EE 010 703 ELECTRICAL DRIVES

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Whenever the term electric motor or generator is used, we tend to think that the speed of rotation of these machines is totally controlled only by the applied voltage and frequency of the source current. But the speed of rotation of an electrical machine can be controlled precisely also by implementing the concept of drive. The main advantage of this concept is, the motion control is easily optimized with the help of drive. In very simple words, the systems which controls the motion of the electrical machines, are known as electrical drive Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications like transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps, robots, washing machines etc. Systems employed for motion control are called drives and may employ any of the prime movers such as, diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and electric motors, for supplying mechanical energy for motion control. Drives employing electric motors are known as electrical drives.

Fig.1.1.Parts of electrical drives Block diagram of an electrical drive is shown in Fig 1.1. Load is usually machinery designed to accomplish a given task, e.g. fans, pumps, robots, washing machines, machine tools, trains and drills. Usually load requirements can be specified in terms of speed and torque demands. A motor having speedtorque characteristics and capabilities compatible to the load requirements is chosen. Power modulator performs one or more of the following four functions: (i) Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is imparted speedtorque characteristics required by the load.

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(ii) During transient operations such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source and motor currents within permissible values; excessive current drawn from source may overload it or may cause a voltage dip. (iii) Converts electrical energy of the source in the form suitable to the motor, e.g. if the source is dc and an induction motor is to be employed, then the power modulator is required to convert dc into a variable frequency ac. (iv) Selects the mode of operation of the motor, i.e. motoring or braking. When power modulator is employed mainly to perform function (iii), it is more appropriately called converter. Controls for power modulator are built in control unit which usually operates at much lower voltage and power levels. In addition to operating the power modulator as desired, it may also generate commands for the protection of power modulator and motor. Input command signal, which adjusts the operating point of the drive, forms an input to the control unit. Sensing of certain drive parameters, such as motor current and speed, may be required either for protection or for closed loop operation. FUNDAMENTAL TORQUE EQUATIONS When a motor rotates, it is usually connected to load which has a rotational or translational motion. The speed of the motor may be different from that of the load. To analyze the relation among the drives and loads, the concept of Dynamics of Electrical Drives is introduced. A motor generally drives a load (machine) through some transmission system. While motor always rotates, the load may rotate or may undergo a translational motion. Load speed may be different from that of motor, and if the load has many parts, their speeds may be different and while some may rotate, others may go through a translational motion. It is, however, convenient to represent the motor load system by an equivalent rotational system shown in Fig. 1.2

Fig.1.2. Motor-Load system

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Motor-load system of Fig. 1.2 can be described by the following fundamental torque equation:

(1.1) Equation (1.1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives, industrial robots. For drives with constant inertia, (dj/dt)= 0. Therefore

(1.2) Equation (1.2) shows that torque developed by motor is counter balanced by a load torque T1 and a dynamic torque J(dm /dt). Torque component(Jdm /dt) is called the dynamic torque because it is present only during the transient operations. Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether T is greater or less than T1. During acceleration, motor should supply not only the load torque but an additional torque component(Jdm /dt) in order to overcome the drive inertia. In drives with large inertia, such as electric trains, motor torque must exceed the load torque by a large amount in order to get adequate acceleration. In drives requiring fast transient response, motor torque should be maintained at the highest value and motor-load system should be designed with a lowest possible inertia. Energy associated with dynamic torque (Jdm /dt) is stored in the form of kinetic energy given by (J m 2 /2). During deceleration, dynamic torque(Jdm /dt) has a negative sign. Therefore, it assists the motor developed torque T and maintains drive motion by extracting energy from stored kinetic energy. SPEED TORQUE CONVENTIONS AND MULTIQUADRANT OPERATION For consideration of multiquadrant operation of drives, it is useful to establish suitable conventions about the signs of torque and speed. Motor speed is considered positive when rotating in the forward direction. For drives which operate only in one direction, forward speed will be their normal speed. In loads involving up-and-down motions, the speed of motor which causes upward motion is considered forward motion. For reversible drives, forward speed is chosen arbitrarily. Then the rotation in opposite direction gives reverse speed which is assigned the negative sign. Positive motor torque is defined as the torque Page 3

