Analytical Dynamics

A TREATISE
ON THE
ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS
OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODIES
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

C.
F.
CLAY, MANAGER
Soulum:
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lirfu gorft:
G.
Bombag,
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anto Jftafcras:
Toronto:
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J.
M.
PUTNAM S SONS MACMILLAN AND CO., DENT AND SONS, LTD.

P.
LTD.
MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
All rights reserved
A TREATISE
ON THE
ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS
OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODIES;
WITH AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES
,
BY
E.
T.
WHITTAKER
Sc.E).
Hon.
(Dubl.)
F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics in
the University of Edinburgh
SECOND EDITION
CAMBRIDGE
1917
AT THK UNIVERSITY
PRESS
Uf
irst
Edition 1904
Second Edition 1917
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
TN
revising this book for a second edition, I have endeavoured to givereferences to,
and in some cases accounts
of,
the
numerous
original
Dynamics which have been published by various investigators I have moreover added some historical since the first edition appeared.
researches in
matter, and rewritten

in
detail,
many sections. It is not necessary to specify these but perhaps I may mention that the new explanation of the
:
125 sprang from a desire to do justice to the earliest great work of Hamilton s genius that the changes in 69 (the motion of a body about a rixed point under no forces) arose from
transformation-theory of Dynamics in
my
in
opinion that the Jacobian functions are preferable to the Weierstrassian

the
numerical computations
and that
(
should have liked

it
to
give
a fuller proof of
Sundman s theorem
181), but thought
better to give
only such an account as might impel the reader to consult
Mr Sundman s
own
accessible
and readable memoir.

record
I wish again to
my
obligations to the staff of the
Cambridge
University Press.
E. T.
WHITTAKER.
EDINBURGH,
August, 1916.
a3
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
SECTION
1.
I.
KINEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES.
PAGE
of rigid bodies Euler s theorem on rotations about a point The theorem of Rodrigues and Hamilton
The displacements
2.
3.
...... .......
.
.
2 3
4.
5.
6.
The composition
and opposite rotations about parallel axes Chasles theorem on the most general displacement of a rigid body Halphen s theorem on the composition of two general displacements
of equal
3
4
5
7.
8.
9.
Analytic representation of a displacement The composition of small rotations
10.
11. 12. 13.
14.
Euler s parametric specification of rotations round a point The Eulerian angles Connexion of the Eulerian angles with the parameters ?;, ^ The connexion of rotations with homographies the Cayley-Klein parameters Vectors
, , :
...
8 9
10
11
13
14
Velocity and acceleration

;
their vectorial character
15.
16.
17. 18.
Angular velocity its vectorial character Determination of the components of angular velocity of a system in terms of the Eulerian angles, and of the symmetrical parameters Time-flux of a vector whose components relative to moving axes are given Special resolutions of the velocity and acceleration
. . .
15
16
17
18
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
22
CHAPTER
II.
THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

19.
Contents
SECTION
26.
vii
PAGE
. .
Lagrange s form of the equations of motion of a holonomic system

Conservative forces
;
34
38
27.
28.
the kinetic potential
The
29. 30.
31.
32. 33. 34.
explicit form of Lagrange s equations Motion of a system which is constrained to rotate uniformly round an axis The Lagrangian equations for quasi-coordinates Forces derivable from a potential-function which involves the velocities Initial motions
.
39 40
41
44
45
47
47
...
Similarity in dynamical systems Motion with reversed forces
35.
36.
Impulsive motion
The Lagrangian equations MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
of impulsive motion
...
......
48
50
51
CHAPTER
37.
38.
39.
III.
PRINCIPLES AVAILABLE FOR THE INTEGRATION.

Problems which are soluble by quadratures Systems with ignorable coordinates
.
52
.
54 58
61
Special cases of ignoration
integrals of
40.
41.
42.
The general theorem The energy equation
of angular
momentum and momentum
......
angular
.
momentum
62
43.
Reduction of a dynamical problem to a problem with fewer degrees of freedom, by means of the energy equation Separation of the variables dynamical systems of Liouville s type
;
64
67
69
CHAPTER
IV.
THE SOLUBLE PROBLEMS OF PARTICLE DYNAMICS.

44.
45.
46.
47.
The particle with one degree of freedom the pendulum Motion in a moving tube Motion of two interacting free particles Central forces in general Hamilton s theorem
; .
:
.... ......
.
.
71
74 76
77
48.
The
integrable cases of central forces and elliptic functions
49.
50.
Motion under the Newtonian law The mutual transformation of fields of central force and
"
force
51. 52.
Bonnet s theorem
.......... ............
;
problems soluble in terms of circular

80
86 93 94 95
97
fields of parallel
Determination of the most general field of force under which a given curve or family of curves can be described
53.
The problem
of
two centres of gravitation
54. 55.
Motion on a surface Motion on a surface of revolution

elliptic functions
99
;
56.
Joukovsky s theorem MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
........... ...........
cases soluble in terms of circular and
103 109
111
vii.i
Contents
CHAPTER
SECTION
57.
V.
THE DYNAMICAL SPECIFICATION OF BODIES.

PAGK
;
.
Definitions
117
58. 59.
The moments
Derivation of
inertia
some simple bodies the moment of inertia about any

of inertia of
-.
118
121
axis
when the moment
of
60.
about a parallel axis through the centre of gravity is known Connexion between moments of inertia with respect to different sets of axes
through the same origin

61.
62.
63.
.......
.
122
.
The
principal axes of inertia Cauchy s momenta! ellipsoid Calculation of the angular momentum of a moving rigid body Calculation of the kinetic energy of a moving rigid body
; .
124 124
126
127
64.
Independence of the motion of the centre of gravity and the motion relative
to
it
129
CHAPTER
65.
VI.
THE SOLUBLE PROBLEMS OF RIGID DYNAMICS.

The motion
The motion
Initial
of systems with one degree of freedom of systems with
motion round a fixed

131
axis, etc.
66. 67. 68.
two degrees of freedom
137
motions
of systems with three degrees of freedom of a body about a fixed point under no forces
The motion
Motion
Poinsot s
....
.
141
143 144
152 155 159
69.
70.
kinematical
herpolhode
71.
Motion of a top on a perfectly rough plane

angle 6
72.
73. 74.
75.
Determination of the remaining Eulerian angles, and of the Cayley-Klein parameters the spherical top Motion of a top on a perfectly smooth plane
;
Kowalevski
top
............ ............. ......... ............

representation of
the motion
the
polhode
and
determination of the Eulerian
163 164
167
Impulsive motion
169
CHAPTER
76.
77.
78.
VII.
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS.
Vibrations about equilibrium Normal coordinates
...........
...
. .
177
178
79.
Sylvester s theorem on the reality of the roots of the determinantal equation Solution of the differential equations -the periods stability
; ;
.
.
183
185
187
191
80.
Examples of vibrations about equilibrium

constraint on the periods of a vibrating system The stationary character of normal vibrations Vibrations about steady motion
Effect of a
. . . .
81. 82.
83. 84.
new
192 193
19;">
The
85.
86.
integration of the equations Examples of vibrations about steady motion

.
. .
......
.
. .
203
-07
Vibrations of systems involving moving constraints
208
Content*
ix
CHAPTER
SECTION
87.
VIII.
NON-HOLONOMIC SYSTEMS. DISSIPATIVE SYSTEMS.

PAGE
s equations with undetermined multipliers manner Equations of motion referred to axes moving in any Application to special non-holonomic problems Vibrations of non-holonomic systems
Lagrange
88.
89.
217
90. 91.
92. 93. 94.
frictional forces Dissipative systems Resisting forces which depend on the velocity
;
Rayleigh s dissipation-function Vibrations of dissipative systems
95. 96. 97.
Impact
Loss of kinetic energy in impact
Examples of impact MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
....... ......
CHAPTER
IX.
THE PRINCIPLES OF LEAST ACTION AND LEAST CURVATURE.

98. 99.
The
100.
101. 102.
dynamical system conservative holonomic systems The principle of Least Action for conservative holonomic systems Extension of Hamilton s principle to non-conservative dynamical systems Extension of Hamilton s principle and the principle of Least Action to
trajectories of a
Hamilton
s principle for
....
. .
245 245 247
248
249
non-holonomic systems
103.
104. 105.
..........
. .
Kinetic foci integrals actual minima? Representation of the motion of dynamical systems by means of geodesies The least-curvature principle of Gauss and Hertz
Are the stationary
250
253
.....
254 256 258 260

261
106.
107.
Expression of the curvature of a path in terms of generalised coordinates
108.
Appell s equations Bertrand s theorem
CHAPTER
Hamilton
X.
HAMILTONIAN SYSTEMS AND THEIR INTEGRAL-INVARIANTS.

109.
110.
111.
s form of the equations of motion Equations arising from the Calculus of Variations
.
.....
.
263
265
112.
113.
Integral-invariants The variational equations
267
114.
115. 116. 117. 118.
119.
Integral-invariants of order one Relative integral-invariants
.........
is
268 269
271
relative integral-invariant
which
possessed by
all
Hamiltonian systems
.
272
272
On systems which
possess the relative integral-invariant

in
|2pS</
The expression of integral-invariants The theorem of Lie and Koenigs The last multiplier
terms of integrals
274
275
276
Content*
120.
121.
Application of the last multiplier to
Derivation of an integral from two multipliers Hainiltonian systems
279
;
use of a
122.
123.
single known integral Integral-invariants whose order is equal to the order of the system Reduction of differential equations to the Lagrangian form
.
.
280
.
283 284
285
124.
a.se
in
which the kinetic energy

.
is
quadratic in the velocities
...
.
286
CHAPTER XL
THE TRANSFORMATION-THEORY OF DYNAMICS.
125.
Hamilton
s Characteristic
Function and contact-transformations
288 292
296
297
126.
127. 128.
Contact-transformations in space of any number of dimensions The bilinear covariant of a general differential form
....
. .
The conditions The conditions
for a contact-transformation expressed
by means
s
of
the
bilinear covariant
129.
130.
131.
expressions Poisson s bracket-expressions The conditions for a contact-transformation expressed by
bracket-expressions
132.
The sub-groups
tions
133.
Infinitesimal contact-transformations
134. 135. 136.
The
resulting dynamics Helmholtz s reciprocal theorem Jacobi s theorem on the transformation of a given dynamical system into
another dynamical system

137.
138.
............ ......... ........ ............. ........ ......... .........

for a contact-transformation in
terms of Lagrange
bracket-
298
299
means of Poisson
300
301
of
Mathieu transformations and extended point-transforma
302
new view
of
304 304 305

307
Representation of a dynamical problem by a differential form The Harniltonian function of the transformed equations
....
. .
309
139.
140.
Transformations in which the independent variable New formulation of the integration-problem
...... ...
is
changed
310 310
311
CHAPTER
XII.
PROPERTIES OF THE INTEGRALS OF DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS.

141.
Reduction of the order of a Harniltonian system by use of the energy

integral
142.
143.
Hamilton s partial differential equation Hamilton s integral as a solution of Hamilton
144.
The connexion
the system
145.
Poisson s theorem
............. ....... ............ ............

of Lagrange s bracket-expressions
s partial differential equation of integrals with infinitesimal transformations admitted by
318
320
321
146.
147.
The constancy
Involution-systems
322
Contents
SECTION
148.
xi
PAGE
Solution of
a dynamical problem when
half the integrals are

.
known
149.
Levi-Civita s theorem
150.
151.
Systems which possess integrals linear in the momenta Determination of the forces acting on a system for which an integral
....
is
.
323 325
328
331
known
152.
153.
Application to the case of a particle whose equations of motion possess an integral quadratic in the velocities General dynamical systems possessing integrals quadratic in the velocities
.......
332
335 336
CHAPTER
XIII.
THE REDUCTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES.

154.
155.
Introduction
339
The
differential equations of the
156.
157.
Jacobi s equation Reduction to the 12th order, by use of the integrals of motion of the centre
of gravity
158.
Reduction to the 8th order, by use of the integrals of angular and elimination of the nodes
Reduction to the 6th order
............ ........
problem
.
,
340 342
343
momentum
344
347
.
159.
160. 161.
162.
Alternative reduction of the problem from the 18th to the 6th order The problem of three bodies in a plane
348
351
The
restricted
problem of three bodies
163.
Extension to the problem of n bodies
.......
353 356
356
CHAPTER
XIV.
THE THEOREMS OF BRUNS AND POINCARE.

164.
Bruns theorem Statement of the theorem (i) (ii) Expression of an integral

the problem
(iii)
358
in
terms of the essential coordinates of
An
integral
must involve the momenta
(iv)
Only one irrationality can occur
in the integral
...... ....
.
358 359 360

361
(v)
(vi)
Expression of the integral as a quotient of two real polynomials Derivation of integrals from the numerator and denominator of the quotient
.
(vii)
(viii)
Proof that
Proof that
<
does not involve the irrationality is a function only of the momenta and the integrals
....
362 366
371
of angular
(ix)
momentum
is
Proof that
<
a function of
7",
Z, J/,
N
t
.
374
(x)
(xi)
Deduction of Brims theorem, for integrals which do not involve Extension of Brims result to integrals which involve the time
376 378
xii
Contents
165.
Poincare
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
theorem
of motion of the restricted problem of three bodies
:
The equations
Statement of Proof that
4>
Poincare"
theorem
.......
.
380
381
is
not a function of
Iff,
381
q%
is
. . .
(iv)
Proof that
4>
cannot involve the variables q,
382 383 384 385
(v)
Proof that the existence of a one-valued integral the result of (iii) in the general case
......
B
m>
inconsistent with
(vi)
Removal
of
the restrictions on the coefficients
,,, 2
(vii)
Deduction of Poincare s theorem
CHAPTER
XV.
ORBITS.
386
THE GENERAL THEORY OF

166.
167.
Introduction
Periodic solutions
386
for a periodic orbit
.
168.
169. 170.
Poincare
normal variables
387
. .
.
criterion for the discovery of periodic orbits

s
388
171.
172.
three particles of Lagrange s particles Stability The differential equation of the
Lagrange
390
:
173.
174.
Korteweg s theorem
The index
of stability
175.
176.
177.
178.
Characteristic exponents Properties of the characteristic exponents Attractive and repellent regions of a field of force
........... .......... .......

.
periodic orbits in the vicinity normal displacement from an orbit
394
395
397 398
400
401
403
. . .
Application of the energy integral to the problem of stability Application of integral-invariants to investigations of stability
406 407
107
179.
CHAPTER
XVI.
INTEGRATION EY TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES.

180.
The need
series
for series
.............
which converge
for all values of the
time
Poincare
410
411
181.
182.
The
regularisation of the problem of three bodies
183.
184.
185.
Trigonometric series Removal of terms of the
412
. .
first degree from the energy function Determination of the normal coordinates by a contact-transformation Transformation to the trigonometric form of If
.
. . .
413 414 417 419 420

4-2-2
186. 187. 188.
Other types of motion which lead to equations of the same form Removal of a periodic term from Removal of further periodic terms from //
........
.
.
189.
Reversion to the original coordinates
423 424
4^5
INDEX OF AUTHORS QUOTED

INDEX OF TERMS EMPLOYED
.
428
CHAPTER
KINEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES
1.
The displacements of rigid
bodies.
Analytical Dynamics is given to that branch of knowledge in which the motions of material bodies, considered as due to the mutual
interactions of the bodies, are discussed
The name
by the aid of mathematical
analysis.
It is natural to begin this discussion by considering the various possible types of motion in themselves, leaving out of account for a time the causes to which the initiation of motion may be ascribed this preliminary enquiry
;
constitutes the science of Kinematics.

to establish a
number
object of the present chapter is of kinematical theorems which will be required in the
The
rest of the work.
Kinematics
is in itself
an extensive subject,
for a complete account of
which the student
is referred to treatises
what
follows
we
In dealing exclusively with it, e.g. that of Koenigs (Paris, 1897). shall confine our attention to theorems which are of utility in the appli
cations of Kinematics to Dynamics.
shall say that a material body is rigid when the mutual distance of every pair of specified points in it is invariable, so that the body does not expand or contract or change its shape in any way, although it may change
its
We
position with reference to surrounding objects.
If a rigid body is moved from one position to another, the change of Certain special kinds of position is called a displacement of the body.
displacement have received specific names; thus,

of every point of the
if
the position in space

line
if
body which
lies
on some straight
is
unchanged,
the displacement
is
called a rotation about the line
L;
of the body is unchanged, the displacement is called space of some point a rotation about the point P; and if the lines joining the initial and final of each of the of the are a set of parallel positions lines points body
straight of length
the position in
unaltered, the displacement is called a translation parallel to the direction of the lines, through a distance I.
I,
so that the orientation of the
body in space
is
w. D.
2
2.
Kinematical Preliminaries
Elder s theorem on rotations about a point*.
[CH.
Consider a rigid body, one of whose points is made immoveable by some attachment suppose that the body is free to turn about this point in any manner, and let any two possible configurations of the body be taken for
;
:
convenience we shall
We
shall
now
and the configuration Q. these the configuration shew that it is possible to bring the body from the configuration
call
P
to
to the configuration through the fixed point,
Q by
i.e.
simply rotating it about some definite line that a rotation about a point is always equivalent
rotation about a line through the point.
was first given by Euler), denote the fixed be the positions, in the configuration P, of two lines point by 0; the fixed which are fixed in the body and move with it let through point OA OB be the positions of the same lines in the configuration Q. Draw
establish this result (which
let
To
OA OB
,
and bisects the angle perpendicular to the plane .ACM/: and draw also the plane which is perpendicular to the plane BOB
the plane which
is
AOA
and bisects the angle BOB. Let 00 be the line of intersection of these two if they are coincident, we planes, supposing them to be not coincident denote by 00 the line of intersection of the planes OAB and OA B
;
.
Then
clearly in either case the line

it is
00
is
related to the lines
OA OB
,
in exactly the same way as and say, the angles
related to the lines
OA
and
OB
that
is to
AGO
BOG are
B OG.
then
It follows that if the
system
respectively equal to the angles in such a is rotated about
A OG and
way
OABC
that the lines
OA
and
OB come
its
into the positions
OA
and
The line position unchanged. unaffected by the displacement in question, and so the displacement can be represented by a rotation through some angle round 06 which proves
will
OG
retain
OB OC
;
respectively, is therefore
the theorem.
When
time
t
a body
is
continuously moving round one of
its
t
fixed in space, the displacement from its position at time
points, which is to its position at
At, can,
by Euler s theorem, be obtained by rotating the body about

through the fixed point.
is
some
definite line
The
line, indefinitely diminished, axis of rotation of the body at the time t.
when the
interval Atf
is
limiting position of this called the instantaneous
When
a body
is
of the instantaneous axis in the
continuously moving round one of its points, which is fixed, the locus body is a cone, whose vertex is at the fixed point: the
locus of the instantaneous axis in space is also a cone whose vertex is at the fixed point. Shew that the actual motion of the body can be obtained by making the former of these
cones (supposed to be rigidly connected with the body) be fixed in space).
roll
on the latter cone (supposed to

(Poiusot.)
same plane
similar proof shews that if any two positions of a plane figure in the are given, the displacement from one position to the other can be
*
Novi Comment. Petrop. xx.
(1776), p. 189,
25.
2-4]
This point
is
3
called
regarded as a rotation about some point in the plane. the centre of rotation.
is regarded as continuously moving, the small displace position to the position which succeeds it after an infinitesimal interval of time can therefore be accomplished by a rotation round a point
When
the body
ment from one
this point is called the instantaneous centre of rotation.
lamina moves in any manner in its plane. Prove that the locus at any Example 1. instant of points which are at inflexions of their paths is a circle, which touches the loci in the lamina and in space of the centre of instantaneous rotation. (Coll. Exam.)
rigid body in two dimensions is subjected successively to two finite Example 2. If D 2 be the line joining the centres of displacement, and if displacements in its plane. DI be the line which is brought into the position 2 by half the first displacement (i.e. by rotation through half the angle), and if 3 be the position to which D 2 is brought by
body
half the second displacement, shew that the centre of the total displacement of the rigid is the intersection of DI and 3 (Coll. Exam.)
Z>
3.
The theorem of Rodrigues and Hamilton*.
Any two successive rotations about a fixed point can be compounded into a single rotation by means of a theorem, which may be stated as follows
:
the angles
Successive rotations about three concurrent lines fixed in space, through twice of the planes formed by them, restore a body to its original position.
Draw. Op, Oq, Or per QOR, ROP, POQ respectively. Then if a body is rotated through two right angles about Oq, and afterwards through two right angles about Or, the position of OP is on the whole unaffected, while Oq is moved to the position occupied by its image in the line Or; the effect is therefore the same as that of a rotation round OP through twice the angle between the planes PR and PQ, which we may call the angle RPQ. It
For
let
the lines be denoted by OP, OQ, OR.
pendicular to the planes
follows that successive rotations
round OP, OQ,
OR
through twice the angles
respectively, are equivalent to successive rotations through two right angles about the lines Oq, Or, Or, Op, Op, Oq; but the latter rotations will clearly on the whole produce no displacement; which establishes
RPQ, PQR, QRP,
the theorem.
4.
The composition of equal and opposite rotations about parallel axes.
A case of special interest is that in which a body is subjected in turn to two rotations of equal amount in opposite senses about two parallel axes.
In neither displacement is any point of the body displaced in a direction parallel to the axes, and this is therefore true of the total displacement. Moreover, if any line be taken in the body in a plane perpendicular to the
0. Rodrigues, Journ. de Math. v. (1840), p. 380; Hamilton, Lectures on Quaternions, the proof here given is due to Burnside, Acta Math. xxv. (1902).
*
344
12
[CH.
axes, this line in the first displacement will be turned through an angle equal to the angle of rotation, and in the second displacement will be turned
back through the same angle so its final position original position; which evidently can be the case
;
will
for
be parallel to its every line without
exception,
translation.
only
when the
total
displacement
is
equivalent to a simple
It follows that
two successive equal and opposite rotations about
parallel axes are equivalent to a translation in a direction perpendicular to the axes; or, in other words, a rotation about any axis is equivalent to
a rotation through the same angle about any axis parallel to a simple translation in a direction perpendicular to the axis.
it,
together with
of this, namely the theorem that a rotation of a rigid about body any axis, preceded or followed by a translation in a direction perpendicular to the axis, are together equivalent to a rotation of the body about a parallel axis, is also true, being essentially the same as the result
The converse
stated in 2, that any displacement in a plane can be regarded as a rotation round some point in the plane. By considering the angle between the initial and final positions of any line which is perpendicular to the axis and moves with the body, we see that the angles of rotation round the two axes
are equal.
5.
Chasles theorem on the most general displacement of a rigid body*.

shall
now, consider displacements of a more general character. It is evident that a free rigid body can be moved from any one selected con figuration P in space to any other Q by first moving some selected point of
its position in the configuration P to its position in the each of the other points of the body being moved by a simple translation parallel to this (so that the body is oriented in the same way after the operation as before), and secondly rotating the body about this point into the configuration Q. By Euler s theorem, this latter operation can be performed by simply rotating the body about a line through the point so
We
the body from
configuration Q,
see that the most general displacement of a rigid body can be obtained by first translating the body, and then rotating it about a line.
we
that the line about which the rotation takes place can motion of translation is parallel to this line. For let A be the initial position of any point of the body, and B the position to which this point is brought by the motion of translation. Let be the line A to the line round which the rotation takes parallel through place, and let be the foot of the perpendicular from B on AK. Then the motion of
be so chosen, that the
We
shall
now shew
AK
translation can evidently be accomplished in two stages, the first of which is a translation parallel to the line about which the rotation takes place,
* Mozzi, Discorso matematico sopra ilrotamento momentaneo del corpi, Naples, 1763; Cauchy, Exercices de Hath. n. (Paris, 1827), p. 87; Oeuvres, (2) vn. p. 94; Chasles, Bulletin Unit: des Sciences (Ferussac), xiv. (1830), p. 321 ; Comptes Rendus de VAcad. xvi. (1843), p. 1420.
4-6]
bringing the point A to the position K, and the second of which is a translation perpendicular to the line about which the rotation takes place,
to the position B. But by 4, the second translation, bringing the point with the rotation which follows it, are together together equivalent to
a simple rotation about a
new
axis parallel to the first one.
If therefore any
point on this axis be taken as base-point, the whole displacement can be accomplished by a translation of the body parallel to a certain line through
this point,
together with a rotation about this line; this establishes the
theorem.
the direction of translation
This combination of a translation and a rotation round a line parallel to is called a screw the ratio of the distance of
;
It is translation to the angle of rotation is called the pitch of the screw. clear that in a screw displacement, the order in which the translation and
rotation take place

6.
is
indifferent.
Halphen s theorem on the composition of two general displacements. Halphen has shewn* how to determine geometrically the resultant of any two screwdisplacements as a screw-displacement.
Let
and A 2 denote the axes of the two screws, and

is
-4 ]2
their
common
perpendicular.
Let BI be the line which

(i.e.
brought to the position
A 12
by half the
first
displacement
and rotation through half the angle), and let B2 be the line to whose position A^ is brought by half the second displacement; let C denote the common Halphen s result is that the axis of the resultant perpendicular to the lines BI and B2
half the translation,
.
screw-displacement
position
is C,
and
the displacement is twice that
which brings the line
to the
B2
let
For
position DI to DI and
DI and D2 be lines such that half the given displacements will bring A 12 to the and D2 to the position A 12 respectively, and let be the common perpendicular
C"
The figure thus obtained, and that which is obtained from it by rotating right angles about A i2 , evidently coincide whence we have the relations
; :
it
through two
Intercept Intercept
Intercept
made on B by A { and C= Intercept made on made on B2 by A 2 and C= Intercept made on made on C by BI and B2 = Intercept made on
1
Z>
C"
by AI and by A 2 and C by DI and D 2

,
C",
Angle between the planes Angle between the planes Angle between B 1 and B 2
It follows that the
AiB B C= Angle A 2 B2 B2 C= Angle

1
,
between the planes AI D lt between the planes A 2 D2
DiC
DC
2
= Angle
between
and
screw about A 1 brings C to the position of produced, the inter being brought to the position of the intersection of D^ and C ; and then the screw about A 2 brings to the position of C produced, the intersection of so C is the axis of the resultant 2 and C being brought to the intersection of B 2 and C
C"
section of
and
C"
and 2 screw, and the amount of the translation is twice the intercept made on C by Also the line BI, which by the first screw is brought to the position is by the second brought to a position making the same angle with B2 that B 2 makes with B l ; and therefore
.
Z>j,
Nouvelles Annales de Math.
(3) i. p.
298 (1882).
The proof given here
is
due to Burnside,
Mesa, of Math. xix. p. 104 (1889).
is
[CH.
the rotation of the resultant screw
twice the angle between
Bz and B.
This establishes
Halphen
theorem.
Example.
Shew
by the composition
of
that any infinitesimal displacement of a rigid body can be obtained two infinitesimal rotations round lines, and that one of these lines
can be arbitrarily chosen.
7.
Analytic representation of a displacement.

