1 Algebra

1.1 Introduction
The Real number system and the number line
Real numbers can be grouped into the following sets.
• Natural numbers
• Whole Numbers
• Integers
• Rational Numbers
• Irrational Numbers
Ordering the real numbers
a < b if b − a is positive.
Bounded Intervals on the Real Number Line
• [a, b] Closed at both ends.
• (a, b) Open at both ends.
• [a, b) Closed at the left end and open at the right.
• (a, b] Closed at right end and open at the left.
Definition of absolute value
If a is a real number, then its absolute value is given by
a if a ≥ 0
|a| =
−a if a < 0
If a number is positive then it is equal to its absolute value. If a number is negative then it is
multiplied by −1 to make it positive and get its absolute value.

Definition of an Algebraic Expression

An algebraic expression is a collection of letters (variables) and real numbers (constants) com-
bined using the operations of addition, subtraction, division and multiplication.

Basic Rules of Algebra

Commutative Rule of Addition a+b=b+a
Commutative Rule of Multiplication ab = ba

Associative Rule of Addition (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

Associative Rule of Multiplication (ab)c = a(bc)

Additive Identity Property a+0=a

Multiplicative Identity Property (a)1 = a

Additive Inverse Property a + (−a) = 0

Multiplicative Inverse Property (a)( a1 ) = 1

Distributative Property a(b + c) = ab + ac

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Properties of Negation
(a) (−1)a = −a
(b) −(−a) = a
(c) (−a)b = −(ab) = a(−b)
(d) (−a)(−b) = ab
(e) −(a + b) = (−a) + (−b)
Properties of Zero
(a) a + 0 = a
(b) (a)0 = 0
0
(c) a = 0, a = 0
a
(d) 0 is undefined
(e) If (a)(b) = 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0.
Properties of Fractions.
a c
Equivalent Fractions = then ad = bc
b d
−a a a −a a
Rules of Signs = = − and =
b −b b −b b
a ac
Generate Equivalent Fractions = where c = 0.
b bc
a c a±c
Add or Subtract with Like Denominators ± =
b b b
a c ad ± bc
Add or Subtract with Unlike Denominators ± =
b d bd
a c a·c
Multiply Fractions · =
b d b·d
a c a d
Divide Fractions ÷ = ·
b d b c

1.2 Transposition of Equations

An equation consists of two algebraic expressions with an equals sign between them.

Objective: Isolate the unknown quantity, frequently x, on one side of the equals sign.

Use: +, −, ×, ÷, ∧.

Whatever is done to one side must be done to the other.

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Example

(a) Solve 5x + 7 = 4 for x.

(b) Solve (a + b)2 = 16c2 for a.

It is important to get out of the habit of “bringing over to the other side”. This is ambiguous.
For example when trying to solve either

3x = 7 or 3 + x = 7

then we could say bring the 3 to the other side for both problems. However this may lead to
“bringing over” the 3 incorrectly. In essence, we should be more precise. In the first case above
we say that we should divide both sides by 3 and that we should subtract 3 from both sides.
This approach is even more important when trying to rearrange formulae into a more convenient
form.
Example Ohm’s Law is given by V = RI. Rearrange this formula so that I is the subject
of the equation. The power output is given by P = V I. Express P in terms of V and R.

1.3 Straight Lines

The simplest equation, and the most important, is the linear equation given by

y = mx + c
where x and y are variables, and m and c are known constants.

m − slope
c − y—intercept

Such equations when plotted give straight lines.

Example Plot the following lines for x = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2

(a) y = 2x + 4
(b) y = −3x + 2.

To graph a straight line we only need two points on the line. One approach is to
let x = 0 and solve equation for y, and then
let y = 0 and solve equation for x.
Example Draw the following lines on the same axes.

2x + 3y = 7
x − 2y = 0

A second approach is to pick two values for x and to find their corresponding y—values.
Example Draw the following lines on the same axes.

x + 3y = 2
3x − y = −4

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The slope of a line is a measure of how quickly it rises or falls.

