NJames,Spekethsopleyne:Ahistoricalapproachtoplain English,SouthernCommunicator,issue16,February2009, p. 18. ibid.

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statementthatthesystemgiveseachcategorya name?(Inthiscase,automaticallyshouldappearinthe sentence.) Anotherexample: TherecordmaybereturnedtoDataEntry statusifitisnecessarytocorrectanyerrors. Whoorwhatdoesthereturning?Thesystem?Orthe userofthesystem?Bysuppressingtheagent,these examplesleavethereaderwonderingiftheyhaveto dosomethingorwhetherthesystemwilldoit. Allthatmightbetrue,butitisnotanargument againstusingpassivevoice.Atmostitisanargument againstusingtheagentlesspassivevoice.Theagent couldbeaddedtothepredicateofbothexamples, thusovercomingtheambiguity,whilestillretaining thepassivevoice: TherecordmaybereturnedtoDataEntrystatus bythesystemifitisnecessarytocorrectany errors. Thisisnotaparticularlyelegantsentence,butatleast theambiguityovertheagenthasbeenresolved.

castingallsentencesinthepassivevoicemaywell disposereaderstofocusonsomethingotherthanthe mainthingthatthewriterwantstosingleoutfor discussion. Well,yes,thatstrue;butitisnoargumentagainstthe passivevoice.Awritermaynotwantthefocustofall ontheagentthatdoessomething,butonthethingthat theagentdoes.Inthatcase,apreferencefortheactive voicewouldhavechangedthefocusfromwhatthe writerintended.SoKirkmanscriticismofthe passivevoicecanworkbothways. Suppose,forexample,thatyouarewriting maintenanceinstructionsforapieceofequipment andhavejustdirectedtheusertoremoveacover plate.Youwantthemtolookinsidethenowexposed cavityforsignsofdeterioration,wearandtear,and thelike.Whatyouwantthemtofocusonareeffects, notcausesthatis,whatanagenthasbroughtaboutas opposedtowhichagentitwas.Inthissituation,itis bettertowrite: Abuildupofrustiscausedbywater penetration.

Sulphurdepositsarecausedbytheengine Evenso,ambiguityisnotahallmarkofthepassive runningtoohot. voice.Activesentencescanbeambiguoustoo.We Thesearepassivesentences,buttheyareentirely mightrefinethecomplaintagainsttheagentless appropriate.Forherethe passivebysayingthat emphasis,thefocus,isonsigns agentlesspassiveisoften ofdeteriorationorwearand ambiguousifthereaderneedsto Ambiguity plagues all forms of writing. It tear,nottheirlikelycause.Thats knowwhoorwhatdoesthestated is not limited to any particular voice. You whatwewantthereadertolook action.Butthisisnostrongera do not necessarily rid your writing of criticismoftheagentless for.Andthatswhyitisbestto ambiguity by shunning the passive voice. passivethanthecriticismthat makeaneffectthesubjectofthe sentence,nottheagentthat anactivesentenceisoften causedtheeffect.Towritethesesentencesinthe ambiguousifitusesatransitionword(thatis,aword activevoicewouldbetochangetheintended withtwoormorestrongmeanings).Anexampleis: emphasisorfocus: Giventhedefendantsridiculeofthelegal
profession,thejudgeisshowingremarkable disinterest.

Waterpenetrationwillhavecausedabuildupof rust. Anenginethatistoohotwillhavecaused sulphurdeposits. Themechanicwillprobablystillneedtoknowthe causeoftheeffectstheyarelookingforifrepairsare necessarybutatthisparticularpointinthe procedurewearedirectingthemtolookforthe problems,notthecauseoftheproblems. Hereisanotherexample: Thereportswillbeprintedintriplicate.

Thisisanactivesentence,butisthejudgerevealing boredom?Orimpartiality? Ambiguityplaguesallformsofwriting.Itisnot limitedtoanyparticularvoice.Youdonot necessarilyridyourwritingofambiguityby shunningthepassivevoice.

