Atmospheric CO2, glaciation and ocean biogeochemical cycle during the Cenozoic Naokazu Ahagon (Hokkaido Univ.

) Past changes in the atmospheric pCO2 should be regulated by alkalinity of the ocean due to the long-term oceanic carbonate system equilibration through both continental weathering and biogeochemical process. Therefore, increase in orogeny (i.e., Himalayan uplift) during the Cenozoic played a major role in Cenozoic cooling by reducing atmospheric pCO2 (e.g., Raymo et al., 1988). Inversely, episodic volcanisms triggered global warming by increasing CO2 in this timescale. In this context, variations in atmospheric CO2 and climate during the Cenozoic should be tectonically controlled as pointed out by BLAG model. Recently, climate modeling depicted that ephemeral ice-sheet in Antarctica could appear at mid-late Eocene when the atmospheric pCO2 level was around three-fold of Present Atmospheric Level (DeConto & Pollard, 2003). Atmospheric pCO2 ranged between 1000-1500ppmv in mid-late Eocene and then decreased in several steps during the Oligocene. At the latest Oligocene, pCO2 was equivalent to modern level and then as low as 200ppmv in the Middle Miocene (Pagani et al., 2005). When such ephemeral ice-sheet accelerated the increase in alkalinity through continental weathering and/or shelf to basin transport of calcium carbonate via sea-level change, the carbonate compensation depth (CCD) was transiently pushed down and then recorded as Eocene CCD excursions in Pacific sediments (Lyle et al., 2005). Subsequently, the Eocene-Oligocene boundary marks a permanent deepening of global CCD by more than 1 km that associated with the major glaciation of Antarctica. Oxygen isotope record around E/O boundary indicates that duration in development of Antarctica glacier was only 300 kyr. Theses evidences support strong relationship between atmospheric CO2 levels and glaciation of Antarctica but the causal mechanism has not yet understood. However, CO2 -glaciation relationship in the icehouse world is still matter of debate. Several results imply that the global cooling and ice growth during the Neogene are not associated with decrease in atmospheric pCO2 (e.g., Pagani et al., 1999; Pearson & Palmar, 2000). In contradict to marine proxies, stomatal reconstruction from fossil plant indicates that the atmospheric CO2 was increased by 1.8 PAL at Mid-Miocene

warmth (Krschner et al., 2008). More recently, Lunt et al. (2008) argued that Late Pliocene Greenland glaciation was mainly driven by a decline in atmospheric CO2 levels during the Pliocene. Because the atmospheric pCO2 is estimated to be ~400ppmv during mid-Pliocene (Raymo et al., 1996), only net decline of ~120ppmv to preindustrial level (280ppmv) is responsible for Greenland glaciation. They used both coupled AOGCM and ice sheet model to assess the effects on major four hypotheses for northern hemisphere glaciation (i.e., closure of the Panama seaway, ENSO, mountain uplift and CO2). If the hypothesis proposed by Lunt et al. is most probable one for expansion of northern hemisphere ice-sheet after ~3 Ma, small changes in atmospheric CO2 can control the northern hemisphere ice-sheet and have impact to future climate change driven by rising CO2 levels. During Pliocene warmth, North Pacific sediment was characterized by higher opal deposition due to higher nutrient availability by vigorous mixing with subsurface waters. The opal productivity was suddenly decreased at the Northern Hemisphere glaciation at 2.7Ma, presumably caused by surface ocean stratification owing to sea-ice condition or excess precipitation over evaporation (Haug et al., 2005). Such surface ocean stratification could lead further feedback of declining CO2. However, pCO2 estimates in the geologic past have still large uncertainty or conflicting results among proxies. Further improvements in CO2 proxy records are required. The role of oceanic gateways is still necessary to understand because it affects heat, water and salt transports among ocean basins. Particularly, in contrast to Panama Gateway, evolution of Indonesian Passage during the Cenozoic and its effect on climate have not well investigated by paleoclimate community. Indeed, change in nature of Indonesian Throughflow in todays ocean can strongly affect global climate. In addition, switch in source water of Indonesian Througflow from South Pacific to North Pacific waters could lead cooling of the Indian Ocean and then increase the aridity of Africa in Pliocene (Cane & Molnar, 2001). Future planning of Pacific paleoceanography should focus at this point.

Sedimentology, Paleoceanography

IODP ICDP

Dec.4-6, 2008, Nasu, Tochigi Pref.

IODP INVEST meeting proposals

Takashi ITO (Faculty of Education, Ibaraki University) I would like to propose a few scientific views regarding paleocenanographic study for new stage of IODP. Theses are standing in just scientific point of view without political, technical and financial problems.

Proposal TI-1) Paleoceanography of anoxic and hydrothermal basins

Objectives - To reconstruct degree and type of hydrothermal activity through Earth history - To understand geochemistry and microbiology in anoxic-hydrothermal area - To understand the origin of Precambrian banded iron formation based on comparable study with modern analog Significances - Hydrothermal activity within anoxic environment is very precious, because sulfide phase of hydrothermal deposits under the anoxic condition will be preserved well without oxidization. So, we will be able to reconstruct the degree and type of hydrothermal activity with high time resolution. - In surrounding area of anoxic and hydrothermal basins, processes of oxidation and subsequent sedimentation of metal are carried out. Understanding of these processes will be a key to realize the origin of the sedimentary ore deposits, i.e. Precambrian banded iron formation (BIF) and Phanerozoic bedded manganese deposits. - The relationship between hydrothermal activity and surficial productivity will also be important. - Geochemistry and microbiology in anoxic and hydrothermal basin is important as the advanced study of present Initial Science Plan, IODP. Potential drilling sites - Red Sea History of drilling - Red Sea: DSDP Leg 23, Sites 225-230 (e.g. Stoffers and Ross 1972) - Red Sea: Many commercial based drilling cores (e.g. Crossley et al. 2007) References Crossley et al. (2007) Jour. Petroleum Geol., 15, 157-172. Stoffers and Ross (1972) Int. Rept. DSDP, 23, 849-865.

Proposal TI-2) Paleoceanography based on time-space distribution of sedimentary and hydrothermal ore deposits
Objectives - To reconstruct paleoceanographic environments based on time-space distribution of sedimentary and hydrothermal deposits composed of redox sensitive elements, and on their mineralogical, chemical and isotopic signals. - To redefine origin of sedimentary and hydrothermal deposits based on the most advanced technology and comprehensive viewpoints. Especially, to date the metallogenetic epoch and to situate the epoch at the paleocenographic timescale in high resolution. Significances - The ocean drilling targeted origin of ore deposits has been carried out only in few hydrothermal ore deposits (e.g. Juan de Fuca Ridge: Goodfellow et al. 1999). Non-hydrothermal sedimentary deposit is out of scheme in previous DSDP/ODP programs except some evaporites (e.g. Hsu, 1983). But, in addition to common paleontological and geochemical studies for sediments, metallogeny and time-space distribution of sedimentary and hydrothermal ore deposits are important to understand comprehensive sedimentary environments. For example, shallow marine manganese deposits develop at the oxic-anoxic interface of a stratified basin (e.g. Force and Cannon, 1988). In addition to direct studies for anoxic sediments, shallow marine sides surrounding anoxic basins are also a key of understanding of OAE events - Age determination methods have made spectacular progress. Regarding oceanic ore deposits, Re-Os methods and Sr-Os isotopes stratigraphy are developing (e.g. Klemm et al. 1995). Using such new developed techniques, dating and correlation of the metallogenetic epoch to paleocenographic timescale in high time resolution will give us new perspective. Potential drilling sites - Off Groote Eylandt, Northern Territory, Australia - Cretaceous ocean anoxic basin and surrounding area - Okinawa trough - Tertiary Kuroko basin (land drilling) History of drilling - Juan de Fuca Ridge: ODP Legs 139, 169 (Goodfellow et al. 1999), IODP Exp. 301 - Cretaceous ocean anoxic basin: Many DSDP/ODP Legs. References Force, E.R. and Cannon, W. F. (1986) Economic Geology, 83, 93-117. Goodfellow et al. (1999) Review in Economic Geology, 8, 297-324. Hsu, K.J. (1983) The Mediterranean was a desert, Princeton University Press. Klemm et al. (2005) Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 238, 42-48.

Cenozoic Antarctic Ice History and Establishment of Marine Biotic Provinces: Biotic response to the Cenozoic stepwise cooling and partitioning of oceans.
Masao IWAI Department of Natural Science (Geology), Kochi University Akebono-cho 2-5-1, Kochi 780-8520 Japan Key Questions: The ecological provinces of the open ocean are principally controlled by physical properties of the ocean with nutrient limitation. How were the oceanic frontal system and/or stratification of water which affected by the global cooling established? How those work to the partitioning of marine provinces? How do the fundamental mechanisms of partitioning of Oceanic Provinces differ to those on land? Our understanding to those key questions is essential to the evolutional biogeography and also important to better understanding of global biogeochemical cycles. Target time interval: The Cenozoic has been a period of long-term cooling from the relatively warm and sea-ice-free Cretaceous and Early Eocene greenhouse to the Quaternary icehouse world, which was affected by plate tectonic processes such as the break-up of Gondwana supercontinent. Cooling of the polar region led increased contrast of water temperature in both latitudinal and vertical, and subdivided water bodies. Relatively few records are before Miocene. Target area: As a case study, the author proposes the latitudinal transect drilling in the Southern Pacific Ocean. Several DSDP-ODP cruises are performed and one IODP cruise has been planed in the Antarctic continental margin to reveal the Antarctic Ice History, however, poor core recovery restrict our understanding of the detail. Also relatively few drilled sites in the Southern Pacific Ocean restrict our understanding on the regional paleoceanography and temporal variation and changes of flora and fauna.

Paleoceanography below carbonate compensation depth (CCD): toward better understanding for glacial carbon reservoir (Yusuke Okazaki1, Yusuke Suganuma2, Kana Nagashima1) 1 Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology 2 Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo

The Earths climate experienced 100 kyr glacial-interglacial cycles during the last million years. Analysis on ice cores from the Antarctic has revealed that atmospheric CO2 content varies in harmony with glacial-interglacial cycles. During the last glacial period, atmospheric CO2 content was estimated to be approximately 80 ppm lower than the pre-industrial level. However, we have no consensus to explain the lower CO2 content. Because the mass of carbon stored as terrestrial biomass was smaller during glacial than during interglacial periods, deep-ocean must be a major carbon reservoir during glacial periods. However, our knowledge on glacial properties of deep water (i.e., temperature, salinity, nutrient and carbonate ion contents) is still scarce because of the difficulty to establish reliable age-model and lack of quantitative paleo-proxy due to the poor preservation of carbonate (i.e., foraminifer shells) below carbonate compensation depths (CCD). Such deep-sea with carbonate-free sediments are distributed in vast area of the Pacific and Southern Ocean (Fig. 1). The Pacific Ocean deep water would have been a major glacial carbon reservoir due to its great volume. However, there is little knowledge on the glacial Pacific deep water. The Southern Ocean is the most important area to understand orbital-scale carbon cycle and climate because mechanisms centered in the Southern Ocean explaining near-synchronicity between Antarctic temperature and atmospheric CO2 during the termination I, which is not observed in the high-latitude Northern Hemisphere. We propose to reconstruct orbital scale variations in ocean circulation and carbon cycles in the vast area below CCD in the Pacific and Southern Ocean by the following strategies. 1. Establishing reliable age model based on geomagnetic field intensity and cosmogenic nuclide (10Be), comparable with the Antarctic ice-core records. 2. Reconstruction of water-mass properties and productivity employing silicates (biogenic opal and quartz) preserved in sediments below CCD

Details: 1. Age model establishment based on relative geomagnetic field intensity and cosmogenic nuclides Normally, age model for open-ocean sediments is constructed by using
14

C dating and oxygen

isotope carve fitting of foraminifer shells. However, these methods are unable to adopt for deep-sea sediments below CCD due to poor preservation of foraminifer CaCO3 shells. Recent progress in relative paleointensity studies has revealed that open-ocean marine sediments

record long-term (10 to 100 kyr) secular changes of the geomagnetic field intensity (Fig. 2). These accumulated paleointensity records has allowed establishment of composite stacks of geomagnetic field intensity, which has been applied to develop original age models in deep sea sedimentary sequences. Production rate of cosmogenic nuclides, such as 10Be, fluxes is also largely controlled by geomagnetic field intensity. Hence, temporal changes in cosmogenic nuclide fluxes recorded in marine sediments can be used as a tracer for the geomagnetic filed intensity and dating tool likewise paleointensity (Fig. 3). Further, geomagnetic field intensity and cosmogenic nuclide flux records in marine sediments are permitted direct comparison with cosmogenic nuclide flux records in ice cores, allowing us to establish fairly accurate age model even in carbonate-free sediments.

2. Validation for a synthesis scenario by Sigman and Boyle (2000) Among numerous models explaining lower atmospheric CO2 content during glacial period, a synthesis scenario by Sigman and Boyle (2000) is persuasive (Fig. 4). They suggest that lower atmospheric CO2 during the last glacial period was caused by changes in water-mass structures with intensified stratification and changes in nutrient utilization and rain ratio with enhanced aeolian dust fluxes in the Southern Ocean. In order to examine this hypothesis, reconstruction of (1) water-mass structure and (2) relationship between eolian dust flux and biological productivity relating to the wind system change such as the westerly jet axis is required. We propose that oxygen isotope from biogenic opal could be a water-mass proxy adopt for poor CaCO3 preservation area. Microorganisms making siliceous shells dwell from surface (diatoms and radiolarians) to intermediate (radiolarians) and deep (sponges) water. Thus, vertical water-mass structure can be reconstructed if their oxygen isotopes retain information on water-mass (i.e., temperature and salinity) when they produced their shells. Fortunately, the Southern Ocean and the subarctic Pacific have abundant diatom production, thus we can easily collect sufficient amount of silicates from the sediments. Eolian dust flux and their provenance can be reconstructed based on the physical properties and oxygen isotope of quartz in sediments, providing information on the past wind system. Biological productivity is reconstructed based on various proxies such as biogenic opal, barium, nitrogen isotope, biomarkers and diatom assemblages. These reconstructed data would be strong constraints for the lower glacial CO2 model.

Recent paleoceanographic studies are mainly focused on high-resolution analysis from high accumulation sediments. However, sediments from open-ocean must have recorded unique information such as deep-water property. We propose that we should pay attention to not only shallow and high accumulation area but also deep and low sedimentation area and try to seek evidences toward better understanding for past ocean circulation and carbon cycle.

Fig. 1. Map of the sediment distribution of CaCO3 content (Sarmiento and Gruber, 2005).

Fig. 2. Synthetic record (Sint-800) with its standard error obtained from the stack of 33 records of geomagnetic field intensity (Guyodo and Valet, 1999).

Fig. 3. Changes in (a) d18O, (b) 10Be concentration, and (c) 10Be flux records in the Greenland ice core during the last 60 kyrs (Muescheler et al., 2005).

Fig. 4. The modern ocean (a, b) and a Southern Ocean-based hypothesis for reduced levels of atmospheric CO2 during glacial times (c, d) (Sigman and Boyle, 2000).

Cenozoic paleoceanography in the North Pacific

Shin-ichi Kamikuri and Isao Motoyama (University of Tsukuba)

[Background] The North Pacific is unique in the worlds ocean. At present, the North Pacific is the terminus of the deep water circulation route originating in the northern North Atlantic Ocean and the Antarctic Sea, and the beginning of the return surface circulation. These old deep waters are nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor and highly corrosive to calcium carbonate. Passes through the Aleutian and Kuril arcs provide exchange sites for deep waters that exert a strong influence on the properties of North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) and possibly deeper waters. The North Pacific includes two major surface circulation systems (the subtropical and subarctic gyres) and an oceanic frontal zone (the subarctic front), which have migrated over several degrees of latitude on both short and long time scales. The area is a source of heat and moisture for the North American continent and is one of the most biologically productive areas of the world ocean. The climatic evolution of the Earth during the Cenozoic largely reflects a trend toward lower temperatures and cryospheric development of the polar region in the Northern Hemisphere (Zachos et al., 2001). This evolution resulted from decrease of atmospheric CO2 and/or increase of poleward atmospheric and ocean heat transport by the opening or closing of oceanic gateways. Gateways are narrow passages linking the major ocean basins, and changes in their configuration alter the amount of seawater exchanged between oceans, as well as the heat and salt carried by seawater. Several scientists have proposed that gradual changes in key gateways (Indonesian, Central American and Bering seaways) caused glaciations by altering the poleward transport of heat and salt (e.g., Cane and Molnar, 2001). During the early Cenozoic, open circulation between the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans was possible through the Indonesian Seaway (Kennett et al., 1985). During the late Neogene, the establishment of water exchange between the northern North Pacific and Atlantic would probably have strongly influenced general ocean circulation, and hence global climate. The open connections between two huge water masses with different temperatures have resulted from the first opening of the Bering Strait (Marincovich and Gladenkov, 1999). However, how these interocean exchanges affected oceanic and atmospheric circulation in the North Pacific are not well known. Atmospheric circulation and its link to oceanic surface circulation and biological productivity are important components of global climate change (Rea, 1994). The past variations in zonal wind intensity have poorly understood, because direct evidence for changes in zonal wind strength is rarely preserved in sedimentary deposits. Temporal changes in the intensity of atmospheric circulation are reflected in size distribution of small eolian particles transported in equilibrium with the winds. Eolian particles isolated from pelagic sediments will provide us with an opportunity to investigate the nature and variability of the Cenozoic atmospheric circulation intensity. Studies of regional opal sedimentation rates of the North Pacific demonstrated significant redistribution of accumulation rates in the latest early and late Miocene and early Pliocene and suggest a marked change in biological productivity. However, how this change in opal sedimentation is related to changing ocean circulation as yet is undefined.

[Objective] Our primary objective is to obtain complete and continuous sequences of Cenozoic biogenic sediments in order to understand sedimentation, paleoproductivity, oceanic circulation and wind patterns during the Cenozoic in the North Pacific. Specific paleoclimatic-ceanographic questions to be addressed include the followings: 1. 2. 3. 4. How did the atmospheric circulation on the North Pacific evolve through the Cenozoic? How did the Cenozoic mass balance of carbonate and opal burial change in detail? How did the North Pacific CCD move through the Cenozoic? How did the subtropical and subarctic gyres evolve through the late Cenozoic as a response to increased global glaciations? 5. What was the nature of the subtropical and subarctic gyres during the Oligocene and early Miocene after the formation of the Japan and Okhotsk Seas? 6. What was the nature of circulations during the middle and late Miocene after the partial closure of Indonesian seaway? 7. 8. What was the nature of circulations during the early Pliocene after the opening of the Bering seaway? What was the nature of circulations during the late Pliocene after the closure of Central American seaway but before the onset of Pleistocene glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere? 9. How did the Bering circulation evolve through the Cenozoic?

10. How did the Okhotsk circulation evolve through the Neogene after the formation of Okhotsk sea? 11. How do the changes of the surface water circulation affect North Pacific Intermediate Water? 12. How do the oceanographic changes in the North Pacific affect biological productivity?