• The slope of the line y = 2x + 4 is m = 2, which is positive. This indicates that the line
is increasing, from left to right.
• The slope of the line y = −3x + 2 is m = −3, which is negative. This indicates that the
line is decreasing, from left to right.
• If two lines have the same slope then they are parallel.

The slope of a non—vertical line passing through (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is

y2 − y1 change in y
m= =
x2 − x1 change in x

Example Draw the lines and find the slope of the lines through the points

(a) (0, 1) and (2, 3)

(b) (3, −1) and (−2, 2)

The y—intercept ‘c’ indicates where the line cuts the y—axis. If we knew the y—intercepts in the
above example then we could write down the equations of the lines.
Example Determine the equations of the lines through the points

(a) (0, 1) and (2, 3)

In general we do not have this information and we must use the ‘point—slope formula’

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

where (x1 , y1 ) is either of the given points.

Example Determine the equations of the lines through the points

(b) (3, −1) and (−2, 2)

Example Determine the equation of the line giving the relationship between the temper-
ature in degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit. Recall that water freezes at 0◦ Celsius (32◦
Fahrenheit) and boils at 100◦ Celsius (212◦ Fahrenheit).

1.4 Simultaneous Equations

1.4.1 Systems of Linear Equations:
Linear equations have no products or roots of variables, and no variables involved in trigono-
metric, exponential or logarithmic functions. Variables appear only to the first power.
Example The following are linear

3x + 2y = 7
1 √
x + y − πz = 2
2
π
sin( )x1 − 4x2 = e2
2

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The following are not linear
xy + z = 2
ex − 2y = 4
sin(x1 ) + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0
A system of m linear equations in n variables is a set of m equations, each of which is linear in
the same n variables.
Example The following is a system of 2 linear equations in 3 variables.
3x + 2y − z = 1
x + 3y + 2z = 5
The following is a system of 3 linear equations in 2 variables.
4x1 − 2x2 = 0
2x1 − 3x2 = 5
x1 + x2 = 1
There may or may not exist a set of values for x, y and z that work in all equations. If such
values exist then they are said to be a solution of the system of equations. It can happen that
a system of linear equations has
• exactly one solution
• an infinite number of solutions
• no solution
A system is consistent if it has at least one solution and is inconsistent if it has no solution.

1.4.2 Point(s) of Intersection of Two Lines

Two straight lines can meet in one of two ways
• they meet at one point
• they lie one on top of the other
Alternatively
• they do not meet at all.
Finding where two lines meet, if at all, involves solving two equations simultaneously.
Example Graph the following two lines and find their point of intersection.
3x + 2y = 5
4x − 3y = 2
Finding the solution to simultaneous equations by graphical means is unsatisfactory because it
is imprecise. There are two algebraic methods that can be used to solve this problem exactly.
They are
The Method of Substitution.
The Method of Elimination
A third approach, which we will look at later, is to use matrices.

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1.4.3 The Method of Substitution
• Solve one of the equations for y in terms of x, or vice versa.
• Substitute this expression into the other equation and solve for the other variable.
• Use this value in one of the original equations and solve for the other variable.
• Check your solution in both equations.

Example Solve the following equations for x and y using the method of substitution.

2x + 3y = −7
3x + y = −5

1.4.4 The Method of Elimination

• Obtain coefficients for x (or y) that differ only in sign by multiplying each equation by
suitably chosen non-zero constants.
• Add the equations to eliminate one variable and solve the resulting equation.
• Either repeat the above steps with the other variable or back-substitute the value just
obtained into either of the original equations and solve for the other variable.
• Check your solution in both equations.

Example Solve the following equations for x and y using the method of elimination.
3x + 2y = 5 5x − 10y = 9
1. 2.
4x − 3y = 2 2x − 4y = 14

1.4.5 Applications
The above techniques can be applied to problems in science, business, health services etc. When
setting up the problem mathematically it is important to

• identify clearly what the variables x, y stand for

• identify what the question is asking you
• interpret the question sentence by sentence.

Example Forces in a framework are specified by the following two equations.