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which produces acceleration or the positive rate of change of speed in forward direction. According to Eq. (1.2), positive load torque is opposite in direction to the positive motor torque. Motor torque is considered negative if it produces deceleration. A motor operates in two modesmotoring and braking. In motoring, it converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, which supports its motion. In braking, it works as a generator converting mechanical energy to electrical energy, and thus, opposes the motion. Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions. Figure 1.3 shows the torque and speed coordinates for both forward (positive) and reverse (negative) motions. Power developed by a motor is given by the product of speed and torque. In quadrant I, developed power is positive. Hence, machine works as a motor supplying mechanical energy. Operation in quadrant I is, therefore, called forward motoring. In quadrant II, power is negative. Hence, machine works under braking opposing the motion. Therefore, operation in

Fig.1.3.Torque speed characteristics of a drive

quadrant II is known as forward braking. Similarly, operations in quadrant III and IV can be identified as reverse motoring and braking respectively. For better understanding of the above notations, let us consider operation of a hoist in four quadrants as shown in Fig. 1.4. Directions of motor and load torques, and direction of speed are marked by arrows.

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Fig.1.4. operation of hoist in four quadrants A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft. One end of the rope is tied to a cage which is used to transport man or material from one level to another level. Other end of the rope has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the weight of an empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded cage. Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward motion of the cage. Speed- torque characteristics of the hoist load are also shown in Fig. 1.4. Though the positive load torque is opposite in sign to the positive motor torque, according to Eq. (1.2), it is convenient to plot it on the same axes. Loadtorque curve drawn in this manner is, in fact, negative of the actual. Load torque has been shown to be constant and independent of speed. This is nearly true with a low speed hoist where forces due to friction and windage can be considered to be negligible compared to those due to gravity. Gravitational torque does not change its sign even when the direction of driving motor is reversed. Load torque line T11 in quadrants I and IV represents speed-torque characteristic for the loaded hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to loaded hoist and counter weight. The load torque line T12 in quadrants II and III is the speed- torque characteristic for an empty hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist. Its sign is negative because the weight of a counter weight is always higher than that of an empty cage. The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which corresponds to the positive motor speed which is in anticlockwise direction here. This motion will be obtained if the motor Page 5

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produces positive torque in anticlockwise direction equal to the magnitude of load torque T11. Since developed motor power is positive, this is forward motoring operation. Quadrant IV operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of a loaded cage is higher than that of a counter weight, it is able to come down due to the gravity itself. In order to limit the speed of cage within a safe value, motor must produce a positive torque T equal to T12 in anticlockwise direction. As both power and speed are negative, drive is operating in reverse braking. Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up. Since a counter weight is heavier than an empty cage, it is able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed within a safe value, motor must produce a braking torque equal to T12 in clockwise (negative) direction. Since speed is positive and developed power negative, it is forward braking operation. Operation in quadrant Ill is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an empty cage has a lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce a torque in clockwise direction. Since speed is negative and developed power positive, this is reverse motoring operation. EQUIVALENT VALUES OF DRIVE PARAMETERS Different parts of a load may be coupled through different mechanisms, such as gears, V-belts and crankshaft. These parts may have different speeds and different types of motions such as rotational and translational. This section presents methods of finding the equivalent moment of inertia (J) of motor-load system and equivalent torque components, all referred to motor shaft. Loads with Rotational Motion Let us consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft and other through a gear with n and n1 teeth as shown in Fig. 1.4(a). Let the moment of inertia of motor and load directly coupled to its shaft be motor speed and torque of the directly coupled load be m and Tlo respectively. Let the moment of inertia, speed and torque of the load coupled through a gear be J1,m1 and Tl1 respectively. Now,