[Drilling plan] Bering and Okhotsk Seas and Northwest Pacific

Cane, M.A. and Molnar, P., 2001. Closing of the Indonesian seaway as a precursor to east African aridification around 3-4 million years ago. Nature 411, 157-162. Kennett, J.P., Keller, G., and Srinivasan, M.S. 1985. Miocene planktonic foraminiferal biogeography and paleoceanographic development of the Indo-Pacific region. In: Kennett, J.P. (ed.), The Miocene Ocean. Geological Society of America, Memoir 163: 197-236. Marincovich, L.Jr. and Gladenkov, A.Y., 1999. Evidence for an early opening of the Bering Strait. Nature 397, 149-150. Rea, D.K., 1994. The paleoclimatic record provided by eolian deposition in the deep sea: the geologic history of wind. Reviews of Geophysics 32, 159-195. Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Tomas, E. and Billups, K., 2001. Trends, Rhythums, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present. Science 292, 686-693.

Estimation of changes in future oceanographic environment based on past oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) Azumi KUROYANAGI (Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo) During the Mid-Cretaceous (Barremian-Turonian), oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) occurred several times and they were distinguished by discrete beds of black shale and/or pronounced carbon isotopic excursion. Changing nutrient availability and/or upper water column structure would be the causes of plankton turnover at or near the OAEs (Leckie et al., 2002). For example, largest and most heavily calcified plaktonic foraminifera were seriously affected by the ocean-climate changes associated with OE1b. In contrast, the deepest-dwelling planktonic foraminifera were eradicated (22% species became extinct, while 20% speciation rate for a total of 42% species turnover) during OAE2 which was likely caused by an expanded oxygen minimum zone associated with elevated productivity and/or by the decay of the thermocline due an abrupt deep-sea warming event (Leckie et al., 2002). Global surface air temperature (SAT) has increased 0.6 0.2C over the past century. The average annual discharge of fresh water from the six largest rivers to the Arctic Ocean increased by 7% from 1936 to 1999, and the average annual rate of increase was 2.0 0.7 km3/year (Peterson et al., 2002). The Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projects a global SAT rise between 1.4 and 5.8C by 2100. Thus, discharge from the six largest Eurasian arctic rivers alone would increase by 0.01 to 0.04 sverdrup (315 to 1260 km3/year) by 2100 (Peterson et al., 2002). Freshwater sensitivity experiments suggested that 0.060.15 sverdrup of additional freshwater entering the northern Atlantic, after which North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) formation cannot be sustained (e.g., Clark et al., 2002). Freshwater input and SAT rise, causing a decreasing of vertical mixing of water column and shallowing of the lysocline (strong thermohaline stratification). Therefore it would be lead to a deep water anoxia and changes in ocean circulation, water column stratification and nutrient partitioning affected a reorganization of planktonic community structure in future. In general, most fish cannot live below 30% dissolved oxygen saturation, and a "healthy" aquatic environment should seldom experience under less than 80% of dissolved oxygen level. Previous studies reported that the relationship between

foraminifera and oceanographic conditions (temperature, salinity, food availability, light intensity, water column stratification, etc.) (e.g., Sautter and Thunell, 1989; Watkins et al., 1996; Kuroyanagi et al., 2008). However, the foraminiferal biological reaction to changing dissolved oxygen has never been examined from viewpoint of calcification under low dissolved oxygen level because of the difficulty of observation and/or control of dissolved oxygen under the modern ocean condition. Planktonic foraminifera keep records of the upper ocean environments in their assemblage and individual tests. Culture experiments investigate quantitatively the relationship between foraminiferal ecology and parameters such as temperature, salinity, light intensity, etc. (e.g., Bijma et al., 1990). These laboratory studies provide detailed biological information under controlled conditions, but must be examined for their applicability to field conditions. In order to estimate the changes in biological reaction of planktonic foraminifera with dissolved oxygen, 1) culture experiments and 2) reconstruction of foraminiferal changes in combination with dissolved oxygen during the OAEs would be effective and appropriate resolution.

[References] Bijma J., Faber Jr.W.W., Hemleben C. (1990) J. Foraminifer. Res., 20, 95-116. Clark, P.U., Pisias, N.G., Stocker, T.F., Weaver, A.J. (2002) Nature, 415, 863-869. Kuroyanagi, A., Kawahata, H., Nishi, H., Honda, M.C. (2008) Paleogeogr., Paleoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 262, 115-135. Leckie P.M., Bralower T.J., Cashman R. (2002) Paleoceanography, 17, 13-1. Peterson, B.J. et al. (2002) Science, 298, 2171-2173. Sautter, L.R., Thunell, R.C. (1989) J. Foraminifer. Res., 19, 253-267. Watkins, J.M., Mix, A.C., Wilson, J. (1996) Deep-Sea Res. II, 43, 1257-1282.

Reconstruction of long-term variability of the solar activity based on geomagnetic field intensity and flux of cosmogenic nuclides recorded in deep-sea sediments: possible connections among the climate, sun, and geomagnetic filed
Y. Suganuma*1, Y. Yokoyama*1,2, H. Miyahara*3, T. Yamazaki*3
*1

Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo,

*4

*2

IFREE JAMSTEC,

*3

ICRR, University of

Tokyo,

Geological Survey of Japan, AIST

Recently, a possible link between solar activity and climate variation in decadal and century scales has been debated (e.g., Rind, 2002). Moreover, the past variability of solar activity has
10

been reconstructed by flux of cosmogenic nuclides (14C,

Be, etc.) recorded by tree rings and ice However, the variability of

core, suggesting their linkage in longer time scale (Beer et al., 2006). 2006), which is too small to explain the observed climate variations (Foukal et al., 2006). On the other hand, there are other ways that solar variability may affect climate, such as a terrestrial amplifier of the spectral irradiance variations (Haigh et al., 1996), or an indirect mechanism driven by the solar activity. The later can be GCR induced realized by galactic cosmic rays (GCR) via the ionization effect in the atmosphere. ionization is the principle source of the ionization of the low and middle atmosphere and can slightly modulate cloud formation, which is likely to affect climate through changes in transparency/absorption/ reflectance (e.g., Svensmark, 1997). Because the flux of GCR is modulated by solar magnetic activity, this phenomena provides a possible link between solar variability and climate (1234 in Figure 1).

the total solar irradiance over a typical 11-year solar cycle is only approximately 0.1% (Froehlich,

On the other hand, the flux of GCR is not only controlled by solar activity, but also by the strength of the geomagnetic field largely. nuclides, such as
10

When the geomagnetic field intensity is low, GCR can

10

more easily penetrate into the Earths atmosphere and then increase the production of cosmogenic Be. Figure 2 shows that dependence of the Be production rate on the geomagnetic field intensity and the solar activity. In the last two decades, paleomagnetic studies

on marine sediments have revealed long-term (10 to 100 kyr) and large-amplitude
variations
on the geomagnetic field intensity (e.g., Guyodo and Valet, 1999). This indicates that reconstruction of

the past variability of solar activity using the flux change of cosmogenic nuclides urgently needs correction by the geomagnetic field intensity. intensity possibly affects could formation and climate, in especially longer time scale (5
2
3
4 in Figure 1). However, the most reconstructions of the past solar activity have not been sufficiently corrected by the geomagnetic field intensity and they usually focused only on the relationship between solar activity and climate. Therefore, a highly accurate reconstruction of the past solar activity using cosmogenic nuclides corrected by a high-resolution geomagnetic field intensity record is needed in order to understand the relationship among the climate, sun, and geomagnetic field. Here, we propose that the possible connections among the climate, sun, and geomagnetic field should be assumed to be one of the main challenges in the next IODP phase. Although, conventional piston coring strategy is limited by time coverage especially in case of higher sedimentation rate, new drilling plans in IODP are able to recover long-term sedimentary records with high sedimentation rate in order to provide high-resolution cosmogenic nuclides (in this case
10

Moreover, the variation of the geomagnetic field

Be) and geomagnetic field intensity variability.

Because very limited input of terrestrial Moreover, equatorial zone is suitable for this These new

materials is needed for cosmogenic nuclides analysis, preferable drilling sites are thought to be open ocean area except the west wind belt zones. study because of higher sedimentation rate originated to high biological productivity. needed for test the possible connections among the climate, sun, and geomagnetic field.
Haigh, J.D. (1996) The impact of solar variability on climate, Science, 272 981984. Beer, J., M. Vonmoos, and R. Muscheler (2006), Solar variability over the past several millennia, Space Science Reviews , 125, 67-79. Rind, D. (2002), Climatology - The sun's role in climate variations, Science, 296, 673-677. Svensmark, H., and E. FriisChristensen (1997), Variation of cosmic ray flux and global cloud coverage - A missing link in solar-climate relationships, Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 59, 1225-1232. Guyodo, Y., C. Richter, and J. P. Valet (1999), Paleointensity record from Pleistocene sediments (1.4-0 Ma) off the California Margin, Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth, 104, 22953-22964. Foukal, P., C. Frohlich, H. Spruit, and T. M. L. Wigley (2006), Variations in solar luminosity and their effect on the Earth's climate, Nature, 443 , 161-166. Frohlich, C. (2006), Solar irradiance variability since 1978 - Revision of the PMOD composite during solar cycle 21, Space Science Review,

drilling plans in IODP will arrow to reconstruct the long-term solar activity in high accuracy that is

New research topics: Past ocean acidification events in Earth history and Initiation of modern coral reef development
Atsushi SUZUKI Geological Survey of Japan National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) AIST Tsukuba Central 7, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8567 Japan Ph +81-29-861-3769 Fax +81-29-861-3765 E-mail a.suzuki@aist.go.jp I have recognized two scientific themes, which can be considered as new research topics suitable for future science plan of the Integrated Ocean Frilling Program (IODP) beyond 2012: (1) Past ocean acidification events in Earth history, and (2) Initiation of modern (Quaternary) coral reef development. Details of each topic are described below. (1) Past ocean acidification events in Earth history The first topic involves the recently-emerged problem ocean acidification(IPCC, 2007). The words ocean acidification could not be found in the text of the Initial Science Plan (ISP, 2001), probably because scientific community had not yet realized the importance of this new threat to the global ocean at the time. Since then, several researches have been conducted on the reconstruction of paleo-pH in seawater during the glacial time and the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM, 55 Ma ago). In particular, PETM event may be an analog for present-day changes due to fossil fuel combustion and intensive studies have been conducted on the event. However, our knowledge on the magnitude of past pH changes in the ocean is still surprisingly limited (Kleypas et al., 2006; Figure 1). In order to constrain the past pH changes in the ocean, systematic approach will be needed. The boron isotope ratio of biogenic carbonate is used as a proxy for ocean pH. However, there is concern about large uncertainties in the technique. The Zn/Ca ratio in benthic forams appears to covary with the carbonate ion concentration of bottom waters. More calibration experiments are needed for improving reliability of these proxies. Relationship among seawater pH, carbonate production by marine calcifiers and community structure of marine organisms is an important topic. There seems to be evolutionary responses of calcifiers against the long-term changes in the carbonate chemistry in the ocean. Materials recovered by scientific drilling from marine deposits would be suitable for better examination on the hypotheses. Within 5-6 years, the next IPCC report will be due and published. Scientific results relating past-pH changes in the ocean will be cited by the future version of IPCC reports for showing the range of natural variations of the Earth systems. (2) Initiation of modern coral reef development -1-

The second theme is on the initiation of modern (Quaternary) coral reef development and the major questions of the research are when and why modern coral reef development started? Scientific drilling in the Great Barrier Reef revealed that coral reef formation was initiated ca. 600 kyr ago (Alexander et al., 2001; Figure 2). Similar results have been reported from Ryukyu Islands in the NW Pacific (Sakai, 2003). Hawaiis oldest drowned reef terrace located at 1440 m below sea level was correlated to MIS15 (ca. 600 kyr ago, Webster et al., 2007). The timing of the earliest coral atoll development on Henderson Island (Eastern Pacific) extends back to at least MIS 15 (570620 ka) (Andersen, 2008). These agreements could indicate that MIS 15 coral reef development was synchronous across much of the Indo-Pacific region at least. This topic was not directly discussed in the ISP, although environmental changes in the mid Pleistocene were recognized as an important topic. The reason for this increase in shallow water coral formation is still under debate. The onset of larger amplitude saw-tooth 100 k.y. cycles at marine isotope stage 17 may be a trigger for the initiation of coral reef growth (Alexander et al., 2001). Increased warming of the Pacific warm pool (Sakai, 2003) or changes in ocean chemistry (Lawrence and Herbert, 2005) were also proposed as a controlling factor of the initiation of coral reef developments. The supply and recruitment of coral larvae from distant sources would be another factor for supporting reef growth (Andersen, 2008). To test hypothesis relating coral reef initiation, deeper drilling of coral reef deposits over several glacial cycles will be needed and may stimulate a broad range of study listed below: 1) High-resolution paleoclimate reconstruction over the several glacial cycles: Well-preserved fossil corals provide paleoclimate information for well-dated windows of the more distant past. By employing isotopic ( O) and trace element (Sr/Ca, Mg/Ca) technique in concert, changes in both SST and seawater O (related to salinity and hydrological balance) can be resolved (dual proxy technique). The method allow us to assess the seasonal and long-term variabilities of SST and precipitation anomalies, as well as the frequency and magnitude of ENSO and Monsoon-related events, for several glacial cycles. 2) Long-term variation in coral reef health: High water temperature destroys the symbiotic relationship between the host coral and algae and results in coral. Suzuki et al. (2003) indicated that isotopic microprofiling method may be the key to identifying gaps in coral growth that are diagnostic of past bleaching events. In addition, skeletal 3C or the relationship between 3C and 8O can be used as a potential indicator of metabolic condition of corals, or coral health (Suzuki et al., 2003). Coral reefs have been influenced by several severe events in the past including rapid sea-level and temperature change. Understanding of the past coral health condition may be important to predict future change in coral reef ecosystems. Historical changes of carbon cycle in coral reef systems would be another subtopic, which may be related to natural variation in seawater pH during the glacial cycles. -2-

Figure 1. Geologic history and projection of (a) atmospheric pCO2 and (b) modeled changes in pH over the same time period. Horizontal dashed lines indicate the range of predicted pCO2 peak atmospheric CO2 concentration over the next century. Dark lines are average historical pCO2 values, while gray shading indicates one standard deviation. After Ridgwell and Zeebe (2005)

Figure 2. The origin of the Australian Great Barrier Reef (Alexander et al., 2001). MPR, is mid-Pleistocene revolution in cyclicity of deep-sea foraminiferal calcite 18O record. First 100 k.y. 18O cycle is often considered to be marine isotope stages 22 and 23, but classical large-amplitude saw tooth 100 k.y. cycles did not appear until stage 17.

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References
Alexander I, Andres M, Braithwaite C, Braga JC, Cooper MJ, Davies PJ, Elderfield H, Gilmour MA, Kay RLF, Kroon D, McKenzie J, Montaggioni L, Skinner A, Thompson R, Vasconcelos C, Webster J, Wilson P (2001) New constraints on the origin of the Australian Great Barrier Reef: results from an international project of deep coring. Geology 29:483486. Andersen, M.B., Stirling, C.H., Potter, E.-K., Halliday, A.N., Blake, S. G., McCulloch, M. T., Ayling, B. F., O'Leary, M.(2008) High-precision U-series measurements of more than 500,000 year old fossil corals. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 265, 229-245. IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Kleypas, J.A., R.A. Feely, V.J. Fabry, C. Langdon, C.L. Sabine, and L.L. Robbins (2006) Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine Calcifiers: A Guide for Future Research, report of a workshop held 1820 April 2005, St. Petersburg, FL, sponsored by NSF, NOAA, and the U.S. Geological Survey, 88 pp. Lawrence, K.T., Herbert, T.D. (2005) Late quaternary sea-surface temperatures in the western coral sea: implications for the growth of the Australian Great Barrier Reef. Geology 33 (8), 677-680. Ridgwell, A., Zeebeb, R.E. (2005) The role of the global carbonate cycle in the regulation and evolution of the Earth system. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 234, 299-315. Sakai, S., 2003. Shallow-water carbonates record marginal to open ocean Quaternary paleoceanographic evolution. Paleoceanography, 18 (4). Suzuki, A., Gagan, M. K., Fabricius, K., Isdale, P. J., Yukino, I., and Kawahata, H. (2003) Skeletal isotope microprofiles of growth perturbations in Porites corals during the 1997-1998 mass bleaching event. Coral Reefs, 22, 357-369. Webster, J. M., Wallace, L., Clague, D., and Braga, J. C., 2007, Numerical modeling of the growth and drowning of Hawaiian coral reefs during the last two glacial cycles (0-250 kyr): Geoch. Geophys. Geosyst v. 8, no. Q03011, p. doi:10.1029/2006GC001415.

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BI-POLAR TEMPERATE OCEANS AS A TEMPERATE SHOCK-ABSORBING

Noritoshi Suzuki (Tohoku Univ.) & Yoshiaki Aita (Utsunomiya Univ.)

Introduction Strong paleoceanographic changes have been triggered by the North Atlantic and the southern oceans, but the effect of the Pacific is little understood on the precise resolution of view. The Pacific is so large that this ocean might be a paleoceanographic shock-absorbing against the extreme changes in the North Atlantic and southern oceans. This shock-absorbing may be exist in the temperate regions of the both hemisphere, because the volumes of temperate oceans are changeable with the balance between cool and warm waters. If shock-absorbing disappears with the enhancement of one or both waters, the global extreme paleoceanographic changes could start. Temperate regions in the North Pacific is also a mixed region of different water masses, which causes to produce new marine organisms with competition for survival, and to jump the population of marine organisms in the chance of mixture. My background We have been studying the temperate radiolarian faunal changes from the Middle Eocene to Pliocene in the temperate North Pacific and the temperate South Pacific. Radiolarians show zonal distribution probably with zonal sea water temperature, and it was presumed that faunal assemblages showed similar between the both temperate oceans. The species composition of both temperate oceans is rather comparable, but we recognize many issues: (1) In regardless of similar ecological regions (e.g. temperature, salinity, nutrient in the modern oceans), the dominated species are definitely different between them; (2) The majority of the dominant species does not live in the tropical zones, why can the same (morphologic) species be separately distributed in the both hemisphere, even for the trophic species;

(3) Tropical and cool species were occasionally invaded in the temperate North Pacific, but it has not recorded in the temperate South Pacific; (4) Our comparisons between the temperate North and South Pacific conclude that the similar composition of radiolarian species has established in the Early Miocene, at least. When did the similarity start? Did the temperate species can evolved in the same matter since the Early Miocene? Is there no possibility on the faunal replacement?; (5) Similar phenomena seem to be recognized in planktic foraminifers, mollusks and others. What kind of marine organisms made such bi-polar distribution?; and (6) The paleoceanographic system for the establishment and sustainment of the bi-polar distribution is unknown. Based on the knowledge of Late Eocene to Pliocene radiolarians in the temperate North and South Pacific, temperate oceans are important target not only for shock-absorbing but also the evolution of marine organisms.

Target The suitable samples are very limitedly recovered from the temperate North Pacific and South Pacific to solve such issues, probably because of non-calcareous sediments. However, the biostratigraphy of radiolarians and diatoms has progressed in the both temperate region, the thoughtful study can start under the current biostratigraphic knowledge. Target samples should be cored from siliceous sediments as well as calcareous sediments in these regions, although the target sites should be selected with preliminary investigation. Stratigraphic intervals: From the uppermost Eocene to Pleistocene; Zones: 35 to 45 paleo-latitudes in the North and South Pacific. Target organisms: radiolarians, diatoms, dinoflagellate, nanno-fossil, and forams.