F1 + F2 = 5
3F1 − F2 = 7

Example An airplane flying into a headwind travels the 2000-mile flying distance between
two cities in 4 hours and 24 minutes. On the return flight, the same distance is travelled in 4
hours. Determine the ground speed of the plane and the speed of the wind, assuming that both
remain constant.
What other assumptions are made in this problem?

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1.5 Matrices
We will now look at how to use matrices to solve linear equations. We will rewrite our systems
of equations in the following manner:

2x + 3y = 6 2 3 x 6
→ =
4x − 2y = 5 4 −2 y 5

Definition If m, n are positive integers, then an m × n matrix is a rectangular array


 
a11 a12 . . . a1n  


 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
A =   ... .. 
..  m—rows
. . 



am1 am2 . . . amn  
n—colums

where each entry aij is a real number (this is the one in the ith row and j th column).
Example What shape are the following matrices and identify the entries a12 , a23 in each
matrix if they exist.
2 1
1. (3 1 2) 2.
3 0

0
1 2 1
3. 4.  3 
0 −1 −2
−2
A matrix with only one row or one column is called a vector. Before using matrices to solve
systems of linear equations we shall look at the algebra of matrices, i.e. addition, subtraction,
multiplication and “division” of matrices.

1.5.1 Matrix Addition (Subtraction)

• When adding two matrices they should be of the same shape.
• The answer matrix will also be of the same shape.
• The entries in the answer matrix are obtained by adding the entries in the corresponding
places in the original matrices.

Subtraction is performed similarly. The general form for 2 × 2 matrix addition is given by

a b e f a+e b+f
+ =
c d g h c+g d+h

Example

1 2 5 −3
(a) +
3 4 1 −7
   
1 −1 0 −1
(b)  2 3  −  2 1 
0 1 −1 2

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1.5.2 Scalar Multiplication.
When multiplying a matrix by a number (scalar) we multiply each entry of the matrix by the
number, i.e.
a b ta tb
t =
c d tc td

Example Simplify the following.

2 1
(a) 3
−1 0
1 2 3 1
(b) −2
0 3 0 2

1.5.3 Matrix Multiplication.

This can be easily defined for 2 × 2 matrices as follows.
a b e f ae + bg af + bh
=
c d g h ce + dg cf + dh
Note:
• The answer matrix is a 2 × 2 matrix.
• The entry in the first row and first column of the answer matrix is obtained by multiplying
the entries in the first row of the first matrix by the entries in the first column of the second
matrix.
• The entry in the first row and second column of the answer matrix is obtained by multi-
plying the entries in the first row of the first matrix by the entries in the second column
of the second matrix.
• Similarly for the entries in the second row.

Example Multiply the following

2 1 4 −1
(a)
3 0 −2 1
4 −1 2 1
(b)
−2 1 3 0
Note:
Matrix multiplication is not commutative.

2 1 4 −1 4 −1 2 1
=
3 0 −2 1 −2 1 3 0

Multiplication of a matrix by a vector is a simplification of what we have already seen.

a b x ax + by
=
c d y cx + dy
Example Evaluate the following;

3 2 2
−1 2 −1

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1.5.4 Transpose of a matrix
This requires us to swap the rows and columns of a matrix. Specifically
t
a b a c
=
c d b d

Example
Determine the transpose of the following matrices.
2 3 1 1 −1
1. 2.
1 0 2 0 3

1.5.5 Identity Matrix

Before looking at the ‘inverse’ of 2 × 2 matrices we need to look at the 2 × 2 identity matrix.
Let

1 0
I2 =
0 1

This is known as the identity matrix for 2 × 2 matrices, i.e. if A is a 2 × 2 matrix, then

AI2 = I2 A = A

Example
Evaluate the following;
3 −1 1 0
0 2 0 1

1.5.6 Inverse of a matrix

The inverse of an 2 × 2 matrix A, is also another 2 × 2 matrix, B such that

AB = BA = I2

Since the inverse is unique we usually write A−1 for the inverse of A instead of B. This gives
us
AA−1 = A−1 A = I2

In general we have that

1 ∗
A−1 = A
|A|

where
• |A| is the determinant of A, and
• A∗ is the adjoint of A.
a b
Let A = then
c d

d −b
|A| = ad − bc A∗ =
−c a

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are the determinant and adjoint of A respectively, so that

1 d −b
A−1 =
ad − bc −c a

In summary
• the determinant is obtained by multiplying the diagonal terms, multiplying the other terms
and then subtracting;
• the adjoint is obtained by swapping the diagonal terms and changing the signs on the
other terms.

