What is Philosophy?

A: The Three Basic Questions:

The word philosophy (Greek, philosophia) means the love (philia) of wisdom (sophia). The wisdom philosophers love and pursue arises from an inquiry guided by three basic questions: 1. Whats what?, 2. Whats good?, and 3. What do we know? And a related question - Whats true? Philosophy as the love of wisdom begins with the attempt to answer these three basic questions as to 1. the nature of reality (whats what?), 2. the nature of value (whats good?), and 3. the nature of knowledge (what do we know? [and whats true?]). For this reason, the discipline of philosophy has, over the centuries, come to be divided into three main branches: 1. metaphysics (the philosophical study of reality); 2. axiology (the philosophical study of value); and 3. epistemology (the philosophical study of the nature, extent, and limits of human knowledge). To summarise the major divisions of philosophy: Metaphysics: reality (Whats what?) Ontology (being or reality in general) Philosophical cosmology (the cosmos) Philosophical theology (and the philosophy of religion) (God) Philosophical anthropology (human nature and human existence) Axiology: value (Whats good?) Aesthetics (philosophy of art) Ethics (moral philosophy) Social and political philosophy Epistemology: knowledge and truth (What do we know [and whats true]?)

B: Two Different Approaches to Philosophy:

Philosophy is a two-sided intellectual enterprise. It is a form of thinking that is, on the one hand, constructive and, on the other hand, critical (or deconstructive). Thus, in defining the general nature of philosophy, a distinction is usually made between: 1. constructive (sometimes called speculative) philosophy and 2. critical (deconstructive) philosophy. Constructive philosophy is the attempt to formulate (or construct) rationally defensible answers to certain fundamental questions concerning the nature of reality, the nature of value, and the nature of human knowledge, i.e., to the three basic philosophical questions and their spin-offs. Another way of defining constructive philosophy is to say that it is the attempt to formulate rationally defensible beliefs concerning the nature of reality, the nature of value, and the nature of knowledge.

What makes an answer or belief rationally defensible?

An answer or belief is rationally defensible: 1. in the strong sense when it is credible, i.e., believable because it is supported by evidence and/or sound argumentation. Thus, the answer or belief is plausible because, on logical and/or empirical (i.e., evidential, experiential, factual) grounds, it appears to be either certainly or probably true. 2. in the weak sense when it withstands or survives criticism -- i.e., it has not (yet) been refuted (that is to say, proved to be certainly or probably false).

What makes a belief true?

What makes a belief or proposition true as opposed to false? A belief or proposition is: 1. true when it corresponds to, agrees with, or describes reality (i.e., the way things are, what is in fact the case), 2. false when it fails to correspond to, agree with, or describe reality. For Example: If it is in fact the case that the average college student at Ateneo de Zamboanga learns a great deal as a result of her studies at the college, then the claim that she does so is true, and the claim that she does not do so is false. If sex education programs in the nations schools actually have the effect of reducing or at least limiting significantly the rates of promiscuity, unwanted pregnancy, and venereal disease, then the claim that such programs are effective in the sense stated is true, and the claim that they are not so effective is false. If angels do not in fact exist (in some sense of the word exist), then the belief that they do is false, and the belief that they do not is true. How we find out whether beliefs, propositions, and claims are in fact true or false, i.e., how we go about proving or disproving truth-claims, is a much larger question. Constructive philosophy, then, is the attempt to formulate rationally defensible answers to metaphysical, axiological, and epistemological questions. The more ambitious forms of constructive philosophy aim at the construction of a comprehensive, coherent, and intellectually (and perhaps also emotionally) satisfying world-view or philosophical system. Many constructive philosophers, however, especially in recent times, concentrate on analysing and answering only a few of the major philosophical questions without attempting the construction of a complete world-view or philosophical system. Most of the great philosophers of the past were constructive philosophers. Critical (deconstructive) philosophy is the process of subjecting beliefs and arguments to logical and empirical analysis, clarification, and evaluation in an effort to decide whether those beliefs and arguments are rationally defensible or rationally indefensible, warranted or unwarranted, sound or unsound, justified by reason or not. To summarise: 1. constructive philosophy concentrates on providing answers to fundamental philosophical questions, 2. critical (deconstructive) philosophy concentrates on questioning such answers.

C: A list of sample questions in philosophy

Metaphysics: questions concerning the nature of reality, being, or existence Ontology Why is there something rather than nothing? Is it possible that there was a time before now when absolutely NOTHING existed? What is ultimately (or REALLY) real? [Appearance -v- Reality] Is reality fundamentally one or many? [Monism -v- Pluralism] What, if anything, endures through change? Is reality primarily material or spiritual (or mental)? [Materialism -v- Idealism] Is the external world objectively real, or is its existence mind-dependent? If the latter, what mind is it dependent on? My mind? Your mind? The divine mind? Is there a supernatural reality, or is nature all there really is? [Naturalism -vSupernaturalism] What is the difference between necessary and contingent being? Is there a necessary being? Is there only one necessary being? Philosophical cosmology What is the cosmos made of? How is it structured? Did the cosmos come into being? If so, how? Will the cosmos cease to be in the future? If so, what does that mean for us?