(1.3) where a1 is the gear tooth ratio. If the losses in transmission are neglected, then the kinetic energy due to equivalent inertia must be the same as kinetic energy of various moving parts. Thus

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(1.4) From Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4)

(1.5) Power at the loads and motor must be the same. If transmission efficiency of the gears be iii then

Fig.1.4.(b) loads with translational and rotational motion

(1.6) where Tl is the total equivalent torque referred to motor shaft. From Eqs. (1.3) and (1.6)

(1.7) If in addition to load directly coupled to the motor with inertia J0 there are m other loads with moment of inertias J1, J2 Jm and gear teeth ratios of a1, a2, . . . a m then Page 7

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(1.8) If m loads with torques Tl1, Tl2, Tlm are coupled through gears with teeth ratios a1, a2,. am and transmission efficiencies 1, 2 . m, in addition to one directly coupled, then

(1.9) If loads are driven through a belt drive instead of gears, then, neglecting slippage, the equivalent inertia and torque can be obtained from Eqs. (1.8) and (1.9) by considering a1, a2 ,am each to be the ratios of diameters of wheels driven by motor to the diameters of wheels mounted on the load shaft. Loads with Translational Motion Let us consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft and other through a transmission system converting rotational motion to linear motion (Fig. 1.4(b)). Let moment of inertia of the motor and load directly coupled to it be J0, load torque directly coupled to motor be T10, and the mass, velocity and force of load with translational motion be M1 (kg), v (m/sec) and F1 (Newtons), respectively. If the transmission losses are neglected, then kinetic energy due to equivalent inertia (J )must be the same as kinetic energy of various moving parts. Thus

(1.10)

Similarly, power at the motor and load should be the same, thus if efficiency of transmission be 1.

(1.11)

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If, in addition to one load directly coupled to the motor shaft, there are m other loads with translational motion with velocities v1, v2,. . . um and masses M1, M2.. .. , Mm, respectively, then

(1.12) COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUES Load torque Tl can be further divided into following components (i) Friction torque TF : Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the load. TF is equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor shaft. (ii) Windage torque, TW : When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion. This is known as windage torque. (iii) Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, TL: Nature of this torque depends on particular application. It may be constant and independent of speed; it may be some function of speed; it may depend on the position or path followed by load; it may be time invariant or time- variant; it may vary cyclically and its nature may also change with the loads mode of operation. Variation of friction torque with speed is shown in Fig. 1.6(a). Its value at standstill is much higher than its value slightly above zero speed. Friction at zero speed is called stiction or static friction. In order for drive to start, the motor torque should at least exceed stiction. Friction torque can be resolved into three components (see Fig. 1.6(b)). Component T which varies linearly with speed is called viscous friction and is given by:

(1.13) where B is the viscous friction coefficient. Another component TC , which is independent of speed, is known as Coulomb friction. Third component TS accounts for additional torque present at standstill. Since TS is present only at standstill it is not taken into account in the dynamic analysis. Page 9

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Windage torque T, which is proportional to speed squared, is given by

(1.14) where C is a constant.

FIG.1.6 Friction torque and its components From the above discussion, for finite speeds,

(1.15) In many applications (Tc + Cm2) is very small compared to Bm and negligible compared to TL. In order to simplify the analysis, term (Tc + Cm2) is approximately accounted by updating the value of viscous friction coefficient, B. With this approximation, from Eq. (1.2)

(1.16) If there is a torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the motor, an additional component of load torque, known as coupling torque, will be present. Coupling torque (Te) is given by

(1.17)