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Itsuki Suto (Nagoya University, e-mail: suto.itsuki@a.mbox.nagoya-u.ac.jp)

Importance of Chaetoceros resting spore studies The marine diatom genus Chaetoceros is one of the most important taxa in present oceans, especially coastal upwelling regions (Hasle & Syvertsen, 1996) and their contribution accounts for 20-25% of total marine primary production (Werner, 1977). Under nutrient-rich conditions, most Chaetoceros species reproduce rapidly and form long chains of thin-walled cells, just like normal vegetative diatoms, but their valves are not preserved as fossil due to dissolution (Itakura, 2000). On the other hand, as nutrient supplies are depleted, most of them form thick-walled resting spores which sink to the sea floor, where they await the return of favorable conditions that nutrients are provided again by upwelling (McQuoid & Hobson, 1996). The heavily silicified resting spore valves are preserved in sediment as fossils and abundantly occurred from near-shore sediments in association with other fossil diatom valves. The fossil resting spores can be preserved as significant constituents in fossil marine diatom assemblages, which provide useful information for reconstructing paleoproductivity and paleoenvironmental changes.

Chaetoceros Explosion Event across the Eocene/Oligocene boundary The taxonomy of resting spores is less well understood because their corresponding vegetative frustules are rarely preserved along with the resting spores and their valve structures are simple. No attention, therefore, has been paid to the significance of resting spores from a geological point of view, which contrast well with that the taxonomy and biostratigraphy of fossil diatoms from Cenozoic sediments have been studied intensively in several oceans by using marine sedimentary successions collected by the DSDP, ODP and IODP (e.g. Yanagisawa & Akiba, 1998). Recently, a firm taxonomic basis form the classification of fossil resting spores in biostratigraphic and paleoceanographic research, using Eocene through the Recent samples from DSDP Site 338 in the Norwegian Sea, Site 436 and Holes 438A&B in north-western Pacific and several on-land sections (e.g. Suto, 2006). As the result, distinct resting spore event (Chaetoceros Explosion Event, CEE), including abrupt changes in their species richness (explosive 10-fold increasing), abundance (abruptly increasing) and their average valve sizes (half reducing) was documented from the DSDP Site 338 within a ~6 myr time interval across the Eocene/Oligocene boundary (Suto, 2006). Based on evaluation of the ecologic differences between Chaetoceros and cyst-forming dinoflagellates, Suto (2006) indicated that i) the role of main primary producer might have switched from dinoflagellate in the Eocene to diatom, especially

Chaetoceros, in the Oligocene; ii) the conditions in the Norwegian Sea changed from stable with a constant (annual) nutrient supply provided by upwelling in winter in the Eocene, to unstable with a sporadic supply of nutrients by increased vertical mixing in the Ocean after the development of Antarctic Circumpolar Current leading enhanced nutrient supply to the surface waters (Falkowski et al., 2004). The CEE event was also recognized in the DSDP Holes 366 and 369A, eastern equatorial Atlantic Ocean (Suto, in prep.), the event, therefore, might occur in all over the world oceans. Moreover, the evolution of the Mysticeti (baleen whales), which consumes a lot of copepods mainly eating diatoms, from the Archaeoceti (paleowhale) across the Eocene/Oligocene boundary, coincides with CEE. Consequently, CEE is likely to have enhanced the evolution of whales (Chaetoceros-baleen whale co-evolution hypothesis)(Suto presented in AGU, 2007).

Proposed locations for coring In order to testify the CEE hypothesis, we need to study core samples containing fossils of Chaetoceros resting spores collected from the high latitude, near-shore upwelling regions where baleen whales are feeding (e.g Southern and North Pacific Oceans) before breeding in low latitudes. For this study, we need samples from the continuous marine sedimentary succession with Chaetoceros resting spores from the Eocene to the Oligocene with little gaps. But there are limited core samples covering E/O boundary because the upper Eocene sediments have been eroded in many marine cores and there is a hiatus at that boundary (e.g. DSDP Sites 274, 338, ODP Site 908). Moreover, the information on changes in abundance of resting spore in association with those of normal fossil diatom valves cores is very limited. Furthermore, it is difficult to know the occurrence of resting spores from the previously published literatures, because they have been out of the scope of investigations for most of diatom researchers. If we can collect core samples from Eocene to Oligocene sedimentary successions without any gap from the upwelling region in the Southern Ocean, we will achieved not only to reconstruct the paleoproductivity and paleoenvironmental changes in the ocean and to clarify the causes, process, and effect of CEE and the evolution of baleen whale enhanced by diatoms, but also to establish and refine an Eocene through Oligocene normal diatom zonation which will increase reliability of diatom biostratigraphy.

Plio-Pleistocene Evolution and Glacial/Interglacial Changes in the Bering Sea: Summary of Scientific Drilling Objectives for an IODP Expedition Kozo Takahashi (Kyushu U), Christina Ravelo (UC Santa Cruz) and Carlos Alvarez Zarikian (IODP, Texas A & M U) Over the last 5 my, global climate has evolved from being warm with only small Northern Hemisphere glaciers and ice sheets (~5-3 Ma) to being cold with major Northern Hemisphere glaciations occurring every 100 to 40 ky. The reasons for this major transition are unknown. Although there are data to show that the Pacific experienced oceanographic reorganizations that were just as dramatic as those in the Atlantic, the scarcity of data in critical regions of the Pacific (the largest ocean with arguably the largest potential to influence global climate) has prevented an evaluation of the role of North Pacific processes in global climate evolution. Over the last hundreds of thousands of years, glacial/interglacial and millennial scale climate oscillations have occurred also due to mechanisms that are unknown, although several studies from the North Pacific subtropical and mid-latitude regions indicate that the generation and/or transmission of climate oscillations around the globe might involve intermediate water ventilation of the North Pacific. Drilling in the Bering Sea to recover comprehensive records of environmental conditions during periods of time with different climate boundary conditions, can help answer questions about the global extent of climate oscillations mechanisms that produce them. This expedition will obtain sedimentary sequences study the Pliocene-Pleistocene evolution of millennial to Milankovitch scale climatic oscillations in the Bering Sea, the marginal sea connecting the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Paleoclimatic indicators will be used to generate complete and detailed records of changes in the biological, chemical and physical oceanographic conditions in the Bering Sea, as well as of the adjacent continental climate. In addition to being sensitive to regional and potentially global climate change, the Bering Sea is one of the source regions of the North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW). Since the production of the NPIW is thought to be tied to global climate change and to Pacific Ocean circulation and nutrient distributions, investigating the evolution of conditions in regions of NPIW formation is critical forunderstanding Pacific paleoceanography (Fig. 1). Drilling in the Bering Sea will also document the effect of changes in the Bering Strait Gateway region (Fig. 1). The Bering Strait is the main gateway through which communication (flux of heat, salt and nutrients) between the Atlantic and Pacific, via the Arctic Ocean, occurs today. Investigating the evolution of the Bering Strait is critical to an understanding of transitions in global ocean heat and nutrient budgets. Detailed high resolution paleoenvironmental reconstructions from the Bering Sea has not been achieved in the past, although there was some reconnaissance work during DSDP Leg 19 and piston core work focused on generating paleoceanographic records from the latest Pleistocene (Fig, 2). The planned drilling, including triple APC holes at all sites, will provide the first continuous sedimentary records that can be used to reconstruct the history of this important marginal sea and its role in global changes over the past 5 my. Specifically, the sedimentary records from the Bering Sea will provide an understanding of: The evolution of Pliocene-Pleistocene surface water conditions, paleoproductivity, and sea-ice coverage, including millennial to Milankovitch scale oscillations. The history of past production of the Pacific Intermediate and/or deep water masses within the marginal sea, and its link to surface water processes.

The interactions between marginal sea conditions and continental climate. The linkages between processes in the marginal sea (e.g. variations in deep water formation, or water mass exchange through gateways) and changes in the pelagic Pacific. An evaluation of how the history of ocean/climate of the Bering Strait gateway region may have had an effect on north Pacific and global conditions. All of these scientific objectives will focus both on the long term ocean and climate trends, as well as the evolution of higher frequency glacial-interglacial to millennial scale oscillations through the Plio-Pleistocene.

Fig. 1. Planned IODP drill sites and highlights of the objectives in the Bering Sea. Fig. 2. Relative abundances of Cycladophora davisiana during the last 100 k.y. in the Bering Sea, the western subarctic Pacific (circle = Cores BOW-9A, BOW-12A, UMK-3A, and GAT-3A and Site ES [Emperor Seamount, in the subarctic Pacific]), and the Okhotsk Sea (square = Cores PC1, PC2, and PC4; data from Okazaki et al., 2003). B. Distribution patterns of Cycladophora davisiana: the present (redrawn from Lombari and Boden, 1985), marine isotope stage (MIS) 1, the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), and MIS 5-3. Arrows indicate source regions of past NPIW (Tanaka and Takahashi, 200

Gas hydrate in the continental margin

Hitoshi Tomaru New Energy Resources Research Center, Kitami Institute of Technology, Koen-cho 165, Kitami 090-8507, Hokkaido, Japan E-mail: tomaru@mail.kitami-it.ac.jp Tel: 0157-26-9533 Tectonic and climate processes, that are ones of the key topics of recent earth sciences, constrain significantly the stability of marine gas hydrate. There have been closely related two major aspects resulting from massive dissociation of gas hydrates in the continental margins; seafloor instability causing a slope failure, and massive release of methane into the marine/atmosphere environments. Marine gas hydrates generally fill pore spaces and impart mechanical strength of host sediments. Slight change in pressure and/or temperature of seafloor can rapidly and widely dissociate gas hydrates because of their sensitivity to the stability condition of pressure and temperature. The decomposition of gas hydrate-cemented sediment releases hydrocarbon gases, mostly methane in natural environment, to the ocean and atmosphere, which may reduce the slope stability and result in slope failure, slumping, and landslide (Bnz et al., 2003). Furthermore, methane has a strong potential of global warming about 20 times larger than the same volume of carbon dioxide. The global warming caused by gas hydrate dissociation can increase global temperature and thus induce further gas hydrate dissociation, triggering catastrophic chain reactions (Kennett et al., 2002). Release of huge amount of methane is also hazardous to the global system. Seawater and possibly atmosphere become anoxic after a massive dissociation of gas hydrates because of increased amount of methane that is strongly reductive carbon, and may cause mass extinction. Recent studies have revealed that there are some lines of evidence of catastrophic climate changes due to the gas hydrate dissociations. Matsumoto (1995) and Dickens et al. (1995) pointed out the methane release from gas hydrate during the latest Paleocene thermal maximum (LPTM) by 13C anomalies in carbonates. A 1.121018 g of methane releasing due to hydrate dissociation with 13C of -60 over 104 years is well consistent with the geological records (Dickens et al., 1997). Hesselbo et al. (2000) also considered the possibility of methane hydrate

dissociation during a Jurassic anoxic event on the basis of 13C anomalies in carbonates. Kennett et al. (2000) discussed the methane release due to hydrate dissociation during Quaternary interstadials using planktonic 18O and 13C anomalies in the Santa Barbara Basin, and concluded that gas hydrate stability was modulated by intermediate-water temperature changes induced by switches in thermocline circulation. Bratton (1999) examined clathrate eustasy that is a mechanism of gas hydrates controlling sea level. Sea level rise associated with thermal expansion can be offset by a decrease of hydrate volume due to their dissociation, and this may explain anomalous sea level falls during ice-free periods such as the early Eocene, the Cretaceous, and the Devonian. An important issue of the research focused on marine gas hydrate system is that these events can take place near future in relatively short time compared to other geological events because of the strong instability of gas hydrates against the pressure and temperature. The drilling research is useful to observe present condition of sub-seafloor gas hydrates, observation/monitoring of the gas hydrate and the related-phenomena, however, must be conducted to investigate and expect behavior of gas hydrate system. Here we propose the development of observation system on gas hydrates, e.g. monitoring of geochemical and geophysical changes of pore water, gas, and sediment in borehole as well as the P-T conditions. Fluid and gas expulsion from the seafloor is also an important proxy of sub-seafloor gas hydrates and is a direct input of methane and fresh water into marine/atmospheric environments. Monitoring of the flux and geochemistry of fluid and gas from the seafloor should be carried out together with the deep observations to investigate the entire nature of marine gas hydrate system and assess the potential geohazards such as landslides and global environment changes. This research integrates the environmental change models induced by gas hydrate dissociation in the past with that may occur in the future. Western margin of the Pacific Ocean, including Nankai Trough, Japan Sea, South China Sea, Okhotsk Sea, and Bering Sea, is proposed for this integrated gas hydrate studies because of the ubiquitous presence of gas hydrates and gas hydrate-related phenomena, e.g. gas seepage on the seafloor, and BSR and gas charged sediment structure on seismic records, in different geological settings (Fig. 1). Both pore space-filling and massive/nodular gas hydrates occur in backarc and forearc locations where subduction-induced geological activities such as accretion, thrust/fault, and earthquakes have been developed. The spacious investigation in this region is, therefore, feasible for the comparison of factors controlling gas hydrate behavior among occurrences, geological settings, and geological activities through the earths history.

Reference Bratton, J.F., 1999. Clathrate eustacy: Methane hydrate melting as a mechanism for geologically rapid sea-level fall. Geology, 27: 915-918. Bunz, S., Mienert, J. and Berndt, C., 2003. Geological controls on the Storegga gas-hydrate system of the mid-Norwegian continental margin. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 209: 291-307. Dickens, G.R., O'Neil, J.R., Rea, D.K. and Owen, R.M., 1995. Dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate as a cause of the carbon isotope excursion at the end of the Paleocene. Paleoceanography, 10: 965-971. Dickens, G.R., Castillo, M.M. and Walker, J.C.G., 1997. A blast of gas in the latest Paleocene: Simulating first-order effect of massive dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate. Geology, 25: 259-262. Hesselbo, S.P. et al., 2000. Massive dissociation of gas hydrate during a Jurassic oceanic anoxic event. Nature, 406: 392-395. Kennett, J.P., Cannariato, K.G., Hendy, I.L. and Behl, R.J., 2000. Carbon isotopic evidence for methane hydrate instability during Quaternary interstadials. Science, 288: 128-133. Kennett, J.P., Cannariato, K.G., Hendy, I.L. and Behl, R.J., 2002. Methane Hydrates in Quaternary Climate Change: The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis. Amer Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 216 pp. Matsumoto, R., 1995. Causes of the 13C anomalies of carbonates and a new paradigm 'Gas Hydrate Hypothesis'. J. Geol. Soc. Japan, 101: 902-924.

Fig. 1: Western margin of the Pacific Ocean. Stars represent locations where gas hydrates were collected or gas hydrate-related phenomena were observed.

Piling-up event maps: para-para comic strategy for elucidating dynamism of global events
during greenhouse period Hasegawa, Takashi (Kanazawa Univ., School of Natural Systems) Recent progress of carbon isotope stratigraphy for important global events including Cretaceous oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) and Paleogene thermal maximum events enable us an orbital scale correlation between remote regions for each event. Causal factor, variation and pattern of 4-dimentional (temporal and spatial) propagation of certain paleoceanographic event can be discussed under age control of ~10 kyr accuracy. Here I propose global array of paleoceanographic data for important events that allows global paleogeographic reconstruction on each time slice at an interval of ~10 kyr. In other words, it means drawing event map that shows paleogeographic extent of the event (extraordinary conditions) for each ~10 kyr across the event interval. Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum encompassing 110 kyr requires pile-up of eleven global event maps, for example. As is movie cartoon that is composed of silent pictures but produces dynamic action of a hero, time series of such event map should reconstruct a dynamic feature of each paleoceanographic/ paleoclimatological event. Here I call this strategy as para-para comic strategy for elucidating dynamic reconstruction of greenhouse events. The name is taken from Japanese moving line-drawing sometimes found at a corner of a comic booklet. Focusing on specific horizons and assembling data from various localities over the extensive area is, however; not conformable to current operation policy of IODP vessels. While each voyage may require less than one month as it targets specific time interval only, Para-para comic strategy requires multiple cruise. Once the strategy appears on new science plan of next IODP, an umbrella proposal focusing on specific event, OAE2 for example, with multiple compact regular proposals (to drill one or two sites for each) will be submitted as a new proposal style. The key issues of this strategy are global array of data and super high resolution. For global array of data for greenhouse events during Cretaceous or Paleogene, extensive virgin area remains over middle to high latitude Pacific. The difficulty for that area is derived mainly from following reasons: Sediments on oceanic plate have been lost during the subduction. Even they survive on the plate, they are composed of siliceous material barren in sophisticated paleoceanographic proxy. What contributes toward overcoming these difficulties? Two options seem to be available for us Exploring fore-arc basin sediments that preserve target events with well-preserved carbonate microfossils is the one of them. Because the Pacific is surrounded by subduction zones, fore-arc basins sequences are known from land as well as submarine record (the Yezo Group and its submarine counterpart are the example. Similar sediments are known from California-British Colombia and New Zealand). They potentially preserve useful paleo-proxy as known from the Haboro area in Hokkaido (Moriya et al., 2003). Another option is to develop paleoceanographic

proxies for siliceous sediments. It contains very important science that contributes paleoceanography but is beyond the scope of IODP science plan. Once we recognize a fore-arc sedimentary sequence as a suitable target (it should preserve continuous event sequence and carbonate material available for paleoceanographic proxies) for certain event, we can take advantage of its sedimentation rate for super high resolution study. The rate sometimes reaches 400 m/myr (Hasegawa and Saito, 1993) and allows us 500 yr resolution taking bioturbation into account. Fore-arc basin sediment does not preserve only oceanic environment but also terrestrial climatic information that offers land-ocean linkage during the event. Terrestrial information will be a crucial part of our global array of data. Fore-arc basin drilling seems to be essential for the Para-para comic strategy. To test the efficacy of studies on fore-arc sediments, I propose to drill off-Miyagi sequence targeting Late Turonian Events. Based on the current knowledge about Cretaceous fore-arc basin sediments along the NE Honshu Island (Ando, 2003), sediments of off-Miyagi Prefecture preserves Cenomanian through early Coniacian sequence and available for studies on the proxies. The Late Turonian sequence should record initial gradual cooling after the Cenomanian-Turonian thermal maximum (Jenkyns et al., 1994) that can be interpreted as a first step of climatic trend from greenhouse environment toward icehouse earth (long term aspect). A large magnitude of eustatic sea level drop (as much as 100 m)(hardenbol et al., 1998) is remarkable short term event during Late Turonian. The cores from off-Miyagi provide a good opportunity to evaluate terrestrial climatic response to large scale sea level drop on the ice-free earth. Short-term carbon isotope events (three conspicuous events, namely Bridgewick, Hitch Wood and Navigation Events within ~500 kyr)(Jarvis et al., 2006) provide clear chemostratigraphic anchor horizons that are prerequisite for reliable interregional correlation. From Norfolk section in the UK, additional seven positive peaks are observed in addition to the three major carbon isotope events suggesting potential orbital scale resolution through the Late Turonian Event interval (Jarvis et al., 2006). Exploring OAE2 sequence associated with diagenetically not altered carbonate microfossils for the proxy study is another important purpose of the drilling mission. Para-para comic strategy should work effectively on resolving secular variation of the global feature through the event.
References Ando, H. (2003) Stratigraphic correlation of Upper Cretaceous to Paleocene forearc basin sediments in Northeast Japan: Cyclic sedimentation and basin evolution. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 21, 921-935. hardenbol, J., Thierry, J., Farley, M.B., T. Jacquin, de Graciansky, P.C. and Vail, P.R. (Editors), 1998. Mesozoic and Cenozoic sequence chronostratigraphic framework of European basins. Mesozoic and Cenozoic sequence stratigraphy of European basins, 60. SEPM (Society of Sedimentary Geology) Special Publication. Hasegawa, T. and Saito, T. (1993) Global synchroneity of a positive carbon isotope excursion at the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary: validation by calcareous microfossil biostratigraphy of the Yezo Group, Hokkaido, Japan. Island Arc, 2, 181-191. Jarvis, I., Gale, A.S., Jenkyns, H.C. and Pearce, M.A. (2006) Secular variation in Late Cretaceous carbon isotopes: A new 13C carbonate reference curve for the Cenomanian-Campanian (99.6-70.6 Ma). Geological Magazine, 143, 561-608. Jenkyns, H.C., Gale, A.S. and Corfield, R.M. (1994) Carbon- and oxygen-isotope stratigraphy of the English Chalk and Italian Scaglia and its palaeoclimatic significance. Geological Magazine, 131, 1-34. Moriya, K., Tanabe, K., Nishi, H., Kawahata, H. and Takayanagi, Y. (2003) Demersal habitat of Late Cretaceous ammonoids: Evidence from oxygen isotopes for the campaign (Late Cretaceous) northwestern Pacific thermal structure. Geology, 31, 167-170.