What are the philosophical implications of scientific answers to cosmological questions? Philosophical theology (and the philosophy of religion) Does God exist? [Theism; Atheism; Agnosticism] What is the nature of God? What about the existence of evil (pain, suffering, and disorder)? How can evil exist in a world created and governed by an all-knowing, all-good, and all-powerful deity? [The Problem of Evil] Is God good? Can God be less than perfect in any respect? What (if any) is the relationship between God and Humanity? Humankind in general? Specific nations? Individuals? What is the relationship between God and nature (the physical universe)? Philosophical anthropology Questions concerning human nature and human action: What are the essential or distinctive characteristics of human nature? Is there such a thing as a human nature shared by all humans? How are the human body and the human mind related to one another? [The MindBody Problem] Are there minds other than my own? [The Problem of Other Minds] Is there any objective reality at all (i.e., a reality that exists independently of my consciousness/mind)? Do human beings possess the power of free choice? [The Problem of Metaphysical Freedom] What is the nature of persons? How do persons differ from non-persons? Are there humans who are not persons? Are there persons who are not human(s)? Questions concerning the purpose, meaning, and value of human existence (existential questions): What is the nature of the human condition? What is really worthwhile? What is really important? What is really meaningful? Whats it all about? What really matters? Does anything really matter? What is there to live for? What are we here for? What is the purpose and/or meaning of life (human existence)? Does life have a purpose and/or meaning? Is there anything to live (or hope) for? Who am I? What am I? Where am I going? What, if anything, does suffering mean? What should we make of it? How shall it be understood? Can it be understood? How should one live? What should one concentrate on? What should one devote oneself to? What should ones primary commitments (priorities) be? What is the meaning (if any) of death? Is there life beyond death for the individual human person? Is there life beyond death at all, in any sense? What difference does it make if there is life beyond death or if there is not? Is either optimism or pessimism about the world or about life in general justified? Is there any Hope?

Axiology: questions concerning the nature of value and the criteria by which values may be recognised Aesthetics (the philosophy of art) Does art have a nature or essence? If not, why not? If so, can it be defined? How? Is it possible to distinguish between (1) art and non-art, (2) authentic art and unauthentic or inauthentic (counterfeit) art, (3) good (successful) and bad (unsuccessful) art, and (4) fine and useful (applied) art? If not, why not? If so, how? Is aesthetic value intrinsic or extrinsic? Is aesthetic value objective or subjective? Is it partly objective and partly subjective? (Objectivism, Subjectivism, Interactionism)

Can we distinguish between good and bad aesthetic taste? If not, why not? If so, how? Does aesthetic experience differ from other types of experience? If not, why not? If so, how? Is there a distinctive aesthetic attitude? If not, why not? If so, what are its characteristics (detachment, disinterestedness, impartiality, distance, etc.)? How does the aesthetic attitude differ from other attitudes (practical, cognitive, personal, moral, etc.)? We can learn about art; but can anything be learned from art? If not, why not? If so, what and how? Does art have meaning? Do particular artworks have meaning? If not, why not? If so, what is that meaning? Also, how do artworks mean (representation, imitation, symbolism, expression, form, artists intentions, etc.)? Can artworks be true or false? Can the meaning of an artwork be true or false? Aesthetic value(s) and other (moral, religious, historical, social-political, and economic) values: Relationships? Conflicts? What is the nature and proper function of aesthetic criticism (evaluation, analysis, description, interpretation, dispute-resolution, enhancement of appreciation, etc.)? What is the basis (or what are the bases) of critical judgement in the arts (e.g., the canons of unity, complexity, and intensity)? Is there any basis for art criticism? If not, why not? Ethics (moral philosophy) Normative ethics General normative ethics What is the nature of morality? What is the nature of moral goodness? What moral principles, rules, standards, or values should we live by? What are the basic rules or principles of morality? What is the difference between right and wrong conduct? What is the foundation of morality (God, nature, reason, desire, etc.)? What is the basis of moral duty or obligation? What is the basis of moral responsibility? What is the nature of moral virtue? Is there a significant difference between being good and doing good? What kind of persons should we become? What kind of life is worth living? A morally good life? Applied normative ethics: the application of general normative principles to specific moral problems and controversies (e.g., can [abortion, the death penalty, warfare, racial or sexual discrimination, the war on drugs, etc.] be justified, and, if so, how?) Non-normative ethics: Descriptive ethics: the scientific study of moral beliefs and practices (part of the social sciences) Metaethics: reflective and critical thinking about (normative) ethics itself (e.g., What do right, wrong, good, and evil mean?, Is moral knowledge possible?, etc.) Social and political philosophy: What are the origins, nature, and purposes of government (or the state)? What are the proper relationships between the individual, society, and the state? What is the nature of liberty, equality, and justice, and what are the proper relationships between them? What is the nature and value of law?

Epistemology: questions concerning knowledge and truth What is the nature of knowledge? What are the sources of knowledge? What are the scope and limits of knowledge? Is there any knowledge at all? Is knowledge possible? Is cognitive certainty possible?

What is the difference between knowledge and opinion? What is the nature of truth? What makes a belief or proposition true as opposed to false? What are we to make of the procedures, propositional claims, and theories of science and mathematics? [Philosophy of Science]