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where e is the torsion angle of coupling (radians) and Ke the rotational stiffness of the shaft (Nm/rad). In most applications, shaft can be assumed to be perfectly stiff and coupling torque Te can be neglected. Its presence in appreciable magnitude has adverse effects on motor. There is potential energy associated with coupling torque and kinetic energy with the dynamic torque. Exchange of energy between these two energy storages tends to produce oscillations which are damped by viscous friction torque Bam. When B is small, oscillations occur producing noise. Further, shaft may also break when the drive is started. NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES The nature of load torque depends on particular application. A low speed hoist is an example of a load where the torque is constant and independent of the speed . At low speeds, windage torque is negligible. Therefore, net torque is mainly due to gravity which is constant and independent of speed. There are drives where coulomb friction dominates over other torque components. Consequently, torque is independent of speed, e.g. paper mill drive. Fans, compressors, aeroplanes, centrifugal pumps, ship-propellors, coilers, high speed hoists, traction etc. are example of the case where load torque is a function of speed. In fans, compressors and aeroplanes, the windage dominates, consequently, load torque is proportional to speed squared (Fig. 1.7(a)). Windage is the opposition offered by air to the motion. Similar nature of load torque can be expected when the motion is opposed by any other fluid, e.g. by water in centrifugal pumps and ship-propellors, giving the same characteristic as shown in Fig. 1.7(a). In a high speed hoist, viscous friction and windage also have appreciable magnitude, in addition to gravity, thus giving the speed-torque curve of Fig. 1.7(b). Nature of speed-torque characteristic of a traction load when moving on a levelled ground is shown in Fig. 1.7(c). Because of its heavy mass, the stiction is large. Near zero speed, net torque is mainly due to stiction. The stiction however disappears at a finite speed and then windage and viscous friction dominate. Because of large stiction and need for accelerating a heavy mass, the motor torque required for starting a train is much larger than what is required to run it at full speed. Torque in a coiler drive is also a function of speed. It is approximately hyperbolic in nature as shown in Fig. 1.7(d). The developed power is nearly constant at all speeds.

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Fig.1.7.Steady state load torque speed curves Figure 1.7(c) shows the traction load torque to be function of only speed, because we have assumed a levelled ground. In actual practice the train has to negotiate upward and downward slopes. Consequently, a torque:due to gravity, which varies with position is also present. Furthermore, when a train takes a turn the frictional force on wheels changes substantially. Thus, traction is an example where the load torque also depends on position or path followed. Various load torques can be broadly classified into two categoriesactive and passive. Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium condition are called active load torques. Such load torques usually retain their sign when the direction of the drive rotation is changed. Torque(s) due to gravitational force, tension, compression and torsion, undergone by an elastic body, come under this category. Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion are called passive load torques. Such torques are due to friction, windage, cutting etc. STEADY STATE STABILITY Equilibrium speed of a motor-load system is obtained when motor torque equals the load torque. Drive will operate in steady-state at this speed, provided it is the speed of stable equilibrium. Concept of steadystate stability has been developed to readily evaluate the stability of an equilibrium point from the steadystate speed-torque curves of the motor and load, thus avoiding solution of differential equations valid for transient operation of the drive. In most drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared to its mechanical time constant. Therefore, during transient operation, motor can be assumed to be in electrical equilibrium implying that steady-state speed-torque curves are also applicable to the transient operation. Examine the steady-state stability of equilibrium point A in Fig. 1.8(a). The equilibrium point will be termed as stable when the operation will be restored to it after a small departure from it due to a disturbance in the motor or load. Let the disturbance causes a reduction of m in speed. At new speed, motor torque is greater than the load torque, consequently, motor will accelerate and operation will be Page 12

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restored to A. Similarly, an increase of m speed caused by a disturbance will make load torque greater than the motor torque, resulting into deceleration and restoration of operation to point A. Hence the drive is steady-state stable at point A. Now examine equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives another load. A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater than the motor torque, drive decelerates and operating point moves away from B. Similarly, when working at B an increase in speed will make motor torque greater than the load torque, which will move the operating point away from B. Thus, B is an unstable point of equilibrium. Similarly examine the stability of points C and D given in Figs. 1.8(c) and (d).