Example Determine the inverses of

1 4 3 10 2 6
1. 2. 3.
3 8 2 7 1 3

Since division by zero is not allowed we have that

A−1 does not exist if |A| = 0.

1.6 Systems of Linear Equations
If the coefficient matrix is invertible then the system has a unique solution. Every system of
equations can be written in the form

ax + by = e a b x e
→ =
cx + dy = f c d y f

Our objective is to determine the values for x and y that satisfy the above equation. Unfortu-
a b
nately we cannot divide both sides of the matrix equation by . However we can multiply
c d
both sides (on the left) by the inverse of this 2 × 2 matrix to get
−1 −1
a b a b x a b e
=
c d c d y c d f

Note that the order of multiplication is vitally important. Clearly

−1
a b a b x x
= I2 and I2 =
c d c d y y

so we are left with

−1
x a b e
=
y c d f
which was what we wanted (w5 ). If we let

a b x e
A= ,X = and B =
c d y f

then we can summarize the above as follows:

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 AX = B — original equation
A−1 AX = A−1 B — multiply both sides by A−1
X = A−1 B — solution

Example
Use matrices to solve
2x + 3y = 1 3x + 6y = 2
1. 2.
x + 4y = 2 −2x − 4y = 1

1.7 Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation that can be written in the standard form

ax2 + bx + c = 0

where a, b, c are real numbers with a = 0. Our aim in this section is to solve such equations,
where possible. By this we mean that we determine values for x that satisfy the above equation.

1.7.1 Factoring
We recall the Zero-Factor Property from the first section:

If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.

This means that if we have two things multiplied together to give zero then either the first is
equal to zero or the second is equal to zero. To use this property we must write the left side of
our equation in the form
(a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) = 0
We must also note that this approach will only work if we have 0 on the right side of the equation.
If we expand out the factorization we see that
• a1 a2 = a
• b1 b2 = c
• a1 b2 + a2 b1 = b

Example
Solve the following equations for x.
(a) 6x2 − 3x = 0 Simple factorisation
(b) x2 − x − 6 = 0 Leading coefficient equal to one
(c) 2x2 + 9x + 7 = 3 non-zero value on the right-hand side

1.7.2 Completing the Square

It is clear that the equation u2 = d where d > 0 has exactly two solutions
√ √
u= d and u=− d
√
These solutions can also be written as u = ± d

11
Example
Solve the following equations for x.
(a) 4x2 = 12
(b) (x − 3)2 = 7
The equation in the previous example can be rewritten in standard form as x2 − 6x + 2 = 0. To
rewrite x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 in the form (x − 3)2 = 7 is called completing the square.

To complete the square for the expression x2 + bx, add ( 2b )2 , which is the square of half the
coefficient of x. Consequently,
b b
x2 + bx + ( )2 = (x + )2
2 2
When the leading coefficient is not 1 we simply divide both sides of the equation by it and
proceed accordingly.
Example
Solve the following equations for x by completing the square.
(a) x2 − 2x = 0
(b) x2 + 8x + 14 = 0
(c) x(9x − 18) = −3

Example
A one-story building is 14m longer than it is wide. It has 1632m2 of floor space. Determine the
length and width of the building.

1.7.3 The Quadratic Formula

The following development completes the square once in a general setting to obtain the quadratic
equation — a shortcut for solving a quadratic equation.
Example
Solve the general quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0

by completing the square.

Quadratic Formula
The solutions of a quadratic equation in the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a = 0, are
given by the Quadratic Formula √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Example
Solve the following equations for x, where possible.

(a) x2 + 3x = 9
(b) 8x2 − 24x + 18 = 0

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(c) 13x2 + 7x + 1 = 0

We now return to the problem of transposing equations.