Passive can give the wrong the focus

Kirkmannotesthatchangingfromactivevoiceto passiveusuallychangesthefocusofasentence:
TomakeanarbitrarychangefromTwothinstruts linkedtheplatestotherigtoTheplateswerelinkedtothe rigbytwothinstrutsistochangetheemphasisfrom thestrutstotheplates.1

Your letters
Feel free to comment on any aspect of Words. Send your correspondence to words@abelard.com.au. Deadline for the next issue: 30 September 2009.

Inotherwords,ifawriterhasapreferenceforpassive writingasmanyacademicsandscientistsdo
1. Kirkman,op.cit.p.50.

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Thisisanagentlesspassivesentence.Anequivalent activeversionis: Theprinterwillprintthereportsintriplicate. Butnowthefocusisontheprinterratherthanonthe reports,andthisisunlikelytobetheintentionofthe writer. Thesameconsiderationsapplytothesentencethat Jamesusedtobelittlethepassivevoice(seepage 4). Comparethesecondclauseinsentence[4]withthe secondclauseinsentence[6].
[4]youcanfundthisprojectfromyourexisting budget. [6]thisprojectcanbefundedfromyourexisting budget.

In[4],theclauseisactiveandthefocusisthesubject oftheclause:you.In[6],theclauseispassiveandthe focusis,again,thesubjectoftheclause:thisproject. Butitseemsunlikelythatthewriterof[4]wouldhave wantedthefocustobeonapersonratherthanona projectthatseemsindoubtinwhichcase,paceJames, itisthepassivethatpresentstherightfocus,nottheactive. Tosumup:apolicyofalwayswritinginthepassive voicemightrobawriteroftheabilitytomanipulate focus.Butsotoodoesapolicyofalwayswritingin theactivevoice. TobefairtoKirkmanwhoraisedtheissueoffocus switchinghedoesgoontoacknowledgethat deliberatelyshiftingthefocusawayfromtheagent,if handledwell,isaninvaluabletechnique:
Skilfulwritersincreasetheprecisionwithwhich theyconveymeaningbydeliberatelymovingfrom activetopassive.1

thatwouldbetofallfoulofthefallacyofdenyingthe antecedent.Likewise,ifasentenceisintheagentless passivevoice,itfollowsthatthereisnoagent mentioned.Butitdoesntthenfollowthatifnoagent ismentioned,thesentencemustbeintheagentless passivevoice.Thatwouldbeanexampleofthe fallacyofaffirmingtheconsequent. Thustechnicalwriterswhofeeltheneedtowrite alwaysintheactivevoicearenotnecessarilywriting inthepassiveiftheydonotmentiontheagent. Indeed,whenthecontextmakesitbleedingly obviouswhoorwhattheagentis,writerswhofeel thattheymustalwaysincludetheagentarewasting theirowntimeandthatoftheirreaders.Ifthecontext makesitclearthat,say,FrameMakerwillclosethe ViewOptionswindow,thereissimplynoneedto mentionFrameMakeratall.Moreover,youriskthe readersensingthatyouaretreatingthem paternalistically,andthusriskthemadoptingan antagonisticattitudetowardsthetext.(Iknowthat itisFramemakerthatwillclosetheViewOptions windowwhenIclickClose.ItsaFrameMakeruser guideImreading,forgoodnesssake.Sowhykeep tellingme,ateverystep,thatFrameMakerwilldo thisandFrameMakerwilldothat?DoyouthinkIm sostupidastonotknowthatitisthesoftwareIam usingthatcandothingswithoutbeingremindedof thatfactallthetime?) Yes,itstruethatomittingtheagentcan,onoccasion, leadtoambiguity(asillustratedonpage 4).Butit doesntalwaysleadtoambiguity.IfIinstructa readertoclickClose,thereisnexttonochancethata sanereaderwillbepuzzledbyanaccompanying sentencethatreadsTheViewOptionswindow closes.WilltheythinkDoIhavetoclosetheView Optionswindow,orwillthesystemcloseitforme?. Ihavealreadytoldthemthattheclosingofthe windowisaresultofthemclickingClose.Thereis nothingmoreforthemtodo.Soobviouslyitisthe systemthatwilldotheclosing,andmentioningthe agentisquiteunnecessary.