shall
We
now
see
how any displacement
of a rigid
body can be represented
analytically.
Let rectangular axes Oxyz be taken, fixed in space these will be supposed form a right-handed system, i.e. if the axes are so placed that Oz is directed vertically upwards and Oy is directed to the northern horizon, then Ox will be directed to the east. Let the displacement considered be equivalent to a
:
to
rotation through an angle
&>
about a line whose direction-angles are
(a, /3, 7),
and which passes through a point
whose coordinates are (a, b, c), together with a translation through a distance d parallel to this line. The angle must be taken with its appropriate sign, the sign being positive when the line
&>
(a, /3,
7) being directed vertically upwards, the rotation from the southern

to
is round by the east. Let the point P whose be brought by the displacement to the position of the point Q (X, Y, Z); and let the point P be brought by the translation alone to the position of the point R (, 77, ) then we have evidently
horizon
the
northern
coordinates are
(x, y, z)
= x + d cos a,
Let
rotation,
77
= y + d cos ft,
%=z
+ d cos 7.
be the foot of the perpendicular from R (or Q) on the axis of and let L be the foot of the perpendicular from Q on KR. Then
we have
X g= projection of
it
the broken line
RLQ
on the axis Ox,
being understood that projections have their appropriate signs, so that the XA ), not (XA XB ). projection of a line AB on the axis of a; is (XB
Now
or
the projection of f
KR on the axis
Ox
is
(projection of
A K on
the axis Ox)

/3
- a - cos a {( - a) cos a + (T? - b) cos |
+ (f - c) cos 7],
and as
axis
RL =
is
(1
cos
co)
KR,
it
follows that the projection of
RL
on the
Ox
- (1 - cos tu) [f - a - cos a {( - a) cos a + (17 - b) cos @ +

Moreover, the line
- c) cos 7}].
LQ
is
normal to the plane
RKA,
and
its
direction-cosines
are therefore proportional to the quantities

(
c) cos /3
(77
6) cos 7,
(??
a) cos 7 a) cos
/3,
c) cos a,
b) cos
6-8]
and since the sum of the squares of these three quantities, divided by the
the quantity sirfRAK, expression {(-a) + 0?- &) + (-c) }, represents 1 and the three , follows that the sum of the three squares is equal to are the projections on the axes of a length + quantities themselves sin w, the projection of LQ measured along the line LQ. Since
2
2
it
KR
KR
LQ= KR
(r)
on the axis Ox
is
therefore
sin
&)
{(
c) cos ft
b) cos 7}.
is
On considering a special case, e.g. supposing that the axis of rotation axis Oz, we see that the upper sign is correct and thus we have
;
the
Z - = - (1 - cos
&>)
{(- ) - cos
to
a
b)
(- a)
cos a cos cos
cos a cos /3(r)
7(
6)j.
c)}
+
Substituting
for
rj,
sin
{cos /3
c)
7 (77.
z,
their values in terms of x, y,

(1
we have
X = x + d cos a
we have
- cos w)
{(x
2 a) sin a
cos a cos (3(y
b)
c)
cos a cos y(z cos
c)}
+ sin to
Similarly
(cos /3(z
y(y
&)}.
F = y + d cos /3 - (1 - cos &))

4-
{(y
2 6) sin /3
- cos /3 cos y(z

sin
ft)
c)
cos
/3
cos a (x
c)}
a)}
[cos 7 (#
a)
sin 2
cos a.(z
and
Z= z + d cos 7 - (1
+
cos w) {(z cos 7 cos

sin
&)
a.
- c)
7
cos
(x
a)
b)
7 cos /3(y
a)}.
b}}
(cos a.(y
cos ft(x
These equations give the new coordinates X, Y,

coordinates x, y, z of the original which define the displacement.
8.
in
terms of the
position of the point and the quantities
The composition of small
rotations.
We shall now apply the last result to the case in which the rotation is infinitesimal, the axis of rotation passing through the origin and there being
for co, where S-v/r no motion of translation. We shall write The equations of the quantity whose square can be neglected. now become = x + (z cos /3 y cos 7) 8-v/r,
8>|r
is
a small
last article
F = y + (x cos Z z + (y cos
7
a
z cos a)
S-^r,
x cos
/3)
8^.
are the equations which we should obtain if we successively (in a ty about Ox, any order) subjected the body to infinitesimal rotations cos It follows that any small rota cos /3 8-^r about Oy, and cos 7 8^ about Oz.
But these
.
tion Sty about
line
OK is
equivalent to successive small rotations Sty cos

.
KOx
.
[CH.
about Ox, Si/r cos KOy about Oy, and &$ cos KOz about Oz, where Ox, Oy, Oz are any three mutually perpendicular lines which intersect in one its
.
OK
of
points, 0.
9.
Enters parametric
specification of rotations
round a point*.
The analytic expressions for the translational part of a displacement are, as we have seen, extremely simple; but the expressions for the rotational part are not so simple, and these will now be further considered. Suppose
then that a rigid body is rotated about a line through through an angle the origin, whose are a, ft, 7. 7, the coordinates direction-angles By (X, Y, Z) of the new position of a point whose original coordinates were
&>
(x, y, z)
are given
by the equations
(X = x
2 sin a
\w
2 (x sin a
cos a cos
ft
z cos a cos 7)
+
i
2 sin -iw cos

ft
\w {z cos
ft
y cos
7),
F= y
=z
2 sin |a) (y sin
ft
z cos
cos
x cos ft cos
a)
+
2 sin 2
G) (
2 sin i&) cos ô) (x cos 7
z cos
a),
sin 2
x cos 7 cos a
cos
cos
/3)
2 sin ^co cos
^&>
(y cos a
cos
/3).
Now
introduce parameters
=cosasina>,
77
77,
^, defined by the equations

&>,
= cos /3 sin |
r+7?
2
= cos 7 sin
2
i&>,
x=
cos&>;
these parameters evidently satisfy the identical relation
+r+ %
=i,
and the above equations can be written
in the form
If therefore the coordinate axes are denoted
by OXYZ, and
if
moveable
axes which originally coincide with these are brought into the position Oxyz by the given rotation, the direction-cosines of the two sets of axes with reference to each other are given by the following scheme
:
X
e-^-^+x*
8-rlO]
parameters
(
, (",
17",
It is readily seen that the
f",
x"),
two successive displacements
r,
f *
,
and (,
77,
f,
corresponding to the resultant of x ), are given by the equations
x"=
xx
-^f-w -f-
These formulae (which were discovered independently at different times by Gauss, Rodrigues, Hamilton, and Cayley) really constitute the theorem for the multiplication of For ^, ?;, may be regarded as the components of a quaternion* quaternions. k where + i, satisfy the equations j, X+i +y
, )
i*
=j* = k*=-\, ij=-ji=k, jk=-kj =

all
i,
ki=-ik=j;
and the above formulae are then

X"
comprehended
(
in the single equation (X
+ Z i + jj +
t"k
X+&+W
+ & + JJ +
,
*)
The reader who is acquainted with quaternions will observe that the effect of the 1 where q denotes the rotation on any vector p is to convert it into the vector qpq
quaternion x + &+n} +
10.
&">
the quaternion
itself is not
the rotational operator.
The Eulerian
angles.
various methods of parametrically practically useful of the round a fixed a of the rigid body due to a rotation displacement representing is likewise due to Eulerf: it has the disadvantage of being unsympoint metrical, but is otherwise very simple and convenient.
The most
be the fixed point round which the rotation takes place, and let be a right-handed system of rectangular axes _fixed in space. Let Oxyz be rectangular axes fixed relatively to the body and moving with it, and Oxyz and such that before the displacement the two sets of axes
Let
OXYZ
OXYZ
be perpendicular to the plane zOZ, Let are coincident in position. drawn so that if OZ is directed to the vertical and the projection of Oz is directed to the east. to OZ is directed to the south, then
perpendicular
OK
OK
Denote the angles zOZ, YOK,
known
by 6, -^r, respectively: these are as the three Eulerian angles defining the position of the axes Oxyz
yOK
<,
with reference to the axes
OXYZ.
In order to find the direction-cosines of Ox, Oy, Oz, with respect to OX, that these are equal to the projections on Ox, Oy, Oz, respectively, Now this unit length has projections of a unit length measured along OX. where OL is the intersection of the and sin cos $ along OL along OK,
we observe
<
planes
XOY and Z0z\
but a length
cos<
along
OL
along Oz and cos
$ cos 6 along OM, where OM cos along OM has projections planes xOy and ZOz; and a length cos cos cos 6 sin -fy along Oy also, a length cos $ cos 6 cos A|T along Ox and sin cos i/r Ox and sin sin<sim/r along along OK has projections
<
has projections cos sin 6 is the intersection of the

<f>
<
(f>
* This quaternion will have its tensor equal to unity.
t Novi Comment. Petrop. xx. (1776), p. 189.
10
along Oy.
Kinemat ical Preliminaries

Hence
finally the projections
[CH.
unit length measured on

I
OX
a
on Ox, Oy, Oz respectively of the
are
cos cos
d>
cos 6 cos
&
,
sin
d>
sin
-vjr
alonsf
Ox
r

along Oz.
Proceeding in this way, we obtain for the direction-cosines of the two sets of axes OX YZ and Oxyz with respect to each other the following scheme
:
X
cos
<f)
Y
- sin $ sin
\|/-
cos 6 cos
\lr
10-12]
11
a, 7, ^TT,
Hence, since in the spherical triangle

angle at
RZX
(-v/r
the sides are
and the
Z is
-|TT
v or
+ $), we have (TT cos a = sin 7 sin \

-v^
$).
Substituting
for sin
7 from the equation already found,
this gives
cos a sin or
\w =
sin
sin
^6
\Q
sin
|(^
(i/r
$),
<).
=
cos
sin |
Similarly from the spherical triangle
RZY
(i/r
we have
0),
= sin 7 cos ft
and again eliminating
sin 7,
we have
cos or
ft
sin ^tu
?;
= sin cos (i|r = sini#cosi(^

<),
0),
<).
sides are 7, 7, 0,
Moreover, since we have shewn that in the spherical triangle RZz the and the angles are (rr ^r we have (?r i/r
<),
&>,
the relations
COS i ft)
and
or
sin
|&>
cos
= COS-i0COS-J(-V/r + 0), = + 7 cos ^0 sin %

(-v/r
<),
x = cos 1 = cos ^
The four parameters
g,
77,
cos |(\/r
sin l
(-v/r
+ +
0),
0).
are Aus expressed in terms of the Eulerian
angles
6,
<f>,
ty by the relations
f
(
sin 1
sin i(-^
-</>),
77
= sin ^0 cos |(i|r

sin
(i^ + cos Y (^ +
^>),
1 f = cos = ^ cos ^
(/>),
0).
12.
7%e connexion of rotations with homographies ;j
the Cayley- Klein parameters.
drawn.
we shall call 8} are Let these figures be stereographically projected on a plane (e.g. by taking the highest point of the sphere as vertex of projection and the tangent-plane at the lowest Now let the point of the sphere as the plane) we shall call the projected figures P. sphere be rotated through a definite angle about some axis through its centre, so that the let the figures in their new be figures on its surface are shifted to new positions
any
figures (which
:
Consider
now a
sphere, on the surface of which
called
positions the stereographic projections of the figures 8 (with the same vertex and Then corresponding to the rotation of the plane of projection as before) be called P sphere, which changes 8 to S we have a transformation in the plane, which changes the
and
let
figures
P into the figures P We shall now examine this transformation more closely. If one of the figures P is a circle in the plane, we know that the corresponding figure S
.
must be a Thus we
sphere,
circle traced
into a circle: therefore
on the sphere, since by stereographic projection a circle is changed S must also be a circle; and hence P must -also be a circle.
must
see that the transformations of the plane, which correspond to rotations of the be such as to change any circle in the plane into another circle in the plane.
12
It
may be shewn*
way
:
[CH.
that any transformation of this kind
may be
represented analytically
in the following
Let
plane
;
z=x+y J
so that to this point there corresponds a definite value of the
Similarly let z
is
where x and y are the rectangular coordinates of any point in the complex variable z. = x + i/ \/ - 1, where x and y refer to the point into which the point (x, y)
1,
changed by the transformation.

circles into circles^,
Then any
one-to-one transformation of the plane, which
changes all
may
be defined by
,
an equation of the type
_ =
or else by
where
a, 6,
c,
are (real or complex} constants;
a transformation of
this latter
kind combined with a reflexion in one of
the axes of coordinates.
transformation represented by an equation of the type _ az + b

,
cz
is called
+d
a homographic transformation, or homography. It appears therefore that homo graphies in a plane correspond to rotations of a solid body about a fixed point, in such a way that if two homographies correspond respectively to two rotations, the homography compounded of these corresponds to the rotation compounded of the two rotations J.
We
shall
now
see
how the connexion between
rotations
and homographies may be

a,
represented analytically. Let us replace the parameters
77,
f,
^ by new parameters
/3,
y,
8,
defined by the
equations
*"~
/3--y 9 4
l~
_/3 + y
9, Z*
~ q9-2*
d,
>
_a + 8 X~~a Z
so that they are connected with the Eulerian angles

.
(j>,
^ by the
equations
y=ism-.e
= cos-.e 2
These
"
"
Cayley-Klein
parameters clearly satisfy the relation

aS
/3y=
and replacing the quantities

their values in terms of
a, /3,
-y,
77,
8,
:
^ we have
,
in the
scheme of direction-cosines given
in
9 by
for the values of the direction-cosines in
terms
of
a, /3, y,
8 the following
scheme
Cf. L. K.
Ford, An introduction to the theory of automorphic functions (London, 1915). straight line is to be regarded as a particular kind of circle.
ix. (1875), p.
J Klein, Math. Ann.
183; Cayley, Math. Ann. xv. (1879),
p.
238.
12, 13]
(a",
ft",
13
8")
It may readily be shewn that the parameters resultant of two successive displacements (a /3 y
, ,
y",
and
,
(a,
ft,
y,
corresponding to the 8) are given by the
equations
a"
y"
=a a+y = ya +8y
,
t3,
ft"
= aft
+ft8
8"=yft
+ 88
These equations shew that the transformation

a"z+ff
y"z
8"
is
the result of performing in succession the two substitutions
J=
,
a
t
+ ft
*,,
yz + 8
an d
z=
,
az
+ ft
^j
is
yz+8
and the connexion between rotations and homographic transformations

analytically.
thus evident
One advantage
(|,
r),
f,
x),
is
of the Cayley-Klein parameters, as compared with the parameters that they retain some of the simplicity of the quaternion calculus, while
1
using the *J
of ordinary algebra instead of the

<,
i,
j,
k of Hamilton s quaternions.
Example
which
is
Let (6, 1. \^) denote the Eulerian angles. Suppose that a point in space carried about with the axes Oxyz has the vectorial angles (0 lt to the t ) (referred
fixed axes
OXYZ)
**
before the motion, and (di, fa

/,
after the motion.
Denoting
^ tan d | t
1
by f1}
and
tan \6{ by
shew that
^=f
Example
2.
"**
008*0- sin $ 6
"fj
e-^s
If
from the equations
2 the quantities X-p, Xi 2 are formed, and 2 and the symbols 2 quantities X^, X^, 1
,
Y+iX,
Z,
-y +ix, y + ix, z, - Y+ iX= a 2 - y + ix] + 2apz + /3 2 (y + ix\ Y+ iX = y 2 (-y + ix] + 2y8z + 8 2 (y + ix), Z = ay (-y + ix + (a8 + py)z + p8(y + w),
f
( (
these quantities are regarded as umbral 2 x 2 2 x l x 2 are replaced by -Y+iX, shew that the equations obtained are respectively,
if
XX
%i
and that these are the three equations connecting the coordinates (X,
referred to the axes
OXYZ with
its
coordinates
(x, y, z)
Y, Z) of a point referred to the axes Oxyz.
.Example
3.
If
y + ix: y + ix
and
shew that
y
13.
z=\\
l
:1
:
Y+iX Y+iX Z=\

:
:
\1
and \^=
Vectors.
We
now proceed
to
consider
the
essential
features
involved in
the
displacement by
simple translation of a rigid body.

of translation in
itself,
The operation
considered apart from the body

:
translated, evidently possesses the following properties
14
1.
It can be specified completely
[OH. i
lines of space
by any one of the equal and parallel which have a given length (viz. the distance of the translation)
(viz.
and given direction

furnishes
all
the direction of the translation)
since such a line
the data which describe the operation.
2.
If
its
AB
be one of these
lines,
and
ACDE...KB
be a broken line
joining to the sum
extremities, then the operation represented by of the operations represented by C, CD, DE,
AB is
.
equivalent
These properties
and 2 are possessed by a large
KB. number of
.
operations
and quantities other than the operation of translation an operation or quantity which possesses them is called a vector quantity.
;
By 2,
a vector
AB is equivalent
A
to the
sum
of three vectors
A K, KL, LB,
respectively parallel to three given rectangular axes, and forming a broken and B. These three vectors are called the com line joining the points
ponents of the vector AB along the given axes.

the direction-angles of
(I
If
be the length and
(a, ft,
7)
cos a, Zcos/3,
the lengths of the component vectors are clearly cosy), being in fact the projections of A B on the axes.
AB,
single vector which called their resultant.
is
equivalent to any
number
of given vectors
is
is conceived as varying in dependence on a parameter (e.g. the between the vectors difference the to time), corresponding any two values of the parameter is also a vector, and hence the rate of change of the vector
If a vector
with respect to the parameter
is
also a vector,
whose components are the

This
is
rates of change of the corresponding components. of the vector with respect to the parameter.
14.
called the flux
Velocity
and acceleration ;
is
their vectorial character.
Consider now a body which
being continuously translated (though not
necessarily always in the same direction) without any change of orientation. Its total translation to any time t is a vector quantity, and hence the rate at
which this changes with the time, i.e. its time-flux, is also a vector quantity, if x, y, z are the coordinates referred is called the velocity of the body to fixed axes of any point fixed in the body and moving with it, then the com
which
;
ponents of the velocity referred to these axes are the rates of change of x, y, z, i.e. are x, y, z (where dots denote differentiations with respect to the time t}.
Similarly the rate of change of the velocity is again a vector, whose components are x, y, z (two dots indicating second derivatives with respect this vector is called the acceleration of the body. to the time)
;
It is clear that if
and Q are two moving
points, the vector
which
represents the translation (or velocity, or acceleration) of Q is the sum of the vector which represents the translation (or velocity, or acceleration, as the and the vector which represents the translation (or velocity, case may be) of
or acceleration) of
relative to P,
i.e.
of
referred to axes whose origin
moves with P, and whose
directions are invariable.
13-15]
15.
Angular
velocity
:
15
its vectorial
character.
Consider next a body which is rotating continuously about a line. Let 6 denote the angle turned through at any time t then Q represents the speed of turning at the time t. If from any point on the line round which the rotation takes place a segment whose length represents 6 is measured along the line, this segment will evidently furnish a complete specification of the nature of the rotation at the instant t, or (as it is generally expressed) of
:
the angular velocity of the body. The direction in which the segment is measured from the base-point is to be connected with the sense of rotation
by the usual convention, namely that when the segment

upwards the rotation from the southern horizon
the east.
is
directed vertically
to the northern is
round by
An
and
angular velocity
is
therefore represented
if
by a
line of definite length
is fixed 8, by points experiences a small rotation Sty round any line OK, this displacement is equivalent to successive small rotations Sty cos a round Ox, Sty cos ft round
direction.
Now
a body one
of whose
Oy, and Sty cos 7 round Oz, where Ox, Oy, Oz are any three mutually and (a, fi, 7) are the direction-angles perpendicular lines passing through of with reference to Oxyz. From this it is clear that we can regard an
OK
angular velocity represented by a length ty measured on

to
OK
angular represented by lengths ty cos a, measured along Ox, Oy, Oz, respectively. But this is essentially the fundamental property of vectors, and can be
velocities
as equivalent ty cos j3, ty cos 7,
expressed by the statement that angular velocities can be resolved and
compounded according to the vectorial law. It must be observed however that an angular velocity does not fulfil all the conditions which enter into the definition of a vector, for an angular velocity about one line is not equivalent to an angular velocity of the same magnitude about a parallel line. Angular velocity must therefore be regarded as a vector which is localised along a definite line.
Example. A right circular cone of semi-vertical angle $ rolls without sliding on a plane. To find its instantaneous axis of rotation, and to determine its about this angular
velocity
axis in terms of the angular velocity of the line of contact in the plane.
Since
all
points of the generator which

is
is in
at rest (for there
no
sliding), this
generator
contact with the plane are instantaneously is the instantaneous axis of rotation of
the cone.
Let denote the angular velocity of the cone about this generator, and let 6 denote the angular velocity of the line of contact in the Then the motion of the plane. axis of the cone can be represented 6 round the normal to the by an angular
o>
velocity
plane,
and the whole motion of the cone
round the axis of the cone. It follows about a line through the vertex of the cone perpendicular to the axis is 6 cos /3 but this must equal the resolved part of co in this direction, which is wsin/3. We have
;
compounded of this together with a rotation that the component of angular velocity of the cone
is
therefore
w=6
which
is
cot
/3,
the required relation between
o>
and
6.
16
[CH.
Determination of the components of angular velocity of a system in 16. terms of the Eulerian angles, and of the symmetrical parameters. The position at any time of a rigid body which is continuously moving
about a fixed point
is
most conveniently described by taking two
sets
are fixed in space, while the of rectangular axes, of which one set the other set Oxyz are fixed relatively to the body, and move with it then the three Eulerian of the ^, specified by body being angles 0, position
;
</>,
OXYZ
which define the position of the axes Oxyz relatively to the axes OXYZ. We shall now determine the components, along the moving axes, of the angular velocity of the body at any instant. Let OK denote the line of intersection of the planes XOY and xOy the
;
angular velocity of the system is evidently compounded of angular velocities about OZ, and -^r about Oz. Of these, the first can be 6 about OK, law by angular velocities 6 sin i/r about Ox replaced according to the vectorial
<j>
and 6 cos
about
G>
ty
about Oy
sin
<f>
Ox,
o>
sin
-fy
and the second can be resolved into cos 6 about Oz. about Oy, and
<j>
<
sin 6 cos
finally
\|r
So
if
denote the components of angular velocity of the body about the axes Ox, Oy, Oz, respectively, we have
I} eo 2 , 3
= 6 sin -Jr sin 6 cos a =v cos y sm a sin y, i a 1a) = y (p COS

l
ilr,
,
<j>
&>
<6
t>
ft) 3
-|-
c7.
From
these expressions
we can
at once deduce the values of

,
twj,
o>
o>
in terms of the symmetrical parameters

cf>=-
??,
%, of
for
we have
Similarly
we have
==
"4?
^,
~H
$^.
>
and we have
cos d
v2
+%
&>
a
.
Substituting these values in the equation
= ty +
cos
#,
we have
The values
principle of
and can be at once obtained from this by the 2 and thus we have the components of angular velocity symmetry
of o^
<w
given by the equations
16, 17]
17.
Time-flux of a vector whose components relative
to
17
moving axes are
given.
Suppose now that a vector quantity is specified by its components f, 77, any instant t with reference to the instantaneous position of a right-handed system of axes Oxyz which are themselves in motion and let it be required to find the vector which represents the rate of change of the given vector.
at
:
&) 3 denote the 2 components of the angular velocity of the resolved the instantaneous position of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz system Oxyz, along themselves.
&>
Let
&>!,
The time-flux of the given vector is the (vector) sum of the time-fluxes of the components taken separately. But if we consider the vector ?/, it is increased in length to g + %dt in the infinitesimal interval of time dt, and at the same time is turned by the motion of the axes, so that (owing to
,
the angular velocity round Oy) it is displaced through an angle co 2 dt from its position in the original plane zOx, in the direction away from Oz, and also (owing to the angular velocity round Oz) it is displaced through an angle
(o s dt from its position in the original plane xOy, towards Oy. The coordinates of its extremity at the end of the interval of time dt, referred to the positions of the axes at the commencement of the interval dt, are therefore (neglecting
infinitesimals of order higher than the first)
and
so the
components of the vector which represents the time-flux of

,
<"
are
Similarly the components of the vectors which represent the time-fluxes of the vectors ?; and are respectively
&>
3 ?7,
and
o>
Adding
these,
we have
finally the components of the time-flux of the given
vector in the
form
This
result
can
be
immediately applied
to
find
acceleration of a point whose coordinates reference to axes moving with an
(x, y, z) at time
the velocity and t are given with
angular velocity whose components along

(a>
the axes themselves at time
are
&>
&>
3 ).
For substituting in the above formulae, we see that the components of

the velocity are
x
w. D.
yw-s
+ zw
zo>!
+ xa)
18
[CH.
applying the same formulae to the case in which the vector whose time-flux is sought is the velocity, we have the components of the accelera
tion of the point in the form
Now
--
(x
yco 3
+ za}
2)
(t>
(y
ZW-L
+ xo) ) + o)
s
(z
xw z +
2/&>i),
-yCtt
(^
#o>
-I-
ft>
ya>i)
(#
2/
In the case in which the motion takes place in a plane, which we may take as the plane Oxy, there will be only two coordinates (x, y}, and only one component of angular velocity, namely 6, where 6 is the angle made by the moving axes with their positions at some fixed epoch the components of
;
velocity are therefore (putting
z,
each equal to zero in the above
expressions)
y6 and y
+ xO,
+ x 0-
and the components of acceleration are

x - 2y6
-yO- x6
and y + 2x6
yfc.
Example. Prove that in the general case of motion of a rigid body there is at each instant one definite point at a finite distance which regarded as invariably connected with the body has no acceleration at the instant, provided the axis of the body s screwing
motion be not instantaneously stationary

18.
in direction.
(Coll.
Exam.)
Special resolutions of the velocity

results obtained
and
acceleration.
The
in the last article
enable us to obtain formulae,
which are frequently of

acceleration of a
(i)
use, relating to the components of the velocity moving point in various special directions.
and
Velocity
and
acceleration in polar coordinates.

its
Let the position of a point be defined by
polar coordinates
r,
6,
0,
connected with the coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the point referred to fixed rectangular axes OXYZ by the equations
X = r sin 6 cos
Y = r sin 6 sin
Z = r cos 6
and
;
<,
(j),
let it be required to determine the components of velocity and acceleration of the point in the direction of the radius vector r, in the direction which is perpendicular to r and lies in the plane containing r and-
OZ (this
plane
is
generally called the meridian plane), and in the direction

