Index

adaptive protection 39, 102 alarms processing 269, 274 expert systems 271-2 fingerprinting approach 273-4 hypothesis approach 275 processing methods 270 rules 273 amplitude comparator 174-5 distance protection 173 asymmetric current 13 asymmetrical fault calculations 23

back-up protection 3, 5, 7, 8-9, 117, 186, 252, 301 blocking characteristic impedance protection 1984 busbar differential protection 168, 266

cabling lists 268 compensation transformer 154, 156-8, 172, 329 computerised protection adaptive 39 architectures 40 co-ordination 19, 68, 71, 73, 85~, 88-9, 94, 96-9, 102, 109, 111,113-14, 117, 120-3, 125, 128, 137, 142, 144, 186-7, 219, 225,227, 230, 236-7, 242, 252,286, 292, 305, fuse-fuse 117 overcurrent relays 86, 88-9, 109 Dy transformers 75, 86 fuses 96 recloser-fuse 117

recloser-recloser 120 electronic 111,120, 122 hydraulic 111,120, 122 recloser-relay 122 recloser-sectionaliser 123 time/current devices 117 coverage 190, 194, 212, 318, 337 instantaneous overcurrent units 68-9 transformer differential protection 152 current transformers 5, 26, 51, 60, 72, 92, 149, 170, 226-7, 265, 285, 289 a.c. saturation 52 accuracy classes 58 burden 53 d.c. saturation 59 equivalent circuit 51 2, 60 errors 52, 72, 150 excitation curve 52-4, 56 flux density 56 installation tests 283 knee point 53-4 magnetisation curve 51, 53-4, 56 saturation density 56 saturation point 53 secondary injection test 53, 285-6 selection 53, 92, 154, 304 tests 58 diagrams a.c. connections 262, 264-5 d.c. connections 262, 265 logic 262, 268 single line 28, 60, 89, 104, 154, 243, 262-3 substation design 261-8 substation layout 263-4 wiring 262, 266, 285

340

Index
phase units 195 polygonal relay 184, 203 power swing blocking unit 199 power system oscillations 196-7 reactance relay 180 fault resistance 180, 182-3, 193 relay characteristic angle 193,201 residual compensation 194, 207, 222, 336 series compensated lines 214 setting 185 tee circuits 215 under reach 213, 217 18 equivalent impedances 26, 301, 312 excitation curves 52, 56 current transformer 51, 53, 55, 59 fault calculations 11, 16, 23, 28 computer 28 interactive program 28 fault currents 7, 11, 23, 59, 139 asymmetrical values 23 mathematical derivation 24 frequency relays 239 settings 240, 242-3,247, 249 frequency variation 240-1,243,250 fuse-fuse co-ordination 117 fuse-links 115, 118 fuses 109, 114-17 classification 115 maximum clearance time 114 minimum melting time 114, 117-18, 123 nominal current 116, 123 nominal voltage 114, 116 notation 117 speed ratio 115 generator protection schemes 251 impedance protection blocking characteristic 198-9 impedance relays 168, 179, 252 impedances, equivalent 26 industrial plant 225-6 load shedding 239-50 automatic system 240 industrial system protection 225-37 low voltage breakers 227, 236 motors 226 moulded case circuit breakers 225

differential protection busbar 152, 168 high impedance 169-70 multiple restraint 168 compensation transformer 154, 156-7, 172 line 164 operating characteristics 164 percentage biased 150 rotating machines 152, 164 transformer 149, 152 coverage 152 magnetisation inrush 153 sensitivity 153, 155, 162 variable percentage characteristic 150, 152, 168 variable tappings 150 directional earth fault relays 131-2 directional overcurrent relays 127, 137, 141,261 connections 138 instantaneous units 137 co-ordination 137 time delay units 141 pick-up setting 141 time dial setting 146 discrimination margin 71-2, 88, 98-9, 104,235 distance protection 173524 amplitude comparator 174-5 arc resistance, effect 179-80, 182, 193 blocking characteristic 198 directional relay 179 earth fault units 196 effect ofinfeeds 188 effective cover 199 200, 208 generator excitation loss detection 219 impedance relay 179 infeed constant 188-9, 199 intertripping 212 permissive over reach 214 permissive under reach 213 under reach 213 lens characteristics 183 maximum load impedance 200 mho relays 200 polygonal relays 202-3 mho relay 181 polarised 182 reach 185 overlap 186, 188-9, 192, 207, 210 overreach 189,214-15, 217-18 phase angle comparator 176-7