Fig.1.8.points A and C are stable and B and D are unstable It suggests that an equilibrium point will be stable when an increase in speed causes load-torque to exceed the motor torque, i.e. when at equilibrium point following condition is satisfied:

(1.18) Inequality (1.18) can be derived by an alternative approach. Let a small perturbation in speed, m results in T and Tl perturbations in T and Tl respectively. Then from Eq. (1.2)

(1.19) Subtracting (1.2)from (1.19) and re arranging

(1.20) For small perturbations,the speed torque curves of the motor and load can be assumed to be straight lines.Thus Page 13

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(1.21)

(1.22) where (dT/dm) and (dTl /dm) are respectively slopes of the steady-state speed-torque curves of motor and load at operating point under consideration. Substituting Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22) into (1.20) and rearranging the terms yields

(1.23) This is a first order linear differential equation. If initial deviation in speed at t = 0 be ( m)O then the solution of Eq. (1.23) will, be

(1.24) An operating point will be stable when Aw.1 approaches zero as t approaches infinity. For this to happen the exponent in Eq. (1.24) must be negative. This yields the inequality of Eq. (1.18). LOAD EQUALISATION In some drive applications, load torque fluctuates widely within short intervals of time. For example, in pressing machines a large torque of short duration is required during pressing operation, otherwise the torque is nearly zero. Other examples are electric hammer, steel rolling mills and reciprocating pumps. In such drives, if motor is required to supply peak torque demanded by load, first motor rating has to be high. Secondly, motor will draw a pulsed current from the supply. When amplitude of pulsed current forms an appreciable proportion of supply line capacity, gives rise to line voltage fluctuations, which adversely affect other loads connected to the line. In some applications, peak load demanded may form major proportion of the source capacity itself, as in blooming mills, then load fluctuations may also adversely affect the stability of source.

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Above mentioned problems of fluctuating loads are overcome by mounting a flywheel on the motor shaft in non-reversible drives. Motor speed-torque characteristic is made drooping Motor (characteristic AC in Fig. 1.9). Alternatively, by closed loop current control torque is prevented from exceeding a permissible value (characteristic ABC in Fig. 1.10). During high load period, load torque will be much larger compared to the motor torque. Deceleration occurs producing a large dynamic torque component (J dm/dt). Dynamic torque and motor torque together are able to produce torque required by the load (Eq. (1.2)). Because of deceleration, the motor speed falls. During light load period, the motor torque exceeds the load torque causing acceleration Speed is brought back to original value before the next high load period. Variation of motor and load torques, and speed for a periodic load and for a drooping motor speed-torque curve (AC in Fig. 1.10) are shown in Fig. 1.11. It shows that peack torque required from the motor has much smaller value than the peak load torque. Hence, a motor with much smaller rating than peak load can be used and peak current drawn by motor from the source is reduced by a large amount. Fluctuations in motor torque and speed are also reduced. Since power drawn from the source fluctuates very little, this is called load equalization. In variable speed and reversible drives, a flywheel cannot be mounted on the motor shaft, as it will increase transient time of the drive by a large amount. If motor is fed from a motor- generator set (Ward-Leonard Drive), then flywheel can be mounted on the shaft of the motor- generator set. This arrangement equalises load on the source, but not the load on motor. Consequently, a motor capable of supplying peak-load-torque is required. Moment of inertia of the flywheel required for load equalisation is calculated as follows: Assuming a linear motor-speed-torque curve in the region of interest (drooping characteristic AC of Fig. 1.10)

(1.25) where m0,, mr and Tr are no-load speed, rated speed and rated torque, respectively. Because of slow response due to large inertia, motor can be assumed to be in electrical equilibrium during transient operation of the motor-load system. In that case Eq. (1.25) will be applicable for the transient operation also. Differentiating (1.25) and multiplying both sides by J gives

(1.26)

(1.27)

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(1.28) Term m is defined as the mechanical time constant of the motor. It is the time required for the motor speed to change by (m0- mr) when motor torque is maintained constant at rated value Tr. From equ.(1.2) & (1.27)

(1.29) Consider now a periodic load torque, a cycle of which consists of one high load period with torque Tlh and duration th, and one light load period with torque Tlh and duration tl (Fig. 1.11) For high load period (0 t th ) solution of Eq. (1.29) is