Reconstruction of the atmospheric circulation system during the past greenhouse period
Hitoshi Hasegawa, Ryuji Tada (The University of Tokyo)

Understanding the behaviour of the Earths climate system during the past greenhouse period has profound implications for the consequences of ongoing global warming. Proxy data demonstrated that the equator-to-pole temperature gradient was much lower during the mid-Cretaceous and/or early Eocene supergreenhouse periods than at present, implying larger meridional heat transport by intensified atmospheric and/or oceanic circulation. However, reconstruction of atmospheric circulation during the Cretaceous has been hampered by a lack of appropriate data sets based on reliable proxies. We reconstructed temporal changes in the latitude of the subtropical high-pressure belt and its divergence axis during the Cretaceous, based on a reconstruction of spatio-temporal changes in the latitudinal distribution of desert deposits and the prevailing surface-wind patterns recorded in the Asian interior (Fig. 1). We found a poleward shift in the subtropical high-pressure belt during the early and late Cretaceous greenhouse periods, suggesting a poleward expansion of the Hadley circulation. In contrast, an equatorward shift of the belt was found during the mid-Cretaceous extremely warm supergreenhouse period, suggesting drastic shrinking of the Hadley circulation (Fig. 2). These results, in conjunction with recent observations of increasing Hadley cell width with the increase in atmospheric CO2 level, suggest the existence of a threshold in atmospheric pCO2 and/or global temperature, beyond which the Hadley circulation shrinks drastically (Fig. 3). In search for supporting evidences of such drastic shrinking of the Hadley circulation during the past greenhouse period, reconstruction of the paleo-location of the subtropical high-pressure belt from the marine record is essential. Therefore, we propose to conduct latitudinal transects of pelagic sea sediment cores of the mid-Cretaceous and/or PETM and early Eocene ages from the central Pacific and/or central Atlantic. Eolian records (grain-size, flux, lithologic composition) in pelagic sea sediment might provide us with information on the changes in latitudinal distributions of the subtropical high-pressure belt at that time.

Fig. 1 Spatio-temporal changes in the distribution of climatesensitive sediments and paleowind directions in the Asian interior during the Cretaceous.

Fig. 2 Temporal changes in the latitude of the subtropical highpressure belt, calculated sea surface temperatures (SSTs), and occurrences of ocean anoxic events (OAEs) during the Cretaceous.

Fig. 3 Inferred evolutionary trends of the changing atmospheric circulation pattern in response to climatic warming (from icehouse to greenhouse), and the conceptual scheme of the latitudinal changes in the width of the Hadley circulation vs. atmospheric CO2 levels.

IODP Research proposals Kazuhiko Fujita (University of the Ryukyus)

1. Revealing causes, timing and magnitudes of sea-level changes during Terminations During glacial-interglacial transitions known as Terminations, ice volume decreased, instead sea level, temperatures, and greenhouse gas concentrations increased abruptly (e.g., Petit et al., 1999 in Nature; Lambeck et al., 2002 in Nature). Thus, Terminations are regarded as possible analogues for modern climate changes and associated rapid environmental changes. Since key parameters such as ice volume, sea level and temperature are closely related to each other, the precise reconstruction of sea levels during Terminations is critical for understanding ice-sheet dynamics and suborbital climate variability. Previous studies showed that the last deglaciation (Termination I: TI) was characterized by rising sea levels and SSTs associated with several rapid climate events such as meltwater pulses (MWPs) and Younger Dryas (YD) climate reversal. Detailed climate and environmental changes during TI will be revealed soon by IODP Expedition 310 (Tahiti Sea-Level) and the forthcoming Great Barrier Reef Expedition. On the other hand, structures of older Terminations are not yet clear. Particularly, course, timing, and magnitude of sea-level changes during older Terminations have yet to be reconstructed in detail. Studies on the termination of the penultimate glacial period (Termination II: TII) are progressing and revealing the timing, events and suborbital variability of climate changes during this deglaciation (e.g., Cannariato and Kennett, 2005 in Geology; Siddall et al., 2006 in Geology). Lately, a new shallow-water sequence has been found from offshore Tahiti by IODP Exp. 310 (Fujita et al., submitted; Iryu et al., submitted), which is the first complete and direct evidence to record sea levels and associated environmental changes during TII. The sea-level changes during TII reconstructed by these works were characterized by the two steps of rising sea-levels with intervening sea-level drop, suggesting the presence of the sea-level reversal event during TII (Esat et al., 1999 in Science; Siddall et al., 2006 in Geology). Such sea-level reversal event is similar to the YD climate reversal event, though the YD event was not associated with sea-level drop. However, there remains to be answered if this phenomenon was common during the periods of rising sea levels or unusual only during TII. Furthermore, causes of the sea-level reversal events during TII and older Terminations if exists are not yet known. Thus, the purposes of this proposal are 1) to reconstruct sea levels and associated environmental changes during older Terminations, 2) to compare similarity and differences in sea-level changes among several Terminations, and 3) to reveal the existence and causes of sea-level reversal events during Terminations. Resulting sea-level data and associated

environmental records will contribute to 1) the modeling of ice-sheet dynamics and 2) the understanding of biological responses such as coral reefs to rapid environmental changes. Proposed drilling sites are French Polynesia (Tahiti), which has tectonically slow and constant subsidence rates and is located at considerable distance from the former major ice sheets (far-field). Several cores on transects from shallow shelf to shelf slope are recovered and analyzed. Collaboration with carbonate sedimentologists (sequence stratigraphy),

paleontologists (paleodepth estimates by reef fossils), and geochemists (u-series dating by corals, SST/SSS by coral archives) are required.
2. Interactions between secular variations in seawater chemistry and bio-calcifications
Biomineralization of marine organisms is controlled not only by intrinsic factors (cellular activity), but also by external (environmental) factors such as seawater chemistry.

Recent studies revealed that the magnesium/calcium (Mg/Ca) ratio and absolute concentration of Ca in seawater have oscillated during Phanerozoic time, which has been driven by changes in rates of deep-sea igneous activity. Such secular variations in seawater chemistry influenced the precipitation of non-skeletal carbonates (e.g., Hardie, 1996 in Geology). Experimental and paleontological evidences suggest that marine calcifying taxa with weak biological control of calcification (simple biocalcifers; e.g., algae, sponges, bryozoans) have also changed their shell mineralogy and chemical composition according to secular variations in seawater chemistry (e.g., Stanley, 2006 in Palaeo-3). On the contrary, some taxa with strong intrinsic control of calcification (sophisticated biocalcifers; e.g., mollusks and probably foraminifers) do not appear to have changed their shell mineralogy and chemical composition against secular variations in seawater chemistry. They evolved the ability to form a particular crystal and limit the incorporation of trace elements (magnesium) against secular variations in seawater chemistry. These taxa, however, have tended to be influenced by secular variations in seawater chemistry at the time of their originations (e.g., foraminifers; Martin, 1995 in Global Planet. Change).
Paleontological evidences for the linkage between secular variations in seawater chemistry and shell mineral and chemical compositions of marine taxa are still rough. This interesting hypothesis should be tested in more detail. Particularly, the following two points remain to be solved. the one point is at which lower taxonomic level this hypothesis is applicable to, and the another is if different responses of marine taxa on

secular variations in seawater chemistry are related to calcification mechanisms.

Thus, the purpose of this research proposal is to reveal a linkage between shell

mineral and chemical compositions of marine calcifying organisms and secular variations in seawater chemistry. Hypotheses tested are that for simple biocalcifers, shell

mineralogy and chemical compositions of a taxon have been changed with secular variations in seawater chemistry. On the other hand, for sophisticated biocalcifers, shell mineralogy and chemical compositions of a taxon have been determined by seawater chemistry at the time of its origination. Outcome of this research will reveal (1)
the internal forcing of the Earth (volcanisms) affecting biomineralization, (2) long-term biogeochemical cycles of major and minor elements through marine calcifying organisms, and (3) new insights into bio-calcification studies.

Materials necessary for this research are well-preserved (i.e., showing little or no signs of diagenesis), continuous marine sediment cores from both shallow seas (reefs and shelves) and deep seas. Previous archives by ODP and IODP are also available. Target ages are from Jurassic through Recent, when seawater chemistry changed from Aragonite Sea (Jurassic) through Calcite Sea (Cretaceous and Paleogene) again to Aragonite Sea (Neogene). Various marine calcifying taxa (corals, algae, sponges, bryozoans, foraminifers both planktonic and benthic, cocolithophores, ostracods, pteropods) are investigated. For sophisticated biocalcifers, the first appearance datum (FAD) of each taxon is determined in cores, and shell mineralogy and trace elements to calcium ratios of the specimens around the FAD are measured. 3. Drilling deep lagoons of atolls: a new archive to record low-latitude environmental changes in glacial times Deep lagoonal sediment is proposed as a new archive to record low-latitude environmental changes in glacial times. A deep lagoon is defined as a lagoon with a water depth deeper than 50 m. Present deep lagoons are generally enclosed by reefs as physical barriers. The lagoons and the ocean are connected only through channels. Therefore, deep lagoons have calm and slow water circulation relative to the open ocean. Lagoonal sediments are composed mainly of carbonate muds and sands of inorganic or organic origin. Hummocky cross stratification with pits, hollow and bumps is observed, indicating bottom-water currents and some degrees of bioturbation. However, millimeter-scale lamination is also found in lagoonal sediments, suggesting anaerobic environments of the lagoonal floor (Scoffin, 1987). Previous studies of shallow lagoons less than 20 m in water depth showed that the lagoonal floors were subaerially exposed during glacial times, and that lagoonal sediments recorded environmental changes associated with Holocene transgression

(e.g., Gischler, 2003 in Sed. Geol.). On the other hand, studies on subsurface sediments of deep lagoons are very scarce because of their limited accesses (e.g., Yamano et al., 2002 in Mar. Geol.). The water depths of deep lagoons together with slow subsidence of basement volcanic rocks, however, suggest that lagoonal floors may not be exposed at least during the early part of glacial times. In addition, cyclic variations of sedimentations may be observed in response to climate fluctuations between interstadial and stadial periods. Furthermore, decreasing trends of glacial sea levels suggest that deep lagoons have been gradually closed from the open ocean, possibly becoming more anaerobic environments during glacial times. Therefore, in addition to environmental changes in deep lagoons (e.g., anaerobic conditions of lagoonal floors, developments of surrounding reefs), low-latitude climate variability of the atmosphere (e.g., locations and intensity of trade winds, precipitation, dust deposition) and the ocean (e.g., upwelling and oceanic productivity) may be recorded in deep-lagoon sediments. This possible new archive will provide independent climate records at low-latitude, tropical setting. Proposed drilling sites are deep lagoons of central Pacific atolls across the equator (Tuvalu-Kiribati-Marshalls volcanic chains). Most of the atolls have lagoons of >50 m in depth. The atolls are influenced by equatorial currents generated by trade winds. Thus, the atoll chain is an ideal setting to reconstruct low-latitude environmental changes during glacial times, mainly generated by temporal variations in trade winds and insolations.

Evolution of diversity and biogeography in marine organisms through the Cenozoic

Isao Motoyama and Shin-ichi Kamikuri (Earth Evolution Sciences, University of Tsukuba) Abstract Environmental effect on the past Earths life is the central issue of paleoecology and paleoenvironmental sciences and, moreover, we now face environmental problems including global warmings that are suspected of reducing biodiversity in associated with reduction of environmental variation on the planet. In order to understand how warmings and coolings affected large-scale ecosystems from the equator to the poles, we here propose latitudinal mapping of diversity and biogeographic provinces of marine microorganisms in pelagic realms on time-slices since 65 million years ago. Paleodiversity and paleobiogeography---why do they matter? High-latitude, cold climate regions are known to be significant components in forming characteristic ecosystem and are likely to be strongly influenced by future climate change. The well-known increasing concentration of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are believed to cause a global warming. The boreal and subarctic regions are thought to be particularly sensitive to regional or global environmental changes, because global greenhouse warming is expected to be greatest at high latitudes. This is indeed doing damage to life and extinguishing biogeographical provinces in the polar regions. There is, however, no clear understanding of the effects of warmings upon the global biodiversity. A general view of the global climatic change that is given by the oxygen isotope ratio (Zachos et al., 2001) clearly show alternating coolings and warmings, some of which were accompanied by sea level changes and/or changes in extent of ice sheets. This suggests that there are keys to understand environmental effect on Earths life in the paleontological records. Although a lot of contributions have discussed changes of biodiversity in terms of background and mass extinctions of higher rank taxonomic groups (Raup and Sepkosky, 1986) and evolution of body plans (Gould, 1989), todays interest in terms of climatic impacts is on the species level phenomena. In order to predict future biological changes as a result of the ongoing environmental changes, it is very important to understand past environmental changes and their effects upon life and ecosystems Changes of diversity and biogeography in space and time Marine organisms respond to three important environmental gradients, the latitudinal gradient, the depth gradient and the coastal to open water gradient. We primarily focus on the latitudinal gradient of pelagic microplanktons because their historical change proves to what happened in oceanic communities on the globe when significant climatic changes occurred. One of our great interests is regional difference in response of communities to global warmings and coolings, especially between the tropics and the polar regions. Do warmings result in reduction in biodiversity both in low- and high-latitude regions or promote the contrast between there with reduced diversity in high-latitudes and increased diversity in low-latitudes? What happens in mid-latitudes? Another interest is difference in response to climate changes between different taxonomic groups. The Cenozoic microfossil records show possible interaction between different planktic groups: i.e., decreasing abundance and diversity of dinoflagellates has been associated with increasing abundance and diversity of diatoms. This indicates importance of multi-taxa-based analyses rather than one fossil group to evaluate diversity of a total community. Multi-taxa-based biogeographic mapping has been pioneered by Sancetta (1978) who compiled presence-absence data of four major microfossil groups published in DSDP reports to reconstruct distribution of oceanic provinces of the Pacific and Indian Oceans on four time-slices covering the Early Miocene (20-18 Ma), the Middle Miocene (12-10 Ma), the Late Miocene (7-5 Ma) and the Holocene (0.1-0 Ma). Recently Kamikuri et al. (2008) have discussed modern radiolarian bioprovinces and diversity from the subarctic Pacific to the Antarctic sea. A

combination of the two studies is the basis of the concept of the proposed study, including quantitative assemblage data of various faunal/floral taxa, distribution of bioprovinces and diversity from the equator to the polar regions, and their mapping on time-slices down to the deep past. Why microfossils The proposed study needs calculation of diversity and statistical analyses of assemblage structures based on datasets of various organisms in vast space and time, and, thus, well-dated sediments with abundant, well-preserved fossils of worldwide occurrence. Planktic and benthic organisms within Cenozoic deep-sea sediments serve these criteria. Those include photosynthetic protists (diatoms, coccolithophores, silicoflagellates and dinoflagellates), heterotrophic protists (foraminifers and radiolarians), molluscs (pteropods), crustaceans (ostracodes) and fish (ichtyoliths). These organisms produce small-size mineral or organic shells that remain in deep-sea sediments with great abundance often forming pelagic oozes. Most of them have been classified into well-developed taxonomic systems. Therefore, we can extract a large number of specimens from a small amount of sediment samples and identify species compositions to get statistically significant datasets within a well-defined time horizon. Carbonate tests of calcareous microorganisms provide chemical data such as oxygen, carbon and strontium stable isotopes, ratios of Mg/Ca, Cd/Ca and Zn/Si, and Neodymium and Boron. This has the advantage of independent reconstruction of physical/abiotic environments. Major targets and drilling sites To achieve the present purposes, the proposed study needs more complete assemblage data of various microfossil groups, densely distributed drilled sites within a wide latitudinal range in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and more precise age-determination. Each site is required to cover the Cenozoic time but discontinuous sedimentary sequences with hiatuses are also useful for analyses of particular time horizons. Our targets are referred particularly to past warming events and the preceding cool periods. Considering the climatic profile through time shown by the oxygen isotope records (Zachos et al., 2001), short warming events that were preceded and followed by relatively cool periods occurred at the latest Oligocene and the earliest Middle Miocene. These events are thought to be model cases of ecological changes from a cool climate to a warm mode, as well as changes from the warm mode to the subsequent cool mode. Major abrupt climate changes that could have a large impact upon global oceanic communities are the terminal Eocene event and the onset of the Northern Hemisphere glaciation at mid-Pliocene time (2.6 Ma). Time horizons before and after these events are of great interest also. The warmest climate mode at the early Eocene time and its preceding and succeeding intervals are additional targets. Drilling should be operated at places where the oceanic crust was formed during the pre-Paleogene time. The western Pacific and the eastern and western Atlantic match this condition. Sedimentary sequences deposited on the adjacent younger crust can be used for the study of younger time horizons.
References Gould, S. J., 1993, Wonderful lifeThe Burges Shale and the nature of history. 524 p. Hayakawa Publishing, Inc., Tokyo (translated by Watanabe, M. into Japanese). Kamikuri, S., Motoyama, I. and Nishimura, A., 2008, Radiolarian assemblages in surface sediments along longitude 175E in the Pacific Ocean. Marine Micropaleontology, v. 69, 151-172. Raup, D. M. and Sepkoski, J. J. Jr., 1986, Periodic extinction of families and genera. Science, v. 231, p. 833-836. Sancetta, C., 1978, Neogene Pacific microfossils and paleoceanography. Marine Micropaleontology, v. 3, 347-376. Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Solan, L., Thomas, E. and Billups, K., 2001, Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to Present. Science, v. 292, 686-693.

Ocean circulation during a turnover from the greenhouse Earth to the icehouse Earth Kazuyoshi MORIYA (kmoriya@dpc.ehime-u.ac.jp) Center for Marine Environmental Studies, Ehime University
Understanding the mechanisms of extreme climate development has been proposed as one of the major scientific targets of the initial phase of the IODP. One typical example of this extreme climate is represented by a period of intense global warming during the mid-Cretaceous and early Eocene. The mid-Cretaceous supergreenhouse condition, which is accompanied by high sea-surface temperatures, elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide contents (pCO2), and raised sea-level, has especially been analyzed by many authors in this decade. The most curious climate transitional event in this greenhouse Earth must be massive accumulation of organic, carbon-rich sediments and water column anoxia. Especially in the Oceanic Anoxic Event across the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary, rapid and extreme warming and sudden negative feedback cooling have been clearly described by an organic seawater temperature proxy of TEX86. An internal forcing for this climate transition is ascribed to massive volcanic activities and associated carbon dioxide input into the atmosphere. With many other pieces of evidence, our knowledge for cause and effect of the Cretaceous anoxia has been gradually increasing.