Hang on: always specifying the agent can be unnecessary and hence lead to wordiness
Manytechnicalwritersthinkthatforasentencetobe active,theagentmustbementioned.Thustheyfeel theneedtowrite,say,FrameMakerclosestheView Optionswindowratherthanthemoreeconomical TheViewOptionswindowcloses. Butasentencedoesntneedtostateanagentforitto beintheactivevoice.Colourreaderswillbeonsale soonisanactivesentenceeventhoughithasno agent.Recallthatwhatcharacterisesthepassive voiceisanauxiliaryverbplusapastparticiplewas found,wereeaten,gotquestioned,andsoonandno suchconstructionisfoundinColourreaderswillbe onsalesoon.Likewise,nosuchconstructionis foundinTheViewOptionswindowcloses. Itstruethatiftheagentisinthesubjectofthe sentence,thesentenceisactive(asexplainedon page 3).Butitdoesntfollowthatifthereisnoagent inthesubjectthatthesentenceisnotactive.Toargue
1. op.cit.,p.50.

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Asisoftenthecaseinprescriptivistlanguage manuals,apotentialflawwithaparticular construction(suchastheambiguitythatcanresult fromadanglingparticiple)isgeneralisedintoa prescriptionnevertouseconstructionsofthattype (Neverdangleaparticiple).Afarmoresensible approachistoexamineeachinstanceinturnand,if thereislikelihoodofambiguityormisunderstanding, recastthesentence.Otherwise,leaveitasitis(asmany danglingparticiplesareentirelyinnocuous).Likewise, agentlesswritingmay,onoccasion,leadtoambiguity. Butthatdoesntmeanthatitwillalwaysbe ambiguous.Ifitisntambiguous,itsasgoodadviceas anytoleaveitasitis.

Soactivevoicetoocanbedullandmonotonous.But maybeitistherepetitionthatinducessleepinthereader, notthechoiceofvoice.

In conclusion
Withtheexceptionofthechargethatitcanleadto ambiguity,complaintsagainstthepassivevoice appeartobemostlysubjectiveandpersonal,and thusmoreaquestionofstylethansubstance.And wherepassivevoicecancauseambiguity,the problemisnotwiththepassivevoiceitself,butwith theomissionoftheagent.Andthiscanbecorrected withoutchangingthevoice.

Iamnotsuggestingthatweshouldembracethe passivevoiceasourpreferredvoice.Farfromit.For astart,noteveryactivesentencehasapassive Writingthatispredominantlyinthepassivecanbe, equivalent.Beescollectnectardoesnotmeanthe andoftenis,dullanddreary.Apreferenceforthe sameasNectariscollectedbybees.Theformeris passivehasinfectedmuchofacademicwriting,andit true;thelatteronlypartlytrue,ignoringthefactthat hasbeenthepredominantstyleinscientificwriting animalsotherthanbeesalsocollectnectar(honey forcenturies.Andmanyofusdofindacademicand eaterbirds,forexample).Second,thepassive scientificwritingdull. equivalentofsomeactivesentencesisunidiomatic. Becausepassiveverbsplaydowntheagent(or Forexample,thepassiveequivalentofJohn makeitinvisible)theyare watchedthesunsetisThe notthestuffoflively settingsunwaswatchedby narrative,[especially] There are problems with the passive John.Thismightpassa whenyouwanttoknow voice. But what is bereft of logic is the grammaticalmuster,butwe whoisdoingwhat.Used studious avoidance of the passive voice, simplydonttalkorwritethat toooften,asinsome as if it were a strain of some linguistic way.Itwouldbe academicandofficial virus that robs our writing of its vigour unconventionaland styles,theymakefor 1 and vitality. unidiomatic.Areaderwho drearyreading. encountereditwouldfindits Butisthedullnesssolelythe structureoddanddistracting. resultofthepassivevoice?Ormustsomeofthe Fineinpoetry,perhaps,butaboilonthebumof blamebeattributedtorepetitiveness:theunthinking declarativeorindicativewriting.Third,theactive applicationofthesamestyleofwritingoverand canbemoreeconomicalthanthepassive.Sothereare over,asifwritingtoaformula.Tokeepourreaders problemswiththepassive.Butwhatisbereftoflogic engaged,weneedtodomorethanjustprovidethem isthestudiousavoidanceofthepassivevoice,asifit withcontentthatintereststhem:wealsoneedto wereastrainofsomelinguisticvirusthatrobsour provideitinwaysthatdontcausethemtonodoff. writingofitsvigourandvitality. Varietyisthespiceoflife,andthatextendstowriting. Seasonedcommentatorsonthewaysofeffective Forinstance,weneedtovaryoursentencelengths communicationhavelongacknowledgedthe andsentencetypesifwewanttokeepourreaders usefulnessofthepassivevoice: engaged.Perhapsweneedtoincludevoiceamongthe attributeswevaryfromtimetotime. Thepassivevoiceisavaluablefeatureofthe