(1.30) where Tmin is the motor torque at t = 0, which is also the instant when heavy load Tlh is applied. If motor torque at the end of heavy load period is Tmax, then from Eq. (1.30)

(1.31) Solution of Eq. (1.29) for the light load period (th tth +tl ) with the initial motor torque equal to Tmax is

(1.32)

(1.33) When operating in steady-state, motor torque at the end of a cycle will be the same as at the Page 16

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beginning of cycle. Hence at t = tt , T= Tmin Substituting in Eq. (1.33) gives

(1.34)

(1.35) From (1.28) and (1.35)

(1.36) Also from Eq. (1.34)

(1.37) From Eqs. (1.28) and (1.36)

(1.38) Moment of inertia of the flywheel required can be calculated either from Eq. (1.37) or (1.38)

Where W is the weight of the flywheel (kg) and R is the radius (m).

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Operation of Separately Excited dc Motor Connected to Single Phase Half-controlled Rectifier The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 1.9

Fig.1.9.separately excited dc motor connected to single phase half controlled rectifier The output voltage of the converter is always positive and the current is also positive. The electrical power is drawn from ac mains and delivered to the motor. The motor can operate only in the first quadrant as motor. The equivalent circuit of the system is sho the Fig. 1.10

Fig.1.10 Equivalent circuit Thyristor T1 triggered at firing angle and thyristor T2 is triggered at angle + . The current a drawn by the armature may be continuous or discontinuous. The motor is said to be operating in discontinuous current mode or continuous current mode based on the nature of current drawn by the armature. Discontinuous current mode of operation : The waveforms of the voltages and currents for discontinuous mode of operation are shown in Fig. 1.11(a). The assumptions made in drawing the waveforms are: 1. Field current is constant, consequently the induced emf E is constant over one cycle of input voltage. This is true because the speed change is negligible over one cycle of input voltage (i.e., 20 m sec). Page 18

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3. The firing angle is such that 2 V sin > Eb 4 . is the extinction angle.

Fig.1.11(a).H.C.R waveforms of supply and load voltages and load current(discontinuous) Under discontinuous conduction mode there are three distinct intervals over each half cycle.

(1.39)

(1.40)

(1.41)

The expression for current Ia during duty interval is obtained by solving eqn. (1.39)

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(1.42)

Substituting this value of K1 in eqn. (1.42).

During freewheeling interval the expression for current is obtained from eqn. (1.42)

Ia at wt = is obtained from eqns. (1.43) and (1.45) and the RHS expressions are to obtain the value of constant K.

Substituting the value of K2 in eqn. (1.16), the expression for current during wheeling interval <wt < is obtained as

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Va is to be calculated using eqn. (1.20). This equation shows that speed for a given torque depends on firing angle a. The speed regulation is poor for discontinuous conduction mode. Moreover t pulsations occur. Hence in practical cases the current is made continuous by connecting some inductance in series with the armature. Continuous Conduction Mode The waveforms of voltages and current are shown in Fig. 1.11(b) for continuous cor mode of operation.

Fig.1.11(b) HCR Waveforms of supply and load voltages and load current (continuous current).

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can change from 0 to 180. For any load torque T, the speed can be changed by changing the firing angle . If is reduced the speed will increase. The torque speed characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.12

Fig.1.12 torque speed characteristics Separately Excited dc Motor Connected to Single Phase Fully Controlled Converter The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 1.13

Fig.1.13. Separately Excited dc Motor Connected to Single Phase Fully Controlled Converter Thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered at firing angle a and thyristors T3 and T4 are triggered at angle + . The current may be discontinuous or continuous. The waveforms of voltages and currents are shown in Fig. 1.8(a) for discontinuous current mode of operation. Since T 1and T2 are triggered at wt = the current starts increasing and at wt = the current becomes zero. T1 and T2 go to off state. J3 is greater than it but less than + . At wt = + , T3 and T4 are triggered and again the current starts increasing and becomes zero at + and at this instant T3 and T 4 go to off state. The operation repeats for every cycle of input voltage. Since the speed of motor will remain almost constant over one cycle of input voltage-and field Page 22

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current is constant the induced emf E b is taken as constant while drawing the waveforms. The waveform repeats in each half cycle. In each half cycle there are two intervals of operation. There are two modes of operation (a) discontinuous current mode, (b) continuous current mode. Discontinuous Current Mode of Operation: Derivation of expression for average voltage V applied to armature. The waveforms of supply voltage V, armature voltage Va, and armature current Ia are shown in Fig. 1.8(a). The expression for average ye applied to armature is derived as follows.