On the other hand, another long running debate in climatic transition concerns a timing of initial polar ice-sheet development after the greenhouse condition. Sedimentological analyses, such as ice-rafted debris and clay mineral composition, and physicochemical proxies like oxygen isotopes and Mg/Ca in foraminiferal tests indicate that a massive ice-sheet was first developed around the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. However, some studies questioned this view, arguing for earlier and/or larger polar ice sheets, and even bipolar glaciation in the Eocene. The Cretaceous greenhouse has now been not an exception of this heated dispute. Although some authors indicate little possibility for a polar ice-sheet, multi-proxy analyses for temperature and oxygen isotopic composition of the mid-Cretaceous ocean imply that at least a short-lived ice-sheet had been developed in the greenhouse Earth.

While these extreme climate events have been intensively discussed, a paleoceanographic dynamics in the transitional phase from the maximum greenhouse to the initial ice development have been poorly documented. Because internal forcing, such as
1

continental arrangement on the Earth and pCO2, had been dramatically altered during the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene, paleoceanographic dynamics for the long-tern transition cant be discussed only with analyses of a certain event. Although some continuous long-term climatic profiles have been published in the Atlantic and south Indian oceans, the Pacific Ocean have been left from consideration of ling-term climatic transition. During the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene, the Atlantic Ocean had not been fully open like a modern state, the Pacific Ocean represent the only and largest Ocean on the Earth in this interval. Therefore, we must understand paleoceanography of the Pacific Ocean for discussion of ocean circulation in this transitional phase.

Besides proxy records, numerical climate modeling predicts that southern high latitude is assumed to be a deep water formation site in the mid-Cretaceous supergreenhouse period. However, in those model experiments, deep water begins to be produced in the northern Pacific high latitude with decreasing pCO2. Therefore, pCO2 decrease, hence cooling, in the late Cretaceous could involve considerably huge revolution of ocean circulation. This putative paleoceanographic revolution might be supported by neodymium isotope records in the early Paleogene. Although author stated deep water would be produced in the northern Pacific during a warmer interval instead of a cooler interval, neodymium isotopes show distinctive shift from a cooler to warmer interval.

The Pacific Ocean, thus, might played an important role in global ocean circulation during the transitional phase from the supergreenhouse to the icehouse. As in recent glacial-inter glacial cycles, it can be easily imagine that a rate of deep water formation and/or a shift of a deep water formation site influence whole ocean condition, and also affect biodiversity and biogeographic distribution for marine organisms especially having planktic larval ecology. Nevertheless, lack of long-term and geographically wide spread proxy data sets in the Pacific Ocean prevents us from understanding paleoceanographic dynamics in this dramatic environmental turnover interval. Therefore, IODP need to gather long continuous sediment cores from various sites and depth in the Pacific Ocean in order to convert a single site result to a three dimensional picture of oceanic circulation. This result allows scientist to examine sensitivity and a threshold of ocean circulation systems against a temperature change and document the Earths biggest regime shift from the greenhouse to the icehouse.

What can the ferric-ferrous ratios of clastic marine sediments tell us?

A document for domestic preparatory meeting on IODPs Paleoenvironment for INVEST2009

December 4 ~ 6, 2008, Raforet Nasu, Tochigi Pref.

Kosei E. Yamaguchi1, 2 (kosei@jamstec.go.jp)

Precambrian Ecosystem Lab, JAMSTEC and 2NASA Astrobiology Institute

Iron is one of the major components of marine clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks. Iron undergoes various redox transformations during (i) oxidative weathering of Fe2+-bearing minerals in source rocks exposed on lands and in riverine transport, (ii) reduction of Fe3+-(hydr)oxides by microbial activity (e.g., dissimilatory iron-reducing bacteria) and/or organic matter during sedimentary diagenesis, and (iii) metamorphism under elevated pressure and temperature. Weathering (Fe2+ Fe3+), diagenesis (Fe3+ Fe2+), and metamorphism (Fe3+ Fe2+) are apparently the main processes that significantly modify the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios of the sediments / sedimentary rocks through their biogeochemical cycles. Because of its redox-sensitivity (i.e., moderately soluble under reducing condition, very insoluble under oxic condition), Fe has been recognized as one of good indicators of redox conditions during weathering, where atmospheric redox state has direct impact on the solubility of Fe-bearing minerals. However, the importance of Fe3+ and Fe2+ in marine sediments as an indicator of environmental conditions has not been seriously considered by previous investigators. This is reflected in the way of reporting Fe contents in sediments as "total Fe" (Fe), either as Fe2O3 or FeO.

Here I propose (I) an idea about linking sedimentary Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios and atmospheric redox state by means of oxygen consumption demand that may be calculated from differences in the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios between sediments and their source rocks and (II) integrated research to validate the idea by systematic studies to trace the fate of Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios from source rocks through riverine transport to sediments that are to be subducted. Terrigenous components of marine sediments necessarily reflect the nature of their source rock and the extent of weathering in source lands. Difference in the Fe3+ and Fe2+ contents between sediments and their source-rocks most likely reflects the effect of oxidative weathering. In other words, typical increases in the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios during source-rock weathering may be a function of oxygen content of an atmosphere and duration of weathering (~ 20,000 years, a typical retention time of soils on the continents). If one can reasonably estimate the extent of Fe3+ reduction during diagenesis and metamorphism for clastic sedimentary rocks, then it becomes possible to estimate the extent of Fe oxidation during their source-rock weathering on land. The higher Fe3+/Ti and Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios, lower Fe2+/Ti ratios, and similarFe/Ti ratios of the marine sediments compared to normal igneous rocks as source rocks on the continents are common features for the typical soils formed under an oxygen-rich atmosphere. The extent of Fe oxidation during their source-rock weathering might have been drastically different in the distant past when compared to today, especially before the inferred rise of atmospheric oxygen in the Paleoproterozoic. It is therefore necessary to establish a baseline type of research using samples of modern-day environment to trace the fate of Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios from different types of source rocks under different degrees of weathering to shallow- to deep-water sediments, Such baseline becomes quite useful when we attempt to constrain paleo pO2 conditions based on sedimentary Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios. Ocean drilling would provide a suite of time-series samples that have good geographical distributions from their source-rock areas. Such marine sediment samples, when combined with source rock samples, would provide critical information on the evolution of sedimentary Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios.

Drilling off the Pacific coast of the northern America to assign Paleogene environmental changes in the northeastern Pacific. Tatsuhiko Yamaguchi (Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University) <email: tyamaguch@mac.com > Abstract We have very limited knowledge on paleoenvironmental changes in the northeastern Pacific Ocean in Paleogene time, during which bipolar ice sheets appeared and developed. Previous studies on fossil molluscs from the Pacific coast of northern America revealed that their faunal changes corresponding the late Paleogene climatic cooling and migration from a northeastern province to a northwestern province in the Pacific, suggesting westward ocean currents. The faunal changes have been delineated at a relatively low resolution of several million years due to that limited strata have been accurately dated. Continuous core material of pre-Middle Miocene deposits have been scarcely recovered from the northeastern Pacific. Accordingly, drilling off the Pacific coast is proposed to unravel Eocene to Miocene paleoenvironments in the northeastern Pacific. Introduction Paleogene marine climates are marked by distinctive warming and cooling, and the appearance and developments of bipolar ice sheets (e.g., Thomas, 2008). However, Paleogene and early Miocene environments in the northeastern Pacific Ocean is not necessarily known in detail. Previously, Paleogene and Miocene marine climates were addressed on the basis of paleontological data from land sections on the Pacific coast of the North America. Distinct changes in Paleogene molluscs in this area indicates climatic cooling, which correspond with the EoceneOligocene climatic cooling (e.g. Squires, 2003). Some studies have shown a Paleogene and Miocene migration of molluscan species from a northeastern province to a northwestern province in the Pacific, which was assigned to a presumed westward ocean currents at that time (e.g., Oleinik, 2001; Amano and Vermeij, 2003). These paleoenvironmental changes indicated by molluscan fauna have not been confirmed in pelagic deposits nor correlated with shorter-term (106-year-order) fluctuations of global climates. Middle Miocene to Holocene paleoceanographic changes in the North Pacific were delineated on the basis of stratigraphic variations in radiolarian assemblages in the northeastern and northwestern ODP sites (Kamikuri et al., 2007). Pre-Neogene climatic changes, however, have been much less understood. Previous drilling sites in the northeastern Pacific Some 70 sites were cored in the northeastern Pacific by DSDP, ODP, and IODP drilling. Of these,

Paleogene deposits have been recovered from 10 sites (DSDP Holes 3841, 67, 172 and 183, and ODP Sites 887 and 1224). The recovered Paleogene deposits are mostly of Eocene age. The Paleogene deposits are limited and are not successive enough for us to reconstruct long-term paleoenvionmental changes. Early Miocene deposits have been recovered only from 3 sites (ODP Site 469, 472 and 877). EoceneMiocene stratigraphy in the Pacific coast of the northern America Eocene to Miocene marine strata are exposed in the Pacific coastal area of the northern America such as Washington, Oregon, and California. The strata, composed of deep-sea and shallow-marine deposits, are very thick (locally > 5,000 m; Armentrout et al., 1983), folded and cut by many faults, with limited surface exposure. The strata has been dated by molluscan biostratigraphy with sporadic chronological data of K-Ar dates, planktic microfossils, and paleomagnetism (e.g., Armentrout et al., 1983; Prothero, 2001). These has prevented from providing precise chronological constraint. Due to the low-resolution chronology, paleoenvironmental changes on the Pacific coast detected from onland sections cannot be correlated with those of the other regions or global environmental fluctuations. Proposal I would like to propose drilling in the northeastern Pacific to circumscribe paleoenvironmtal history before the Middle Miocene by compiling paleoenvironments recorded in pelagic sediments and those in onland deposits, which will serve a sound basis to consider evolution of coastal biota in a northern Pacific and its relationship with paleoenvironments (especially paleoceanography) driven by developments of Antarctic ice sheets and circulation of the global conveyor belt. Subsequently, we will compare reconstructed paleoenvironments in this province with those in equatorial Pacific (ODP Sites 12181220; Funakawa et al., 2006; Takata et al., 2007). These enable us to delineate paleoceanographic evolution in the eastern North Pacific, which may be linked with late Paleogene appearance and raipd development of Antarctic ice sheets. References
Amano, K. and Vermeij, G., 2003. Jour. Paleontol., 77, 863872; Armentrout J.M. et al. 1983. Correlation of Cenozoic Stratigraphic Units of Western Oregon and Washington. State of Oregon, Dept. of Geology and Mineral Industries; Funakawa, S.et al., 2006. Palaeogeogra. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol. 230, 183203; Kamikuri, S. et al., 2007. Palaeogeogra. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol. 249, 370392; Squires, R.L. 2003. 14 35, From Greenhouse to Icehouse. Columbia Univ. Press; Takata, Y. et al., 2007. Kaseki (Fossil), 81, 514 (in Japanese); Thomas, E., 2008, Geology, 36, 191192; Oleinik, A.E. 2001. Palaeogeogra. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol.,166, 121140 ; Prothero, D.R. 2001. SEPM Pacific sect. 91, 394p.

How do we contribute to future climate projections? Paleoclimatological approach in determining climate sensitivity
Masanobu Yamamoto Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University The degree of global warming in future climate depends on the Earths climate sensitivity. Climate sensitivity is used to characterize the response of the global climate system to a given forcing when all feedbacks are included. The equilibrium climate sensitivity is often computed as the equilibrium global mean surface temperature change following a doubling of atmospheric CO2, and the value is proportional to the slope in the plot of temperature change against greenhouse gas forcing (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Climate sensitivity. There are several approaches to estimating climate sensitivity. First, a number of studies use instrumental temperature record over mainly 20th century, although global temperatures in 20th century were not in equilibrium. Second, a study used a cooling caused by volcanic eruption, which focused on the effect of volcanic forcing. Third, a study used northern hemisphere surface air temperature records over the last millennium. Fourth, some studies used global temperatures in the last glacial maximum when the concentrations of greenhouse gases were lower than in the Holocene. The estimates by above approaches indicate broad uncertainty. The last approach gives a relatively narrow range of estimated climate sensitivity, but the effects of continental ice and lowered sea level are not easily separated from the greenhouse effect. David W. Lea of UC Santa Barbara reported climate sensitivity estimated by his original approach (Lea, 2004, Journal of Climate, 17, 2170-2179). He argued that tropical temperatures have been affected mainly by greenhouse forcing, because the location is most remote from continental ice sheets, and the variation of tropical sea surface temperature (SST) is parallel to that of CO2 concentration recorded in the Vostok ice core during the last 360 kyrs (Figure 2). Based on this assumption, he estimated climate sensitivity (Figure 3). This approach has some merit that it is possible to estimate climate sensitivities in all periods other than the LGM so that we can examine the stability of climate sensitivity in different climate regimes. Scatter distribution in Figure 3 may reflect changes in climate sensitivity in different regimes. Recently orbital-tuned chronology was established for ice cores (Kawamura et al., 2007,

Nature, 448, 912-916), which allows us more precise correlation of SST with CO2 records. The demerit is that SST record might have been affected by local factors. Indeed, our preliminary study suggests that tropical Pacific SSTs has been under the influence of long-term ENSO-like variability (variations between El Nio and La Nia-like background states), monsoons and continental climate. An easy solution is to use SST records from multiple sites. I suggest the following steps to advance: 1) compilation of published SST records and generation of paleotemperature records at multiple sites newly-drilled in tropical oceans, 2) establishing of a representative tropical SST record, and 3) comparing the record with orbital-tuned CO2 record.

Figure 2. Eastern equatorial Pacific SST and CO2 concentration during the last 360 kyr (Lea, 2004).

Figure 3. Plot of eastern equatorial Pacific SST against greenhouse forcing (Lea, 2004).

Drilling coral reefs and margin marine sediments around Mentawai Islands western off Sumatra: a new archive for reconstructing the histories of Indian Ocean earthquakes and climate changes Tsuyoshi Watanabe (Hokkaido University) The aim in this project is to:
1. Understand the mechanism of Indian Ocean earthquake and Tsunami, which is crucial for establishing hazard system in Sumatra regions. Proposed area has frequently occurred large earthquakes and Tsunami during recent period (Fig. 1). Particularly in December 2004 the earthquake 9.3 magnitude triggered a series of devastating Tsunamis that spread throughout the Indian Ocean, killing large numbers of people. However, the magnitude and distribution of the past earthquakes and Tsunamis are still not well known. 2. Understand the rule and impact of atmosphere and ocean dynamics in Indian Ocean on earths climate system throughout glacial and interglacial time scales. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), El Nino- Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and Asian monsoon significantly influence on sea surface temperature and precipitation in proposed area (Fig. 2). We propose to address the linkage between Indian and Pacific oceans using coral records from drilling coral platforms in Mentawai islands. 3. Reconstruct the past histories of volcanic eruptions and its distribution patterns with space and time using coral cores and marine sediments around Mentawai islands. There exist many active volcano in Sumatra island which cause strong impacts on human life and regional climate around east south Asia. However, little is know about past activities of most of these volcano in geological time scales. 4. Investigate the biological response of marine organisms in coral reefs ecosystem during and after abrupt changes of ocean and terrestrial environments in past events of climate (IOD and ENSO), earthquakes and tsunanes, and volcanic eruptions. The proposed area could be a unique case to test the variety of events on marine organisms in coral reefs at same area. Key words: earthquake, tsunami, IOD, ENSO, volcanic eruption, Sumatra Strategy: We propose to apply geochemical and geological approaches on drilled cores from reef platforms and marginal ocean sediments around Mentawai islands in order to reconstruct variability of the earth's crust movement, the magnitude of earthquakes, and distribution of tsunamis, climate anomaly such as sea surface temperature and precipitation, volcanic activities with glacial and interglacial time scales. We combine high-resolution signals from annual banded coral cores with continuous records from marginal marine sediments. Obtained geochemical and geological data for past earthquakes and climates will be

evaluated by computer simulation of crustal deformation and tsunami runrup and various climate models a) Geochemical signals in coral annual bands could provide useful information of the past environments with weekly to monthly time resolution. We will apply isotopic and trace elemental ratios to reconstruct past climate signals and earthquake, tsunami events for example through detecting temperature signals (Sr/Ca ratio), precipitation anomaly (18O and Sr/Ca ratio), earthquake (13C and other trace element), volcanic events (18O and trace elements), and up welling (e.g. Ba/Ca ratio). b) Identification of Tepfra layers and investigation of microfossil fauna in marine sediments can provide precious and continuous chronology and also the past history of volcanic activities. Tsunami deposits in sediment cores could detect past tsunami events throughout geological time scales. c) Calcification rate of coral skeletons from drilling cores would provide the information about biological impacts and calcification process during and after climate, earthquake, and volcanic events.

Proposed sites:
We propose the drilling sites of Mentawai islands western off Sumatra, Indonesia as a unique opportunity to detect past changes of climate, earthquake, and volcanic events and to examine biological response of coral reefs (Fig. 1). Although the proposal sites will be still challenging for IODP projects the proposed sites of coral reefs have potential to obtain the succession during past cold periods. We have researched this area during recent decades and local, national, and international collaborative frameworks have been already well established. From 2008, we start to investigate around proposed sites as a part of JST-JICA Research Collaboration Project Study of historical earthquakes based on tsunami deposit and coastal geology in part of Multi-Disiplinary Hazard Reduction from Earthquakes and Volcanoes This project will be consist mainly of land and coastal based field works however, we will extend to use this opportunities as field survey to determine most suitable site for proposed projects. The proposed area is also well known as up welling site during IOD events (Abram, 2008, Nature).

Fig. 1 Proposed sites (red)

Fig. 2 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

INVEST Workshop, Nasu, 4-6 Dec. 2008 High-resolution palaeoenvironmental record for the western equatorial Pacific: an idea for a Mission Specific Platform proposal

Richard W. Jordan Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Yamagata University, 1-4-12 Kojirakawa-machi, Yamagata 990-8560, Japan

Background: The subtropical and tropical zones are very important oceanographic areas (e.g. Western Pacific Warm Pool, equatorial upwelling, mangal and reefal ecosystems), and yet high-resolution palaeoenvironmental records of these regions are scarce, in part due to logistics (e.g. problems with accessibility, low research activity in equatorial countries), and in part due to a lack of good materials for climatic reconstructions. Away from upwelling centres, equatorial marine sediments typically have low sedimentation rates (~1 cm/1000 years) and are thus of little use for high-resolution studies. Furthermore, since most of the tropics are represented by low-lying islands, small tropical glaciers, which are limited to mountain ranges (i.e. in Africa and South America), are also of little use in studies of the western Pacific. Thus, to reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental history of the western equatorial Pacific, one must make use of coral and lake records. Since large freshwater lakes are also scarce in this region, it is better to target marine lakes, yet most marine lakes in the World are actually holomictic (i.e. their top and bottom waters mix at least once a year). Although they are very rare, meromictic (permanently stratified) marine lakes represent the best option. In the Republic of Palau, there are a number of meromictic marine lakes, including the famous tourist spot, Mecherchar Jellyfish Lake (JFL). Some of these lakes are 30-60 m deep and have been filled by seawater for at least 10,000 years. The Palauan islands were formed by the uplift of coral reef platforms in the Miocene and subsequent weathering and erosion created the lake basins - so the lakes may be much older than the Holocene. Meromictic lakes have a highly oxygenated upper mixolimnion and a poorly oxygenated (i.e. anoxic) lower monimolimnion. The monimolimnion is almost devoid of life but purple sulphur bacteria usually live at the top of the monimolimnion, often forming a pinkish layer several metres thick. The anoxic bottom waters are therefore one of the main reasons why the underlying sediments are well preserved. Despite the presence of tunnels linking the lakes to the lagoons outside, little or no exchange of material occurs, so the lakes are considered to be truly isolated.