Example The motion of a body is governed by the formulae

v = u + at
1
s = ut + at2
2
where v is the velocity after t seconds, u is the initial velocity and a is the constant acceleration.
• Rearrange the first equation to find a formula for a.
• Hence write s in terms of u, v and t.

Example If a body’s initial velocity is 10m/s and its current velocity is 15m/s then how
far has the body traveled after one second?
Example How long does it take a body to travel 5m under an initial velocity of 2m/s and
acceleration due to gravity of 9.81m/s2 ?
Example Express t in terms of s, u and a.

1.8 Indices
Let x be a real number, a variable, or an algebraic expression, and let n be a positive integer.
Then
xn = x · x · x · · · x
n times
where n is called the power (or the exponent or the index) and x is called the base. An algebraic
number such as
3x4
is called a term when it occurs in a more complicated expression. The number 3 is called the
coefficient. An expression containing a sum of such terms is called a polynomial, e.g.

3x4 − 2x + 4

The highest index in the polynomial containing a single variable is called the degree of the
polynomial. In the above example the degree is 4.

Properties of Exponents

am
• am an = am+n • = am−n
an
1 1
• a−n = = ( )n • a0 = 1
an a

• (ab)n = an bn • (an )m = anm

a n an
• =
b b

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Definition Let a and b be real numbers, and let n ≥ 2 be a positive integer. If
a = bn
then b is the nth root of a. The principal nth root of a is the nth root that has the same sign as
a. It is denoted by the radical symbol: √n
a.
The following properties are very closely related to the above properties of exponents.
Properties of Roots
√ √ √ √
am = ( n a)m
n m n mn
• • a= a
√
n √ √n √
• ab = n a b • ( n a)n = a
√
a n
a √
n
• n
= √
n
• an = ±a
b b

Definition If a is a real number and n is a positive integer such that the principal nth —root
of a exists, then we define √
1
an = n a
i.e. a fractional index is a root.
Moreover if m is a positive integer that has no common factor with n then
m 1 1
a n = (a n )m = (am ) n

Example Simplify the following using the rules of indices.

− 23
8
(a)
27
(b) 3x2 · (3x)2
(c) 7x0
1 1 1
(d) 2x− 4 · (4x 2 ) 2
1 3 1
(e) 6z 2 · 3z − 4 ÷ 2z − 4
(2xy)3 z −2
(f)
4x2 y −4 z 3

The Natural Base e

For many applications, the convenient choice for a base is the irrational number
e ≈ 2.71828 . . .
called the natural base. It can be defined in two ways.
1 1 1 1
e=1+ + + + + ···
1 1×2 1×2×3 1×2×3×4
or
1 n
e = lim (1 + )
n→∞ n

Example Use each of the above definitions of e to approximate e to 5 decimal places.

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1.9 Logarithms
The converse to exponentiation is logarithms.
Definition y = loga (x) if and only if x = ay ,where x > 0 and 0 < a = 1. y is said to be
the log to the base a of x.
Example Use what you know about powers to evaluate the following.

(a) log2 (32) (b) log3 (27) (c) log4 (2)

(d) log10 (100) (e) log3 (1) (f) log2 (2)

We say that y = loga (x) is the equivalent form to x = ay and vice versa.
Example Change the following to equivalent form

(a) 27 = 33 (b) 1 = log6 (6) (c) N = nt

1 1
(d) 2 = 42 (e) 3 = log7 (343) (f) 3 = log27 (3)

log to the base 10

To evaluate log10 (642) we note first of all that we are looking for a number x such that

10x = 642

Since 100 = 102 and 1000 = 103 we have that 2 < x < 3. To get an “exact” answer for x we use
that calculator as follows:

press log key → enter 642 → press = key → 2.807535028

If we round off to 5 significant figures then we get that

log10 (642) = 2.8075

Note that

log10 6420 = log10 (642) + 1 = 3.8075

log10 64200 = log10 (642) + 2 = 4.8075
log10 642000 = log10 (642) + 3 = 5.8075

The Natural Logarithmic Function

As with exponential functions, the most widely used base for logarithmic functions is the number
e. The logarithmic function with base e is called the natural logarithmic function. It is
denoted by the symbol ln(x), read as “el en of x”. Explicitly we have

y = ln(x) if x = ey

To evaluate ln(642) we note first of all that we are looking for a number x such that

ex = 642

To get an “exact” answer for x we use that calculator as follows:

press ln key → enter 642 → press = key → 6.464588304

15
i.e. ln(642) = 6.4646 correct to 5 significant figures. (where no base is given it is assumed to be
10)