;
perpendicular to the meridian plane these three directions are frequently described as the directions of r increasing, 6 increasing, and increasing,
(f>
17, 18]
19
Take a line through the origin 0, parallel to the direction of respectively. a line through 0, parallel to the increasing, as a moving axis Ox and take of r line and a axis direction of parallel to the direction Oy, increasing, as the determine which The three Eulerian angles increasing as axis Oz.
;
<p
are reference to the fixed axes position of the moving axes Oxyz with of angular velocity of the system Oxyz, (6, d), 0); so ( 16) the components the axes Ox, Oy, Oz themselves, are resolved
OXYZ
along
eoj
sin
6,
&>
0,
<w
(p
cos
6.
The coordinates
and
so
of the
moving
point, referred to the
moving
axes, are
17 the components of velocity of the point resolved by (0, JO, r); to the moving axes are parallel
rd,
sin
r<j>
6,
r,
and the components of acceleration in the directions of 6 increasing, of 17) are increasing, and r increasing (again using the formulae
2
-T-
(r0)
r<
sin 6 cos
.
r0, or r0
.
.
+
or
2r0
l
=
rd] sin
cos
0,
a
-r-
]
!
dt
(rd) sin 0)
fcf>
sin
r&*
+ r66 cos 0,
rd) 2 sin 6.
2
d
-j-
r sin
at
2 2 (r sin
6d>),
and
If the
plane as axis Oz,
motion of the point is in a plane, we can take the initial line in this in these formulae and the quantities denoted by r and
;
become ordinary polar coordinates in the plane since (p is now zero, the components of velocity and acceleration in the directions of r increasing and
increasing are
(r,
rd),
and
(ii)
(r
r0
2
,
r0
2f 0).
Velocity
and
acceleration in cylindrical coordinates.
a point whose position is defined by its cylindrical coordinates z, p, $, connected with the coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the point referred to fixed rectangular axes by the equations
Consider now
OXYZ
X = p cos
and
let it
d),
^p
si
n
$>
Z = z\
be required to find the components of the velocity and acceleration of the point in the direction parallel to the axis of z, in the direction of the line drawn from the axis of z to the point, perpendicular to the axis of z, and
These three directions are in the direction perpendicular to these two lines. z the direction of p increasing, the called direction increasing, of generally
and the direction of
of the point.
<p
increasing
and the coordinate


22
20
increasing.
The components
COj
[CH.
along the axes Oxyz
of angular velocity of the system Oxyz, resolved themselves, are clearly

==
0,
==
d>2
0,
61)3
(D,
and the coordinates of the moving point, referred to the moving axes, are It follows by 17 that the components of velocity of the point in (p, 0, 2).
these directions are
and the components of acceleration are
(iii)
Velocity
and acceleration
in arc-coordinates.
Another application of the formulae of 17 is to the determination of the components of velocity and acceleration of a point which is moving in any way in space, resolved along the tangent, principal normal, and binormal to
its
path.
first the case of a particle moving in a plane and take lines to a fixed the 0, point parallel respectively through tangent and inward normal to the path, as moving axes Ox and Oy. These axes are rotating is the angle made by the round with angular velocity (ft, where tangent
Consider
<
If v denotes the velocity of fixed line in the plane. at and p the radius of the of described time arc the path the point, s t, curvature of the path at the point, we have
to the path with
some
ds
v
dt
ds
dtp
v/p.
and the angular velocity of the axes can therefore be written in the form
(v,
Since the components of the velocity parallel to the moving axes are 17 that the components of the acceleration parallel to 0), it follows from
/
the same axes are
(v, v
v\ .-} pJ
Since
.
_dv
dt
ds dv
dt ds
dv
ds
in the direction of the
it
follows that the acceleration of the
moving point
dv
tangent to
its
path
ia
-j-
and the acceleration in the direction of the inward
normal
is
Now the velocity of a moving point is determined by the knowledge of two consecutive positions of the moving point, and the acceleration is therefore determined by the knowledge of three consecutive positions so even if the path of the point is not plane, it can for the purpose of determining its
;
acceleration at
any instant be regarded as moving in the osculating plane of
18]
its
21
contains three consecutive positions of the point. path, since this plane Hence the components of acceleration of the point, in the directions of the
tangent, principal normal,
and binormal
dv
ds
v2
to its
path, are
(iv)
Acceleration along the radius and tangent.
acceleration of a point which is in motion in a plane may be expressed in the following form*; let r be the radius vector to the point from a fixed from the origin on the tangent to the origin in the plane, p the perpendicular at time t, p the radius of curvature of described of the arc s the path path, at the point, and v or s the velocity of the point at time t and let the
The
path h denote the product pv.

into components
Then
the acceleration of the point

to the
can be resolved
~r
along the radius vector
origin
and
along the
tangent
to the
path.
z
For the acceleration can be resolved into components vdv/ds along the now a vector F directed outwards along tangent and v jp along the normal into vectors be resolved can vector radius the Fp/r along the inward normal 2 a v so vector the and Fdr/ds along /p along the inward normal can be tangent, 2 rv 2 dr rv T- along the tangent. inwards along the radius vector and resolved into pp ds pp The acceleration is therefore equivalent to components rv 2 dr dv v -p H -r- along the tangent, on ds ds pp
;
.
and
rv 2 - inwards along the radius vector.
pp
The
latter
component
1 dv 2
is
and the former can be written
pp
dp
ds
v2
Id (v p*)
z
h dh
2 ds
2p
ds
ds
which establishes Siacci

Example
tion of
1.
s result.
Determine the meridian, normal, and transverse components of the accelera

the surface of the anchor-ring
a point moving on
be the point (6, $), Let of the meridian cross-section

are
(c,
<p),
be the centre of the anchor-ring and C the centre and let on which P lies. The polar coordinates of C relative to and the polar coordinates of P relative to C are (a, 0, $) ; so the components
of acceleration of
ctj)
C
2
relative to
are
transverse
and
c<p
outwards from the
axis,
i.e.
2
c<
sin 6 along the normal,
and
*
c0 cos 6 along the meridian.
Dae
to Siacci, Atti della R. Ace. di Torino, XIY. p. 750.
22
The components
of acceleration of
[CH.
P relative
to
C are
fad a<j>
sin Q cos 6
2
along the meridian,

transverse.
sin 6 dt
-j-
(sin
2
t<j>
.
<)
sin 2
normal.
Thus
finally the
components
ad
a6
2
a<j)
of acceleration of
6}
2
P in
space are
(c + a sin
2
cos 6
2
along the meridian,
sin 6
sin 6
c<f>
normal,
transverse,
and
cd)
-. + sm 6
-.
-y-
dt
2 (sin 6
.
d>)
Example 2. If the tangential and normal components of the acceleration of a point moving in a plane are constant, shew that the point describes a logarithmic spiral. In this case
v -r-=a, where a ds
so
i)
is
a constant,
=as.
Also
P
so
s
c,
where
c is
a constant, a constant,
is
(f>
= Cp,
where
C is
or
s=C-j-r, where
Integrating this equation,
the angle
made by
the tangent with a fixed
line.
we have
and
this is the intrinsic equation of the logarithmic spiral.
where
A and B
3.
are constants
Example
To find
the acceleration
of a point which describes a logarithmic spiral with
constant angular velocity about the pole.
By
and
Siacci s theorem, the
components of acceleration are

if to is
PP
53
along the radius vector

2
u>r
-=5 2
ds
along the tangent: but
the constant angular velocity, we have h =
so the
components of acceleration are

co
2
?"
p
Since 7"
and
p
2o)
2 3
r dr
-j.
jr
as
7*
,
and
CiT -5-
are constant in the spin spiral,

;
we
see that each of these
components of
acceleration varies directly as the radius vector.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
1.
If the instantaneous axis of rotation of a
in the body,
axis.
shew that
it is
also fixed in space,
i.e.
body moveable about a fixed point is the motion is a rotation round a
fixed
fixed
A point is referred to rectangular axes Ox, Oy revolving about the origin with 2. 2 2 x (distance), angular velocity to; if there be an acceleration to x=a, y = 0, of amount ?i shew that the path relative to the axes can be constructed by taking (i) a point
<o
i]
23
x = ri2a/(n 2 -l), (ii) a uniform circular motion with angular velocity (n-l)co about this, but in the opposite and (iii) a uniform circular motion with angular velocity (n + this last. about (Coll. Exam.) sense,
l)a>,
3. The velocity of a point moving in a plane is the resultant of a velocity v along the Prove that the radius vector to a fixed point and a velocity v parallel to a fixed line. corresponding accelerations are
dv
^ + -cos0,
.
vv
and
dv
-
s+
vv
6 being the angle that the radius vector

4. point moves a fixed line in the plane, where
makes with the
fixed direction.
(Coll.
Exam.)
a, /3
in a plane,
and
is referred to Cartesian axes
making angles
with
a, /3
are given functions of the time.
Shew
cosec
that the
com
ponent
velocities of the point are
x - xd cot
(/3
- a) - y$ cosec
for the
(/3
- a),
y +y$
cot
- a) + xd
(/3
- a),
Exam.)
and obtain expressions
component
:
accelerations.
(Coll.
5. A point is moving in a plane Q is the logarithm of the ratio of its distances from also 2k is the distance is the angle between them two fixed points in the plane, and between the fixed points. Shew that the velocity of the point is
<
cosh 6
6.
- cos
(Coll.
Exam.)
(f)
two different descriptions of a curve by a moving point, the product of the that the places in the two descriptions is constant, shew accelerations at corresponding places in the two descriptions are as the squares of the the normal to the curve, in velocities, and that their directions make equal angles with (J- von Vieth.) opposite senses.
If in
velocities at corresponding
7.
A point is moving in a parabola of latus rectum 4,

is r,
;
and when
its
distance from the
the velocity is v shew that its acceleration is compounded of accelerations and N, along the radius vector and normal respectively, where
focus
R=v ^
dr
8.
N=^, %- (v*r). % dr
v
(Coll.
Exam.)
2r
that if the axes of x and y rotate with angular velocities coi, the angle between them, the component accelerations of the point ^ to the axes are cosec \^, x xo)i 2 (x&i + 2# 1 ) cot + 2)
Shew
o>
respectively,
y) parallel
and
is
(x,
\|/-
(?/o>2
2/o>
and
9. 0,
2
yyo>2
+ (.coi +
is
2.o>
1)
cosec
of
\|f
+ (yw2 +
2?/o>2)
cot
\/r.
(Coll.
Exam.)
The
velocity of a point
line.
with a fixed
components making angles Prove that the components /, / in these directions of the accelera
made up
u, v in directions
tion of the point will be given
by
f= u u6 cot x~ v $ cosec x, f = v + ud cosec x + cot x,

v<}>
X being the inclination of the two
directions.
Being given that the lines joining a moving point to two fixed points are r, s in length in inclination to the line joining the two fixed points, determine the acceleration 6, of the point in terms of the rates of increase of 0, (f). (Coll. Exam.)
and

24
10.
|_
CIL
If A, B, C be three fixed points, and the component velocities of a moving point the directions PA, PB, PC be u, v, and w shew that the accelerations in the same along
;
directions are
/
1
cosAPB
cosAPC\
(Coll.
and two similar expressions.
Exam.)
11. The movement of a plane lamina is given by the angular velocity and the com resolved along axes Ox, Oy traced on the lamina. ponent velocities u, v of the origin Find the component velocities of any point (x, y] of the lamina. Shew that the equations
a>
-T-
tan
1
(
at
;
"-
)=
o>
one being the locus of those points which are passing cusps on their curve loci in space and the other being the locus of the centres of curvature of the envelopes in space of all straight lines of the lamina. (Coll. Exam.)
represent circular loci on the lamina
12.
Shew
that
when a point
describes a space-curve,
its
acceleration can be resolved
into
two components, of which one acts along the radius vector from the projection of a fixed point on the osculating plane, and the other along the tangent and that these are
;
respectively
L
P3
fi~ds
^
P
p*
TdT + T*qdq
~d7
where p is the radius of curvature, q the distance of the fixed point from its projection on the osculating plane, r and p are the distances of this projection from the moving point and the tangent, T is an arbitrary function (equal to the product of p and the velocity) and s is the arc. (Siacci.)
is
A circle, a straight line, and a point lie in one plane, and the position of the point 13. determined by the lengths t of its tangent to the circle and p of its perpendicular to the line. Prove that, if the velocity of the point is made up of components u, v in the
and
if
directions of these lengths

will
their
mutual inclination be
v+uv/t.
6,
the component accelerations

(Coll.
be
uvcosd/t,
Exam.)
A particle moves in a circular arc. If r, r are the distances of the particle at P 14. from the extremities A, B of & fixed chord, shew that the accelerations along AP, BP are
respectively
dv
-j- H
vv
rr
dt
cos a), and ivr-f rH x dt

r,
dv
vv
rr
;
(r ^
r cos
a),
where
v,
v are the velocities in the directions of
and a
is
the angle
APB.
point describes a semicircle under accelerations directed to the extremities of a diameter, which are at any point inversely as the radii vectores r, r to the extremities of the diameter. Shew that the accelerations are
4a4 F 2
4a4
72
where a
is
the radius of the circle and
V the
velocity of the point parallel to the diameter.

(Coll.
Exam.)
i]
15.
The motion
its
25
(u, v} of
of a rigid
its
body
in
two dimensions
<o.
is
defined by the velocity
one of
Determine the coordinates relative to angular velocity points the point 7 of zero velocity, and shew that the direction of motion of any other point
perpendicular to PI.
C and
of
is
Find the coordinates of the point
J of zero
acceleration,
P in terms of its
coordinates relative to J.
and express the acceleration of (Coll. Exam.)
A point on a plane is moving with constant velocity V relative to it, the plane at 16. Shew the same time turning round a fixed axis perpendicular to it with angular velocity that the path of the point is given by the equation
o>.
and 6 being referred
to fixed axes,
and a being the shortest distance
of the point
(Coll.
from the
axis of rotation.
Exam.)
<oa,
is
where The acceleration of a moving point Q is represented at any instant by 17. Prove that the a fixed point and a describes uniformly a circle whose centre is is a fixed point and p describes velocity of Q at any instant is represented by Op, where
.
a circle uniformly
and determine the path described by Q. (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part
I,
1902.)
18.
point moves along the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid ~g

A
the hyperboloid of one sheet -^ d
222
+O
?/
+W+- =
an d
~"
A
>.
+C
- *~~ "2^T
=1 and
>
its velocit y at
the P oint where
the curve meets the hyperboloid of two sheets , J1 a 2 -/i
+ b T-21
l~
~~? 2
-=
/i
*s
where h
is
constant.
Prove that the resolved part of the acceleration of the point along
is
the normal to the ellipsoid
h 2 abc (n
X)
-7=..
/ri
(Coll.
Exam.)
19. A rigid body is rolling without sliding on a plane, and at any instant its angular 2 along the tangent to the lines of curvature at the point velocity has components coj, of contact, and 3 along the normal shew that the point of the body which is at the point of contact has component accelerations
o> o>
where RI, R% are the principal

of contact.
radii of curvature of the surface of the
body at the point (Coll. Exam.)
CHAPTER
II
THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The ideas of rest and motion. In the previous chapter we have frequently used the terms
19.
" "
"
"
fixed
and
moving
as applied to systems.
kinematical considerations, it is significance of these words; all

" "
are occupied with purely to enter into the ultimate unnecessary that is meant is, that we consider the
it
So long
as
we
displacement of the moving systems, so far as with respect to the systems which are called
question of what
is
"
affects their configuration
"fixed,"
leaving on one side the
causes, this question can
"fixed" terrestrial to denote invariable objects position relative to the surface of the earth at
of bodies as due no longer be disregarded. In popular language the word is generally used of
meant by absolute fixity." When however we come to consider the motion
to specific
But the earth is rotating on its axis, and at the same time revolving round the Sun, while the Sun in turn, accompanied by all the planets, is moving with a large velocity along some not very accurately known direction in space. It seems hopeless therefore to attempt to find rest." anything which can be really considered to be
"at
the place considered.
was supposed -that the aether of space (the and magnetic actions) was (apart from small vibratory motions) stagnant, and so was capable of providing a basis for absolute fixity. But this doctrine has been subverted by the modern Principle which asserts that even in the of Relativity*, domain of electromagnetic
it
In the nineteenth century
vehicle of light
and of
electric
phenomena
it is
translatory motion
impossible to distinguish absolute rest from a state of uniform common to all the members of a system.
Accordingly in dynamics, although
when we speak
is
of the motion of bodies
we always imply
be
called,
that there
is
some
set of axes, or frame

"
of reference as
it
may
and which we apply the conventional word fixed," it must not be yet supposed that absolute fixity has thereby been discovered. When we are
regarded as taking place,
to
with reference to which the motion
considering
;
Cf.
Whittaker
s
or
Conway
History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, ch. Relativity (London, 1915).
s
xii.
(London, 1910)
19, 20]
The Equations of Motion
27
the motion of terrestrial bodies at some place on the earth s surface, we shall take the frame of reference to be fixed with reference to the earth, and it is
then found that the laws which will presently be given are sufficient to explain the phenomena with a sufficient degree of accuracy in other words, the earth s motion does not exercise a sufficient disturbing influence to make it necessary to allow for its effects in the majority of cases of the motion of
;
terrestrial bodies.
It is also necessary to consider the

"
meaning
to
be attached to the word
which in the previous chapter stood merely for any parameter time," varying continuously with the configuration of the systems considered. The Principle of Relativity reveals the great difficulties that attend any attempt to elucidate the idea of time in particular, it is by no means easy to define simultaneity, i.e. to explain what is meant by saying that two events at
:
at the same time." However, a system of time-measurement which is intelligible from the point of view of ordinary instrumental work, and which is sufficient for our present purpose, is the following we suppose that the angle through which the earth has rotated on its axis (measured with reference to the fixed stars, whose small motions we can for this purpose neglect), in the interval between two events, measures the time elapsed between the events in question. This angular measure can
different points of space
"
happen
be converted into the ordinary measure in terms of mean solar hours, minutes, and seconds at the rate of 360 degrees to 24 x 365/366 hours.
20.
The laws which determine motion*.
Considering
now
the motion of terrestrial objects, and taking the earth as
the frame of reference, it is natural to begin by investigating the motion of a very small material body, or particle as we shall call it, when moving in vacuo and entirely unconnected with surrounding objects. The paths described by
such a particle under various circumstances of projection may be observed, and the methods of the preceding chapter enable us, from the knowledge
thus acquired, to calculate the acceleration of the particle at any point of any It is found that for all the paths the acceleration particular observed path.
is
of constant amount,
is
acceleration
amount
is,
always directed vertically downwards. This and is generally denoted by the letter g its in Great Britain, about 981 centimetres per second per second.
and
is
known
as gravity,
The knowledge of this experimental fact is theoretically sufficient to enable us to calculate the path of any free terrestrial particle in vacuo, when the circumstances of its projection are known the actual calculation will not
:
be given here, as
The
case of
belongs more properly to a later chapter. motion which is next in simplicity is that of two
it
particles
which are connected together by an extremely light inextensible thread, and

*
The laws
of motion are due to
Newton
Principia, p. 12 (ed. 1687).
^8
are free to

move
in vacuo at the earth s surface.
[OH.
slack, each particle
were not present.

particles,
So long as the thread is moves with the acceleration gravity, just as if the other But when the thread is taut, the two particles influence
each other s motion.
We can now as before observe the path of one of the and hence calculate the acceleration by which at any instant its
motion
is
this acceleration
being modified. We thereby arrive at the experimental fact, that can be represented at any instant by the resultant of two
is directed
vectors,
of which one represents the acceleration g and the other
along the instantaneous position
of
the thread.
influence of one particle on the motion of the other consists there fore in superposing on the acceleration due to gravity another acceleration, which acts along the line joining the particles and which is compounded
The
with gravity according to the vectorial law of composition of accelerations. Denoting the particles by A and B, we can at any instant calculate, from the
observed paths, the magnitudes of the accelerations/! and/2 thus exerted by B on A and by A on B respectively and this calculation immediately yields
;
the result that the ratio of f\ to /2 does not vary throughout the motion. On the motions which result from various modes of investigating projection, at various temperatures etc., we are led to the conclusion that this ratio is an
invariable physical constant of the pair of bodies
and B*.
it is
On
consideration of the motion of more complex systems
found
that the experimental laws just stated can be generalised so as to form a complete basis for all dynamics, whether terrestrial or cosmic. This
generalised statement is as follows: If any set of mutually connected particles are in motion, the acceleration with which any one particle moves is the
resultant of the acceleration with which it would move if perfectly free, and accelerations directed along the lines joining it to the other particles which constrain its motion. Moreover, to the several particles A, B, C, ..., numbers can be due to the fÂ) assigned, such that the acceleration along
m m
n>
c>
AB
,
influence of in the ratio on
on
is
to
the acceleration along
BA
m^-.m^.
The ratios of
these
due to numbers
the influence
mA mB
of
...
are
invariable physical constants of the particles.
The evidence
for the truth of this
statement
it,
is
to be found in the universal
agreement of the calculations based on

book, with the results of observation.
It will
such as those given later in this
determined by the law
be noticed that only the ratios of the numbers m^, m$, me, ... are it is convenient to take some definite particle A as
;
a standard, calling it the unit of mass, and then to call the numbers B me, ?7ic/m A ... the masses of the other particles
,
m^jm^,
The ratio is in i act, equal to the ratio of the weight of B to the weight of A the ratio of the weights of two terrestrial bodies, as observed at the same place on the earth s surface, is a perfectly definite quantity, and does not vary with the place of observation.
;
20, 21]

of the
29
or
The mass
compound particle formed by uniting two
more
particles
of the masses of the separate particles. is found to be equal to the mass of a finite Owing to this additive property of mass, we can speak of the to take as our unit of body of any size or shape and it will be convenient known as the mass the mass of the part of a certain piece of platinum this unit will be called a gramme, and the number standard
;
sum
y^th
kilogramme;
mass of any other body to this unit mass representing the ratio of the called the mass of the body in grammes.
21.
is
Force.
fii
have seen that in every case of the interaction of two particles A and acceleration B, the mutual influence consists of an acceleration fA on A and an BA respec and AB directed vectors on B, these accelerations being along
We
and being inversely proportional to the masses m A and m B It follows that the vector quantity m A fA is equal to the vector quantity m s fB but has The vector m A fA is called the force exerted by the the reverse direction. A and similarly the vector m B fB is called the force particle B on the particle exerted by the particle A on the particle B.
.
tively,
With
this terminology, the
law of the
:
mutual action of a connected
on each other system of particles can be stated in the form the forces exerted This is often and are connected opposite. equal particles by every pair of
called the
Law
of Action and Reaction.
If the various forces which act on a particle A as a result of its connexion with other particles are compounded according to the vectorial law, the resultant force gives the total influence exerted by them on the particle A this force divided by A is the acceleration induced in A by the other
and the resultant of this acceleration and the acceleration which the free (due to such causes as gravitation) is particle A would have if entirely the actual acceleration with which the particle A moves.
particles
;
is induced in In general, if an acceleration represented by a vector due to called vector the a particle of mass the/orce* mfis by any agency, this cause acting on the particle and the resultant of all the forces due to It follows various agencies is called the total force acting on the particle. axes of the fixed to the are if that rectangular components parallel (X, Y, Z) are the com and at the on total force acting (x, y, z) any instant, particle at that described is which its being path ponents of the acceleration with
instant, then
we have the equations
mx = X,
Two
at this point.
*
my =
Y,
mz =
Z.
other terms which are frequently used
may
conveniently be defined
Force
is
the vis matrix of
Newton
Principia,
i.
def. 8.
30
The product
[OH.
of the number which represents the magnitude of the com of a ponent given force perpendicular to a given line L and the number which represents the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force
from the line
is
called the
moment
of the force about the line L.
If the three components (X, Y, Z) of the force acting on a single free particle are given functions of the coordinates (x, y, z) of the particle, they are said to define & field offorce.
22.
Work.
Consider
restricted
now any system
of particles,
whose motion
is
either quite free or
by given connexions between the particles, or constraints due to other particles which are not regarded as forming part of the system. Let m be the mass of any one of the particles, whose coordinates referred to fixed
rectangular axes in any selected configuration of the system are (x, y, z) and let (X, Y, Z} be the components, parallel to the axes, of the total force
;
acting on the particle in this configuration.
Let (x + Sx, y + By, z + 8z) be the coordinates of any point very near to the point (x, y, z), such that the displacement of the particle from one to the other does not violate of the constraints is point (for instance, if any
move on a given surface, the two on the surface). Then the quantity
constrained to
points must both be situated
X&K +
is
1% + ZSz
m
it
called the work* done on the particle by the forces acting on infinitesimal displacement from the position (x, y, z) to the position
in the
(x
Bx,
y+
Sy, z
8z).
This expression can evidently be interpreted physically as being the product of the distance through which the particle is displaced and the com ponent of the force (X, Y, Z) along the direction of this displacement.
Since forces obey the vectorial law of composition, the sum of the com ponents in a given direction of any number of forces acting together on a
particle is equal to the component in this direction of their resultant and hence the work done by a force which acts on a particle in a given displace ment is equal to the sum of the quantities of work done in the same displacement
:
by any
set
offorces into which
this
force can be resolved.
Suppose now
is
that in the course of a motion of the system, the particle

first
gradually displaced from any position (which we can to some other position at a finite distance from the
call its initial position)
its final position).