Analyses of short cores (< 2 m long) taken from JFL have demonstrated that the sedimentation rate is very high (~ 1 m/100 years), and the sediment composition changed at the end of the Little Ice Age. The upper ~1 m of sediments are siliceous, containing sponge spicules and marine diatoms, with organic matter derived largely from the mangroves that surround the lake. But below that the sediments are calcareous, consisting of benthic foraminifera and bivalve fragments, with organic matter derived largely from marine algae. This change from calcareous to siliceous sediment is thought to be in response to climate change, whereby a drier and cooler climate was replaced by a warmer and wetter environment the latter favouring the development of the lakeside mangroves. A short-term (6-year) observation of the lake conditions revealed that JFL is affected by El Nio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, with the lake becoming more stratified during La Nia rather than El Nio conditions.

Merit of drilling in a Palauan meromictic lake: At present only short cores have been obtained from JFL, and seemingly no seismic records are available, so the depth of the sediment layer is presently unknown. If longer cores (e.g. hundreds of metres long) could be obtained they may provide scientists with a palaeoenvironmental record over millions of years, with detailed information on ENSO events and changes in tropical climate. These records could be compared with coral records obtained from corals living in the lagoons outside JFL. It is possible that the switch from calcareous to siliceous sediments seen in the short cores, is part of an alternating series representing the cooler and warmer periods throughout the lake history. Dating the older sediments should be possible if benthic foraminifera are present in the calcareous intervals. Since purple sulphur bacteria are characteristic of Palauan meromictic lakes, the recently discovered biomarker okenane could be used to document the stratification history of the lake. On the hand, the biomarker taraxenol could be used as an indicator of mangrove leaf litter input, presumably with increased concentrations during warm/wet cycles. Since JFL is likely to become a World Heritage Site, obtaining a drilling permit may not be possible, however, Mecherchar Island has a number of similar meromictic lakes that could be used as alternative drilling locations.

Proposal for coral-reef drilling at Kita-daito-jima Yasufumi Iryu (Nagoya University) E-mail iryu.yasufumi@a.mbox.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Coral reefs are tropical to subtropical, coastal ecosystems comprising very diverse organisms. Their ancient counterparts, reef deposits, provide important, high-resolution records of geoscientific events in tropic to subtropical shallow waters, such as vertical and lateral tectonic movements, sea-level fluctuations, paleoclimatic changes and

paleoceanographic variations. To obtain the records, it is inevitably needed to understand the initiation, development, and demise of coral reefs. For this purpose, many boreholes were drilled on reefs and carbonate islands such as Funafuti (Royal Society of London, 1904), Bermuda (Pirrson and Vaughan, 1913), Bahamas (Field and Hess, 1933), and Great Barrier Reef (Richards and Hill, 1942). Submerged reefs and carbonate platforms on seamounts were also drilled by the Ocean Drilling Program (e.g., Legs 143 and 144 [Sager et al., 1993; Premoli Silva et al., 1993]). In spite of the investigations conducted for more than a century, whole lives of coral reefs have not been clearly delineated yet because 1) limited drilling penetrated thick reef deposits and reached their basement rocks (e.g., Eniwetok Atoll; Ladd and Schlager, 1960), 2) core recovery is generally very low in drilling into shallow-water limestones, and 3) those drilling projects were mostly performed before recent progress in carbonate sedimentology and geochemistry. There are some enigmas that are related to the whole lives of coral reefs. Schlager's paradox: Accumulations rates of "healthy" coral reefs (and carbonate platforms) are much greater than subsidence of seamounts and 3rd-order sea level rises. However, there are numerous seamounts capped by drowned reefs and carbonate platforms. Several hypotheses have been presented to resolve the discrepancy: nutrient-limited theory (Hallock, 1988), exposure-attributable damage theory (Winterer and Metzler, 1984), and graveyard theory (Wilson et al., 1988). However, none of theories has been generally accepted as a unique answer. Revivals of coral reefs at low sea stands: Recent studies on 25-million-year history of Kita-daito-jima atoll revealed that two modes of reef formation were recognized: reef growth that kept pace with the subsidence of the island and rapid reef growth during periods of low sea stands and the following rapid transgressions. The former is represented by the reef growth during the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene between 18.6 and 24.4 Ma, in response to

a relative sea-level rise caused mainly by tectonic subsidence of this island. The latter mode of reef formation occurred at low sea stands and the subsequent transgressions at ~16.1 Ma and ~15.5 Ma. In this mode, reef formation was stimulated by the sea-level fall that resulted in the submerged island being brought into a shallow environment in which corals could recolonize. Therefore, sea-level falls are key events that cause submerged reefs to be rejuvenated, and reef formation may not be necessarily limited to warm periods that are characterized by high sea levels. It is noteworthy that the single atoll column consists of the two modes of reef deposition. This hypothesis ("revivals of coral reefs at low sea stands") should be verified by examining many other atoll columns. Marine dolomitization at low sea stands: Suzuki et al. (2006) studied geochemistry and crystal chemistry of island-surface and borehole dolomites from Kita-daito-jima. Based on XRD analysis coupled with peak-fitting technique, they identified dolomite crystal phases, each of which is distinguished by different Ca and Mg contents. Elemental concentrations and oxygen isotopic compositions of the island surface and borehole dolomites indicated that all dolomite phases formed in seawater and that dolomitization primarily occurred during glacio-eustatic sea-level lowstands and cooler ocean temperatures. However, these findings (marine dolomitization selectively occurring at low sea stands) have not been confirmed in dolomites in other carbonate islands. I propose drilling off Kita-daito-jima located at the northwestern region of the Philippine Sea (2556.7'N, 13118.5'W). It lies on the lithospheric forebulge of the Philippine Sea Plate which subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate. This island is semi-triangular in shape (apex to the south) and is about 3.7 km wide from north to south and about 4.9 km wide from east to west. Kita-daito-jima is famous as one of the first carbonate islands where a deep boring into an atolls reef deposits was performed. The Kita-daito-jima borehole was drilled in 1934 to a depth of 209.3 mbgs, and the coring advanced to 431.7 mbgs in 1936 (Sugiyama, 1934, 1936). The recovered material consists exclusively of shallow-water carbonates, the upper 100 m of which are pervasively dolomitized. Therefore, we need to obtain reef deposits at >400 mbgs (m below the ground surface) to reconstruct complete history of Kita-daito-jima atoll. In order to minimize drilling costs, ocean drilling is preferable to onland drilling. Other candidates of the drilling include the Minami Seamounts in the Ogasawara Plateau and Mimani-tori-shima (Marcus Island).

Acidification process to control biogenic carbonate shell producing plankton community Hodaka Kawahata (Graduate School of Frontier Sciences and Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo) Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2 ) concentrations will cause changes in the oceans carbonate chemistry system, which will aect some of the most fundamental biological and geochemical processes of the ocean. Since mid-1700s the excess CO2 released by anthropogenic activities is uptaken by the ocean. Oceanic uptake of CO2 drives the carbonate system to lower pH and lower saturation states of the carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite, and high-magnesium calcite in planktonic calciers such as coccolithophores, foraminifera, and shelled pteropods. Several experiments shows that calcication rates will decrease, and carbonate dissolution rates increase, as CaCO3 saturation state decreases. Especially enhanced rate of CO2 release for the last 30 years has promoted this situation. Some assessments suggest that the surface water in the Antarctic Sea will be undersaturated with respect to biogenic aragonite at the end of this century. The mid-Cretaceous represents one of the warmest climate intervals during the entire Phanerozoic (Veizer et al., 2000). From the western North Atlantic Ocean (off Florida, ODP Site 1052E), Norris and Wilson (1998) report d18O data from well-preserved planktonic foraminifera during the late Albian (~100 Ma) and early Cenomanian (~98 Ma) that were lower by -2.0 than that from benthic foraminifera. After taking into account the local salinity effect by the evaporation/precipitation and runoff, this indicates maximum sea surface temperatures (SSTs) of 31C. Some believe that the mid-Cretaceous greenhouse warming may have been linked to the CO2 derived from the enormous volcanic episode associated with the Cretaceous superplume (e.g. Arthur et al., 1985; Vogt, 1989; Larson, 1991). However, abundant carbonate deposited in old Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Because the mid-Cretaceous apparently had much higher carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere than today (e.g. Berner and Kothavala, 2001), seawater carbonate chemistry would predict that the oceans then were more acidic than oceans today. This would in turn suggest that calcium carbonate was much easier to dissolve in the water column. In order to investigate this possibility, we use a simple three-box model of ocean carbon cycle. In initial values which represent the modern conditions, the model has a carbonate ion concentration of about 94 mol kg-1 and 2C in the deep box. The calcium carbon saturation horizon under these model conditions is located at the depth of about 3,700 m. We focus on the saturation horizon, because it is an index of how corrosive the deep ocean is to calcium carbonate. We first exmined the sensitivity of the saturation horizon to two physical parameters T, fhd. Here T and fhd were changed in the range of 050 and 0100 Sv, respectively. As deep ocean ventilation was enhanced (i.e., larger fhd), the saturation horizon was deepened. All the model experiments showed that the saturation depth was deeper than 3,500 m, except when fhd was lower than 10 Sv. Next, we considered the higher concentrations of the atmospheric pCO2 and warmer polar (high-latitude surface box) conditions during the mid-Cretaceous. The saturation horizon was much more sensitive to these parameters than to the two previous physical parameters. We saw that the saturation horizon shoaled with increasing atmospheric pCO2 and decreasing temperature. For modern polar surface temperature of 2C, the saturation horizon reached the surface ocean with just twice the modern pCO2. The same was observed at 20C and five times the modern pCO2. When the saturation horizon reached the surface, the entire ocean was undersaturated in carbonate ion content with respect to calcium carbonate. The mid-Cretaceous is believed to be 612C warmer than today (Barron et al., 1995) and had 210 times more atmospheric CO2 (Berner and Kothavala, 2001), During the early Albian, a part of the Kerguelen Plateau was erupted above sea level (Schlich et al., 1989), which might result in high atmospheric pCO2. Thus, our model results would indicate that carbonate dissolution in the northwestern Pacific during the Albian was severe.

However, this is contrary to the geological observations that calcium carbonate was apparently present at paleodepths of ~1,0002,000 m in DSDP/ODP cores (e.g. Dean, 1981; Duval et al., 1984; Norris et al., 1998) and the sediment was mainly composed of the carbonate except for OAE 1b interval in the equatorial Pacific (Robinson et al., 2004). This apparent contradiction may be resolved if there were more alkalinity in the oceans during the Albian than today. Global warming with high atmospheric pCO2 like the Albian would have induced intensified hydrological cycles on the Earths surface (e.g. Jenkyns, 1999). Subsequently, this would have resulted in the intensified weathering and increased supply of nutrients and alkalinity. With a greater amount of alkalinity and thus buffering capacity, the saturation horizon would not shoal in response to higher temperatures and atmospheric pCO2. This would allow some carbonate to be deposited on the sea floor as indicated by our measurements. A higher alkalinity inventory in the Albian oceans was in fact expected by an enhancement of chemical weathering of silicate rocks, driven by a higher carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere (e.g. Broecker and Sanyal, 1998; Cohen et al., 2004). In the late Albian, the deep sea temperature was estimated at ~15C in the equatorial Pacific (Huber et al., 2002) and atmospheric CO2 concentrations was suggested to vary between ~2 and 5 times more than that at present atmospheric pCO2 (Bice et al., 2006). To investigate the effect of a higher alkalinity content in the ocean, we conducted a set of model experiments with the same range of high latitude surface box temperature and four times the present atmospheric pCO2. Within the given parameter space, our results showed that the ocean alkalinity inventory had to be at least 1.3 times the present inventory in order to maintain the present depth of saturation horizon. The required polar surface temperature in this case was 20C, which was likely too high. For a smaller temperature increase, the required alkalinity inventory to maintain the present level of saturation depth was greater than 1.2 times. Larger oceanic alkalinity content can also be argued from the perspective of the production of calcifying organisms at the surface. Recently Zondervan et al. (2001) pointed out that an acidification of the ocean slows or prevents growth of calcifying primary producers. So the fact that we see some carbonate preservation during the Albian suggests that the ocean surface was sufficiently basic, despite higher atmospheric pCO2, to allow growth of calcifying producers. In contrast, in case of Paleocene/Eocene boundary different situation is expected. The Late Paleocene thermal maximum (LPTM) and the carbon isotope event (CIE) were located in the long reversed-polarity zone termed magnetochron C24R (duration, ~2.557my). Benthic foraminiferal d18O values indicate that oceanic deep waters warmed substantially world-wide, from ~10 to ~18oC in high latitudes (Kennett and Scott, 1991), from ~10 to ~16oC in the tropics (Bralower et al., 1995). Also large shift of d13C was observed. Several causes have been proposed: (1) dissociation of submarine methane hydrates (Dickens et al.., 1995; Xu et al., 2001), (2) volcanism including hydrothermal activity on the seafloor (Bralower et al., 1997; Svensen et et al., 2004), and (3) the contribution of comet. Currently, there is seemingly incontrovertible evidence of the injection of huge amounts of organically derived CO2 during the LPTM in order to explain large shift of d13C. The high rate of CO2 supply to Earths environments is comparable to that at the modern condition. The large vertical shift of carbonate conpensation depth (CCD) was reported at the P/E boundary. Therefore the study on this situation will provide valuable information about ocean acidification in future.

Depth transect drilling of Cretaceous Pacific sediment

Junichiro Kuroda, Katsuhiko Suzuki, Naohiko Ohkouchi (IFREE/JAMSTEC)
Middle of Cretaceous time is characterized by rapid formation of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs), high atmospheric pCO2, much warmer climatic condition, episodic Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs). OAE is a geological event when organic-rich black shale was deposited in the Recent progresses of analytical technologies have global oceans within 105 years and is commonly accompanied by mass extinctions and subsequent radiations of marine organisms. improved our knowledge of Earths surface systems during the Cretaceous greenhouse world. For instance, global distribution of black shale (except for deep Pacific) has been reconstructed for some key OAEs[1], and some studies have suggested that the timing of OAEs are coincident with LIP eruptions[2][3]. In spite of these progresses, however, the LIPs/OAEs causal linkage and formational mechanism(s) of black shale are not fully understood yet. Most of Cretaceous paleoenvironmental studies including our recent achievements have been done with sediments from Western Tethys and/or North Atlantic. sedimentary record from Pacific. There is much less The OAE-1a black shale has been recovered from

topographic highs such as Shatsky Rise, Mid Pacific Mountains and Resolution Guyot (Table 1). In contrast, OAE-1a black shale has not been recovered from deep Pacific basins, because of whether lack of black shale itself, lack of reliable age control to confirm where is the OAE-1a interval, or poor core recovery. For the next IODP phase, I propose drilling through depth The transect of Cretaceous sediment around Shatsky Rise or Mid Pacific Mountains (or both). hypotheses; (1) How had the depositional condition of black shale developed (and disappeared) in each water depth through the Early Cretaceous, particularly around the OAE-1a? (2) How had the seawater chemistry (e.g. trace metal compositions) in each depth range changed through time across the OJP emplacement during 125-120 Ma, and whether was there any linkage between extinction and radiation of marine organisms. (3) How had the Pacific carbonate compensation depth (CCD) evolved during Early Cretaceous particularly across the OJP emplacement? If quasi-continuous sedimentary records are obtained from various paleodepths, it is possible to investigate variations of organic carbon and redox sensitive elements in each depth that provide information of time-series evolution of anoxic water masses through time. 1). It will help to constrain depositional mechanism of black shale in Pacific that is still not well understood (Fig. The quasi-continuous sedimentary records will also be useful for understanding the impact

depth transect of Cretaceous Pacific sediment will give us an opportunity to test the following

of the massive volcanisms on oceanographic changes.

Based on Os and Pb isotopic records of

western Tethys sections we demonstrated that massive eruption of Ontong Java Plateau and Caribbean flood basalt have occurred simultaneously with OAE-1a[3] and OAE-2[2], respectively. However, there is much less information about how oceanic environment and sea water chemistry have been changed in Pacific due to the massive LIP volcanisms, and how extinction and radiation of marine organisms linked to the LIP eruption. drilling. In addition to the variation of seawater chemistry, evolution of CCD through LIP volcanism can be assessed with the proposed It will help to understand whether and to what extent release of volatiles (CO2) from the mantle acidified Pacific seawater. To clarify this proposal, hereafter I focus on Shatsky Rise. including OAE-1a are recovered from Sites 1207 and 1213. is ~800 m shallower than that of 1213 (Table 1). in Site 1207 than 1213
[4]

Stratigraphic intervals

Present water depth of Site 1207 Thus, Site 1213 is suitable

Abundance of carbonate sediments is higher

because of the difference of paleodepths.

to assess fluctuation of paleo-CCD.

However, it is unfortunate that recovery of the two sites

was generally 10-20% that prevents reconstruction of high-resolution paleoceanographic change. Recent developments of drilling technology such as motor driven core barrel (MDCB) will largely improve recovery of hard/soft alternation. including complete OAE-1a interval. (Fig. 2). If such improvements are available in the future, much higher recovery is expected for Cretaceous intervals in Sites 1207 and 1213 In addition to these two sites, we need at least two sites with greater depths; one is deep abyssal plain and other is between abyssal plain and Site 1213 We consider that top of small topographic highs are preferable for the latter site to We will apply a combination of radiolarian biostratigraphy, In addition, we are now establishing Os
[3]

avoid reworked sediments.

magnetostratigraphy and organic carbon chemostratigraphy for age control of the deeper sites where carbonate microfossils are not preserved. isotopic record through Barremian-Aptian intervals . for stratigraphic correlation. during that time.
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Because isotopic composition of Os in

seawater is well homogenized, and it varies on the order of 104 years[5], it must be a useful tool Because Shatsky Rise located around equator (i.e. ITCZ) during the Early Cretaceous[4], the newly proposed deeper sites should be also around paleoequator I believe that drilling through Cretaceous Pacific depth transects will greatly advance our knowledge of Cretaceous greenhouse world. Kuroda J. and Ohkouchi N. (2006) Paleontological Research, 10, 345-358. Kuroda J., Ogawa O., Tanimizu M. et al. (2007) Earth Plant. Sci. Lett. 256, 211-223. Tejada M.L.G., Suzuki K., Kuroda J. et al. (in press) Geology. Bralower T.J. and Premoli Silva I. et al. (2002) Proceedings of ODP, Initial Reports, vol. 198. Peucker-Ehrenbrink B. and Ravizza G. (2000) Terra Nova 12, 205-219.

Tables and Figures Table 1. Examples of Pacific drilling sites where black shales have been recovered Drilled sites N. Shatsky Rise S. Shatsky Rise Mid Pacific Mts. Resolution Guyot Site 1207 Site 1213 Site 463 Site 866 Present WD 3,101 m 3,883 m 2,525 m 1,373 m OAE-1a black shale Recovered Recovered Recovered Recovered

Fig. 1. Three formational mechanisms of organic-rich sediment (red layer). (A) Bloom of cyanobacteria, (B) water column anoxia, and (C) expansion of oxygen minimum zone.