To find a number, given that its logarithm is known, we then use the 2nd F button.
Example Evaluate

(a) log(74.31)
(b) ln(29.22)

Example Find N such that

(a) log(N ) = 3.216
(b) ln(N ) = 1.33
We can solve some simple logarithmic equations in the same manner as the previous example.
Example Solve for x
(a) 3 log(x − 2) = 4.7124
(b) 3 ln(5x + 3) = 7.921
(c) ln(x2 − 1) = ln(3x − 3)

For more complicated equations we need to use the following;

Laws of Logarithms

(A) loga (uv) = loga (u) + loga (v)

u
(B) loga = loga (u) − loga (v)
v
(C) loga (un ) = n loga (u)

• The first of these rules converts products to sums;

• the second converts quotients to subtraction;
• the last converts powers to products.

Example Simplify the following

(a) log(81) + log(3) − log(27)

1
2 log(81) + 13 log(27)
(b)
log(9)

Properties of Logarithms

(a) loga (1) = 0

(b) loga (a) = 1
1
(c) loga (b) =
logb (a)

16
(d) ln(ex ) = x
(e) eln(x) = x

Example Solve the following equations, for x.

(a) log(3x4 ) − log(x2 ) = log(81) − log(x)

(b) 3 log(2) − log(x − 1) = log(x − 3)

Logarithms to Other Bases

There is no button on a calculator to evaluate log3 (10) for example. However we can use the
change of base formula
log(b) ln(b)
loga (b) = =
log(a) ln(a)
Example Evaluate the following

(a) log3 (10)

(b) log4 (5)
If an equation that we are transposing contains logs or indices then we rearrange the equation so
that the log function or the index, as appropriate, appears alone on one side of the equation. We
then use the inverse log or inverse exponential function to rewrite the equation in its equivalent
form.
Example Given that the tensions in a belt drive are given by

T1 = T2 eµrθ

express θ in terms of the other variables.

Example The work done on a gas in an isothermal expansion from v1 to v2 is
v2
W = RT ln( )
v1
express v2 in terms of the other quantities.

1.10 Indicial Equations

These are equations that involve a variable and a power. There are two types of equations to
consider.
(a) ax = b The variable is in the power.
(b) xa = b The variable is in the base.
where a, b are constants and x is the variable. In both cases we take logs to the base 10 on both
sides of the equation and apply the third Law of Log’s.
Example Solve the following equations correct to three significant figures.

(a) 4x = 27
(b) z 0.1763 = 14
(c) 42x = 7x−1

17
A common problem is an example of a quantity that varies over times according to the expo-
nential growth model
Q = Q0 ekt
In general Q is the quantity present at time t, Q0 is the original amount and k is a constant
determined by the rate of growth.
• If k > 0 then the population grows.
• If k < 0 then the population decays.

Example From 1960 to 1986 the amount of municipal waste processed for energy recovery
in the United States can be approximated by the equation
2
y = 0.00643e0.00533t

where y is the amount of waste (in kilos per person) that was processed for energy recovery and
t represents the year, with t = 0 corresponding to 1960. According to this model, during which
year did the amount of waste reach 0.2 kilos?

Example Radioactive iodine is a by-product of some types of nuclear reactors. Its half-life
is 60 days. That is, after 60 days, a given amount of radioactive iodine will have decayed to
half the original amount. Suppose a contained nuclear accident occurs and gives off an initial
amount C of radioactive iodine. Then

(a) Write an equation for the amount of radioactive iodine present at any time t following the
accident.
(b) How long will it take for the radioactive iodine to decay to 20% of the original amount?
(c) Express t in terms of the other variables

The last part of the above problem involves rearranging a formula to have a new variable as the
subject of the equation.

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