Fig:1.14.F.C.R. waveforms for separately excited dc generator (a) During < wt < the armature is connected to source and therefore Therefore Va= Vs

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The expression for current during first interval has two components. First component due to AC source 2Vsin wt and other due to Eb. The solution is

1.43

Substituting this value of k1, in eqn. (1.43)

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Armature current consists of dc component Ia and harmonics. When constant, only DC component produces steady torque. Harmonics produce alternating torque components, the average value of which is zero.

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Boundary between the continuous and discontinuous conduction is reached when = ( + ). Substituting = + gives the critical speed. For given vatue of , will be equal to ( + ) for a certain value of E. Substituting = + in eq. 1.28 and rearranging the terms, we get

Continuous current mode of operation: The waveforms of supply voltage V, armature voltage Va, and armature current a are shown in Fig. 1.15 (b).

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Fig.1.15(b) Waveforms of supply and load current (continuous current).

For controlling the speed of the motor the firing angle is varied from 0 to 90 only.

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Speed torque characteristics of 1ph fully controlled rectifier fed dc separately excited motor

Fig.1.16 speed torque characteristics of F.C.R Speed control of DC motor drives The main application of electric drives can be said as the need of Braking of DC motors . We know the equation to describe the speed of a rotating dc motor drives is as

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Now, according to this equation, the speed of a motor can be controlled by the following methods i. Armature voltage control ii. Field flux control iii. Armature resistance control Among all of these, armature voltage control is preferred because of high efficiency and good speed regulation and good transient response. But the only disadvantage of this method is that it can only operate under the rated speed, because the armature voltage cannot be allowed to exceed rated value. The speed torque curve for armature voltage control is shown below.

When speed control is required above the rated speed, field flux control is used. Normally in ordinary machines, the maximum speed can be allowed up to twice of the rated speed and for specially designed machines this can be allowed up to six times of the rated speed. The torque speed characteristics for field flux control are shown in the figure below.

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How the armature voltage control and field flux control is made to operate below and above the rated speed is shown in the figure below.

Now, finally coming to resistance control method. Here speed is varied by wasting power in an external resistor that is connected in series with the armature. This method is not used very much because it is Page 30

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an inefficient method of controlling speed and it is only used in the places where the speed control time forms only a fraction of the total running time, such as traction. The speed torque curve of dc motor drives is given below. Speed torque curves of dc motors with resistance control, Re: external resistance.

Factors affecting the choice of electrical drives The limits of speed range:The range over which the speed control is necessary ,for the load how hard it is to control the speed and speed regulation affects the choice of motor The braking :brasking should be easy and effective Starting requirements:Starting torque is necessary for load,the corresponding starting current drawn by the motor also affects the selection of the drive Power factor:Running of motors with low power factor is not at all economical .type of load and the running power factor of the motor are essential considerations. Load factor:Load variation factor(continuous,intermittent ) and duty cycle of the motor influences the selection of drive. Availability of supply : the motors available are s.c.or d.c but the availability of supply decides the motor to be selected for the drive Effect of supply variations :there is a possibility of supply voltage variations.the motor selected must be able to withstand such supply variations

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Economical aspects: the size and rating of motor decides its initial cost while the various losses, temperature rise etc.decides the running cost. Reliability of operation : it is important to study the conditions of stable operation of an electric drive.l Enviormental aspects: Contaminated or humid atmosphere affects the choice of electric drive

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