Fig. 2. Schematic profile of drilling sites in this proposal.

<INVEST domestic proposal>

Seawater chemistry: links to climate and marine life evolution

Naohiko Ohkouchi Institute for Research on Earth Evolution, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology

Here I submit a proposal entitled Seawater chemistry: links to climate and marine life evolution that proposes to closely understand the relationship between long-term climate change and secular variations in seawater chemistry and between evolution of marine organisms and seawater chemistry over the last 150 million years. Secular changes in global climate could be an ultimate manifestation of changes in elemental distribution on Earth as well as other factors like solar insolation change. A number of processes are involved in controls of elemental distribution between atmosphere, hydrosphere, ocean, biosphere, and sediments. When considering distribution coefficient of a given element between seawater and sediments, pH and pe (or Eh) of seawater should have been major parameters in most cases, since they control the transfer between dissolved and particulate phases for many elements in the ocean. One of the typical examples is pe (redox) change across the Cretaceous Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs). During the ocean-wide anoxic events, pe of siginificant portion of global seawater should have dropped to ca. -5. Since each OAE continues as long as 100 kyr to 1 Myr, chemistry of seawater, especially for relative abundance of redox-sensitive transition elements could have varied significantly during these periods. For example, black shales, organic carbon-rich dark-colored sediments deposited during the OAEs have elemental composition far different from normal deep-sea sediments (e.g., chert). In the attached table, I showed the concentrations of 38 elements in both black shale in Cretaceous OAE-2 and chert deposited immediately before OAE-2. Although the table is a comparison of only two samples, it clearly suggests that some elements (i.e., Fe, As, Br, Cu, Lu, Pb, Sb, Sm, Ta, Tb, U, V, Yb, and Zn) are heavily concentrated in black shale, while others not. Such enrichment (and depletion) of elements between these sediments are ascribed to the different chemical compositions of sinking particles formed in the water columns with different redox condition in these periods, as well as post-depositional elemental reorganization (i.e., pyrite formation, chelation to porphyrins, etc.). Furthermore, evolution speed or direction of marine life might link to chemical composition of seawater. Figures 1 and 2 indicate biologically essential elements and elements concentrated (enrichment factor >20) in the black shale, respectively. Except for C, N, and S, six elements (i.e., As, Br, Cu, Fe, V, and Zn) are both biologically essential elements and those

concentrated in the black shale. Therefore, they are potentially key elements for connecting between seawater chemistry and marine life evolution. From the same point of view, formation of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) could also be another key process for drastically changing seawater chemistry, since the process transport various elements from deep crust or upper mantle to ocean-atmosphere system. For example, it has been known that heteromorph ammonite (Nipponites mirabilis, Fig. 3) is mainly observed in the Turonian, immediately after OAE-2. Although we still do not have any evidence, the changes in seawater chemistry during OAE-2 might have affected biochemical processes due to the lack of trace elements contained in enzymes catalyzing the shell formation. Future IODP will provide a platform for systematically collecting sediment samples over 150 million years for expanding the data archives. Development of chemical models is another piece required for reaching the goal. This proposal has a potential link with GEOTRACES (http://www.geotraces.org/) whose goal is to identify processes and quantify fluxes that control the distributions of key trace elements and isotopes in the ocean, and to establish the sensitivity of these distributions to changing environmental conditions.

Table 1. Comparison of elemental compositions of Livello Bonarelli black shale (GCBR-03) and chert deposited immediately below the Bonarelli black shale (ITGCF-12). Enrichment indicates [Black shale]/[Chert] ratio. Major elements were determined by X-ray fluorescence, whereas minor and trace elements were determined by neutron activation analysis. Many Cu and most V could exist as chelated forms with porphyrins. Therefore, these elements are probably concentrated in the black shale during diagenesis. Bold types indicate elements whose enrichment factors are over 20. Mostly N. Ohkouchi, unpublished data. ____________________________________________________________________________________
Element Black shale Chert Enrichment Remarks ____________________________________________________________________________________ Organic C Total N Total S SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO2 MgO CaO Na2O K2O P 2O 5 16.2 % 0.56 1.26 91.9 % 0.116 3.15 2.83 0.009 0.487 0.7 0.174 0.619 0.273 0.15 % 0 0.02 97.6 % 0.033 0.437 0.137 0.008 0.061 2.6 0.024 0.061 0.016 108 60 0.94 3.5 7.2 20.6 1.1 8.0 0.3 7.3 10 17

Pyrite

Pyrite

As 5.82 ppm 0.22 ppm 26 Ba 3470 256 13.5 Br 12.5 0 Ce 34 1.7 20 Co 9.8 4.8 2.0 Cr 57.8 15.8 3.67 Cs 1.2 0.08 15 Cu 104 0 Porphyrins Eu 0.99 0.06 17 Hf 0.5 0.09 6 La 22.5 1.8 13 Lu 0.455 0.02 23 Pb* 13.1 0.49 27 Rb 0 2.7 0 Sb 3.9 0.07 56 Sc 2.35 0.26 9.0 Sm 4.85 0.23 21 Sr 471 127 3.71 Ta 0.1 0 Tb 0.73 0.03 24 Th 1.9 0.28 6.8 U 5.1 0.11 46 V 495 5.3 93 Porphyrins Yb 1.9 0.09 21 Zn 1405 57.9 24.3 _____________________________________________________________________________________ * Data from Kuroda et al. (2007)

H Li Be Na Mg B C N O S Al Si P

He F Ne Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba Lan Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Act Lan Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Act Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Fig. 1. Biologically essential elements

H Li Be Na Mg K Ca Sc Ti B C Al Si N P O S

He F Ne Cl Ar I Xe

V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te Fr Ra Act

Cs Ba Lan Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Lan Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Act Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Fig. 2. Elements heavily concentrated in black shale

Fig. 3. Heteromorph ammonite (Nipponites mirabilis)

http://www.um.u-tokyo.ac.jp/dm2k-umdb/publish_db/books/collection2

Initial Science Plan : Paleoenvironment Ken Sawada (Department of Natural History Sciences, Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University)

Science plan for Land-Ocean Coevolution

The objective of this science plan is to evaluate the importance of marine primary productivity, transport of terrigenous material, terrestrial vegetation, and their associations on the long time-scale climate and material cycling in neritic to pelagic sea areas. In this science plan, researches for coevolution between marine and terrestrial ecosystems, Land-Ocean Coevolution, will be newly developed as following by (or collaborating with) a previous science theme of Land-Ocean Linkage, in which the researches of Asian monsoon have been mainly performed for evaluating climatic linkages between land and ocean. In particular, it is important to examine the changes of biogeochemical processes associated with material cycling triggered by 1) predominance of angiospermous vegetation during the early to mid-Cretaceous, and 2) expansion of C4 grassland during the mid-Neogene. 1) Vegetation changes during the early to mid-Cretaceous: Angiosperm plants were firstly appeared in the Earth in the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous (Crane, 1989), although this is still controversial. Such angiospermous vegetation was expanded in arid inland areas of continent, and may be covered as forest, and terrestrial soil could be efficiently formed. These things possibly affected the transport system of terrestrial materials from land to ocean. Biological pump via marine productivity in surface sea waters may be changed by terrigenous material transport in the early to mid-Cretaceous, although whether is weaken or strengthen is unknown. 2) C4 grassland expansion during the Miocene to Pliocene: C4 plant vegetation, which is typically grassland, has been expanded during the Miocene to Pliocene, resulting in covering vegetation even in barren areas of continent. Falkowski et al. (2004) insisted on the possibility that a coevolution occurred between marine siliceous algae (phytoplankton) and C4 grasses, in which silica concentrations are relatively high, expanding in the terrestrial ecosystem, and that silica such as opal phytoliths of those plants were supplied to the ocean, resulting in increasing the production of marine siliceous phytoplankton as diatoms (Fig. 1). In our study on the Miocene to Pliocene neritic sediments of the paleo-Japan Sea, it was suggested that there was a close relation between C4 plant vegetation recorded by carbon isotope ratio of terrestrial organic matter and diatom production recorded by biomarker (Fig. 2; Sawada, 2006). Therefore, we can obtain a understanding for coevolution between marine and terrestrial ecosystems via biogeochemical process(es) such as silica transport from land to shallow-pelagic marine areas from the mid- Neogene sediments. Integrated investigations by geochemistry such as isotope and biomarker in addition to geopolymer, and paleontology such as marine microfossils and terrestrial plant fossils in addition to phytolith using neritic to pelagic sediments collected by ocean drilling are effective in reconstructing marine and terrestrial environmental variations. These studies could provide us with both marine and terrestrial information as well as insights into the relationships between land and ocean ecosystems.

The concrete research proposals for this science plan are follows; 1) Japan Sea drilling: We investigate the Miocene to Pliocene sediments off the northeastern Japan of the Japan Sea collected by ocean drilling in order to examine the coevolution between C4 grassland and diatomaceous algae, as reported by Sawada (2006). Main investigations: Carbon isotope ratios (13C) of terrigenous organic matter such as wax biomarkers, Type-III kerogen, and resistant macromolecules (geopolymers) of terrestrial plants; Biomarker ratios and concentrations; diatom, dinocyst and nannofossil analyses; pollen and spore analyses; phytolith analysis. If necessary, rizer drilling will be carried out. 2) South East Sea and/or Bengal Fan drilling: The Miocene to Pliocene neritic sediments of the South East Sea and/or Bengal Fan are collected by ocean drilling in order to evaluate qualitative and quantitative changes of transport system of terrigenous materials attributed to C4 grassland expansion, and to examine the changes biogeochemical cycling in tropical to subtropical areas. Main investigations: Lithological analysis; 13C of wax biomarkers, Type-III kerogen, and terrestrial plant geopolymers; Biomarker ratios and concentrations; diatom, dinocyst and nannofossil analyses. 3) Pacific pelagic areas such as sites off northeastern Japan drilling: We investigate the mid-Cretaceous sediments off the northeastern Japan of the Pacific collected by ocean drilling in order to evaluate qualitative and quantitative changes of transport system of terrigenous materials attributed to expansion of angiospermous vegetation. Main investigations: 13C of wax biomarkers, Type-III kerogen, and terrestrial plant geopolymers; Biomarker ratios and concentrations; diatom, dinocyst and nannofossil analyses. 4) Atlantic pelagic areas such as sites off Florida drilling: The mid-Cretaceous sediments off Florida of the Atlantic (paleo-Tethys) are collected by ocean drilling in order to examine the coevolution between angiospermous vegetation and marine primary productivity. If the black shales deposited during the Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs) can be collected, it is better to reconstruct the variations of marine and terrestrial environments and ecosystems. Main investigations: 13C of wax biomarkers, Type-III kerogen, and terrestrial plant geopolymers; Biomarker ratios and concentrations; diatom, dinocyst and nannofossil analyses; pollen and spore analyses; phytolith analysis.

References Crane, P. R. (1989) Paleobotanical evidence on the early radiation of nonmagnolid dicotyledons. Plant Systematics and Evolution 162, 165-191. Falkowski, P. G., Katz, M. E., Knoll, A. H., Quigg, A., Raven, J. A., Schofield, O., Taylor, F. J. R. (2004) The evolution of modern eukaryotic phytoplankton. Science 305, 35460. Sawada, K. (2006) Organic facies and geochemical aspects in Neogene neritic sediments of the Takafu syncline area of central Japan: Paleoenvironmental and sedimentological reconstructions. Island Arc 15, 517536.

Fig. 1. Comparison of eukaryotic phytoplankton diversity curves with sea-level change (red), flooded continental areas (blue), and the evolution of grasses. Phytoplankton species (red) diversities are from published studies [calcareous nannofossils; dinoflagellates; diatoms]. Phytoplankton genus (blue) diversities were compiled for Falkowski et al. (2004) from public databases. Key to grass panel: (1) First conclusive occurrence of C3 grass pollen, phytoliths first appear in the marine record; (2) C3 grasslands expand, phytolith diversity and abundance increase; (3) first macrofossil evidence of C4 grass evolution; (4) grassland expansion is coupled with a shift in dominance from C3 to C4 grasses (Falkowski et al., 2004).

Fig. 2 Schematic paleoenvironmental changes in the southern edge of the paleo-Japan Sea (the Takafu syncline area) during stages of Senmi (7 Ma?), Sakainomiya (Ogawa; 75 Ma), and Lower Shigarami (54 Ma) (Sawada, 2006).

Cretaceous environmental changes

Reishi Takashima, Hiroshi Nishi (Hokkaido University)
The Earths climate has alternated between greenhouse and icehouse modes throughout the Phanerozoic. Although the earth is at present in the midst of an icehouse climate mode, recent dramatic increase in

atmospheric CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels has led to significant global warming. Therefore, understanding the oceanclimate system during past greenhouse climate modes is essential for more accurate prediction of future climate and environmental changes and ecological impacts in the warming Earth. The Cretaceous is known as a latest typical greenhouse period caused largely by increased CO2 from elevated global igneous activity, as it is characterized by globally averaged surface temperatures that were >14C higher than those of today (Tarduno et al., 1998), a lack of permanent ice sheets (Frakes et al. 1992) and over 100-200 m higher sea level than that of today (Haq et al., 1987; Miller et al., 2005; Mller et al., 2008). Oceanic Anoxic Events During the climax of Cretaceous warming, anoxic condition in the oceans globally expanded, resulted in accumulations of organic rich sediments (so-called black shales). These events are called Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs), and occurred at least 10 times during the Cretaceous period (Figure 1). The study of OAEs is important from three different perspectives: (i) the OAEs acted as the thermostat during the greenhouse climate because they eliminated carbon from atmosphere (CO2) to sediments (black shales); (ii) the expansions of anoxic condition in the oceans caused mass extinctions of marine biota; (iii) most of source rocks were formed during Cretaceous time under anoxic oceanic environments. Though far from complete, the OAEs are much better studied in areas of the Atlantic Ocean and Tethys Sea than in the Pacific Oceans because most of Cretaceous Pacific ocean-floor has already subducted under continents. Since the Pacific was much larger than today and was the largest ocean during the Cretaceous, spacio-temporal distributions of black shales in the Pacific Ocean are important to clarify the global environmental and biotic impacts during the OAEs.

Rapid warming at the OAEs Recent geochemical methods such as oxygen isotopes and TEX86 provided change in sea surface temperatures and vertical thermal gradients during the OAEs. These studies revealed that rapid warming of sea surface (OAE 1b and OAE 2) and/or deep sea (OAE 1d and 2) coincided with the onset of black shale depositions (Huber et al., 1999; Wilson and Norris, 2001; Erbacher et al., 2001; Forster et al., 2007, Wagner et al., 2008). However, Cretaceous DSDP and ODP cores with continuous recovery and abundant well-preserved fossils suitable for isotopic study are very limited. Especially, paleo-temperature reconstructions during the OAEs are reported only in the equatorial Atlantic regions (Demerara, Blake Nose and Mazagan). A denser global array of deep-sea cores is needed to provide more detailed reconstructions of global climate changes and oceanographic conditions during the OAEs.

Relationship between LIPs formations and OAEs Although the ultimate trigger for the OAEs are still unresolved, recent models attribute OAEs and sudden warming to the impact of substantial submarine volcanisms and/or hydrothermal activities (e.g., Orth et al., 1993; Sinton and Duncan, 1997; Kerr, 1998; Leckie et al., 1998, 2002; Erba, 2004; Snow et al., 2005). These hypotheses suggest that extensive submarine volcanism caused an expansion of the oxygen minimum zone associated with elevated primary productivity, due to injection of biolimiting metals and/or nutrient-rich deep water into the surface ocean. On the other hand, some workers consider sub-aerial volcanism to be a major trigger of some OAEs (Kuroda et al., 2007). These hypotheses suggest sub-aerial volcanism caused elevation of SSTs which prevented or slowed the formation of deep water, resulting in oceanic stratification. At present, we need to determine whether the timing and duration of LIPs is correlative with OAE events. Sites near the LIPs that record both volcanic history and OAE events. Biocalcification crises Recent simulation studies predict that rapid atmospheric release of CO2 will cause acidification of sea surface water that could affect marine ecosystems significantly. In the Cretaceous ocean, the global drowning of shallow-water carbonate platforms occurred several times (Figure 1). Weissert and Erba (2004) pointed out that the coincidence between the drowning events of shallow-water carbonate platforms and the crisis of heavily calcified plankton groups recorded in the pelagic facies. They termed these events Biocalcification crises. The Biocalcification crises occurred 5 times during Cretaceous. The three of them coincided with OAEs (Weissert, OAE1b, 2), but rest two are not accompanied by the major environmental event. Although recent hypotheses blame elevated pCO2-induced lowered surface ocean pH, the mechanism responsible for these event remains poorly constrained.

Cretaceous rapid cooling episodes Since the Cretaceous period is generally assumed to have been ice-free interval, it has long been debated about the mechanism for the large and rapid changes observed in Cretaceous sea level (e.g., Skelton et al., 2003). Miller et al (1999, 2005) demonstrated that several rapid sea level falls recorded in New Jersey could be explained only by glacio-eustacy. According to integration between occurrences of ice-rafted and/or glacial deposits around the polar regions, positive oxygen isotope values of foraminifera and intervals of rapid sea level fall, it is quite possible that the glacial events did occur during greenhouse climate (e.g., Bornemann et al., 2008). Although several geologically short-term glacial events during Cretaceous have been proposed (e.g., middle Turonian, middle Campanian, and earliest and late Maastrichtian; Figure 1), the causes of cooling and ice-volume at those times are still unclear. References Erba, E. 2004. Calcareous nannofossils and Mesozoic oceanic anoxic events. Marine Micropaleontology 52: 85-106. Erbacher, J., B. T. Huber, R. D. Norris and M. Markey. 2001. Increased thermohaline stratification as a possible cause for an oceanic anoxic event in the Cretaceous period. Nature 409: 325-327.

Frakes, L. A., Francis, J. E., Syktus, J. I., 1992. Climate modes of the Phanerozoic. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 274 p. Forster, A., Schouten, S., Moriya, K., Wilson, P. A., Sinninghe Damst, J. S., 2007. Tropical warming and intermittent cooling during the Cenomanian/Turonian oceanic anoxic event 2: Sea surface temperature records from the equatorial Atlantic. Paleoceanography 22, PA1219, doi:10.1029/2006PA001349. Haq, B. U., Hardenbol, J., Vail, P. R., 1987. Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic. Science 235, 11561167. Huber, B.T., Leckie, R.M., Norris, R.D., Bralower, T.J., and E. CoBabe, 1999, Foraminiferal assemblage and stable isotopic change across the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary in the subtropical North Atlantic, Jour. Foram. Res., 29, 392-417. Kerr, A. C., 1998. Oceanic plateau formation: a cause of mass extinction and black shale deposition around the CenomanianTuronian boundary. Journal of Geological Society, London 155, 619626. Kuroda, J., Ogawa, O. N., Tanimizu, M., Coffin, M. F., Tokuyama, H., Kitazato, H., Ohkouchi, N., 2007. Contemporaneous massive subaerial volcanism and late Cretaceous Oceanic Anoxic Event 2. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 256, 211223. Leckie, R. M., Yuretich, R. F., West, O. L. O., Finkelstein, D., Schmidt, M., 1998. Paleoceanography of the southwestern Western Interior Sea during the time of the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary (Late Cretaceous). In: Dean, W. E., Arthur, M. A. (Eds.), Stratigraphy and Paleoenvironments of the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway, USA, Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology. Vol. 6, Soc. Sediment. Geol., Tulsa, Okla, pp. 101126. Leckie, R. M., Bralower, T. J., Cashman, R., 2002. Oceanic anoxia events and plankton evolution; biotic response to tectonic forcing during the mid-Cretaceous. Paleoceanography 17 (10.1029/2001PA000623). Miller, K. G., E. Barrera, R. K. Olsson, P. J. Sugarman and S. M. Savin. 1999. Does ice drive early Maastrichtian eustasy? Geology 27: 783-786. Miller, K. G., Kominz, M. A., Browning, J. V., Wright, J. D., Mountain, G. S., Katz, M. E., Sugarman, P. J., Cramer, B. S., Christie-Blick, N., Pekar, S. F., 2005. The Phanerozoic record of global sea-level change. Science 310, 12931298. Mller, R. D., SSdrolias, M., Gaina, C., Steinberger, B., Heine, C., 2008. Long-term sea-level fluctuations driven by ocean basin dynamics. Science, 319, 1357-1362. Orth, C. J., Attrep, M., Quintana, L. R., Elder, W. P., Kauffman, E. G., Diner, R., Villamil, T., 1993. Elemental abundance anomalies in the late Cenomanian extinction interval: A search for the source(s). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 117, 189204. Sinton, C. W., Duncan, R. A., 1997. Potential links between ocean plateau volcanism and global ocean anoxia at the CenomanianTuronian boundary. Economic Geology 92, 836842. Snow, L. J., Duncan, R. A., Bralower, T. J., 2005. Trace element abundances in the Rock Canyon Anticline, Pueblo, Colorado, marine sedimentary section and their relationship to Caribbean plateau construction and oxygen anoxic event 2. Paleoceanography 20, PA3005, doi:10.1029/2004PA001093. Skelton, P. W., Spicer, R. A., Kelley, S. P. and Gilmour, L. 2003. The Cretaceous World. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 360p.