Is the passive dull and monotonous?

Scientificwritingmightbedullandmonotonousto many.Butwouldweinvigorateitifeverysentence weretoberecastintheactivevoice?Isuspectthatthe materialsandmethodssectioninatypicalscientific reportwouldbejustasdullandmonotonousifthe agentwasalwaysmentioned:

Theexperimentersthenaddednitricacidtothe beaker.Theexperimentersthenagitatedthebeaker for30secondsbeforeapplyingheattoit.The experimentersthennotedthespecificgravityThe experimentersthenTheexperimentersthen zzz

Englishlanguage,andonewidelyusedinallforms ofwritingandspeaking,notjustinscienceand technology.2 Thepassivehasaplaceinanywritersstylistic inventory,inspiteoftheproblemsassociatedwith ititsdullness,andthefactthatitseemstobehabit forminginsomeinstitutionsorprofessions.Used occasionallyitsagracefulalternativetotheactive construction,andausefuldeviceforalteringthe focusofasentence.3

Finally,iswritingthatusespassivevoicewritingin breachoftheprinciplesofplainEnglish?Plain
2. 3. Kirkman,op.cit.,p.49. Peters,op.cit.,p.603.

1.

Peters,op.cit.,p.602.

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LanguageAssociationInternationalhasthistosayin itswritingguidelines:
Usepassivevoicewhenappropriateand necessary.1

wheretheobjectratherthantheagentismore important inordertomaintainlinguisticflow4

DrNeilJames,theExecutiveDirectorofPlainEnglish FoundationinAustralia,appearstohaveafootin bothcamps.Ontheonehand,hecounselsagainst usingpassives:

theverbtobeisnotyourfriendanditwill deadenyourtext.Killtobewhereveryoucanand replaceitwithsomethingmorevigorous.2

Thussomewhosewritingssuggest,insomeplaces, thattheyaretrenchantcriticsofthepassivevoicedo acknowledge,inotherplaces,thatthepassivevoice hasaplaceinwriting.Anditdoes. Andthat,yourhonour,completesthecaseforthe defence. GeoffreyMarnell

AdraftofthispaperwasreviewedbyStuAllanofActive Voice(Christchurch,NewZealand).Theauthorgratefully acknowledgesthecorrectionsandsuggestionsmadeby Stu(whowasrecentlyawardedfirstclasshonoursfrom theUniversityofCanterburyforaMastersthesisonthe passivevoice). DrNeilJames,ExecutiveDirectorofPlainEnglish FoundationinAustralia,alsocommentedadraftofthis paper,andprovidedsomeimportantcorrections regardinghisviewsonthepassivevoice.Hehasalsobeen offeredtherightofreplytothisarticle.

ThistallieswithcommentsJameshasmade elsewhere(seepage 4above).AndyetlaterinWriting atworkJamesallowspassivesinwriting,butonlyas longasthey[donot]outnumbertheactiveverbs.3 Hethengoesontogiveinstanceswherethepassive isacceptable,namely:

whereyoudonotknowwhoorwhattheagentis wheretheagentisobviousorunimportant
1. 2. 3. Seehttp://www.plainlanguagenetwork.org/stephens/ intro.html.Viewed8June2009. NJames,Writingatwork,Allen&Unwin,CrowsNest,2007, p. 176.Emphasisadded. ibid.,p.225.

4.

ibid.,p.234235.

Technical, general & scientific writing, FrameMaker, Structured authoring

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