*
The work done on
the particle by the forces
(which we can call which act on
Newton defined the Actio Agentis

;
along the direction of motion p. 25 (ed. 1687).
it is
as the product of the velocity into the component of force evidently the time-flux of the work done. Cf. Principia, i.
21-23]
it
31
during this finite displacement is defined to be the sum of the quantities work done in the successive infinitesimal displacements by which we can regard the finite displacement as achieved. The work done in a finite dis
of
placement
is
therefore represented
by the integral
dx
as
v dy
(LS
dz\
(is /
where the integration

the arc
s
is
taken between the
initial
and
final positions
along
described in space by the particle during displacement.
These definitions can now be extended to the whole set of particles which form the system considered the system being initially in any given con
;
figuration,
consider any mode of displacing the various particles of the system which is not inconsistent with the connexions and constraints; the sum of the quantities of work performed on all the particles of the system in
we
the displacement is called the total work done on the system in the displace ment by the forces which act on it.
23.
Forces which do no work.
There are certain classes of forces which frequently occur in dynamical systems, and which are characterised by the feature that during the motion they do no work on the system.
Among
1.
these
may
is
be mentioned
the term smooth implies in each infinitesimal
The
reactions of fixed smooth surfaces:
that the reaction
normal to the
surface,
and therefore
displacement the point of application of the reaction is displaced in a direction perpendicular to the reaction, so that no work is done.
reactions of fixed perfectly rough surfaces: the term perfectly rough implies that the motion of any body in contact with the surface is one of pure rolling without sliding, and therefore the point of application of the
2.
The
reaction
is
(to the first order of small
infinitesimal displacement, so that no
work
quantities) not displaced in each is done.
together: for if (x1}
reaction of two particles which are rigidly connected y z^) and (#2 y2 z2 ) are the coordinates of the particles, and (X, Y, Z) are the components of the force exerted by the first particle on the second, so that Y, Z) are the components of the force exerted
3.
The mutual
lt
(X,
by the second
particle on the
is
first,
the total work done by these forces in
an arbitrary displacement
X (8x
But
since the distance
Cj
Sx,)
+ Y (Sy \ v
I
Si/i) 3 */
+ Z (8z
\
&2-A /
*
between the particles

\2
is
invariable,
\2\
we have
j/
/.
\2
_]_
32
and since the have
[CH.
n
we
force acts in the direction of the line joining the particles,
X:Y:Z=(x 2
a?,)
(y.2
- y,)
(z2
- z,).
Combining the
last
two equations, we have

2
X (8x
the particles.
is
&O +
F(S//2
- SyJ + Z (8z - 82,) =

2
0,
and therefore no work
done in the aggregate by the mutual forces between
rigid body is regarded from the dynamical point of view as an of particles, so connected together that their mutual distances are aggregate invariable. It follows from 3 that the reactions between the particles which
4.
are called into play in order that this condition may be satisfied (or molecular forces as they are called, to distinguish them from external forces such as
gravity) do, in the aggregate, no
work
in
any displacement of the body.
5.
The
reactions at a fixed pivot about which a body of the system can
turn, or at a fixed hinge, or at a joint between two bodies of the system, are similarly seen to belong to the category of forces which do no work.
In estimating the total work done by the forces acting on a dynamical system in any displacement of the system, we can therefore neglect all forces
of the above-mentioned types.
24.
The coordinates of a dynamical system.

material system
is
Any
regarded from the dynamical point of view as
constituted of a
of particles, subject to interconnexions and con a rigid body being regarded as a collection of kinds of various straints
;
number
particles,
which are kept at invariable distances from each other by means
of suitable internal reactions.
the constitution of such a system (i.e. the shape, size, and mass of the various parts of which it is composed, and the constraints which act on
When
is
them)
and
certain
given, its configuration at any time can be specified in terms of a of quantities which vary when the configuration is altered, which will be called the coordinates of the system; thus, the position of a
number
coordinates
single free particle in space is completely defined by its three rectangular the position of (x, y, z) with reference to some fixed set of axes
;
a single particle which is constrained to move in a fixed narrow tube, which has the form of a twisted curve in space, is completely specified by one coordinate, namely the distance s measured along the arc of the tube to the particle from
the position of a rigid fixed point in the tube which is taken as origin is fixed, is completely determined by three co of whose one points body, of 10 the position of ordinates, namely the three Eulerian angles 6, -v/r
some
<,
two particles which are connected by a taut inextensible string can be defined by five coordinates, namely the three rectangular coordinates of one of the
23-25]
particles
33
and two of the direction-cosines of the string (since when these five quantities are known, the position of the second particle is uniquely deter mined) and so on.
;
Example.
a given fixed
State the
number
configuration at
any instant of a smooth surface.
rigid
of independent coordinates required to specify the body which is constrained to move in contact with
shall generally denote by n the number of coordinates required to the configuration of a system, and shall suppose the systems con specify sidered to be such that n is finite. The coordinates will generally be denoted
We
by q l} q 2
If the system contains moving constraints ... q n (e.g. if it consists of a particle which is constrained to be in contact with a surface which in turn is made to rotate with constant angular velocity round a fixed axis),
, .
it
<?i>
may be
<?2,
qn
>
necessary to specify the time t in addition to the coordinates in order to define completely a configuration of the system.
,
.
.
The quantities q 1} g.2 to the coordinates q l} q2
q n are frequently called the velocities corresponding
...
qn
flexible string, free to move in space, is an example of a dynamical system excluded by the limitation that n is to be finite; for the configuration of the string cannot be expressed in terms of a finite number of parameters.
heavy
is
which
25.
Holonomic and non-holonomic systems.
It is
now necessary
:
to call attention to a distinction
between two kinds
of dynamical systems, which is of great importance in the analytical discussion of their motion this distinction may be illustrated a
by
simple example.
to
we consider the motion of a sphere of given radius, which is constrained move in contact with a given fixed plane, which we can take as the plane
If
five coordinates,
of xy, the configuration of the sphere at
by
any instant is completely specified namely the two rectangular coordinates (x, y) of the centre of the sphere and the three Eulerian angles 0, 10, which fy of
<f>,
The sphere can take specify the orientation of the sphere about its centre. up any position whatever, so long as it is in contact with the the five
coordinates
If
(x, y, 6,
<f>,
-v/r)
plane can therefore have any arbitrary values.
now the plane
is
by the coordinates
(x, y, 6, $,
coordinates (x + 8x, y+ By, 8^ are arbitrary independent infinitesimal quantities, is a possible displacement, i.e. the sphere can perform it without violating the constraints of the system. But if the plane is perfectly rough, this is no longer the case when 8x, By, 86, 8$, 8-^r are arbitrary; for now the condition that the displacement of the point of contact is zero (to the first order of small quantities) must be satisfied, and this implies that the quantities 8x, By, 80, 8^ are no must be such longer independent, but are mutually connected (in fact,
B<f>,
smooth, the displacement from any position, defined to any adjacent i/r), position, defined by the 9 + 4+ B0, By, 80, B-^r), where Bac,
"f
B<f>,
B<f>,
they
w. D.
34

;
[CH.
as to satisfy two non-integrable linear equations) so that in the case of the sphere on the perfectly rough plane, a displacement represented by arbitrary
infinitesimal changes in
the
coordinates
is
not necessarily a possible
dis
placement.
dynamical system for which a displacement represented by arbitrary infinitesimal changes in the coordinates is in general a possible displacement (as in the case of the sphere on the smooth plane) is said to be holonomic
this condition is not satisfied (as in the case of the sphere plane) the system is said to be non-holonomic.
when
on the rough
fyn) are arbitrary infinitesimal increments of the coordinates in a dynamical system, these will define a possible displacement if the system is holonomic, while for non-holonomic systems a certain number, say m, of
If
(&7i>
&/ 2
equations must be satisfied between them in order that they may correspond The number (n m) is called the number of to a possible displacement. Holonomic systems are therefore charac of the system. degrees of freedom
terised
by the
fact that the
number
of degrees of freedom
is
equal to the
number
of independent coordinates required to specify the configuration
of the system.
Lagrange s form of the equations of motion of a holonomic system*. We shall now consider the motion of a holonomic system with n degrees of freedom. Let (q lt q 2 ... q n ) be the coordinates which specify the con at the time t. figuration of the system
26.
,
Let
(xi,
2/t,
nii
Zi)
be
of the system, and let typify the mass of one of the particles its coordinates, referred to some fixed set of rectangular axes.
These coordinates of individual particles are (from our knowledge of the

constitution of the system) the system, and possibly of
known
t
functions of the coordinates q 1} q2

let this
also
... q n of be dependence expressed by the

,
equations
Let (Xi, Yi, Zi) be the components of the total force (external and then the equations of motion of this t molecular) acting on the particle are particle
mi
ar.i
it
niiyi
=Y
i}
m^ = Z
Multiply these equations by

8
/i
?fc
*b
dq r
iv.
dq r
*
first
dg r
Lagrange, Mecanique Analytique (1788), Seconde Partie, Section suggested in one of his earlier papers, Miscell. Taurin. n. (1760).
The equations were
25, 26]
respectively,

add them, and sum
f
35
for all
the particles of the system.

9 /i
T^
8<
We
thus have
5-
2,Wi
d fi
xi
& 4. ;; Vi 5 g +
a
d y h Zi ^
,
]**2,[JLf \ i dqr J dqr
^\
?(y
I-
if l 5 dqr
^ 4. A 7
t-
dq r J
;
this can
where the symbol S denotes summation over all the particles of the system be either an integration (if the particles are united into rigid bodies)
or a
summation over a
discrete aggregate of particles.
But we have
a
7i
^J^fZL^^^ /
<-<
*f
^r
(,~r
..
SO
Xi ^
_ Xi
..
^T"
dq r
dq r
~dt( dqJ dq
_ d ~
dt
i. a*A Xi i
3jci\_ _d_(. Xi
Xi
^/a
dt\d
/
1
Xi i
dqj
\d qi dqr
dq 2 dqr
and therefore we have
Now
the quantity
i2*n(#+#+#)
represents the
masses of the particles of the system, each this is called the Kinetic half the multiplied by square of its velocity of the constitution of the of the From our Energy knowledge system*.
of the
;
sum
system, the kinetic energy can be calculated f as a function of

<?i,
<?a,
qn, q\,
...
<J
qn ,t;
...
we
shall
denote
it
by
T(q lt
and
shall
q2
qn q lt
,
q.2 ,
qn
t),
suppose that I
is
known
function of
its
arguments.
Since
The mass of a particle multiplied by the square of its velocity was called the vis viva by Leibnitz (Acta erud., 1695). t The methods of performing this calculation for rigid bodies are given in Chapter V.
32
36
and
iji

and
Z{
, ,
[CH.
quadratic function of q ly q
are likewise linear functions of q l} q 2 ... q n we see that T is a do not involve the ... q n if the functions /,
;
2>
</>,
time explicitly (as is generally the case if there are no moving constraints in the system), the quantities x, y, z are homogeneous linear functions of
q l} q2
,
...
q n and then
>
T is
a homogeneous quadratic function of q lt q 2
...
qn
it follows that the kinetic energy of a system is essentially therefore a positive definite quadratic form in glt q 2 ... n and so satisfies the conditions that its discriminant and the principal minors of every order of its
From
the definition
is
positive;
<j
discriminant are positive.
We
have thus derived from the equations of motion the equation
ftT\ dt(dqj
dqr~i(
dr_y( Y dA+V -^+7 +i d

i
dqr
dq ^
>
"
-+i\ 9g
and the expression on the left-hand side of this equation does not involve the individual particles of the system, except in so far as they contribute to the
kinetic energy T.
the right-hand side of the equation can also be brought to a form in which the individuality of the separate
if
We
have now to see
particles
is
lost.
For this purpose, consider that displacement of the system in which the coordinate q r is changed to q r + Sq r while the coordinates
,
q 1 ,q.2,...q,-i,qr+i,---qn
and the time

unaltered.
(so far as this is required for the specification of the system) are Since the system is holonomic, this can be effected without In this displacement, the coordinates of the violating the constraints.
particle
m; are changed to
and therefore the
total
work done
in the displacement
is
by
all
the forces which
act on the particles of the system

1
*
*~\
I
-*
f~\
"!.
*-\
d<
09V
ogv
Now
1.
do no work.
of the forces which act on the system, there are several kinds which Among these are, as was seen in 23,
forces
The molecular
which act between the particles of the rigid

:
bodies contained in the system
2. The pressures of connecting-rods of invariable length, the reactions at fixed pivots, and the tensions of taut inextensible strings
:
reactions of any fixed smooth surfaces or curves with which bodies of the system are constrained to remain in contact or of perfectly rough surfaces, so far as these can enter into holonomic systems
3.
The
26]

4.
37
The
reactions of
any smooth surfaces or curves with which bodies

;
of the system are constrained to remain in contact, when these surfaces or curves are forced to move in some prescribed manner for the displacement
supposition that t, so far as it is required for the specification of the system, is not varied, i.e. that such surfaces or curves so that this case reduces to the are not moved during the displacement
considered above
is
;
made on the
preceding.
The
forces acting
on the system, other than these which do no work, are

It follows that the quantity
9 ^
/<
called the external forces.
8(k -4. r V =
JL i
4-p
ZAI
d ^*
-=
dq
is
dqr
oq r
to a
the work done by the external forces in the displacement which corresponds change of q r to qr + $qr the other coordinates being unaltered. This is
,
a quantity which (from our knowledge of the constitution of the system, and of the forces at work) is a known function of q lt q. ... qn t; we shall denote
2>
it
by
Qr (qi,
q2
qn t)8q r
,
We
have therefore
fdT\ _3T__ ~n dt(dqj dq r
^"
This equation is true for all values of r from 1 to n inclusive we thus have n ordinary differential equations of the second order, in which qi,q2 ,...q n
;
are the dependent variables
and
t is
the independent variable
as the
number
of differential equations is equal to the number of dependent variables, the equations are theoretically sufficient to determine the motion when the
circumstances are given. be thus stated

initial
:
We
have now arrived at a result which may
Let
T denote
the kinetic energy of a
dynamical system, and

...
let
Qi&?i
+ Qz$qa +
lt
+ Qn $q n
in
denote the
(&?!,
work done by
8q n ), so that
the
T,
external forces
an arbitrary displacement
the
,
8q
...
...
o,re,
from our knowledge of

, ,
,
constitution of the system, known functions of q lt q2 ... q n q lt q2 ... q n then the equations which determine the motion of the system may be written
t;
dT\
dT
These are known as Lagranges equations of motion. It will be observed that the unknown reactions (e.g. of the constraints) do not enter into these
equations.
mechanics, which
*
The determination of these reactions forms a separate branch of * so we can is known as Kineto-statics say that in Lagranges
:
equations the kineto-statical relations

Cf.
of
the
problem are altogether eliminated.

(Heft 2) (1900), p.
1.
Heun, Deutsche Math. Ver.
ix.
38
27.

Conservative forces
fields of force
:
[CH.
the Kinetic Potential.
have the property that the work done by the forces of the field in a displacement of a dynamical system from one configuration to another depends only on the initial and final of the system, configurations
Certain
being the same whatever be the sequence of infinitesimal displacements by which the finite displacement is effected.
a conspicuous example of a field of force of this character the work done motion of a particle of mass m from one position at a height h to another position at a height k above the earth s surface is mg(k-k), and this does not depend in any way on the path by which the particle is moved from one position to the
Gravity
is
by gravity
in the
other.
Fields of force of this type are said to be conservative.
Let the configuration of any dynamical system be specified by n coordinates q l} q 2 ... q n Choose some configuration of the system, say that for which
, . .
q,-=a r
;
(r=
1, 2, ... n),
as a standard configuration then if the external forces acting on the system are conservative, the work done by these forces in a displacement of the
system from the configuration
(q 1} q2 ... q n ) to the standard configuration is a definite function of q lt q^, ... q n , not depending on the mode of displacement. Let this function be denoted by V(q } 2 ... q n ); it is called the Potential
,
<?
Energy* of the system in the configuration (q lt q2 ... q n ). In this case the work done by the external forces in an arbitrary displacement
,
(%,
is
Sq 2
...
Bqn )
to the displacement,
evidently equal to the infinitesimal decrease in the function V, corresponding i.e. is equal to the quantity
~~
9F
dql
5~
~~
<7i
dV.
s~~
#2
8F,
5
dq 2
dq n
oq n
Lagrange
equations of motion therefore take the form
____
dt \dqr )
3q r
dqr
,
If
we introduce a new
function
of the variables q lt q 2
...
q n q lt
,
...
qn
t,
defined by the equation
L = T-V,
d /dL\ UT-
then Lagrange
equations can be written
-7i
dt \dq r j
dL = 5
dqr
0,
(r=
1. 2, ... n).
The Potential-function was introduced by Lagrange

Potential
is
in 1773 (Oeuvres, vi. p. 335).
The
name
due
to
Green
(1828).
27, 28]

is
39
Lagrangian function
;
The function L
this single function
called the Kinetic Potential, or
completely specifies, so far as dynamical investigations are concerned, a holonomic system for which the forces are conservative.
28.
The
shall
explicit
We
form of Lagranges now shew how the second
equations.
derivatives of the coordinates with
respect to the time can be found explicitly from
Lagrange
equations.
Let the configuration of the dynamical system considered be specified by coordinates q1} q 2 ... q n we shall suppose that the configuration can be of these coordinates alone, without t, so that in terms completely specified
,
the kinetic energy of the system is a homogeneous quadratic function of As was seen in 26, this is always the case when the qlt q2 ,...qn constraints are independent of the time, but not in general when the
.
constraints have forced motions (as for instance in the case of a particle constrained to move on a wire which is made to rotate in a given way).
Suppose then that the kinetic energy

n
is
T= |
where a H
k=n=i
2,a k iqk qi,

<%
a {k and where the coefficients

,
are
known
functions of
The Lagrangian equations

dt or
of motion for the system are

(r
= l,
2, ...n),
dq
dq
(r=l,
*vJi^V.""*i?iika w n ^vj~l v c* c m ZOnqt+2, 2, r \qiq
I"/
"
2, ...w),
or
s=i
;=im=i
is
rt = Qr,
(r
= 1,
i
2, ... n),
where the symbol

expression
1,
which
called a Christoffel s symbol*, denotes the
1 /8$;r
9$mr
_ 5$;m \
9g r / dq
for the
2 V3gm \dqm
9^ dq
l
quantities qs
These equations, being linear in the accelerations, can be solved In fact, let D denote the determinant
.
U-ll
$12 $22 $32
$13
$23
$21
$31
It
was introduced by
Christoffel,
Journal filr Math. LXX. (1869), and
is
of importance in the
theory of quadratic differential forms.
40
and
let
[CH.
n
re-
rs
be the minor of a rs in this determinant.
Multiply the n equations
of the above system by
lv
A 2v
w
...
A nv
is
respectively,
and add them:

from
v,
membering that the quantity 2

has the value
A rv ar8
v,
zero
when
s is different
and
when
s is
equal to
n
we have
|~
^~|
This equation is true for all values of v from 1 to n inclusive; and these n equations, in which q\, q 2 ... n are q given explicitly as functions of
,
q l} q2 ... q of motion.
,
n>
q lt q 2
...
qn
can be regarded as replacing Lagrange
equations
29.
axis.
Motion of a system which
is
constrained to rotate uniformly round an
In many dynamical systems, some part of the system is compelled by an external agency to revolve with constant angular velocity w round a given fixed axis the motion of a bead on a wire which is made to rotate in this
;
way
is
is
a simple example.
it is
There
s
is,
as
we have
seen,
no objection to the
direct application of
Lagrange
holonomic; but
equations to such cases, provided the system often more convenient to use a theorem which we
shall
to
and which reduces the consideration of systems of this kind that of systems in which no forced rotation about the given axis takes
obtain,
now
place.
Suppose that, independently of the prescribed motion round the axis, the system has n degrees of freedom, so that if the given axis is taken as axis of z, and any plane through this axis and turning with the prescribed angular is measured, the velocity is taken as the plane from which the azimuth
</>
cylindrical coordinates of terms of n coordinates q lt
any
q2
,
particle
,
,
of the system can be expressed in
. . .
Then if the kinetic energy of the system work done by the external forces in an
be Qi&qi
q n these expressions not involving the time t. in the actual motion be T, and if the
arbitrary infinitesimal displacement
,
+ QSq,+
...
+ Qn &qn
where Q lt Q 2
,
...,
Qn
will
be supposed to
depend only on the coordinates q lt q2 ..., q n and if the kinetic energy of the system when the forced angular velocity is replaced by zero be denoted T we have lt by
,
2?wr2 will be a function of q lt q 2 ..., q n which is determined by our knowledge of the constitution of the system denote it by W. The quantity 2rar2 will also be a known function of 1} 2 ..., ni q q q
the quantity
, ,
:
Now
28-30]
.

, , ,
41
linear in q 1} q2 ..., qn it will be zero if, when co is zero, the qi, .., qn being motion of every particle has no component in the direction of increasing while if n is equal to unity, so that there is only one coordinate q, it will be
;
</>
the perfect differential with respect to t of a function of q cases of most frequent occurrence, and we shall include
2 suming that ^m?^
<
these are the two
them both by
as-
is
of the form -TCLT>
dY
,
where
is
a given function of the
coordinates q lt q2
...,
qn
We
have therefore
and the Lagrangian equations
d /dT\
can be written in the form
dT
d
dt
dT,\
dY\
dT,
dY\
dW
( r
rj
,,..,.
dqr
dqr
These equations shew

the
that, subject to the
motion
is
the
same as if
were
to
the potential energy
assumption already mentioned, angular velocity were zero, and 2 2 contain an additional term a) In this
the prescribed
^mr
way, by modifying the potential energy, we are enabled to pass from a system which is constrained to rotate about the given axis to a system for
this rotation does not take The term centrifugal forces is place. sometimes used of the imaginary forces introduced in this way to represent
which
the effect of the enforced rotation.
The Lagrangian equations for quasi-coordinates. In the form of Lagrange s equations given in 26, the variables are n coordinates q 1} q2 ..., q n and the time t; the knowledge of these quantities,
30.
, ,
together with a knowledge of the constitution of the system, is sufficient to determine the position of any particle in any configuration of the system, which may be expressed by saying that q 1} q.2 ..., q n are true coordinates of the system. We shall now find the form which is taken by the equations when the variables used are no longer restricted to be true coordinates of the system*.
,
kinetic energy being

*
Consider a system denned by n true coordinates q lt q2 ..., q n the T and the work done by the external forces in a
, ,
Particular cases of the theorem of this article were

is
general form of the equations

(Zcitschrift fiir
known to Lagrange and Euler: the due to Boltzmann (Wien. Sitzungsbcrichte, 1902) and Hamel
Math.
u.
Phys. 1904).
42
displacement (8ql} 8q2
,
[OH.
+ Q2 8q, ..., being Lagrangian equations of motion of the system are
%)
&%
...
+ Q n fy
n>
so that the
Let
<?i>
&>i,
o) 2 ,
,
..., to n
be
?i
independent linear combinations of the velocities
fy,
qn
defined by the relations

a>
=a
lr
+ a 2r q2 +
...
+ anr q n
,
(r=l,
;
2, ..., w)...(2),
ann are given functions of q lt qz ..., qn and let dir^, dir^ ..., d7r n be n linear combinations of the differentials dq lt dq2 ..., dq n defined the relations by
,
where
or
21
...,
d7rr
a lr dq l
2rd<? 2
. . .
ct
nr dq n
(r
=
if
1, 2,
...,),
where the
These
C$
coefficients a are the

last
same as
in the previous set of equations.
equations would be immediately integrable

for all values of K,
r,
the relations
C^
= V^ were satisfied ^~ oqm oq

K
and m, and in that case variables

;
ir r would exist which would be true coordinates we shall not however suppose the equations to be necessarily integrable, so that dir^, cfor 2 ..., d7r n will not necessarily be the differentials of coordinates 7r a 7r2 ..., ir n we shall call the quantities d^, dir^, ..., d-rr n differentials of quasi- coordinates.
, , , ;
Suppose that the relations

equations
q<
(2),
when
solved for q l}
/3 Kn
q.2
...,
qn
give the
= /3Kl w +
l
/3 K2 &) 2
...
wn
(r
r
,
I, 2,
...,n)...(3).
Multiplying the Lagrangian equations (1) by and adding, we obtain the equation
(d
&
2i .,
..., /8 Br ,
respectively,
3T\
Now ^Q K SqK
is
the work done by the external forces on the system in an
arbitrary displacement, so
in which
2 /3 Kr Q K S7rr
l
is
the work done in a displacement

.
all the If therefore the work quantities STT are zero, except S?rr done by the external forces on the system in an arbitrary infinitesimal dis placement (Swx, S?r2 ..., S7r n ) is n^TTj + II 2 S7r2 + ... + U n 87Tn W6 have
, ,
d
2/3
K
"
(dt
=n ~ f^_^l \dqj dq
K)
By means
of equations (3)
we can
eliminate q1} q2
l
,
&>
...,
q n from the
,
function T, so that
becomes a function of w
t
suppose for simplicity that of T be denoted by T.
is
2 ..., q ly q2 ..., qn (we not contained explicitly in T) let this form

,
w ni
O/TT
Then we have
=2r
rl^P
CL*.
30]
and therefore

d /df
sj
43
dco s
dT ^-
dT -jda KS
at
is
dq K
different from, or equal
But
to, s
:
*5<ft
Kr a KS
is
zero or unity according as r
so
we have
d
dt (fo r )
/ÛXS* +
7.
sdT
Sfl
.
aT
5
"25"
5i
-TT
We
also
have
-a
dT__dT v 8f ~r ** o o
oq
K s
a&>
oqK
dw s dq K
_ af
"i
"r^^
s
^ v af
m
d(o s
8ams dq K
Qmy
dq
Now
Sy8 Kr ^
or
2=
denote
s* -, would represent
5
if
?r r
were a true
is
coordinate
we
shall
it
by the symbol
=
OTT,-
whether
TT,.
a true
coordinate or not.
Also the expression
depends only on the connexion between the true coordinates and the dif ferentials of the quasi-coordinates, and is independent of the nature or motion of the dynamical system considered we shall denote this expression
:
by
7rz-
We
have therefore
at
5 \0r/
rg
ii
-- =
C7Tr
= Ur
Od) s
(r
= 1,
2,
ri).
quasi-coordinates
These n equations are the equations of motion expressed in terms of the when the quasi-coordinates are true coordinates, the
;
quantities
7^
are all zero, since the conditions
5-^
oqm
-,.-
are satisfied, and
oq K
the equations reduce to the ordinary Lagrangian equations
dT\
dT
Example. A rigid body is free to turn about one of its points 0, which is fixed, so that the coordinates of the body can be taken to be the three Eulerian angles 6, ^, which ( 10) specify the position of axes Oxyz, fixed in the body and moving with it, with reference to axes fixed in space. Let an arbitrary displacement (80, 8$, 8-^) of the body be equivalent to the resultant of small rotations ST^, STT,, 8*3 round Ox, Oy, Oz, respectively, so that diri, dir.2 o?7r 3 can be taken as the differentials of quasi-coordinates
<,
OXYZ
let
0)1,
o>
o>
be the components about the axes Oxyz of the angular velocity of the body
44
at

any
instant, so that diri, dir 2
,
[CH.
d-n- 3
sponding respectively to the velocities

the body are
i,
are the differentials of quasi-coordinates corre Shew that the equations of motion of 2 3
&>
(-(-}dt
I
dT
~
1<BO
dT
^
^r
dT =
IIi,
\o<ai/
d /dT\
ffl
a>3/
ar --
a?7
i
00)!
3 OQ)
-- oay = H
2
3,
OTs
a>
a>
where
:
,
7* is
3
n n n
2,
are the
the kinetic energy of the body, expressed in terms of 1? 2 3 6, 0, *//; moments about the axes Ox, Oy, Oz, respectively, of the external forces
,
o>
acting on the body
and
ar
OTT,.
of d& stands for ^- ^

.
--
j.
af J21
a</>
ot
OTT,.
0
87^ so the terms = are zero.

uir r
31.
Forces
derivable
from
a potential-function
which
involves
the
velocities.
In certain cases the conception of a potential-energy function can be extended to dynamical systems in which the acting forces depend not only on the position but on the velocities and accelerations of the bodies.
coordinates q 1} q2
For consider a dynamical system whose configuration is specified by ..., q n and suppose that the work done by the external forces in an arbitrary displacement (Bq lt 8q 2 ..., 8qn ) is
,
, ,
Then
if
Qr
can be expressed in the form
dv
jr-
d /dv
-r^-.dt
qn q lt
,
dq r
\dq r j
...,
(r
= 1,
2,
n\
where
V is a
given function of q lt q2
...,
qn
the Lagrangian equa
tions of
motion are
_
dt(dqj
and
if
~
dqr
dqr
dt(dqr )
a kinetic potential
be defined by the equation
L = T-V,
the equations take the customary form
d fdL\
-T,
U-.dt \dq r j
)-a-=0 dq
r
dL
The
function.
function
An example
can be regarded as a generalised potential energy of such a system is furnished by the motion of a
30-32]
45
to a fixed
law of attraction* particle subject to Weber s electrodynamic mass on the unit the force acting particle being per point,
1
/
-2
__
2r
2
f>
r2 \
the distance of the particle from the centre of force is defined by the equation the function
where r
is
in this case
Example.
If the forces
,
Q lt ^2
...,
Qn
of a dynamical system which
is specified
by
coordinates q ly q 2 ...,q n are derivable from a generalised potential-function F, so that
_oq r dt
q-2 , ...,
shew that Q l} Q2
relations
...,
QH must
be linear functions of q\,
q n satisfying the n(2n

,
On the general may be made to
conditions for the existence of a kinetic potential of forces, reference

.
Helmholtz, Journal
fiir
Math., Vol.
c.
(1886).
Mayer, Leipzig. Berickte, Vol. XLVIII. (1896). Hirsch, Math. Annalen, Vol. L. (1898).
32.
Initial motions.
differential equations of motion of a dynamical system cannot in It is how be solved in a finite form in terms of known functions. general ever always possible (except in the vicinity of certain singularities which need not be considered here) to solve a set of differential equations by power-
The
series,
i.e.
to obtain for the
dependent variables q lf q 2
...,
q n expressions of
the type
*/2
the coefficients a, b, ... can in fact be obtained by substituting these series in the differential equations, and equating to zero the coefficients of the various
*
W. Weber, Annalen
d.
Phys. LXXIII. (1848), p. 193.