Tarduno, J. A., Brinkman, D. B., Renne, P. R., Cottrell, R. D., Scher H., Castillo, P., 1998. Evidence for extreme climatic warmth from the Late Cretaceous Arctic vertebrates. Science 282, 22412244. Wanger, T., Herrle, J. O., Sinninghe Damest, Schouten, S., Stsser, I., Hofmann, P., 2008. Rapid warming and salinity changes of Cretaceous surface waters in the subtropical North Atlantic. Geology, 36, 203-206. Weissert, H. and E. Erba. 2004. Volcanism, CO2 and palaeoclimate: a Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous carbon and oxygen isotope record. Journal of Geological Society, London 161: 695-702. Wilson, P. A. and Norris, R. D., 2001, Warm tropical ocean surface and global anoxia during the mid-Cretaceous period, Nature, 412, 425-429.

Figure 1. Compilation showing JurassicCretaceous changes in sea level, ocean crust production, paleo-temperature, bulk carbon isotopes, carbonate platform drowning events and OAEs.

Reconstructions of Sea-level and Paleoceanography changes from Timor and Arafura Sea Yusuke Yokoyama Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo (yokoyama@ori.u-tokyo.ac.jp) Reconstruction of the past changes of the Western Pacific Warm Pool (WPWP) is a key to understand the global climate dynamics since the region is characterized as high (> 28 degreeC) annual mean sea surface temperature (SST). Distribution pattern of this water mass result regional climate changes including ElNino. Particular interests in this proposal are at the South West end of the WPWP where the path between the Pacific and the Indian Ocean located. The flow passing through the small passage at the Makassar strait is called the Indonesian Through Flow (ITF) that carries more than 9 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3 s-1). This large amount of warm water flows may control the heat budget of the surface Indonesian water hence it may be playing also important role in the regional-global climate. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) large ice sheets covered high latitude Europe and North America and the Antarctic ice sheet was more extensive than today. time stood some 120-130 m lower than today (Yokoyama et al., 2000; 2007). Sea levels at this The The Earths climate

at this time was also distinctly different from that of the present interglacial conditions. conditions on models of climate change.

sea-level changes are indicators of growth and decay of ice sheets and provide, thereby, boundary Aspects of the sea-level change that are particularly relevant to understanding climate change and the response of the ice sheets to this change are the timing of the onset and termination of the low stands that mark the LGM and the determination of the rates of sea-level rise or fall. Sea-level change caused by the growth or decay of ice sheets is spatially variable because of the adjustment of the earths surface to the time-dependent ice-water load and because of the changing gravitational potential of the earth-ocean-ice system. Observations of relative sea-level change therefore do not bear a simple relation to changes in ice volume, (or ice volume equivalent sea level) and at most localities corrections for glacio-hydro-isostasy are required. Even sea levels at ocean island sites are not immune from isostatic effects. Only in some special instances, where the separate isostatic responses to the changing water and ice loads fortuitously cancel out, will the relationship be relatively straight forward. Thus, in general, changes in ocean volume inferred from sea level data will be dependent on the models of glacio-hydro-isostasy and be functions of the spatial and temporal distribution of the ice load and on the rheological response of the Earth to surface loading. However, through an iterative approach, useful estimates of grounded and land-based ice volumes can be inferred from the sea-level data, particularly when the data is from

sites that lie far from the former ice sheets so that the otherwise dominant glacio-isostatic term is relatively small. The Arafura sea and Timor Sea included the Australian margin is well suited for studies of sea-level change during the LGM. The margins are tectonically stable, as witnessed by the Also, the continent

occurrence of Last Interglacial Shorelines (MIS; Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage -5e) near present-day sea level (Marshall and Thom, 1976; Stirling, et al., 1995, 1998). lies far from the former ice sheets such that the isostatic corrections, due mainly to the hydro-isostatic effects, are small and not strongly dependent on the details of the ice-load geometry (Yokoyama et al., 2001). Finally, there are wide and shallow shelf areas with depressions where The Timor Sea, and Northwest Shelf as well as the Arafura Sea conditions may have been favourable for the preservation of evidence for former and now submerged shoreline positions.

provide environments suitable for sea level studies and this area has provided one of the few reliable estimates of sea level at the time of the LGM (van Andel and Veevers 1967; van Andel et al. 1967). Therefore we propose to drill several cores from the Arafura and Timor region to reconstruct high resolution sea-level record. The coring activity aims for obtaining both siliciclastic and carbonate sediments. Carbonate platforms located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf produce precise age determination via U-series dating. In the meantime, expected longer siliciclastic sediment records can reveal past climate changes such as movement of the Intertropical convergent Zone (ITCZ), monsoon, and El Nino-Southern Oscillations (ENSO) activities. The records can be strong constraints on the sophisticate climate models such as Atmospheric-Ocean coupled General Circulation Models.

Kuhnt et al (2004)

Gas Hydrates: Ice under the Sea Ryo Matsumoto Dept of Earth and Planetary Science e-mail: ryo@eps.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp, phone: 03-5841-4522 Gas hydrates are solid compound composed of water and hydrocarbon gases such as methane, ethane and propane. They are stable at high P low T conditions with enough amounts of free gases, and stored in deep sea, continental margin sediments under the sea and permafrost regions on land. Global inventory of gas hydrates are estimated to be ~10,000 Gt as carbon (e.g., Kvenvolden, 2000), which is comparable to the total amount of oceanic DIC (~ 34,000Gt) and fossil fuels (~10,000Gt). Since the re-discovery of natural gas hydrates from the deep-sea sediments in early 80s, gas hydrate have been attracting growing interests as sensitive environmental modulators to control carbon budget in shallow geosphere as well as the natural gas resource potential. Gas hydrate study was listed as key initiatives of the long term science plan of IODP, and a number of drilling expeditions have been dedicated for gas hydrate study and exploration in variable geologic and geographic settings, e.g., Cascadia Margin-Hydrate Ridge (Leg 146 and 204, Exp 311) and Blake Ridge (Leg 164). They have revealed the origin, distribution and amount of gas hydrates, determined the relationship between the BSRs and distribution of gas and gas hydrate, and developed technologies in gas hydrate drilling and sampling. Microbial activities have been expected to strongly link with gas hydrate accumulation, however, quantification of microbial activities to generate methane has not been well documented. Massive dissociation of gas hydrates should cause violent release of methane to the ocean and atmosphere, resulting in abrupt climate change and perhaps biotic turnover. What triggered the collapse of marine gas hydrate? Since the gas hydrate hypothesis was proposed (Matsumoto, 1995; Dickens et al., 1995), instability of marine gas hydrate has been

usually explained as the result of warming of deep and intermediate ocean waters (e.g., Hassel et al., 2000; Kennett et al., 2000, 2002; Kennedy et al., 2002). According to the ODP and IODP expeditions, gas hydrates tend to accumulate just above the BGHS (base of gas hydrate stability, equivalent to BSRs), a few hundred meters below seafloor. Heat transfer through low conducive shallow sediments is very low, then it takes a few thousand years for propagation down to the depth of BSRs. Thus the temperature increase of waters is not likely to propagate down and dissociate gas hydrate in short time interval. Integrated academic and industry projects to examine and explore marine gas hydrate have identified two different types of gas hydrate accumulation, (1) stratigraphic accumulation at depths and (2) relatively shallow, massive, and vertical accumulation in gas chimney. IODP and industry projects have focused on the stratigraphic type. However recently, a number of spectacular gas chimney type deposits have been identified worldwide, e.g., in marginal Seas of the Western Pacific, Cascadia margin, and Gulf of Mexico. Gas chimney types are often associated with giant gas plumes, wide distribution of methane-induced carbonates, bacterial mat, and pockmarks. Stratigraphic type is composed of microbial methane, while gas hydrates in and around gas chimneys are often originated in deep-seated thermogenic methane. Drilling through gas chimney type accumulation would provide an excellent opportunity to examine the mode and rate of gas migration, methane fluxes to the ocean and atmosphere, geologic background and mechanism of the collapse of gas hydrate deposits, and the consequences and environmental impact of the collapse and dissociation. Gas hydrates in shallow gas chimneys are likely to respond immediately to climate warming. Glacial sea level fall rather than climatic warming may have caused instability of enormous amount of carbon-bearing ice under the sea. Giant gas chimneys are to be possible targets of riser drilling for unconventional natural gas resource. We still know little about marine gas hydrates and their roles in changing earths environments.

Understanding Responses of Vegetation and Continental Climate to the Global Climate Changes Shinya Yamamoto, Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University ODP and IODP have attempted to reveal the cause and consequence of past environmental changes in various time scales. But the impacts of these environmental changes on the vegetation and continental climate have not been focused yet, especially in the resolution that is comparable to the marine core records. Since land plants are unique primary producers on lands, their responses to the environmental changes should have played important roles regulating the continental climate and the global carbon cycling. In this proposal, I will explain the importance of obtaining high-resolution terrestrial signals from marine sediments, to further develop our knowledge on the past global climate. Plant mega fossils in continental sequences can provide information about the past continental vegetation and climate, however, the distribution of the inland sections that contains these fossils was geographycally restricted and their stratigraphic resolution was low. Lack of precise time-stratigraphic frameworks in the sections makes it difficult to compare with the climatic records that obtained in elsewhere. Pollens in marine sediment often served for palynological investigation of vegetation changes, they can easily be reworked and their use is restricted because of their selectivity in transportation. For the last several years, some investigators have begun to focus on the organic compounds in marine sediments that derived from terrestrial higher plants (Pancost and Boot, 2004), so called biomarkers. Although higher plant biomarkers are generally not as diagnostic as pollen, some biomarker proxies for specific organisms and continental temperature have been proposed. The carbon isotopic composition (13C) of sedimentary higher plant biomarkers, typically n-alkanes, is commonly utilized as an indicator of relative C3 and C4 plant inputs. Because various biomarkers of terrestrial origin commonly preserved both in coastal regions with high fluvial inputs and in open ocean settings in which aeolian transport dominate, we can obtain the terrestrial signals in various marine sediments with extensive temporal and spatial resolutions. Although potential contamination by fossil fuel hydrocarbons from the drill bit could make it sometimes difficult the use of the higher plant biomarkers in drilled cores. However, recent studies have successfully recovered terrestrial biomarker signals in several deep-sea sediments, even in which total organic carbon contents are extremely low (less than 0.1%). For example, the study in Leg 208 sediments of the Southeast Atlantic continuously detected higher plant wax n-alkanes from the late Cretaceous to the Pleistocene (Zachos et al., 2004; Yamamoto and Hasegawa, unpublished

data). Unfortunately, such sediments have been abandoned from organic geochemists due to their low organic carbon properties, but it should be now recognized that they are appropriate for the investigation of terrestrial biomarkers. Studies that utilize the higher plant biomarkers have been largely limited to the Holocene to the Pleistocene, with a few examples in the late Miocene (Freeman and Colarusso, 2001; Pagani et al., 2000), the Paleocene-Eocene boundary (Hasegawa et al., 2006; Schouten et al., 2007) and the Cenomaian-Turonian boundary (Kuypers et al., 1999). My suggestion is that the investigation of terrestrial biomarkers in marine cores should be extended to those with various ages. And it should be performed in the same resolution as in the marine paleoclimatic proxies, and should be compared directly with the marine records obtained in identical samples. This will lead us to the further understandings of the impact of past climate changes to the vegetation and continental climate. There is a hypothesis that dramatic decrease in pCO2 during the Cenozoic enabled a development of the C4 photosynthetic pathway, because the CO2 threshold below which C4 photosynthesis is favored over C3 photosynthetic pathway, estimated at ~500 ppmv, is assumed to be broken during the Oligocene. However, the origins of C4 pathway still enigmatic due to the absence of continuous geologic record. On the other hand, C3/C4 plant distribution is also important in terms of an energy transport (Hay, 2008). Extensive covering by C3 plants provides more efficient energy transport into the continental interior, which may have been resulted in milder winters and cooler summers during the Cretaceous and the early Paleogene. Terrestrial biomarker compositions and their 13C are extremely useful to detect C4 plants signals, because C4 plants preferentially possess 13C-enriched n-alkanes with longer chain-length as their leaf waxes. Hence, the temporal and spatial generations of these records using marine cores would be expected to provide keys in unraveling the timing of the origin of C4 vegetation and their history of expansion since as old as the late Cretaceous. References Pancost, R. and Boot, C. S., 2004. Mar. Chem. 92, 239-261. Zachos et al., 2004. Proc. ODP, Init. Repts. 208, College Station, TX (Ocean Driiling Program). Freeman, K. H. and Colarusso, L. A., 2001. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 69, 1439-1454. Pagani, M. et al., 2000. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 64, 37-49. Hasegawa, T. et al., 2006. In Proc. ODP, Sci. Res. 208, College Station, TX (Ocean Driiling Program), pp 1-11. Schouten, S. et al., 2007. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 258, 581-592. Kuypers, M. M. M. et al., 1999. Nature 399, 342-345. Hay, W. W., 2008. Cret. Res. 29, 725-753.

ReconstructingExternalandInternalForcingofEarthclimate HiroshiNishi(HokkaidoUniversity) 1.GeneraltrendinCenozicclimate The Cenozic age is a transition time from the Cretaceous greenhouse to the Quaternary icehouce. The Paleocene climate is still unclear in detail, but rapid warming occurred at the Late Paleocene to Early Eocene climate. This warming continuedduringtheEarlyEocene.Theoxygenisotopevaluesgraduallyincreasefrom Middle Eocene to the Oligocene spanning from 50 to 33 Ma. The turnover of climatic trend was recognized around 50 Ma, close to the Early/Middle Eocene. The first rapid cooling was observed at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary, while second cooling mode startedagainintheMiddleMiocene,approximately15Ma.Theclimatemodefromthe Oligocene through Quaternary is characterized by a stepwise cooling. The first distinct expansion of the Antarctic ice sheetis inferred around the Eocene/Oligocene boundary when the Oi1 isotope event has been recorded. The second dramatically expansion of the Antarctic ice sheets has been dated around 15 Ma in the Middle Miocene. The typical glacialinterglacial cycles such as Quaternary glaciation are recognized from about 2.75 Ma, close to PliocenePleistocene boundary. The recent cyclic change of climate from 40 kyr to 100 kyr occurred at about 1 Ma that is called as the Middle Pleistocenerevoluition(MPS). 2.NewdrivingForceofclimatechange? Three driving force or control factors of climate are albedo, solar radiation and greenhouse gases. Solar radiation is strongly connected with orbital factors of the Milankovitchcycles(eccentric,tiltingandprecession)andintensityofsunactivityitself (black spots cycles of 11 and 22 years), while effect of greenhouse gases affected both periodofshortterm(kascale)andlongterm(myrscale). Recently,thecosmicscientistsproposeanewtheorythatchangesintheintensityof galactic cosmic rays alter the Earths cloudiness and variations in the cosmicray influx due to solarmagnetic activity thataccounts well for climatic fluctuations on decadalto millennialscales.Thepositiverelationshipbetweenthevariationsinglobalcloudcover and cosmic rays influx is observed in the lowlevel (<3.2 km) atmosphere. The geomagneticintensityalsoaffectsvariationsinthecosmicrayinflux. The effect of albedo seems to be underestimated in the past oceanographic science. Reevaluations of cosmic effects need in the future climate science based on

measurement of carbon isotope (14C), 10Be record and geomagnetic intensity in the sediments. The new paleocenography socalled as Cosmic Oceanography may be proposedinthisviewofpoint. 3.NewmethodsforanalysisofclimatechangeinArcticregions The highlatitude area is still an important target to understand a transition of the Cenozoic climate. However, deplete of calcium carbonate sediments causes the difficulty of climate study because geochemical analysis using oxygen and carbon isotopes, Mg/Ca ratio, and alkenone need the calcareous shells. In particular, no drillingsitesexistafterODPLeg145(Site881887)intheNorthPacificsector.However, IODP drilling results in the Arctic Ocean challenged a reconstruction of a new history in Arctic icesheet development. The appearance of Arctic icesheet could be reevaluatedinthenorthernhemisphere. Recently, geochemists challenged to test several new measurement methods for siliceous fossils in the past. The diatom 18O as a proxy of salinity and temperature and
30

Siand15Nofdiatomopalasaproxyofnutrientutilizationinthepastaretestedinthe

Quaternary to Miocene sediments.These methods may enable us highquality analysis of climate change in the siliceous oceans as well as the calcareous ones. Thus, a new development of noncalcareous proxies and their application for climate science to calcareousdepletedoceanscouldbetargetedintheIODPsecience. 4.Longtermcompletesequenceofthedrillhole PreviouspenetrationdepthofdrillingusingJRislimitedatabout2000m.Thedeep drilling down to Paleogene sequence generally needs a composite procedure of multidrilling cores at several drilling sites. On the other hand, the Chikyu has a riser and nonriser modes and can penetrate the sequence downto 7000 mmsbf. Hence, the new IODP research enables us deeponehole study that penetrate from surface to basement rocks. The continuous sequence is thebest for research of a reconstruction of integrated timescale and continuous analysis of geochemical study in highresolution study. In particular, the North Pacific region has a thick sedimentary sequence that causeslittlerecoveryof theoldersedimentssuchasPaleogeneandearlyNeogene.The CompletesequencestudyispossibleusinganewdrillingabilityoftheChikyu. 5.SummaryofISPplanning Although major topics of a new ISP are listed above, the another science target of IODP objectives still remains: 1) Climate change during warming mode in the Early

Cenozoic,2)CauseofcoolingbeginningattheEarly/MiddleEocene,3)Climatechange during cooling mode spanning from the Late Oligocene to Late Miocene and its reevaluation of driving force in cooling, 4) Origins of monsoon and influence for climate, 5) Highlatitude climate change in Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, 6) Gateway impactforclimatechange.Weneedtobeinterestedinthesescienceobjectives.