Index
overcurrent relays 225~5 thermal relays 226 thermal relay-contactor and fuse 225 inertia constant 239-41 infeed constant distance protection 188-9 intertripping distance protection 212, 214 load shedding 239 automatic system 240 2 frequency relays 239 setting 240, 242-3,247, 249 frequency variation 240-1,243,250 modelling parameters 241 voltage variation 242 low voltage breakers 227, 236 maintenance criteria 291 mho relay 181-2, 201 motor locked rotor current 226, 230 service factor 230 motor protection 252 low voltage breakers 226, 253 thermal relays 226 moulded case circuit breakers 225 negative sequence relays co-ordination 96 numerical protection 39-42 digital logic 39, 41, 99 logic schemes 100 principles 99 performance tests 293 setting parameters 291 operator 'a' 263 overcurrent relays 63 ANSI/IEEE constants 72, 73 co-ordination requirements 73 minimum short-circuit level 73 pick-up values 75 thermal limits 73 definite current 63 definite time 66 definite time/current 66 IEC constants 72, 73 instantaneous units 67 coverage 68 distribution circuits 68 selectivity 6 5 ~ 8 , 72, 88 transformers 63, 67-8, 71, 73 inverse time 66 7, 79 negative-sequence units 96 setting 66 software techniques 98 time/current curves 66 IEC/UK 73-4 IEEE/US 75 typical 74 time delay units 97, 141 co-ordination criteria 117 pick-up setting 141 time dial setting 142 voltage control units 97 periodic maintenance 290 pilot differential protection 164, 166 polygonal relay 183,202 power system oscillations 196, 198 distance protection 193 pre-commissioning tests 185 primary injection test 189 protection computerised 39 adaptive 39 architectures 42 differential 149-70 busbar 168 distance 173-222 generator 251 industrial systems 225-7 line 261 motor 252 overcurrent 63 selectivity 63 transformer 258 protection equipment 283 installation 283 testing 283 factory 285 pre-commissioning 285 primary injection 289 secondary injection 286 protection zones 5

341

reactances synchronous machines 22 recloser-fuse co-ordination 117 recloser-recloser co-ordination 120 recloser-relay co-ordination 122 recloser-sectionaliserco-ordination 123

342

Index
networks 22-3, 28 voltages 27, 32 series compensated lines distance protection 214 software techniques 98 symmetrical components 19, 22 3, 26 synchronous machines 14, 22 reactance values 16, 22 tests factory 285 pre-commissioning 285 primary injection 289 secondary injection 285 6 thermal limits 73 thermal relays 226 thermal relay-contactors 225 transformers differential protection 152-64 inrush current 68 overcurrent protection 186 protection schemes 154, 258 thermal capacity 74 voltage transformers capacitor type 47 equivalent circuit 45 inductive 47 burden 47 equivalent circuit 45 error limits 47, 49 errors 46 flux density 45 magnetic impedance 51

reclosers co-ordination 117-23 installing 113 operating sequence 111 relay re-set time 122 relay circuit supplies 43 relays attracted armature 33 co-ordination requirements 73 computerised 33 cup 35 directional overcurrent 127 identification code 252 impedance 179 induction 35 mho 181 moveable coil 34 overcurrent 63, 66, 70, 97-8, 127 polygonal 184,202-3 reactance 180 shaded pole 36 solenoid 33 thermal 32, 226-7, 252 wattmetric 36-7 residual compensation distance protection 194, 207, 222, 336 secondary injection test 285-6 sectionalisers 109, 113 selectivity 5, 67, 88, 96, 237 sequence components 19, 26, 28 currents 22 impedances 22-3, 26, 28