231.
Cf.
Whittaker
History of the Theories
of -Aether
and Electricity, pp. 226
46
powers of
It
is
t
;

t
[OH.
the expansions will converge in general for values of some definite circle of convergence in the tf-plane.
required about the
within
plain that these series will give any information which may be initial character of the motion (t being measured from the
i
commencement
initial
of the motion), since is the initial value of q lt 6 X is the This method of discussing the initial motion value of q l9 and so on. of a system is illustrated by the following example.
Example.
plane and initially at
Consider the motion of a particle of unit mass, which is free to move in a rest, and which is acted on by a field of force whose components
parallel to fixed rectangular axes at
determine the
Let (# +
so that
,
,
initial
any point (x, y} are (X, Y) radius of curvature of the path.

of
and
let it
be required to
y + *i) be the coordinates
any point adjacent

;
to the initial point
(.z;
y),
T)
may
be regarded as small quantities
then the equations of motion are
.#)
3Y(x,y}
8y
If therefore
we assume
for
and
77
the expansions
to include terms of lower order than t 2 since the quantities T) (it is not necessary TJ, are initially zero), and substitute in these differential equations, we find, on comparing the coefficients of various powers of t, the relations
, , ,
y),
= 0,
The path
of the particle near the point
(X
y) is therefore given
by the
series
where
denotes the quantity \&.

if
Now
the coordinates | and
77
of
any curve are expressed

is
in
terms of a parameter
u,
the radius of curvature at the point u
known
to be
so the radius of curvature corresponding to the zero value of u, for the curve given
by the
above expressions,
is
(x ~ +
V
ox
r) x- (x *-+ Y ^\ Y
dy ) \
ctx
dy )
and
this is the required radius of curvature of the path of the particle at the initial point.
32-34]
33.

Similarity in dynamical systems*.
47
any system of connected particles and rigid bodies is given, it is possible to construct another system exactly similar to it, but on a different If now the masses and forces in the two systems, which we can call scale. the pattern and model respectively, bear certain ratios to each other, the workings of the two systems will be similar, though possibly at speeds which are not the same but bear a constant ratio to each other.
If
To find the relation between the various ratios involved, let the linear dimensions of the model and pattern be in the ratio x 1, let the masses of corresponding particles be in the ratio y 1, let the rates of working be in the ratio z 1, so that the times elapsed between corresponding phases are in the
: :
:
z, and let the forces be in the ratio w.\. have an equation of motion of the form
ratio 1
Then
for each particle
we
mx = X
so if
is
altered in the ratio y
altered in the ratio
I,
x is altered in the we must have

:
1,
ratio xz*
1,
and
is
w = xyz*,
and
this is the required relation
between the numbers
x, y, z,
w.
due to gravity, we have w=y, and conse Example. 2 quently xy = I, so that the rates of working are inversely as the square roots of the linear dimensions.
If the forces acting are the mutual gravitations of the particles, every particle attracting every other particle with a force proportional to the product of the masses and 2 2 the inverse square of the distance, we have are in /x so that the rates of
If the forces acting are those
w=y
working
the ratio y\
x%.
34.
Motion with reversed forces.
A special case of similarity is that in which the ratio w has the value 1. We have seen that the motion of any dynamical system which is subjected
to constraints independent of the time, and to forces the positions of the particles, is expressed the
by
which depend only on Lagrangian equations
d /8T\
where the kinetic energy I
velocities q\, j a
7
dT
and Q
is
..., q n a function of q l
,
a homogeneous quadratic function of the involving the coordinates q lt q 2 ..., qn in any way,
is
,
q2
...,
q n only.
variable defined
Introduce a
new independent
it,
by the equation where i = V

to
r.
1,
and
let
accents denote
*
differentiations
with
regard
7,
Then
since
Newton, Principia, Book n. Sect.
Prop. 32.
48
d /dT\
dt
,

dT
are
a<T
[CH.
\M )
r
hom g eneous
d fc^\
of degree
d
-2
>
in dt, the above equations
beC
me
is
..-,
drdq;)-^ =-$
the same function of
-..,
<r=
1,2, ...,),
where
3i,
&>
q,
qz
...,
qn
q lt
...,
q n that
is
of
qn, qi, q*,
T (instead of t) be now interpreted as denoting the time, these last are the of motion of the same system when equations equations subjected to the same forces reversed in direction. Moreover, if a 1} a2 ..., an
if
,
,
But
ft, /32
...,
q respectively, in any particular case of the motion of the original system, then a l} a 2 ..., a n -ifr, ..., iftn will be the corresponding quantities in the transformed i/3 thus have the theorem that in problem. any dynamical system subjected to constraints independent of the time and to forces which depend only on the position of the particles, the integrals of the equations of motion are still real
...,
n are the initial values of q lt q,,
n>
q lt q
2>
...,
n>
2>
We
if
be replaced by
,
*J
-It and
the initial velocities
l/32 ..., l{j n respectively; and the expressions thus obtained repre sent the motion which the same with the same initial system would have
if,
- V-
&,
..., /3 n
- V-
by
- V^l&,
conditions,
it
were acted on by the same forces reversed in direction.
35. Impulsive motion. In certain cases (e.g. in the collision of rigid bodies) the velocities of the particles in a dynamical system are changed so rapidly that the time occupied in the process may, for analytical purposes, be altogether neglected.
of a system bear a close analogy to those which apply in the case of motion under finite forces they can be formulated in the following way*.
:
The laws which govern the impulsive motion
The number which represents the mass of a particle, multiplied by the vector which represents its velocity at any instant, is a vector quantity (localised in a line through the particle) which is called the momentum of
axes Oxyz of the
the particle at that instantf; the three components parallel to rectangularmomentum of a particle of mass at the point (x, are
y, z)
therefore (mx, my, mz). If any number of particles form a dynamical system, the sum of the components in any given direction of the momenta of the
particles is called the
system.
of velocity in the various particles of a connected system can be regarded as the result of sudden communications of momentum to the particles.
The impulsive changes
component in that direction of the momentum of the
The
*
effect of
an agency which causes impulsive motion in the system

in the discovery of the laws of impact in 1668 by Wallis
They were involved
and Wren,
idea can be
Phil. Trans. No. 43, pp. 864, 867.
t Momentum is the quantitas motus of traced back to Descartes.
Newton
s Principia,
Book
i.
Def.
2.
The
34, 35]
will

momentum which
(?/ 0)
49
it would communicate to a single are the components of velocity of a particle of mass m, referred to fixed axes in space, before the impulsive communication of momentum to the particle, and if (u, v, w) are the com
be measured by the
free particle.
If therefore
w)
ponents of velocity of the particle after the impulse, then the vector quantity (localised in a line through the particle) whose components are
m (u
-w ),
m (v
),
m (w w
represents the impulse acting on the particle.
For the discussion of the impulsive motion of a connected system of particles, it is clearly necessary to have some experimental law analogous to the law of Action and Reaction of finite forces such a law is contained in the statement that the total impulse acting on a particle of a connected
;
of the external impulse on the particle (i.e. the impulse communicated by agencies external to the system, measured by the momentum which the particle would acquire if free) together with impulses directed along the lines which join this particle to the other particles which
system
is
equal
to the resultant
constrain
its
motion; and the mutually induced impulses between two connected
particles are equal in magnitude
and
opposite in sign.
If we regard the components of an impulse as the time-integrals of the components of an ordinary finite force which is very large but acts only for a very short time, the law just stated agrees with the law of Action and
Reaction
for finite forces.

to impulses.
Change of kinetic energy due
The change
in kinetic energy of a
dynamical system whose particles are acted on by a
given set of impulses
may
be determined in the following way.
Let an impulse
reference are
(A,
/,
^,
j/),
directed along a line whose direction-cosines referred to fixed axes of be communicated to a particle of mass m, changing its velocity
from v
in
a direction whose direction -cosines are (Z
direction-cosines are (L, J/, JV).
The equations
NO), to v, in a direction of impulsive motion are

, ,
whose
Multiplying these equations respectively by
$(vL + vQ L
and adding, we have
),
$(vM+v
),
and
The change in kinetic energy of the particle is therefore equal to the product of the impulse and the mean of the components, before and after the impulse, of the velocity of the particle in the direction of the impulse.
Now consider any dynamical system of connected particles and rigid bodies, to which given impulses are communicated applying this result to each particle of the system, and summing, we see that the change in the kinetic energy of the system is equal to the sum of the impulses applied to it, each multiplied by the mean of the components, before and after the
;
communication of the impulse, of the velocity of its point of application in the direction of the In this result we can clearly neglect the impulse. impulsive forces between the molecules of any rigid body of the system.
W. D.
50
36.

The Lagrangian equations of impulsive motion.
of
[CH.
The equations
impulsive motion of
expressed in a form* analogous to the finite forces, in the following way.
system can be Lagrangian equations of motion for

a dynamical
Let (X i} Yi, Zi) be the components of the total impulse (external and molecular) applied to a particle m; of the system, situated at the point The equations of impulsive motion of the particle are (#,-, yi, z^.
(an
,
-x )=X
io
iy
(y
-y
io )
=T
i}
(z {
- z^) = Z
where (x^, y io z^) and (x i} y i} z^ denote the components of velocity of the particle before and after the application of the impulse.
If ^ 2 ..., qn denote the n independent coordinates in terms of which the configuration of the system can be expressed, we have therefore
<?!,
2 m,-
(x t
- asfe) =
\
"""I
h (yi
\
y*>)
vst
^- +
,
(&i
e
it}
Yv
)
5
9gv
??/
*
(JiXj
-*
T ^f ^
OZ
;
,
cq r
oq r
cqr/
where the summation
is
extended over
all
Now
it is
in
seen as in
forming the summation on the right-hand side of this equation, 26 that the molecular impulses between particles of the
:
system can be omitted
the quantity
l
^
dqr dqr
dq r
can therefore readily be found when the external impulses are known: we shall denote it by the symbol Qr We have consequently
.
2m,
t
(& t
(
- 4-o)
oq r
+ (y t
2/ io )
+
oq r
(*t
- ^)
dq r )
= Qr
But
as in
26 we have
da^_dxi
dq,.~dq
r
.
"bxi_
Vi
dqr
dxi
_ d ( -dq r
.
.
*
and similarly
.
_9^
*dqr~dqU
where q ro and q r denote the velocities of the coordinate q r before and after the impulse respectively. Thus if
Due
to
Lagrange, Mec. Anal.
(2
ed.), n. p. 183.
36]
51
denotes the kinetic energy of the system after the impulse, the above equation can be written in the form
dqr
/rl
\dq r /Q
/}
T1
where
(~
) \oqr/ o
denotes the quantity corresponding to ^-, but relating to the

oc[r
instant before the impulse.
and thus we obtain the
Similar equations can be found for the rest of the coordinates q 1} g 2 set of n equations
>
>
qnl
fdT\
which are known as the Lagrangian equations of impulsive motion.
These are algebraical equations

terms of q w qw
,
for the
determination of q lt q2
...,
qn in
equations coordinates with respect to the time do not enter.
qm they are not differential equations like the Lagrangian of motion for finite forces, since the second derivates of the
,
. .
.,
1. Two rigid bodies moving in space are constrained only by a taut inextensible string joining a given point of one body to a given point of the other, and one of the bodies is constrained to roll without sliding on a given fixed surface. How many degrees of freedom has the system, and how many independent coordinates are required to specify its con
figuration
2.
point
is
referred to curvilinear coordinates
a,
b,
c,
and the square of
its
velocity is
2 T= A a? + Bb 2 + Cc2 + 2Fbc + 2Gcd + 2Hdb.

p, q,
r,
Shew that
the component accelerations in the directions of the tangents to the

f F\ dT fiT\ - --- =
j
coordinate lines, are given by three equations of the type

d_
3-. ) dt (d \dd oaj
da
p JA + -, _ q 2 + -T--, r.
-
..
TT H
(~*
JB
(Coll.
Exam. )
v/6
3.
field
particle which is free to move in space is initially at rest at the origin, and is in of force whose components (X, F, Z) at any point (x, y, z) are given by the expansions
JT= a +bx+ quadratic and higher terms Y= cx+ quadratic and higher terms
in x, y, z
in x, y, z;
z.
Z=
dx2 + cubic and higher terms
in x, y,
Find the radii of curvature and torsion of the orbit at the
origin.
42
CHAPTER
III
37.
Problems which are soluble by quadratures.
a finite
The determination of the motion of a holonomic dynamical system with number of degrees of freedom has in the preceding chapter been shewn to depend on the solution of a set of ordinary differential equations. If n denotes the number of degrees of freedom, and (q 1} q2 ..., q n ) are the
,
coordinates specifying the configuration of the system at the time t, then the set of equations consists of n differential equations, each of the second
order, with q lt q 2 ...,q n as dependent variables and t as independent variable. This set of equations is said to be of order 2n, the order being defined to
,
be the sum of the orders of the highest derivates of the dependent vari ables occurring in the equations. It is a well-known result of the theory
of ordinary differential equations that the number of arbitrary constants of integration in the solution of a set of differential equations is equal to the order of the system whence it follows that there are 2n constants of
;
integration in the general solution of a holonomic dynamical problem with
n degrees of freedom.
Now
any given
set of differential equations of order
k can be reduced
to the form
-^
where
= X r (ae
1}
x2
..,
xk
t},
(r
= 1,
2,
. .
.,
k\
X X
l}
...,
,
k
,
are
known
functions of their arguments, by taking as
new
variables (x1 x2 ..., xk ) the original dependent variables together with their derivates up to (but not including) the highest derivates occurring in Thus e.g. the set of equations the original set of equations.
(where
order
4,
Q and Q2
l
are any functions of the arguments indicated) which
is
of
can be reduced to the set
dx
~T7
_
^3>
dx2 _
~~rr
^4>
dx3
~jT
f)
^Jl
x
^3>
\&lt MS*
&4/I
~~JT
dx4 _ ^ ^2
\&lt
-%2>
fiat
^4)5
37]
Principles available for the integration
53
by taking
#1
= 01,
-^
a*
=&,
1
,
#3
= 0i,
#
fc>
^4
02-
The form
= Xr (x x2
as the
...,
(r
for a
= l,
2, ...,
&)
therefore be regarded equations of order k.
may
typical
form
rlf
set of differential
If a function
f{x
x2
...,xk
t) is
such that
~tt-t
is
zero
when
(#,,
#2
>
>
#*)
are any functions of
whatever which satisfy these differential equations, the

/(#i, x2
,
equation
...,
#,
t)
= Constant
is
called
may
dfldt
an integral of the system. The condition that a given function furnish an integral of the system is easily found for the equation
;
gives
ôx-i
*- 4 + 4 + cx
2
<*
+ ~- xk +
dxk
L.
57 dt
= 0,
or
o d^j
V Y + ^ -^2+ T
1
4-
oa;2
8 8 ^Y ^ = ^; + 57 + 5 / Â dt dx
k
and
this relation
must be
identically satisfied in order that the equation

i
,
f(x
oc 2
..., aek ,
t)
Constant
may
be an integral of the system of differential equations.
Sometimes the function

integral of the system.
/ itself (as
distinct
from the equation /= constant)
is
called
an
The complete
solution of the set of differential equations of order k
is
furnished by k integrals
fr
,
On
2,
afc, t)
= ar
(r
1, 2,
k),
where a lt a z ..., ak are arbitrary constants, provided these integrals are distinct, i.e. no one of them is algebraically deducible from the others. For let the values of as1} xz ..., xk obtained from these equations as functions of a 2 .. a k be t, a,! x r = <,.(!, a,, ..., ak t), (r--l, 2, ..., k};
,
, ,
, .
then
if
(a-j,
x2
...,
xk ) are any particular
set of functions of
which
satisfy
the differential equations, it follows from what has been said above that by giving to the arbitrary constants a r suitable constant values we can make the equations
/r
=
(ar,,
x2
...,
a! k
t)
= ar
,
(r=l,
2, ...,
k)
true for this particular set of functions (xl} of functions (x ly xZ) ..., xk ) will be included
x2
...,
xk ); and therefore this set

the functions defined by
among
the equations x r
of freedom
may
solution of a dynamical problem with n degrees therefore be regarded as equivalent to the determination of
r
.
<j>
The
2w integrals of a set of differential equations of order
2n.
54
Thus the
which
is

differential equation
?=-?>
[OH. in
of the second order, possesses the

f
two integrals
?
2
+ ? 2 =,, ?_;= a
?
solving these equations for q
tan- 1
where
and
a.2
are arbitrary constants.
On
and
q,
we have
and these equations constitute the solution of the
differential equation.
division of dynamics, with which this and the immediately succeeding chapters are concerned, is occupied with the dis cussion of those dynamical problems which can be solved completely in
The more elementary
terms of the known elementary functions or the indefinite integrals of such functions. These are generally referred to as problems soluble by quadratures. The problems of dynamics are not in general soluble by quadratures and in
;
those cases in which a solution by quadratures can be effected, there must always be some special reason for it, in fact the kinetic potential of the
problem must have some special character.

is
The
object of the
present
to discuss those peculiarities of the kinetic potential which are chapter most frequently found in problems soluble by quadratures, and which in fact
are the ultimate explanation of the solubility.

38.
Systems with ignorable coordinates.
have seen ( 27) that the motion of a conservative holonomic dynamical system with n degrees of freedom, for which the coordinates are .., q n and the kinetic potential is L, is determined by the differential 22
<?!,
We
, .
equations
) at \dqr J
-T.
d fdL\ U-T-
dL -5 = 0,
dqr
(r
= 1,
2,
. . .
n).
7)T
The quantity
coordinate qr
It
.
^-roq r
is
generally called the
momentum corresponding
to the
that some of the coordinates, say q ly q z ..., q k are not in L, although the corresponding velocities contained explicitly q q%, ..., qk are so contained. Coordinates of this kind are said to be ignorable or cyclic
may happen
appear in the following chapters that the presence of ignorable coordinates is the most frequently-occurring reason for the solubility of
it
will
particular problems
by quadratures.
of motion which correspond to the k ignorable

coordinates are
37, 38]
55
and on integration, these can be written
where
/3j, /3 2 , ..., /3&
are constants of integration.
These
last
equations are
evidently k integrals of the system.
We shall now shew how these k integrals can be utilised to reduce the order of the set of Lagrangian differential equations of motion*.
k
Let
/
denote the function
S
r=\
dL
qr
~-r.
By means
of the k equations
v$r
f|-A,
we can express the k quantities q ly
<j
(r-1,
which are the
2, ...,*),.
2,
..., qk,
velocities cor
responding to the ignorable coordinates, in terms of

qk+i> qk+2>
>
<ln,
<ik+i,
qk+2,
Qn, @i, $*,
->
ftk\
we
shall
suppose that in this way the function
R is
expressed in terms of the
latter set of quantities.
Now
tities
let
,
Sf denote the increment produced in any function / of the quan

,
qk+l qk+2
...,
...,
2
,
qn
...,
fr,
q2
qk+1
,
qn
&,
$0
qn (or of the quantities q k+1) qk+2 by arbitrary infinitesimal changes Bqt+1 Sq

,
...,
...,
k+2>
qn
...,
Bqn Bq 1}
...,
Sqn in its arguments.
Then we have
v 2,
r =\
ar = b(L
by the definition of R.
3L\
qr
oqr/
But
and
since
We
have therefore
r=k + ivqr
r=k+lOqr
r=\
and since the infinitesimal quantities occurring on the right-hand side of this equation are arbitrary and independent, the equation is equivalent to the
/
is
The transformation which follows is really a case of the Hamiltonian transformation, which discussed in Chapter X; it was however first separately given by Eouth in 1876, and somewhat
by Helmholtz.
later
56
[CH.
in
system of equations
;
=
dq r
(r
= k+l,
+ 2,
dq r
..., n),
dL
dR
Substituting these results in the Lagrangian equations of motion,
we
have
^L 7 ac \oqr /
m I
<"\
f^\ _ O
"~~
^-
n ^
ft
\
*V
l"
J-
A/ ~|
....
7fc ).
oqr
,
, ,
Now E
is
a function only of the variables qk+l q k+2 ...,q n qk+l

, ,
-
...,q n
and the constants &, y32 so this is a new Lagrangian ftk system of equations, which we can regard as defining a new dynamical problem with
only (n
k) degrees of freedom, the
new
coordinates being q k+1 qk+2

,
,
...,
,
qn
and the new kinetic potential being R. When the variables k+l k+2 ..., n q q q have been obtained in terms of t by solving this new dynamical problem, the remainder of the original coordinates, namely q l} 2 ..., q q can be obtained from the equations
,
k>
Hence a dynamical problem with n degrees of freedom, which has k

coordinates, can be reduced to a
ignoralle
k)
dynamical problem which has only (n

is
degrees of freedom.
This process
called the ignoration of coordinates.
The essential basis of the ignoration of coordinates is in the theorem that when the kinetic potential does not contain one of the coordinates q r explicitly, although it involves
the corresponding velocity
q,.,
an integral of the motion can be at once written down,

a particular case of a
namely
will
= constant.
This
is
much more
general theorem which
when a dynamical system admits a known infinitesimal contact-transformation, an integral of the system can .be immediately obtained.
later, to the effect that
be given
If the original problem relates to the motion of a conservative dynamical system in which the constraints are independent of the time, we have seen that its kinetic potential L consists of a part (the kinetic energy) which is
and which involves q., ..., q n with a qk+i, qk+z, any way, together part (the potential energy with sign reversed) which involves qk+1 qk+2 ..., q n only. But in the new dynamical system which is obtained after the ignoration of coordinates, the
quadratic
of q lt
,
a homogeneous
,
function
q n in
more generally when (as happens very frequently in the more advanced parts of Dynamics) the solution of one set of Lagrangian differential equations is made to depend
kinetic potential cannot be divided into two parts in this will in general contain terms linear in the velocities. And
way
in fact,
38]
57
on that of another set of Lagrangian differential equations with a smaller number of coordinates, the kinetic potential of this new system is not
necessarily divisible into two groups of terms corresponding to a kinetic and a potential energy. shall sometimes use the word natural to denote those of systems Lagrangian equations for which the kinetic potential contains
We
in the velocities, and non-natural to denote only terms of degrees 2 and those systems for which this condition is not satisfied.
As an example of the ignoration of coordinates, consider a dynamical system with two degrees of freedom, for which the kinetic energy is
and the potential energy

where
a, 6,
c,
is
are given constants.
It is evident that q^ is
an ignorable coordinate, since
it
does not appear explicitly in
or
V.
The
kinetic potential of the system is
and the integral corresponding to the ignorable coordinate
is
where
ft is
a constant, whose value
is
determined by the
initial
circumstances of the motion.
The
kinetic potential of the
new dynamical system obtained by ignoring the coordinate
and the problem
is
now reduced
to the solution of the single equation
(3R dt\dq
or
As
this is a linear differential equation with constant coefficients, its solution

:
can be
immediately written down
it is
where
A and
:
of the motion. of the time
are constants of integration, to be determined by the initial circumstances This equation gives the required expression of the coordinate 2 terms
<?
the value of qi in terms of
can then be deduced from the equation
which gives
8i n 2
and so completes the solution of the system.
58
39.

Special cases of ignoration; integrals of
shall
[CH.
in
momentum and angular

of ignorable
momentum.
We
(i)
now
consider specially the two
commonest types
coordinates in dynamical problems.
Systems possessing an integral of momentum,. Let the coordinates of a conservative holonomic dynamical system with n degrees of freedom be q l} q and let T be the kinetic energy of the .., q n and V the system, potential energy, so that the equations of motion of the
.
2>
system are
d (dT\
dT dV ~-~~
_
Suppose that one of the coordinates, say q l} is ignorable, and moreover is such that an alteration of the value of q 1 by a quantity I, the remaining coordinates qz qs ..., q n being unaltered, corresponds to a simple translation of the whole system through a distance I parallel to a certain fixed direction
, ,
in space we shall take this to be the direction of the #-axis in a system of fixed rectangular axes of coordinates.
;
Since
q-i
is
an ignorable coordinate, we have the integral

O/TT
-z-r
Constant,
dq l
and we
shall
now
discuss the physical

O/TT
meaning of
this equation.
We
have
O
ab-*Sb*
where the summation
is
miW + *f + if
all
>
extended over
.
the particles of the system,
dT
r
$-M^T*
^
f
.
dAi
difi
<
+ v-^ + zy<
as,
3ft
,
*^/
^}
bv y
9#o
8 ^
26
9vi
^ = Zmtiki,
since in this case ^-
1,
dq
^=
9^j
0,
oqi
dq 1
^=
0.
Now
the
physical
momentum
-axis of Smgfej represents ( 35) the component parallel to the of the system of particles m^, and consequently this is the
r
ri
r
in the present case.
i
meaning of the quantity

~\m
0Ji
The
can
integral
= Constant
:
9g,
When a dynamical system can be interpreted thus translated as if rigid in a given direction without violating the constraints, and the potential energy is thereby unaltered (the way in which the kinetic
therefore
be
energy depends on the velocities
is
obviously unaltered by this translation, so
39]

is
59
the corresponding coordinate

direction of the
momentum
is
ignorable), then the component parallel to this of the system is constant,
This result
to
which
(ii)
it
law of conservation of momentum*, and systems applies are said to possess an integral of momentum.
called the
Systems possessing an integral of angular momentum.

,
Again taking a system with coordinates q 1} q2 ..., q n and kinetic and potential energies T and V respectively, let us now suppose that the coordinate q is ignorable, and moreover is such that an alteration of q by
l
a quantity a, the other coordinates remaining unchanged, corresponds to a simple rotation of the whole system through an angle a round a given fixed line in space we shall take this line as the axis of z in a system of fixed rectangular axes of coordinates.
:
Since q
is
an ignorable coordinate, we have the integral r ?i r ............................. (1), ;r-r- = Constant

9?i
and we have to determine the physical interpretation of
this equation.
We
have as before
dT
where the summation
if
is
/
[
=-- yt dyi ^.
^
dqi
r-
+ Zi =
,
dzA
,
9?i
all
dqj
But
extended over
we
write
Xi^ncosfa,
we have
d%i ~
yi
l
=
rism<f>i,
,
dfa = dq
= dxi
riSm>i=:
..
and therefore
3-r-
= 2m
(-
dayt
+ yiXi)
........................... (2).
oq
r denote the distance of any particle of mass from a given and if denote the angular velocity of the any instant, particle about the line, the product mr*to is called the angular momentum of the particle about the line.
if
Now
straight line at
<a
Let
be any point, and

particle, the interval
let
P,
moving
*
of time
be two consecutive positions of the between them being dt. Then the
This has been evolved gradually from the observation of Newton, Principia, Book i. iutrod. if any number of bodies are acted on only by their mutual attractions, their common centre of gravity will either be at rest, or move uniformly in a straight line.
to Sect. XL, that
60
[CH.
angular momentum about any line value of the ratio

??z
OK
through
is
clearly the limiting
-7-
x Twice the area of the projection of the triangle

a plane perpendicular to
OPP
on
OK,
if (X, p, v)
m, n) are the direction-cosines of cosines of the normal to the triangle

(I,
so if
OK and
OPP
,
are the direction-
we
see
momentum about OK is angular momentum about
equal to the product of (l\ + the normal to the plane It is evident from this that if the angular momenta of a about particle any three rectangular axes Oxyz at any time are A,, A2 A 3 respectively, then the angular momentum
that the angular mp + nv) into the
OPP
about any line through whose direction-cosines referred to these axes are is mh nh we may express this by saying that angular Ih-i + (I, m, n} 2 + s momenta about axes through a point are compounded according to the vectorial
;
law.
The angular momentum

defined to be the
of a dynamical system about a given axis
is
of the angular momenta of the separate particles of the system about the given axis in particular, the angular momentum of a system of particles typified by a particle of mass m, whose coordinates are
;
sum
(xi,
yiy
Zi},
about the axis of z
is
Sm^r^, where
all the particles of the system this of a system can be written in the form
;
and the summation

expression for
is
extended over
the angular
momentum
i
2m* (ijiXi and on comparing

this with equation (2)
xî),
result that the angular
rlT
~-r dî
we have the
of
momentum of
the system considered, about the axis
z, is
(1) implies therefore that the angular momentum of the system about the axis of z is constant and we have the following result When a dynamical system can be rotated as if rigid round a given axis with
:
The equation
out violating the constraints,
and
the potential energy is thereby unaltered, the
angular momentum of the system This result is known as momentum*.
about this axis the
is constant.
theorem
of conservation
of angular
Example. A system of n free particles is in motion urider the influence of their mutual forces of attraction, these forces being derived from a kinetic potential V, which contains the coordinates and components of velocity of the particles, so that the equations of motion of the particles are
mrXr ~
..
_ar
d /3F\
e
Kepler
was extended by Newton
law, that the radius from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times, from this the general to all cases of motion under a central force
:
theorem of conservation of angular
momentum has
gradually developed.
39, 40]
61
shew that these equations possess the integrals

2
/
(
m r xr +^- J = Constant, m
.,
F\
2
2
yr + K-i
9F\
r \
yJ
Constant,
r V
m r z r + ^r- = Constant,
cz r /)
.-
2 \m r (yr zr - z r yj 2
r
+y
3F -
zr
9F)
^.-j
= Constant,
\
(^
m r (zr xr - x,. zr + zr
)
F-
JTTox r
xr 3
an = Constant,
cz r
\
)
2 \m r (x r y r -y r x r ) + x r
which
may
be regarded as
9 F! F = C~yrgj}- Constant, momentum and generalisations of the integrals of 3
angular
momentum.
40.
(Levy.)
The general theorem of angular momentum.

integral of angular
The
result,
momentum
is
a special case of a more general
which
may be
obtained in the following way.
Consider a dynamical system formed of any number of free or connected and interacting particles if they are subjected to any constraints other than the mutual reactions of the particles, we shall suppose the forces due to these constraints to be counted among the external forces.
:
Take any
line fixed in space,
and choose one of the coordinates which
to be such that a change in specify the configuration of the system (say q^ in the other coordinates, implies a simple q 1} unaccompanied by any change rotation of the system as if rigid round the given line, through an angle equal to the
change in q lf
We
suppose the constraints to be such that this

the coordinate q
is
possible displacement of the system.
The Lagrangian equation
for
is
dtdq
and
this reduces to
since the value of q : (as distinguished from

a/77
q^ cannot have any

zero.
effect
on
the kinetic energy, and therefore j
must be
Now
T^T
is
-^-r
the angular
momentum of the system about the given line; and QiS^j is the work done on the system by the external forces in a small displacement 8q 1} i.e. a small rotation of the system about the given line through an angle 8q from which
1
,
it is easily
line.
We
of the external forces about the given Q have therefore the result that the rate of change of the angular
seen that
is
the
moment
62
momentum
[CH. in
of the external forces about this line. momentum obviously follows from this
forces is zero.
of a dynamical system about any fixed line is equal to the moment The law of conservation of angular when the moment of the external
Similarly
we can shew that

to
line,
dynamical system parallel

parallel to this
the rate of change of the momentum of a any fixed direction is equal to the component,
of the total external forces acting on the system.

it
is
For impulsive motion

results
:
easy to establish the following analogous
The impulsive increment of the component of momentum of a system in any fixed direction is equal to the component in this direction of the total external
impulses applied
to the system.
The impulsive increment of the angular momentum of a system round any axis is equal to the moment round that axis of the external impulses applied to
the system.
The Energy equation. now introduce an integral which plays a great part in dynamical investigations, and indeed in all physical questions.
41.
We
shall
and
In a conservative dynamical system let q i} q2 ..., qn be the coordinates we shall suppose that the constraints let L be the kinetic potential
,
:
L is a given function of the variables not We shall not, at only, qn, q\, q-2, involving t explicitly. qi, #2, L further so that the discussion will apply restrict conditions, first, by any to the non-natural systems obtained after ignoration of coordinates, as well as
are independent of the time, so that
>
>
<jn
to natural systems.
We
have
dL = ~T~
at
..
9Z
"r
r =\
"
q? D^~
i
r=i
r =i
dL
d idL\
, ,
uq r
..
Or o dqr
.
dL
;r-r-
2,
qr
/
+ 2
dL^
qr r Urr-
r =i
vqr
.
at \oqr J
by the Lagrangian equations
Integrating,
we have
n
*q, r=
l
v<Jr
where h
is
a constant.
is
This equation
energy or
*
an integral of the system, and
is
called the integral of
law of conservation of energy*.
Galileo was acquainted with the fact that the velocity of a particle sliding down an inclined plane from rest depends only on the vertical height through which it has descended. From this elementary particular case the principle was gradually evolved by Huygens, Newton, John
and Daniel Bernoulli, and Lagrange.
40, 41]
63
have seen that in natural systems, in which the constraints do not involve the time, the kinetic potential L can be written in the form T V, where T (the kinetic energy of the system) is homogeneous and of degree 2
in the velocities, while
We
V is
a function of the coordinates only.
In this
case,
therefore, the integral of energy becomes
^ h=Zq r=i
,
.
2 r Olj ^
T L
oqr
= 2T
T +V,
since
T is
homogeneous of degree 2
in qlt
It follows that in conservative natural systems, the
sum of
the kinetic
and
potential energies is constant.
This constant value h
is
called the total energy
of the system.
This latter result can also be obtained directly from the elementary equations of motion. For from the equations of motion of a single particle,
namely
m x = Xi
i i
m yi = Y
t
m ^ = Z{
{
we have
Em*
(xi xi
is
+ yiiji + Zi Zi) = 2 (XiXi + Yiiji + Z^t),

extended over
all
where the summation

.
the particles of the system, or
d S I m t (x?
i
y?
+ zf) = 2 (Xdx + Ydy + Zdz},

i
so that the
part of
its
increment of the kinetic energy of the system, in any infinitesimal path, is equal to the work done by the forces acting on the system
energies
in this part of the path, and therefore is equal to the decrease in the potential of the energy of the system. The sum of the kinetic and potential
system
is
therefore constant.
of energy
The equation
m & + f + p) = Xdx + Ydy + Zdz

(
(where for simplicity we suppose the system to consist of a single particle) is true not only when (#, y, z) denote coordinates referred to any fixed axes, but also when they denote coordinates referred to axes which are moving with any motion of translation
in a fixed direction with constant velocity.
For let (, ;, f ) denote the coordinates of the particle referred to axes and parallel to the moving axes Oxyz, so that
fixed in space
x=-at, y = T)-bt,
where
a, b, c are
-ct,
the constant components of velocity of the origin Then the result already proved is that
of the
moving
axes.
d .4 m (e + ^ + C 2 ) = Xd +
Yd?,
+ (aX+bY+cZ)dt.
64
Now we

have
d.
[OH.
= m (at; + bij + c dt = (aX+bY+cZ)dt,

)
and therefore
d.im(x*+y2 + z = Xdx+ Ydy + Zdz,

i }
which establishes the theorem.

It may be noted that from this result the three equations of motion of the particle at etc., and subtracting the equation of energy in the can be derived, by taking x = coordinates (#, y, 2) from the equation of energy in the coordinates (, 77, ).
42.
Reduction of a dynamical problem
to
a problem with fewer degrees of
freedom, by means of the energy-equation.

a conservative dynamical system has only one degree of freedom, the integral of energy is alone sufficient to give the solution by quadratures.
When
if
For
q be the coordinate, the integral of energy

.
dL
-TT-.
q
is
L=h
dq
a relation between q and q

it
from this equation, so that
.if therefore q be found explicitly in terms of q takes the form
9 =/(?),
we can
integrate again and obtain the equation

t
-.^r-r
constant.
which constitutes the solution of the problem. When the system has more than one degree of freedom, the integral of energy is not in itself sufficient for the solution but we shall now shew that
;
can be used for the same purpose as the integrals corresponding to ignorable coordinates were used, namely to reduce the system to another dynamical
it
system with a smaller number of degrees of freedom*. In the function L, replace the quantities q.2 q 3 ..., q n by ftq2 ftq^,
,
...,
ft
q^, respectively,
n(<j,,
<//,
where qr denotes
qn,
,
<?i,
and denote the resulting function

differentiating the equation
,
by
qs
...,
q-2
...,
qn )-
Then
q2
r
q.2,
...,
qn
ft, q*,
qn )
= &(ft,
q3
wehave
dL
an
aii
(-1^,3,...,,)
*
......... (3).
Whittaker, Mess, of Math. xxx. (1900).
41, 42]

**.*
~i~ ^TT~
65
Equations (1) and (2) give
80 _ *A + I ~ o
.
.
I
ir
^
........................... \^)
^-1
oqi
0$
,-=2 î
oq r
Now
in the integral of energy n dL
r=l
qr
~]r-L Off
= h,
replace gv by^gv for all values of r from 2 to w inclusive, and then from this equation obtain ^ as a function of the quantities (q2 q3 ...,q n qi, qn) and by using this expression for ql} express the function
, ,
>
>
<?2>
|
in
dL
g,
r=l 9^r ?i
terms of (^2
^3
;
...,
qn
q 1} q 2
...,
q n ).
Let the function thus obtained
be denoted by
then from (4) we see that
r)O
is
the same as ^-r

5î
but
differently expressed.
Differentiating the equation of energy, which by (4) the form

.
may be
written in
an -
(ft 1
li=h,
fyi
and regarding
the variables
it
as a relation which implicitly determines

q.,
,
as a function of
(<?/,
...,
qn
q lt q 2
...,
qn ), we have
But
differentiating the equation

r,
an 8^
,
regarded as an identity in the variables (g/, q3
...,q n
q-i,
qz
-,
qn ),
we have
9X
_j^
(7),
a^na^
"
Comparing equations
(5)
and
we have
i
az/
8
ao
^8"
(8),
and comparing equations (6) and
we have
1
dL
30
Wr
W. D.
^Wr
66

(2)
[CH.
in
Combining these with equations
and
(3),
we have
1
.
dL^_dL
*\
/ -i
>
anQ
dL _ _
dq r
dL
.
dqr
dq r
?i
dqr
we
Substituting from these equations in the Lagrangian equations of motion, obtain the system
d (dL \ -T. (5, dt\dqr j

or finally
dL
~
q *l
0,
(r
= 2, =
3,
. .
TO),
dq r
\
dL
(r
2, 3,
n).
Now
l
#zese
system in which
may L
be
regarded as the equations of motion of a new dynamical

q3
,
is the kinetic potential, (qz ,
...,
qn ) are the coordinates,
and q plays
will, like the
The new system part of obtained of coordinates, be in general systems by ignoration i.e. L will in the not consist solely of terms of degrees 2 and non-natural, velocities (q 2 q3 ..., qn ) but on account of its possession of the Lagrangian form, most of the theorems relating to dynamical systems will be applicable
the
the time as the independent variable.
f
, ,
it. The integral of energy thus enables us to reduce a given dynamical system with n degrees of freedom to another dynamical system with only (n 1)
to
degrees offreedom.
will not in general possess an integral of since the variable energy, independent q l occurs explicitly in the new kinetic L if But an is potential ql ignorable coordinate in the original system,
.
The new dynamical system
any stage of the above process, and there fore will not occur explicitly in From this it follows that the new system will also possess an integral of energy,
then q l
will not occur explicitly in
namely
2
r=2
qr 3 Oqr
L =
constant,
and this can in its turn be used to reduce further the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
The preceding theorems shew

n degrees
of freedom
that any conservative dynamical system with

1) ignorable coordinates can
be completely integrated by quadratures we can proceed either (a) by first performing the process of ignoration of the coordinates, so arriving at a system with only one degree of freedom, which possesses an integral of energy and can therefore be
;
and (n
solved in the
(@) we can
at the beginning of the present article or use the integral of energy to lower the number of degrees of freedom by unity, then use the integral of energy of the new system to lower the number of degrees of freedom again by unity, and so on, obtaining
;
manner indicated
first
finally
a system with one degree of freedom which again can be solved in the manner
indicated.
42, 43]
Example.

The
kinetic potential of a dynamical system
is
67
Shew
equation
that the relation between the variables l and z q q
is
given by the differential
__
5ft \3$iY
__ ~
9? 2
where
Jj
=^,
and where
is
denned by the equation
Shew that the non-natural dynamical system represented by the last differential equation possesses an integral of energy, and hence solve the system by quadratures.
43.
Separation of the variables ; dynamical systems of Liouville s type.
fs is
dynamical equations which are obviously soluble by quadratures constituted by the equations of those systems for which the kinetic energy of the form
class of

where
is
of the form
(?i)
vlt v2
;
...,
vn
V= w w
lt
u>i
...,
+ W (q ) + + wn (q n w n are arbitrary functions

2
2
.
.
),
arguments so that the kinetic potential breaks of which involves only one of the variables.
For in
this case the
up
of their- respective into a sum of parts, each
Lagrangian equations of motion are

qr ]
^ K (qr)
or
- \ vr +%
(q r) q,?
v r (q r ) q r
vr (qr ) qr2
= - ff [ (qr = - w/ (qr \
i
,
),
(r
1 , 2,
2,
n),
= 1, (r
^/
(r
n).
These equations can be immediately integrated, and give
%vr (q r ) qr
.
+ wr (q r ) = c r
1, 2,
n),
are constants of integration; these equations can be further integrated, since the variables r and t are q separable, and we thus obtain
c2
,
where d,
..., c n
^,
where ylt y a ...,yn are new constants of integration.
,
(r-!,
These
2,
...,),
last
equations
constitute the solution of the problem.
important extension of this class of dynamical systems was made by who shewed that all dynamical problems for which the kinetic and potential energies can respectively be put in the forms
Liouville*,
An
T=
K
Wl
V=
^ ^
*
(?,)
+ Ui (q ) + ...+* (qn )} w + + --- + wn (qn )

2
Vl (ft)
^+v
(q2 ) qs*+...
+Vn (qn ) j n*}
can be solved by quadratures.

*
Journal de Math. xiv. (1849),
p. 257.
52
68

For by taking
>Jv
[CH. in
(q r )
dq r
= qr
(r
1, 2,
. ,
w),
where
vi
(ft)>
ft
ft
...,
>
qn
are
new
variables,
;
we can
replace
all
the functions
V2
kinetic
by unity (ft), and potential energies take the form
v n (qn)
we
shall
suppose this done, so that the

2
T=
^(ft +
2
ft
+...+ft> ),
V = - K (ft) + w
where u stands
for
(ft)
+ wn (q n }},
the expression
i
(ft)
u 2 (ft)
...
+un (qn
dv
dql
).

d
for the coordinate q 1 is
ar = _ fdr\ _
3^
dt \9ft /
Multiplying this equation throughout by 2uqlt we have
~
(%>
*g w+ ^+
2
1
q->+
..:
.) =
g
q^
But from the
integral of energy of the system,
we have
V,
%u(q +
...
qn*)
= h-
where h is a constant. The equation be written in the form
for the
coordinate
can therefore
2 ft
{h^
(?j)
- w,
(q,)}
Integrating,
we have
2 û q^ =
AM, (ft)
- Wj
(ft)
7j,
where
a constant of integration. We obtain similar equations for each the ..., n (ft, ft, q ) corresponding constants (7!, j.2 ..., yn ) must satisfy the relation
71 is
of the coordinates
7i
72
+ 7 = 0,
in virtue of the integral of energy of the system.
43]

These equations give
{hu-t
69
(qj
- Wt
(<?i)
71}
dq
[hu 2
(g- 2 )
(q 2 )
*)%}""*
dq2 =
...
=
and
- wn (qn ) + yn {hu n (q n )
~%
]
dq n
this set of equations, which can be immediately integrated since the variables are separated, furnishes the solution of the system.
p. 106,
For further investigations on this subject cf. Hadamard, Bull, des and Burgatti, Rom. Ace. L. Rend. (5) xx. (1911), p. 108.
Sc.
Math. xxxv. (1911),
components (X, Y} of the force acting on a particle of unit mass at the a in plane do not involve the time t, shew that by elimination of t from the y) point differential equations the solution of the problem is made to depend on the differential
1.
If the
(#,
equation of the third order
dx
I
&y
dx*
)
--
2.
system of
only on their coordinates,

as
if
rigid
and their potential energy, which depends in any configuration is translated through any distance in any direction. What integrals of the motion can
free particles is in motion,
is
unaltered
when the system
at once be written
3.
down
In a dynamical system with two degrees of freedom the kinetic energy
is
is
where a, b, c, d are constants. an equation of the form where

4.
Shew
that the value of q 2 in terms of the time
is
given by
h, k,
and
are constants.
The
kinetic potential of a dynamical system is
where
a, b, c
are given constants
shew that
q^ is given in
terms of
by the equation
where
5.
e is
an arbitrary constant and
$>
denotes a Weierstrassian elliptic function.
Prove that in a system with ignorable coordinates the kinetic energy is the sum of a quadratic function T of the velocities of the non-ignored coordinates and a quadratic
function
K of the cyclic momenta.
In the case where there are three coordinates x, y,

investigate the equations of motion of the type
<
and one coordinate
is
ignored
/30\)
oy \dxjl
70
[CH. in
where Fis the potential energy, Jc is the cyclic momentum, and the differential coefficients with respect to x, and $ are calculated from the Jinear equation by which k is expressed in terms of x, i/, 0. (Camb. Math. Tripos, 1904.)
of
</>
6.
The
kinetic potential of a dynamical system with
two degrees of freedom
is
By using the integral of energy, shew that the solution depends on the solution of the problem for which the kinetic potential is
and by using the integral of energy of qi and q 2 is of the form

where
c
this latter system,
shew that the
relation between
and
are constants of integration, and
|P
denotes the Weierstrassian
elliptic-
function.
7.
The
kinetic energy of a dynamical system
is
2
T=
is
2
ri
(qi
2
<72
(<?1
+ ?22
)>
F=-J
Shew (by use
and q2
where
8.
of Liouville s
theorem, or otherwise) that the relation between q l
is
a 2 qi 2 + b 2 q%2 + 2abq l q 2 cos y = sin 2 y,

a, b,
y are constants of
integration.
The
kinetic energy of a particle
whose rectangular coordinates are
(x,
2 2 y) is ^ (x +^ ),
and
its potential
energy
is
where (A, A 5, B C~) are constants and where (r, are the distances of the particle from the points whose coordinates are (c, 0) and (c, 0), where c is a constant. Shew that when the quantities J(V + /) and \(r-rf } are taken as new variables, the system is of Liouville s type, and hence obtain its solution.
,
r")
9.
The observation that
A system,
whose state at any instant

its
of each element, is
instant resume
suggested the problem completely specified by the position and velocity Can it at a subsequent initially without velocity in free space in vacua. initial configuration but with a different orientation in space ?
:
"
a cat always
is
falls
on
its feet
"
the system is not conservative, or if the forces are derived from a potential not one-valued, the reply is affirmative but if the system is conservative with a one-valued potential, the reply is negative.
if
Shew that
is
which
(Of. Painleve,
Comptes Rendus, cxxxix. (1904),
p. 1170.)
CHAPTER
IV
THE SOLUBLE PROBLEMS OF PARTICLE DYNAMICS

44.
The particle with one degree offreedom
the
pendulum.
As examples of the methods described now discuss those cases of the motion of a
by quadratures.
in the foregoing chapters,
we
shall
single particle which can be solved
motion of a particle of mass m, which is free to move in the interior of a given fixed smooth tube of small bore, under the action of forces which depend only on the position of the particle in the
shall consider first the
We
tube.
The tube can
in the
most general case be supposed
to
have the form
of a twisted curve in space.
Let s be the distance of the particle at time t from some fixed point of the tube, measured along the arc of the curve formed by the tube: and let f(s) be the component of the external forces acting on the particle, in the
direction of the tangent to the tube.
The
kinetic energy of the particle
is
and
its
potential energy
is
evidently
-f f(s)d,
where
s
is
a constant.
The equation
rs
2
of energy
is
therefore
|-ms
=
J So
f(s)ds +
c,
where
c is
a constant.
we have
another constant of integration. This equation represents the solution of the problem, since it is an integral relation between s and t,
I
where
is
involving two constants of integration.
72
The Soluble Problems of Particle Dynamics

The two constants
c
[OH. iv
and
initial
time
circumstances of the particle s motion = t from the point s = s with velocity

,
can be physically interpreted in terms of the thus if the particle starts at

;
u,
then on substituting these
values in the equation of energy,
we have
and on substituting the same values
in the final equation connecting s
and
t,
we have
t^.
The most famous problem

in this case the tube
is
of this type is that of the simple pendulum supposed to be in the form of a circle of radius a
;
is vertical, and the only external force acting on the particle is gravity*. Using 9 to denote the angle made with the downward vertical by the radius vector from the centre of the circle to the particle, we have
whose plane
= ad
is
and f(s) =
mg sin
4#
sin 2
so the equation of energy
a$ 2
= 2$r cos
+ constant =
is
\Q +
constant.
Suppose that when the particle

a 2 /9 2 quantity -= has the value
h.
at the lowest point of the circle, the
Then
this last equation can be written
Taking
sin
^9 = y
this
becomes
pendulum-problem there are two distinct types of motion, namely the oscillatory," in which the particle swings to and fro about the lowest point of the circle, arid the circulating," in which the velocity of the
in the
"
Now
"
particle is large
that
it
enough to carry it over the highest point of the circle, so moves round and round the circle, always in the same sense. We
,
shall consider these cases separately.
In the oscillatory type of motion, since the particle comes to rest (i) before attaining the highest point of the circle, y must be zero for some value of y less than unity, and therefore h/2a must be less than unity.
Writing
2ak2
where k
is
new
positive constant less than unity, the equation
becomes
In actual pendulums, the tube
is
centre of the circle, which serves the the circle.
same purpose of constraining the
replaced by a rigid bar connecting the particle to the particle to describe
The isochronism of small oscillations of the pendulum was discovered by Galileo in 1632, and the formula for the period was given by Huygens in 1673. Oscillations of finite amplitude
were
first
studied by Euler in 1736.
44]
73
the solution of this is*
where
is
an arbitrary constant.
This equation represents the solution of the pendulum-problem in the the two arbitrary constants of the solution are t and k, and oscillatory case
:
these
must be determined from the
initial
conditions.
From
the
known
is periodic, its properties of the elliptic function sn, we see that the motion on which occasions two consecutive of time between the interval period (i.e.
the
pendulum
,
}
is
in the
same configuration with the same
velocity) being
.(O^jr 4 K, where
9
K=\
(ii)
(1
)~? (1
- kH y% dt.
z
;
case h
is
in this Next, suppose that the motion is of the circulating type 2 = k will be less A& 2a the if we write than so 2a, quantity greater
,
than unity.
The
now becomes
the solution of which
is
and in
this
and k are the two constants which must be determined in
accordance with the initial conditions.

(iii)
Lastly, let h be equal to 2a, so that the particle just reaches the
circle.
vertex of the
The equation now becomes
the solution of which
is
was remarked by Appellf that an insight into the meaning of the imaginary period which occur in the solution of the pendulum-problem is afforded For we have seen that if the particle is set free with no initial velocity at a point of the circle which is at a vertical height h above the lowest point, the motion is given by
It
of the elliptic functions by the theorem of 34.
where & 2 =
*
Cf.
Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis,
22-11.
t Comptes Rendiis, LXXXVII. (1878).
74
[OH. iv
and therefore by 34, if, with the same initial conditions, gravity were supposed to act upwards, the motion would be given by
|(r-r,),
A.
But the period

(2a
of this motion is the
- A),
gravity acting
downwards
same as if the initial position were at a height and the solution of this is
(r
y = V sn { A/1 The
latter
- TO ), V\
where
=1
- k2
motion has a
real period 4
(\t7
j /
and therefore the function
must have a period so the function sn(w, 4^-j/r, \t//

double periodicity of the
elliptic function sn
is
must have a period
4*/f.
The
thus inferred from dynamical considerations.
Example. A particle of unit mass moves on an epicycloid, traced by a point on the circumference of a circle of radius b which rolls on a fixed circle of radius a. The particle is acted on by a repulsive force pr directed from the centre of the fixed circle, where r is the distance from this centre. Shew that the motion is periodic, its period being
[This result the form
is
most
easily obtained
when the equation
of the epicycloid
is
taken in
being the arc measured from the vertex of the epicycloid.]
45.
Motion in a moving
shall
tube.
We
to
now
discuss
move
in a given
some cases of the motion of a particle which is free smooth tube, when the tube is itself constrained to move
in a given manner.
(i)
Tube rotating uniformly.

is
at
Suppose first that the tube about a fixed axis in space.
We
constrained to rotate with uniform velocity shall suppose that the particle is of unit
mass, as this involves no real loss of generality.
moreover suppose that the field of external force acting on the derivable from a potential- energy function which is symmetrical particle with respect to the fixed axis, and so can be expressed in terms of the cylindrical coordinates z and r, where z is measured parallel to the fixed
shall
is
We
from the fixed axis for a particle perpendicular in the tube, this potential can therefore be expressed in terms of energy the arc s we shall denote it by F(s), and the equation of the tube will be
is
axis
and r
the
distance
written in the form

r
= g(s).
44, 45]

29, the
o>
75
By
velocity
were
2
&>
motion of the particle is the same as zero, and the potential energy were
if
the prescribed angular
to contain
an additional
of energy in
term
^r the form
Hence we can
at once write
down the equation
^
where
c is
2
-ia>
{#(s)}
=
F(>)
c,
a constant.
Integrating again,
t
we have
2
&>
^ [2c +
t
[g (s)}
- 2 V(s)Y^ds + constant,
the problem.
and
this relation
between
and
s represents the solution of
Example 1. If the rotating tube is plane, and the particle can describe it with constant velocity when the fixed axis is vertical and in the plane of the tube, and the field of force is that due to gravity, shew that the tube must be in the form of a parabola
with
its
axis vertical
and vertex downwards.
Example 2. particle moves under gravity in a circular tube of radius a which rotates uniformly about a fixed vertical axis inclined at an angle a to its plane ; if 6 be the angular distance of the particle from the lowest point of the circle, shew that
V
where the function
|jf>
fa cos
2a
is
formed with the roots

aco 2
cos a
>
aw 2 cos a
*
cos a
ty
and
t(]
Off
~3g~>
is
a constant.
(ii)
Tube moving with constant acceleration parallel
to
a fixed
direction.
Consider
now
the motion of a particle in a straight tube, inclined at an
angle a to the horizontal, which is constrained to plane with constant horizontal acceleration/.
move
in its
own
vertical
origin at the initial position of the particle,
Taking the axis of x horizontal and that of y vertically upwards, with the we have for the kinetic energy
r-i(?+A
where
so
= y cot a + ^ft
2
2
,
T=i(ycota+/0 + = -ly cosec a + y cot a .ft + %f*t

2
2 2
2
,
is
r=w.
The equation
of motion
d_ (dT_\ = dt (dy )~
_ dV_
dy
76

d
"T.
[CH. iv
gives therefore
,.
(y cosec-a
+jt
cot a)
=
2
g,
or
y
Integrating,
gfcota) sin
a.
we have, supposing the
particle to be initially at rest,
and therefore
= \V
g cos a +/sin a)
sin
a.
These equations constitute the solution of the problem it will be observed that in this system the kinetic energy involves the time explicitly, so no of exists. integral energy
:
46.
Motion of two interacting free
particles.
shall next consider the motion of two particles, of masses m^ and ra 2 respectively, which are free to move in space under the influence of mutual forces of attraction or repulsion, acting in the line joining the particles and dependent on their distance from each other.
We
The system has six degrees of freedom, since the three rectangular coordi nates of either particle can have any values whatever. We shall take, as the six coordinates defining the position of the system, the coordinates (X, Y, Z} of the centre of gravity of the particles, referred to any fixed axes, and the
coordinates
(x, y, z)
of the particle m.2 referred to

parallel
.to
at the particle
moving axes whose
origin
is
and which are

of
the fixed axes.
The coordinates
1}
referred to the fixed axes, are
Z
and those of
TWj
^ +
TO2
referred to the fixed axes, are
(x
The
/T7
m +m
1
Z+-2V
2
kinetic energy of the system

1
is
therefore
TT
m,
m.2 /
m,
m,J
*\
2
m + mj
l
raj
+ mj
J^L L
771
m^ m
or
T=
The
(wj
+ w ) (X- + Y +
2 2
Z"-)
^+ ^+ ^
,
potential energy of the system depends only on the position of the

//,
particles relative to each other, so can be expressed in terms of (x,

it
z)
let
be V(x,
y, z}.
45-47]

of motion of the system are
77
l =
0,
r=0,
8F
dx
Z = Q, dV
"by
m m. m +m
l i l
..
_ _
m^m^
m-L 4-
..
J
z
m-jn^
..
m +m
l
dV
dz
The
first
a straight line with uniform the motion of m relative to
three of these equations shew that the centre of gravity moves in velocity, and the other three equations shew that
m-^ is the
same as if
luere fixed
and
m
2
were
attracted to m^ with the force derived
from
-lit/]
V*.
Example. If two free particles move in space under any law of mutual attraction, shew that the tangents to their paths meet an arbitrary fixed plane in two points, the line joining which passes through a fixed point. (Mehmke.)
47.
Central forces in general

last article
Hamilton s theorem.
shews that the problem of two interacting free particles is reducible to the problem of the motion of a single free particle acted on by a force directed towards or from a fixed centre. This is known as the problem of central forces. There is clearly no loss of generality if we suppose the mass of the particle to be unity.
If the particle be projected in any way, it will always remain in the plane which passes through the centre of force and the initial direction of projec tion for at no time does any force act to remove it from this plane. We can
:
The
therefore define the position of the particle by polar coordinates (r, 6) in this Let denote the acceleration plane, the centre of force being the origin.
directed to the centre of force.

is
We
shall not
suppose for the present that
necessarily a function of r alone.
The
is
2
T=^(r + r*6
and the work done by the
(o>,
2 ),
force in
an arbitrary infinitesimal displacement
BO)
is
-PSr.
The Lagrangian equations of motion (r -rfc
of the particle are therefore
=- P,
The
latter equation gives
on integration
r2 6
= h,
where h
is
a constant
this is the integral corresponding to the ignorable coordinate 6,
and can be
physically interpreted as the integral of angular
momentum
of the particle
about the centre of
force.
*
Newton, Principia, Book
i.
Sect. 11.
78
To

find the differential equation of the
[OH. iv
generally
path described (which

first
is
called the orbit or trajectory}, the relation
we
eliminate dt from the
equation by using
h d
~dt~~r2
d0
we thus obtain the equation

h d
2
r dd (r d~6)
or,
fh2
dr\
h2
r*
_ ~
"
writing u for
1/r,
dh*
P
h*u2
;
the differential equation of the orbit *, in polar coordinates its integration will introduce two new arbitrary constants in addition to the constant h, and a fourth arbitrary constant will occur in the determination of
is
t
This
by the equation
t
2 T Ir d0
constant.
fi J
equation of the orbit in (r, p) coordinates, (where p denotes the perpendicular from the centre of force on the tangent to the
differential
orbit), is often of
(
The
use
it
is
18),
which (since h
may be obtained directly from now constant) gives at once

h?r
Siacci s
theorem
PY
or
D = - dp P .-f dr
ft
which
is
the differential equation of the orbit.

is
Since h = vp, where v
the velocity in the orbit,

v*
we have from
this equation
=P
p -P,
r
which
may
is
be written in the form

"-iPfr
where q
the chord of curvature of the orbit through the centre of force.
frequently require to know the law of force which must act towards a given point in order that a given curve may be described this is given at once by the equation
;
We
if
the equation of the curve

is
tion
given in
(r,
is given in polar coordinates while if the equa p) coordinates, the force is given by the equation 2 p h dp
;
p dr
*
This
is
Theorie de la
Lune
substantially given in Newton s Principia, Book and in the above form in Whewell s (1765)
;
i.
and
3,
and in Clairaut
Dynamics
(1823).
47]

is
79
If the equation of the curve ceed as follows

:
given in rectangular coordinates, we pro
Take the centre of force as origin, and let f(x, y) = be the equation of the given curve. The equation of angular momentum is
xyyx = h.
Differentiating the equation of the curve,
fx
we have
where
+fy y = 0,
fx
stands for ~ooo
From
these two equations
we obtain
_ ~
Differentiating again,
we have
d_
<M>
.dx
j.
dx
dy
hfy xfx + yfy
(_hfy\ ___ hfx

~+yfy)
_8
f__hfy_
x "dx\xf
xfx + yfy dy \xfx + yfy
Performing the differentiations, this gives
_
But the required
"?
(fy fxx + tfxfyfxy ~ fxfyy)

2
force is P,
where x
Pr
oc
:
_ n?T {jiffxx
^J^Jy
this equation gives the required central force.
The most important

f(x,
2/)
case
of this
result
is
that in which the
curve
is
a conic,
In this case
2/O, y) = ax- + Wixy + by- + 2gx +2fy we find at once that the expression
Jxxjy
+ c = 0.
~ tfxyjxjy +fyyjx
2
2
has, for points
on the
conic, the constant value
- (abc + 2fgh - of - bg* - ch

while the quantity
),
+a x^cx yf_,
9/
dy
has the value
-(gv+fy + c},
and so is a constant multiple of the perpendicular from the point (x, y} on the thus obtain, for the force polar of the origin with respect to the conic.
We
under which a given conic can be described, an elegant expression due to Hamilton*, namely that the force acting on the particle in the position (x, y)
*
Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 1846.
80
[CH. iv
varies directly as the radius from the centre of force to the point (x, y\ and inversely as the cube of the perpendicular from (a;, y} on the polar of the centre
of force.
The two following theorems, the proof of which regarded as the converse of Hamilton s theorem.
is left
to the student,
may
together be
If a particle moves under the action of a force directed to a fixed (i) point, varying directly as the distance from the fixed point and inversely as the cube of the distance from a given straight line, the orbit is always a conic.
(ii)
If a
particle
moves under the action of a
force
directed to the origin,
of
magnitude
where (x, y} are rectangular coordinates and p, a, /3, y are constants, the orbits are conies which touch the lines ax 2 + Zftxy + yy~ = 0.
Darboux (Comptes Rendus, LXXXIV. p. 936) has shewn that these two laws of force are the only laws for which the orbits are always conies, if the force depends only on the Suchar (Nouv. Ann. 1 vi. p. 532) has found other laws of position of the particle.
force,
which involve the components of velocity of the
particle.
Example
1.
If a conic be described
under the force
^ given by Hamilton
theorem,
shew that the periodic time
is
-~ pj?,
<V>
where
is
the perpendicular from the centre of

(Glaisher.)
the conic on the polar of the centre of force.
Example
2.
Shew that
if
the force be
a particle will describe a conic having

2
its
asymptotes parallel to the lines
Ax + 2Hxy + By* = 0,
if
properly projected.
(Glaisher.)
48.
circular
The and
integrable cases of central forces

elliptic functions.
problems soluble in terms of
The most important
case of motion under central forces

r.
is
that in which
the magnitude of the force depends only on the distance force by f(r), the differential equation of the orbit is
<$>.(,
Denoting the
d& +
Integrating,
_f(r) ~
hW
we have
du
where
c is
a constant
integrating this equation again,
we have
~
J
h2
fy*
~r*\
r*
47, 48]
81
and
When r has been this is the equation of the orbit in polar coordinates. found from this equation in terms of 8, the time is given by the integral
t
=T
r2 dO
hj
+ constant.
The problem of motion under central forces is therefore always soluble by quadratures when the force is a function of the distance only. Example. Shew that the differential equations of motion of a point P are always integrable by a simple quadrature when the central force F is of the form
F=
where
is
a function of 6 only, while a and b are arbitrary constants.
(Armellini.)
We shall now discuss the cases in which the quadrature can be effected terms of known functions, the central force being supposed to vary as some positive or negative integral power, say the nth, of the distance.
in
Let us
first find
in terms of circular functions.
those problems for which the integration can be effected The above integral for the determination of
can be written in the form 8
=
;
(a
+ bu* + 0M-?-
1
)"*
where
a, b, c
are constants
~1
.
except when n
1,
when a logarithm
replaces
the term in u~ n
If the profolem is to be soluble in terms of circular func tions, the polynomial under the radical in the integrand must be at most of the
second degree
this gives
-w-l=0,
and consequently
n
I,
or
2,
= -l, -2,
or
-3.
The
case n
=
2
1 is
the case n
quadratic
1 is to
is
when w
let
however excluded by what has already been said, and be added, since in this case the irrationality becomes taken as a new variable.
Next,
us find the cases in which the integration can be effected by the
aid of elliptic functions*. For this it is necessary that the irrationality to be should be of the third or fourth degree -f- in the variable with integrated
respect to which the integration
is
taken.
But
this condition is fulfilled if

;
= 0,
3,
4, or
5,
5, 7,
when u
n =
or
taken as the independent variable when w is taken as the independent variable.

is
2
It follows that the

the
problem of motion under a central force which varies as

is soluble
nth power of the distance
by circular or
4,
elliptic
functions in the
cases
n=
*
o, 3, 1, 0,
2,
- 3, -
- 5, - 7.
These cases were first investigated by Legendre, Theorie des Fonctions Elliptiques (1825) and afterwards by J. F. Stader, Crelle s Journal, XLVI. (1853), p. 262. t Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis, 22-7.
W. D.
82
Example.

Shew
that the problem
:
[CH. iv
is
soluble by elliptic functions
when n has the
following fractional values
=_n 2
_A 2
_i 3
is
_s S)
_T
The general
(1908), p. 313.
case of fractional values of n
discussed by Nobile, Giornale di Mat. XLVI.
The
the distance
cases in which motion under a central force varying as a power of is soluble by means of circular functions are of special interest.
as
They correspond,
n=
shewn above,
to the values
:
1,
2,
3 of n
the case n
2 will be considered in the next article
the cases n
= 1 and
can be treated in the following way.

(i)
tt-1.
is
In this case the attractive force
so the equation of the orbit
becomes
f*Y
I
(
cv
M - \~^ ~ tf dv,
fl
/
where
u?
v,
so
_
or
2 (6
j)
arccos
/
\2
where 7
is
a constant of integration,
=
This
is
referred to its centre.

the centre of force*.
(ii)
the equation of an ellipse (when fi 0) or hyperbola (when The orbits are therefore conies whose centre
>
p<
is
0) at
=-
3.
is
In this case the attractive force
so the equation of the orbit
becomes
Newton found that
if
a body
is
move
in
an ellipse under the action of a force directed to the

:
centre of the ellipse, the force
directly proportional to the distance
Principia,
Book
i.
2,
Prop. x.
48]

we have
83
Integrating,
(u
=A = J.
cos (kd
+ e), where
k2 =
^ h
when
//,
<
h2
2
u
|
cosh (kd
e,
+ e), where
&2
=^
1,
when when
p>h
\u
= A6 +
/A
=h
2
,
where in each case
and

spirals;
These curves are sometimes known as Cotes

reciprocal spiral*.
the last
is
the
In connexion with forces varying as the inverse cube of the distance,

that
if
it
may
be observed
be an orbit described under a central force
P (r)
to the origin, then the orbit
where k
is
any constant, can be described under a central
force P(r)
+T -=, 3
where
c is
the intervals of time between corresponding points, i.e. points for which the radius vector has the same value, in the two orbits being the same.
a constant
:
For,
if
accented letters refer to the second orbit,
we have
If therefore
we choose the new constant of momentum h so that
K = hk
this equation implies that the intervals of
time between corresponding points in the two

-
orbits are the same, since
it
can be written
=
i
),
we have
I* /
which establishes the

orbits.
result.
This
is
sometimes known as Newton s theorem of revolving
types of central motion corresponding to
kThe
lead, as
n=5,
3,
0,
4,
5,
has been shewn, to elliptic integrals
obtain the solution in terms of elliptic functions. take the case of n = 5.

*
on inverting the integrals, we As an example we shall
i.
2,
Prop.
ix.
R. Cotes,
Harmonia Mensurarum,
pp. 31, 98.
62
84
Let
fj,u

6
;
[OH. iv
be the force towards the centre of attraction we shall suppose the particle initially projected with a velocity less than that which would be acquired by a fall from rest at an infinite distance to the point of projection,
so that the total energy
is
negative
call this
quantity
^7.
Then the equation
of energy
together with the equation

2
<y
,
sdr\
it
Introducing in place of r a new variable p defined by the equation

r
= (^ v*
the differential equation becomes
{^
The
-^
roots of the quadratic
are real
when 7 is positive their sum is and the smaller [of them is less Hence if the greater and less of the roots be denoted by e and e3 we have the relations respectively, and if e2 denotes
;
,
than
i.
<?i
+e +
z
>
es
=
,
0,
61
62
>
63
so
p
e is
BI,
where
roots
a constant of integration, and the function
gj
is
formed with the
e z , e$.
Thus we have
Now
is
real
and
positive, and, as
we
(6
e2
see from the equation of energy,

e)
cannot be greater than

has a
finite
V
.
At
/<-.
So
e1
>
is
real
and positive and
lower limit
but when
>
>
es ,
the function
p (#
e) is real
48J
and has a
take
e

finite
85
e is
lower limit for
all
real values of
only
when
real
so e is purely real,
to
be
zero.
and by measuring d from a suitable We have therefore
initial line
we can
and
this is the
equation of the orbit in polar coordinates*.
The time can now be determined from the equation

h.
u,
or
dd
Performing the integration, we have
where
(6) is the Weierstrassian zeta-functionf.

1.
This equation determines
t.
Example
Shew
influence of a central attractive force
that the equation of the orbit of a particle which 5 ^./r can be written in the form
r = asn
(
moves under the
K
v K
or else in the form
a -=
r
> >
snf
=z
4 is the provided A 0, where h is the angular momentum round the origin and 4p,E excess of the total energy over the potential at energy infinity. (Cambridge Math. Tripos, Part I, 1894.)
shew particle is attracted to the origin with constant acceleration p. Example 2. that the radius vector, vectorial angle, and time, are given in terms of a real auxiliary angle u by equations of the type
;
o) 2
- a)
-ô(<D!
a>
+ a)
(Schoute .)
Among the points of special interest on an orbit are the points at which the radius vector, after having increased for some time, begins to decrease or after having decreased for some time, to increase. begins point belonging to the former of these classes is called an apocentre, while points
of the latter class are called pericentres

*
both classes are included under the
The
orbits are discussed
and
classified
by W. D. MacMillan, Amer. Journ. Math. xxx.

20-4.
(1908), p. 282.
t Cf. Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis,
86

At an
a cusp), we have
[CH. iv
general term apse.

(e.g.
apse, if the apse is not a singularity of the orbit
which implies that the tangent to the orbit

vector.
is
perpendicular to the radius
The words aphelion and perihelion are generally used instead of apocentre and pericentre when the centre of force is supposed to be the Sun.
Example.
particle
moves under an attraction r

r2
+ r3
at the centre of force
to a fixed centre
shew that the angle subtended
by two consecutive
apses
is
where h
49.
is
the constant of angular
momentum.
Motion under the Newtonian law*.

case in which motion under a central force varying as an of the distance can be solved in terms of circular functions is
The remaining
integral power This that in which the force varies as the inverse square of the distance. case is of great importance in Celestial Mechanics, since the mutual attractions
of the heavenly bodies vary as the inverse squares of their distances apart, in accordance with the Newtonian law of universal gravitation.
(i)
The
orbits.
magnitude Let the particle be projected from the point whose polar coordinates are with velocity v in a direction making an angle 7 with c so that the (c, a)
;
Consider then the motion of a particle which is acted on by a force directed to a fixed point (which we can take as the origin of coordinates), of from the fixed point. pu?, where u is the reciprocal of the distance
angular
momentum
is
= CV
sin 7.
The
differential equation of the orbit is
dhi
P
equation with
this
is
a linear differential
is
constant coefficients, and
its
integral
v 2 c 2 sin 2
*
,.
7
i.
3,
Props. XL, xn.,
xm.
48, 49]

and
CT
87
where
coordinates, of a conic
are constants of integration. This is the equation, in polar whose focus is at the origin, whose eccentricity is e,
I
and whose semi-latus rectum
is
given by the equation
v 2c2 sin 2
7
;
the constant
CT
determines the position of the apse-line, and
is
called the
perihelion-constant.
The circumstance that the focus

;
of the conic
is
at the centre of force
is
in accord with
Hamilton s theorem for if the centre of force is at the focus of the conic the perpen dicular on the polar of the centre of force is the perpendicular on the directrix, which is proportional to r, as by Hamilton s theorem the force must be proportional to 1/r2
.
To determine the constants we observe that initially
and
1
or in
terms of the
1
initial
data
c, a,
7, v
#=a,
du = -775 dO
cot
c
substituting these values in the equation of the orbit and the equation obtained by differentiating it with respect to 6, we. have
v c sin
2
7=
/ti
/j.e
cos (a
or).
or),
\v
c sin 7 cos 7 = pe sin (a e
Solving these equations for

6
2
and
CT,
we obtain
7
2v
2
_
=
v 4 c 2 sin 2
c sin
~~u?
cot (a
I
CT)
cv
sin
-.
\-
tan
7 cos 7
7.
The semi-major axis, when the conic is an ellipse, is generally mean distance of the particle denoting it by a, we have
;
called the
1-e
and substituting the values of
I
and
already found,
we have
v.c
a/
initial data.
this equation
determines a in terms of the
The time occupied

which
is
in describing the whole circumference of the ellipse,

is
generally called the periodic time,
T x area of
ellipse,
88

is
[CH. iv
since h represents twice the rate at which the area
swept out by the radius

b is the
vector
the periodic time
is
therefore
where
semi-minor
axis.
But we have
h
v c sin
I
fi S
.
7 = V pi
\/
V
Cl
so the periodic time is 2?r
.3
*/ V
It is usual to denote the quantity
n?a~
by n
the periodic time can then be written
is
called the
mean motion, being the mean value
of 8 for a complete period.
It
force at
has been shewn by Bertrand and Koenigs that of all laws of force which give a zero an infinite distance, the Newtonian law is the only one for which all the orbits are
algebraic curves, and also the only one for which all the orbits are closed curves.
Example.
Shew
that
if
inverse square of the distance, the orbit outer focus.

(ii)
a centre of force repels a particle with a force varying as the is a branch of a hyperbola, described about its
The
velocity.
Consider
now
the case in which the orbit
is
an
ellipse
the equation
establishes a connexion
between the mean distance a and the velocity
and
radius vector c at the initial point of the path. Since any point of the orbit can be taken as initial point, we can write this equation
2
r
is r.
where
v is the velocity of
if
the particle at the point whose radius vector

a hyperbola, whose semi-major axis
is a,
Similarly
the orbit
is
we
find
and
if
the orbit
is
a parabola, the relation becomes
It is clear
from this that the orbit

2
is
an
ellipse,
parabola, or hyperbola,
is
according as v
less
= 2a
,
i.e.
according as the initial velocity of the particle
than, equal to, or greater than, the velocity which the particle would acquire in falling from a position of rest at an infinite distance from the
centre of force to the initial position.
49]

be shewn that the
to the
89
It can further
velocity at
any point can
be resolved into
a component j perpendicular
dicular to the axis of the conic
radius vector and a component ^r perpen
each of these components being constant.
For
if
S be
the centre of force,
the intersection of the normal at
the perpendicular
P the position of the moving particle, P to the conic with the major axis, GL on SP from G, and SY the perpendicular on the tangent at
SPG
are respectively sides of the triangle of the velocity in the perpendicular to the velocity and to the components
S, it is
from
known that the
two specified directions; and therefore we have
Component perpendicular
to the radius vector
SP = h.SP = h = v p~ ~y p~ ^j
.
=
and Component perpendicular
to the axis
h
l
_fji =
= -~p
_ =
Bfl
Sfit
x Component perpendicular
to the radius vector
which establishes the result stated.

Example 1. Shew that in elliptic motion under Newton s law, the projections, on the external bisector of two radii, of the velocities corresponding to these radii, are equal. Shew also that the sum of the projections on the inner bisector is equal to the projection of a line constant in magnitude and direction.
(Cailler.)
Example
where
the
2.
Shew
that in elliptic motion under
Newton s
law, the quantity
Tdt,
mean
denotes the kinetic energy, integrated over a complete period, depends only on distance and not on the eccentricity. (Grinwis.)
3.
Example
constant p
is
At a
certain point in an elliptic orbit described under a force
/i/r
the
suddenly changed by a small amount. If the eccentricities of the former and new orbits are equal, shew that the point is an extremity of the minor axis.
(iii)
The anomalies in
elliptic motion.
If a particle is describing an ellipse under a centre of force in the focus S, the vectorial angle of the point P at which the particle is situated on the ellipse, measured from the apse A which is nearer to the focus, is called
ASP
the true anomaly of the particle and will be denoted by Q\ the eccentric to the is called the eccentric anomaly of the angle corresponding point
and the quantity nt, where n is the particle, and will be denoted by u mean motion and t is the time of describing the arc AP, is called the mean anomaly of the particle. We shall now find the connexion between the three
:
anomalies.
90
The

relation between
[CH. iv
and u
is
found thus
We
have
-
e cos 6,
an d
=a
ex,
where x
is
the rectangular coordinate of
referred
to the centre of the ellipse as origin,
or
r= a(l-ecosu).
Hence
(1
-ecosu)
(1
e cos 6)
= 1 -e\
an equation which can also be written in the forms
/l-e\4
and
sin-*. +
1
e cos
The
relation between
u and nt can be obtained
in the following
way
We
have
ft
rea
circle
^^ where Q
is
the P oint on tne auxiliary
corresponding to the point

is
on the
ellipse
= I\J\A/
[Area ACQ - Area SGQ}, where C

ellipse
the centre of the
80
w wa 2 f-jr (2 nt= u e sin

This
is
a2
a 2e
x-
2
w.
sm wV
j
known
as Kepler s equation.
A
many
iiomogram
Congres,
Keims
for the solution of this equation is described The solution (1907), p. 83.
by
writers, an important recent memoir del Lincei, Rendiconti, (5) xin. (1904), p. 260.
by H. Chretien, Assoc. Franf. analytical expansion has been discussed by being that by Levi-Civita, Atti delta R. Ace.
Lastly, the relation between
and nt can be found

nt
as follows
We
have
its
= u-e sin u.
0, this
Replacing u by
nt
value in terms of
.
becomes
arcsm
- e^ sin (1 1 + e cos
;
0}
j
e(l- e^ sin
1
+ e cos
time in terms of the
which
is
the required relation
this equation gives the
vectorial angle of the
moving
particle.
solution of the problem of calculating the
based on a geometrical deduction, was found
among
True Anomaly from the Mean Anomaly, the unpublished papers of Newton.
49]
Example

1.
91
Shew
that
*
7"
r=l T
where the symbols
denote Bessel coefficients*.
For we have
1
du
dt
\e cos u
<
d(nt}
1
- e cos u
,
2
,.
=1
TT
cos rnt f 27r cos rnt

I
d (nt)
-
jo
. .
ecosu
Y,
-,
by Fourier s theorem t
.,
2jr
cosrnt .j du 2 + ~
r=i
TT
[2*
<S7r_/o
jo
.
cos r (w - e sin u)}
aw
= 1 + 22 Jr (re) cos r?z^ J

r=l
Integrating,
we have the required
result.
Example
2.
Shew
that
2 ê sin 2n
+ ....
Example
3.
In hyperbolic motion under the Newtonian law, shew that
and
in parabolic motion,
shew that
where p
is
the distance from the focus to the vertex.

4.
Example
In elliptic motion under
Newton
s law,
shew that the sum of the four
times (counted from perihelion) to the intersections of a circle with the ellipse is the same for all concentric circles, and remains constant when the centre of the circle moves parallel
to the
major
axis.
(Oekinghaus.)
(iv)
Lambert s theorem.
in
Lambert
1731 shewed that in
elliptic
motion under the Newtonian
law, the time occupied in describing any arc depends only on the major axis, the sum of the distances from the centre of force to the initial and final
points,
three
and the length of the chord joining these points so that if these elements are given, the time is determinate, whatever be the form
:
of the ellipse
*
The name
of Bessel is
commonly connected with
this expansion
but
it is
really
due to
Lagrange, Oeuvres, in. p. 130. t Of. Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis, Chapter Ibid. Chapter xvn.
ix.
analytically
Lambert s original demonstration was geometrical and synthetic the theorem was proved and generalised by Lagrange in 1778 (Oeuvres de Lagrange, iv. p. 559).
:
92

Let u and
iif
;
[CH. iv
be the eccentric anomalies of the points then we have n x the required time = u e sin u e sin u) (u
(u
u)
Ze
sm
u
2
u
cos
u +u
.
"2
Now
we have
if c
be the length of the chord, and r and r be the radii vectores,
+r =
c
2
e cos
e cos
2e cos
u+ u -
u
cos
-u
,
and
a 2 (cos u
cos u) 2
+
2
b 2 (sin
2
% -
sin u} 2
4a2 sin 2
i = 2 sin U a
;=
(1
e cos
2
2
so
^ 2V
.
(l
-e
cos 2
^-Y. 2 J
_
Hence we have
r
. c +r + +c =2
-a
2 cos
(u fw
j
-u -w,
/ f
(
u
e cos
H arccos
+
u
and
+ r -c = 2
r
2 cos
u -u ---2
h arccos
V
e cos
- + u \] U2
yj
and therefore*
2 arcsin 5
o 2
.
2\
\
+ r + c\ = u - u
a
J
1-
arccos
V
e cos
v-,^ and
arcsm 51(r Z
\
+r
fl
c\% = I
/
/3
+ arccos ^~ 2
(
\
[e cos
u+u\ 2
J
Thus
if
quantities a and
are denned
by the equations
.
sm
.a =
lfr
+ r +c\$
/r
+r -
the last equations give

a
O=u p
0.
u,
and cos
+ -
= e cos
Thus
finally
we have
n x the required time
=a=
(a
j3
-2
cos
=-- sin -~
2
sin
- sin
a)
(/3
/3).
This
is
Lambert s theorem.
1.
Example
Examine the
limiting case
when the minor axis
of the ellipse vanishes, so
that the orbit

* It will
is rectilinear.
from ambiguity
be noticed that owing to the presence of the radicals, Lambert s theorem is not free of sign. The reader will be able to determine without difficulty the interpretation
of sign corresponding to
any given position of the
initial
and
final points.
49, 50]

2.
93
Example
If
To obtain
the
form of Lambert s theorem applicable
to
parabolic motion.
/3
we suppose the mean distance a to become large, the angles a and small, so Lambert s theorem can be written in the approximate form a3 - 83 Required
tirne
become very
=
and this
is
6M * the required form*.
{(?
+ + c) *
?
-(?
+ - c) *
?
},
Example 3. Establish Lambert s theorem for parabolic motion directly from the formulae
of parabolic motion.
50.
The mutual transformation of
fields of central force
and
fields of
parallel force.
If in the general problem of central forces we suppose the centre of force to be at a very great distance from the part of the field considered, the lines of action of the force in different positions of the particle will be almost parallel to each other; and on passing to the limiting case in which the
is regarded as being at an infinite distance, we arrive at the of the motion of a problem particle under the influence of a force which is to a fixed direction. always parallel given
centre of force
this problem, take rectangular axes Ox, Oy in the plane of the motion, Ox being parallel to the direction of the force and let (x) be the magnitude of the force, which will be to be
For the discussion of
supposed
independent
of the coordinate y.
The equations
,
of motion are
= X(x\
0,
and the motion
is
therefore represented by the equations
x)
dx
c }~4
dx
I,
where
a,
b,
c,
are the constants of integration;

i.e.
the values of these are
determined by the circumstances of projection,

x, y, x, y.
by the
initial
values of
of the
While the problem of motion in a parallel field of force is a limiting case problem of motion under central forces, it is not difficult to reduce the latter more general problem to the former more one.
special
For
*
if
a particle
is
in
motion under a force of magnitude
directed to
(1743), before
This result was given by Euler in his Determinate Orbitae Cometae Anni 1742 Lambert published the general theorem.
94

we may take
[CH. iv
a fixed centre (which of motion are
as origin of coordinates), the equations
y -
The angular momentum

:
stant) is xy yx defined by the homographic transformation
of the particle round the origin (which is con let this be denoted by A. Introduce new coordinates X, Y,
X-?,
y
F-i,
y
and
let
be a new variable defined by the equation
Then we have
W/Â.
*-/?
-_
T
I
|
**s
\
1
VUV
d2
dt\y)
f ,
dT
Tî
I /
U/
U*JU
\
I
7
f>
\y
7^
tx
f)
y
2
^.2 y
dF_^/l\ ** ^^ jx rfT
tx
dt^_ _y_
~
_
^
/-"*
C}/-\
feU
1/Tfc
||
Vi
3/T
_ V J/-7/ V
-^
-*
if
T were
These equations shew that a particle whose coordinates are (X, Y) would, interpreted as the time, move as if acted on by a force parallel to
the axis of
and of magnitude
P*
^.
As the
solution of this transformed
problem
will yield the solution of the original
problem,
is
it
follows that the
general problem of motion under central forces motion in a parallel field of force.
reducible to the problem of
Example 1.
alone
is
Shew
Shew
a parabola with
2.
that the path of a free particle moving under the influence of gravity its axis vertical and vertex upwards. that the magnitude of the force parallel to the axis of is a constant multiple of
Example
x under which
the curve /(a?, y) =
can be described
/a/\
-3
r
_ ay /a/y
dx* \dy)
"
\dxj
y v _ ay /8/yi j / dx
2
84%
ty
dy*
\dx}
If a parallel field of force is such that the path described by a free particle is a conic whatever be the initial conditions, shew that the force varies as the inverse cube
Example 3.
of the distance from
some
line perpendicular to the direction of the force.
51.
Bonnet s theorem.
We
cases
attracted
now proceed to discuss the motion of a particle which is simultaneously by more than one centre of force. An indefinite number of particular of motion of this kind can be obtained by means of a theorem due to
:
Bonnet*, which may be stated thus

*
Liouville
Journal,
ix. (1844), p.
113 and Note

p. 353).
iv.
of
t.
n. of the last edition of Lagrange
Mec. Anal. (Oeuvres de Lagrange, xn.
50-52]

orbit
95
If a given
can be described in each of n given fields of force, taken
separately, the velocities at any point of the orbit being v 1} v2 ..., vn respectively, then the same orbit can be described in the field of force which is obtained by superposing all these fields, the velocity at the point being
, ,
Or + v +
2 2
n )4
For suppose that in the field of force which is obtained by superposing the original fields, an additional normal force R is required in order to make the particle move on the curve in question and let it be projected from
;
a point
so that the square of its velocity at
is
equal to the
sum
of the
in the original fields of force. Then on adding squares of its velocities at the equations of energy corresponding to the original motions, and comparing with the equation of energy for the motion in question, we see that the
kinetic energy of the motion in question is the sum of the kinetic energies of the original motions, i.e. that the velocity at any point is
Hence, resolving along the normal to the

.
orbit,
we have
.
where
m is
1
,
and
F?,
the mass of the particle, p the radius of curvature of the orbit, ..., n are the normal components of the original fields of force
at P.
P
;
P
field
and therefore
of force which
R
is
is
zero the given orbit is therefore a free path in the obtained by superposing the original fields.
that
Example.
Shew
an
ellipse
can be described if forces
respectively act in the directions of the foci.
This result follows at once from Bonnet

forces are equivalent to forces
theorem when
it is
observed that the given
and
~ acting
in the directions of the foci, together with
a force
-^x distance
acting in the direction of the centre of the ellipse.
52. Determination of the most general field of force under which a given curve or family of curves can be described.
Let
(/>
(x,
y)
c
c,
be the equation of a curve
on varying the constant
this equation will
shall now find an expression for the represent a family of curves. most general field of force (the force being supposed to depend only on the
We
96

which
it
[CH. iv
on position of the particle
acts) for
which
this family of curves is
a family of orbits of a particle.
Let
force per unit
v denote the velocity of the particle, and (X, mass parallel to the coordinate axes.
1 dv^
v^
Y} the components of The tangential and
normal components of acceleration being ^
-yCtS
and
O respectively,
we have
Substituting for
its value,
namely
we have
4>y*<l>xx
~
v-
Writing
= - u ($x +
*
</),
and replacing j- by
2
((}>
+
X
(/y)~
^
<f>
x
(
<j>
^}
this equation
becomes
X=U
Now
~
^>yy
<j>y
(4>
<f)
X y)
+\$y jg
(<j>X
</>/)
u is arbitrary, since it orbits are described; and as

the particle,
therefore
depends on the velocity with which the given and F are to be functions of the position, of we can take u to be an arbitrary function of x and y we have
X = U (QxQw ~
and similarly
where u
4>y$xy)
~
^(f>y
(<f>xUy
U>
^y^x),
x U y ),
Y=
U
(4>y<j>xx
<t>x<l>xy)
+ %$x
(<&/
<t>
These expressions for the field is an arbitrary function of x and y. of force under which the curves of the given family are orbits were first given by Dainelli*.
Example
PI,
...
Shew that a particle can describe a given curve uy\der any arbitrary forces 1. directed to given fixed points, provided these forces satisfy the relations
k
Pk
97\ as \
2
rk
vohere r k is the radius
and pk
points,
and where
is the
the perpendicular on the tangent, from the kth of the given fixed radius of curvature of the given curve.
For the tangential and normal components of force on the particle are
T=-?Pk ~
k
*
els
fc
and
N= SP &, r k
k
k
Giornale di Mat.
xvm.
(1880), p. 271.
52, 53]
so
97
from the equation
we have
can describe a given curve under the single action of any one Shew that the condition to acting in given (variable) directions. be satisfied in order that the same curve may be described under the joint action of forces respectively, is 2 ..., acting in the directions of $1, $ 2 F\,
Example
2.
A particle
2
,
of the forces
<i,
...,
>
u ^]-0
j,
>
where
ck is
the chord of curvature of the curve in the direction of

3.
;
$t
(Curtis.)
Example
function
is
V shew
point moves that an equipotential curve
in a field of force in
is
two dimensions of which the work
a possible path, provided
V satisfy
the
equation
r
53.
wn
The problem of two centres of gravitation. of motion of a particle moving in a plane under arbitrary The most forces cannot be integrated by quadratures in the general case. famous of the known soluble problems of this class, other than problems of
The equations
central motion, is the problem of two centres of gravitation, i.e. the problem of determining the motion of a free particle in a plane, attracted by two fixed Newtonian centres of force in the plane its integrability was discovered by
;
Euler*.
Let 2c denote the distance between the two centres of force
and take
the point midway between them as origin, and the line joining them as axis of x, so that their coordinates can be taken to be (c, 0) and ( The c, 0). of the is taken to be therefore mass is potential energy particle (whose unity)
F- - p (0 - cY +
where
yu,
2/
}~*
ft
{(x
+ cr + f\
~*
and
p,
are constants depending on the strength of the centres of
attraction.
Now
theorem
any
it
ellipse or
hyperbola with the two centres of force as
foci is
a
s
possible orbit
is
when
either centre of force acts alone,
and therefore by Bonnet
centres of force are acting. It is therefore natural, in the of to the particle, position replace the defining rectangular coordinates (x, y) by elliptic coordinates (, ?;), defined by the
a possible orbit
when both
equations
*
x=
cosh
cos
?;,
sinh
sin
77.
Euler, Mem. de Berlin, 1760, p. 228; Nov. Cornm. Pctrop. x. (1764), p. 207; p. 152 Lagrange, M4m. de Turin, iv. (1706-9), pp. 118, 215, or Oeuvres, n. p. 67.
:
xi.
(1765),
w. D.
98

The equations
[CH. iv
= Constant and
foci
ellipses
and hyperbolas whose
then represent respectively are at the centres of force; and these are
77
= Constant
a particular family of orbits.
The
potential energy,
when expressed
cos
77)
in terms of
and
77,
becomes
(cosh
(cosh f
cos
77)
and the kinetic energy
T is
This problem is evidently of Liouville s type ( 43), and can therefore be integrated by the method applicable to this class of questions. The
Lagrangian equation
J
c
2 2
for the coordinate
is
-jCut
{(cosh
2 f cos 77)
-c
cosh
sinh
i}
=)
2
^ T T-
~
(jc
(
or
c
2
-j- {(cosh
- cos
2
}
r;)
2c 2 cosh
sinh
(cosh f
- cos
77)
2
r)
or,
using the equation of energy

c
2
2
T + V = h,
^- {(cosh
-cos 2 77)2
2
2
}
= - 2 (cosh =2 =
"2
- cos
77)
- +
- cos
77)
2
2 (A
- F)
^ (cosh
>
cos 2
17)
Og
^
^
Og
(A
- F)
(cosh
77)}
j
(_
A (cosh 2 1
2
cos 2
+C
(cosh
00377)
+
C
(cosh
cos
77) [
= 2-j-(h cosh
Integrating,
c
2
cosh
j
we have
2
(cosh
- cos
77)
A cosh 2
tt
"
+ u! -
cosh f
7,
where 7
is
a constant of integration.
Subtracting this from the equation of energy, which can be written

|-
(cosh
- cos
=
77)
(I
+ f)
cos 2
77)
h (cosh 2 f
(cosh
+ cos 77) +
(cosh
cos
77),
53, 54]
99
we have
Eliminating
_
p2
2
(cosh
cfa
cos 2
2 77 ) ?7
A cos 2
between these equations, we have

it
+
c
/U/
Aicosh-ff-1-
cosh
,,.
__
T;
--c
cos
77
+ 7.
h cos 2
77
-fJU
U,
cos
77
+7
Introducing an auxiliary variable
u,
we have
therefore
\
I
h cosh 2
---- cosh
c
/i
c,
~^
7
w=N
./
f(
A,
(
~
c
cos 2 ?;
At
cos
77
>
dtj.
These are
elliptic integrals,
and we can therefore express
and
77
as elliptic
functions of the parameter u, say
= % (M
(>
),
17
=
<t>
O)elliptic coordinates
These equations determine the orbit of the particle, the 7 ?) being expressed in terms of the parameter u*.
54.
Motion on a surface
shall
f.
is free
next proceed to consider the motion of a particle which to move on a smooth surface, and is acted on by any forces.
We
Let (X, Y, Z) be the components, parallel to fixed rectangular axes, of the external force on the particle, not including the pressure of the surface let (x, y, z) be the coordinates and v the velocity of the particle, s the arc and
:
p the radius of curvature of its path, ^ the angle between the principal normal to the path and the normal to the surface, and (X, p, v) the directioncosines of the line
which
lies in
t
perpendicular to the path at time
the tangent-plane to the surface and is the mass of the particle is taken as unity.
acceleration of the particle consists of components vdv/ds along the 2 tangent to the path and v /p along the principal normal the latter component 2 can be resolved into (v /p)sin^ along the line whose direction-cosines are
;
The
(X,
p.,
v)
and
(v /p) cos
^ along the normal

dv r ds
to the surface.
We
have therefore
the equations of motion
dx dz dy Xr + Y ds f- + z ds ds
, ,
.................. (A),
YfM
*
+ Zv ........................... (B),
generalisations of the problem of two fixed centres will be found in a paper by Amer. Journ. Math, xxxni. (1911), p. 337. t The earliest investigation of motion on a surface was Galileo s study of the motion of a heavy particle on an inclined plane (Discourses, Third Dialogue, 1638). The motion of a heavy particle moving in a horizontal circle on a sphere was examined by Huygens (Horolog. oscill.,
Hiltebeitel,
Some
1673).
72
100
and
[CH. iv
these, together with the equation of the surface, are sufficient to determine the motion for the equation of the surface may be regarded as giving z in
;
terms of x and
y,
and by using
this value for z
we can
express
all
the
:
quantities occurring in equations (A)
and (B)
equations (A) and (B) thus become a system fourth order for the determination of x and y
in terms of x, y, x, y, x, y of differential equations of the

t.
in terms of
If the forces are conservative, the expression
- Xdx - Ydy - Zdz

will be the differential of a potential-energy function V(x, y, z); equation (A) can therefore be integrated, and gives on integration the equation of energy
$iP
V(ae
y, z}
c,
where
in (B),
c is
a constant.
2 Substituting the value of v given by this equation
we have
This
is
differential equation of the second order between differential equation of the orbits on the surface.
(on eliminating z by means of the equation to the surface) a x and y, and is in fact the
The differential equations of motion on a surface are not integrable by quadratures in the general case there are however two cases in which the problem can be formulated in such a way as to utilise results obtained in
:
other connexions.
(i)
Motion under no forces.

i
When
the orbit
no external forces act on the particle, equation (B) gives ^ = 0, so * the is a geodesic on the surface integral of energy shews that this
;
geodesic
is
described with constant velocity.
Example.
of striction
is the
particle moves under no forces on the fixed smooth ruled surface whose line axis of z, the direction-cosines of the generator at the point z being
.
sin a cos
sin a sin
cos
a,
respectively.
To determine
the motion.
Let v denote the distance of the point on the surface whose coordinates are (x, y, z) from the line of striction, measured along the generator, arid let (0, 0, f) be the coordinates of the point in which this generator meets the line of striction. Then we have
x= v sin a cos
This theorem
is
y = vsinasin
to Euler,
= +v cos a.
due
Mechanica
(1736), n. cap. 4.
54]
The

kinetic energy of the particle is
101
We can take v and f as the two coordinates which define the position of the particle evident that the coordinate is ignorable, and the corresponding integral is
dT =
r
it is
k,
where k
is
a constant,
+ v cos a=k.
The
integral of energy
is
T=/i, Eliminating f between these two integrals, we have

v 2 (v 2 +
where h
is
a constant.
m = 2hv + (2h - F) m
2 2
)
cosec 2 a.
If v is initially sufficiently large
shall
compared with suppose this to be the case, and shall write

(2h
2
)
f,
the quantity (2A
F)
a
is
positive
cosec 2 a = 2AX 2
where X
is
new constant
the equation thus becomes
The
defined
integration of this equation can be effected by the equation
by introducing a
real auxiliary variable M,
Writing v = \m.v~^, this becomes
and this
is
equivalent to the equation

*-f>()-ij
where the roots
ex
32
e 3 of
the function
e2 = X 2
,
|p (M)
are real and are defined by the equations

,
ex
es
= m2
is
e1
e.,
+ e3 = 0.
The connexion between the variables

v
and u
therefore expressed by the equation

l
= \m{^>(u)-e
}~^.
t,
Substituting this value of v in the equation which connects v and
we have
=
Cf.
e%u
f (M +
!)
+ Constant.
20-33.
102

t
[CH. iv
and thus
in
This equation expresses the time conjunction with the equation

gives the connexion between v
(ii)
in
terms of the auxiliary variable
u,
and
t.
Motion on a developable surface.
If the surface on
which the particle moves
is
developable,
we can
utilise
the
known theorems
that the arc s and the quantity -
are unaltered
by
developing the surface on a plane: these results, applied to the equations of motion given above, shew that if in the motion of a particle on a developable surface under any forces the surface is developed on a plane, the particle will
describe the plane curve thus derived from its orbit with the same velocity as before, provided the force acting in the plane-motion is the same in amount
direction relative to the curve as the component of force in the tangentplane to the surface in the surface- motion.
and
Example
whose axis
is
1.
vertical
Prove that
the
path
is projected along the surface of a right circular cone, vertex upwards, icith the velocity due to the depth below the vertex. traced out on the cone, when developed into a plane, icill be of the form
smooth particle
and
r% sin | 6 = a*.
(Coll.
Exam. )
For on developing the cone, the problem becomes the same as that of motion in a plane under a constant repulsive force from the origin, and with the velocity compatible with We therefore have the integrals rest at the origin.
r*
+ r2 2 = Cr, r 2 = h,
Cr3
where
C is
is
a constant,
where h
a constant.

1
dr\*
= -g
so
if
say,
where a
is
a new constant,
u = -, we have
r
du\ 2
and therefore
a3 w3
*-(* 0=1
J
(l-a (l
V2 )2
where v = u-a?,
=
which
is
sin
.
~1
v,
3
equivalent to the equation
r * sin
%6 = a?.
Example 2. If in the motion of a point P on a developable surface the tangent IP to the edge of regression describes areas proportional to the times, shew that the component
of force perpendicular to
IP and
in the tangent-plane is proportional to
where p
is
the radius of curvature of the edge of regression.
(Hazzidakis.)
54, 55]
55.

Motion on a surface of revolution
functions *.
case of surface-motion which
is
;
103
cases soluble in terms of circular
and
elliptic
The most important

tures
is
soluble
by quadra
the motion of a particle on a smooth surface of revolution, under forces derivable from a potential-energy function which is symmetrical with respect to the axis of revolution of the surface.
Let the position of a point in space be denned by cylindrical coordinates where z is a coordinate measured parallel to the axis of the surface, (z, r, is the r is the perpendicular distance of the point from this axis, and
<),
<f>
azimuthal angle made by r with a fixed plane through the axis. z and r, say equation of the surface will be a relation between
The
r -/(*),
and the potential energy will be a function of z and r (it cannot involve since it is symmetrical with respect to the axis), which for points on the surface can, on replacing r by its value f(z\ be expressed as a function of z can be taken as unity. only, say V(z); the mass of the particle
<f>,
The
kinetic energy
is.
by
18,
The coordinate
<f>
is
evidently ignorable; the corresponding integral
is
=
or
this equation
k.
where k
is
a constant,
can be interpreted as the integral of angular the axis of the surface.
momentum
about
The equation
and substituting
of energy is
T + V = h,
where A
is
a constant,
for
(j>
in this equation from the preceding,
we have
integrating this equation,
we have
i
Constant.
The
of r
relation
</>
between
and z
is
thus given by a quadrature
the values
and
are then obtained from the equation of the surface and the
equation
(/(*)}*-*,
respectively.
h
The motion
i.
of a particle on a surface of revolution
was investigated by Newton, Principia,
Jook
Section 10.
104

shall
[OH. iv
We
now
discuss the motion on those surfaces for which this
quad
is
rature can be effected by means of known functions, surface is vertical (z being measured positively
when the
axis of the
upwards) and gravity
the
only external force, so that
(i)
The circular cylinder.

the
surface
is
When
becomes
the circular cylinder r
= a,
the
above integral
=
is
and
if
the origin of coordinates

* ==
so chosen that 2ha-
= k we
2
,
have
or
^g(t
to
y>,
where
is
a constant.
The equation
then gives
<o
</>
(t
t ),
where
<
is
a constant.
The sphere. The case in which the surface

(ii)
is
the sphere
problem of the spherical pendulum*, and can be realised by a supposing heavy particle attached to a fixed point by a light rigid wire of capable moving freely about the point.
is
called the
In this case the quadrature
for
becomes
~ 2
or
t=l
The
integral
integral,
which we
.
on the right-hand side of this equation is an elliptic shall now reduce to Weierstrass canonical form. Denote
by
*i,
#2 Z3 the roots of the cubic
since the expression
2
*
(/i
- gz) (I* - z*)-k*

:
Lagrange, Mecavique Analytiqve. The complete solution in terms of (Jacobian) elliptic functions was obtained by A. Tissot, Liouville s Journal, (1) xvn. (1852), p. 88 Jacobi s own solution of the problem of a rotating rigid body in terms of elliptic functions had been published The analysis connected with the spherical pendulum is essentially that for previously, in 1839.
Lame
equation of order
2.
55]
is
105
I of z, and negative for the values I and positive for very large positive values of z and also for the values of z which occur in the problem considered
I and + 1, since the (which must necessarily lie between particle is on the we see that one of the roots (say z^ is greater than I and the other sphere) two (say z2 and z3 where z2 zs ) are between I and I. The values of z in
,
>
the actual motion will
lie
between
and z3 since
,
for
them the cubic must
be positive.
Write
=
6g
where t
is
new
g
"
variable,
->d
*-4 + f
,
-1.2.3)
so that e 1} e2
e s are
new
6j
constants, which satisfy the relation

e.>
4-
+e =
s
<
--
and
also satisfy the inequalities e l
>
e?
>
es
The
relation
between
and z now becomes
or
where
roots
e is e2
,
a constant of integration and the function

e3
.
is
g>
formed with the
e-i,
Now when e lt e2 e3 are real and in descending order of magnitude, $(u) and @ (u) are both real when u is real, in which case $(u) is greater than e lt and also when u is of the form + a real quantity, where 3 is
,
&>..,
&>
the half-period corresponding to the root es in this latter case, lies between e2 and e 3 Since in the actual motion z lies between 2 and z3 it follows that f lies between 2 and e3 and therefore the constant e must con
;
#>(t)
<?
of an imaginary part 3 and a real part depending on the instant from which time is measured by a suitable choice of the origin of time, we can take this real part of e to be zero, and we then have
sist
&>
W
?<
*=^+7
<j>.
+<**
This equation gives the connexion between z and t. determine the azimuth For this we have the equation
-,
.
"
We
have now to
7,
Icclt
dt
where
</>
is
106 To
t 4&>

effect the integration,
[CH. iv
we take X and
are
new
I corresponding to the values I and constants defined by the equations
to be the (imaginary) values of of z respectively so that X and /*

/*
;
these equations give
The
integral
.
now becomes
[ 4J* J
_
-l
,
~k
.
21*
>
(x)
W=
>
dt
{$>
(t
+w 3)
___
(t
(X)}
{>
+ 0,3) - 9 00}
dt
~ kg
dt
a(j
$\t
-\
(X) dt
%>
00 dt
But* we have
(X)
and therefore
- t(\)\t
a
this equation expresses the angle
</>
(t
o) 3
/JL)
a- (t
t,
o>
X)
so completes the
as a function of
and
solution of the problem.
We
see that
when
increases
by
2a>
1(
fa increases
by
2^ (X -/*).
Example. When the bob of the spherical pendulum is executing periodic oscillations between two parallels on the sphere, shew that one of the points reached on the higher parallel, and the point on the lower parallel at which the bob arrives after a half-period, have a difference of azimuth which always lies between one and two right angles. (Puiseux and Halphen.)
The problem
periodic solutions
(iii)
of the spherical pendulum has been discussed from the standpoint of by F. R. Moulton, Palermo Rend. xxxn. (1911), p. .338.
The paraboloid.
is
Consider next the problem of motion on the paraboloid, whose equation

r
=
t
2a?
z%.
In this case the quadrature

r
for
i
becomes
A*
2
~
\
t= (a+z)* (2hz-2gz*-^-\
* Cf.
dz.
% 20-53, Ex. 2.
55]

To obtain the
107
introduce an auxiliary quantity

v
solution of the problem in terms of elliptic functions, v, defined by the equation
we
= ( \a + z) ~a
(2hz
2gz*
- ^-}
dz.
If a and
(where a
^ ft) denote
2hz
the roots of the quadratic

2gz*
~= -k
4a
0,
we can write
this integral in the
form
v=
Define a
(~f)
/*{4(*+)(*
by the equation
new
variable
and
let e lf e 2 , e 3
respectively of z
be the values of corresponding to the values of -a, then the integrals become
;
ft,
and
it is
easily proved that the quantities ely e2

e1
e 3 satisfy
>
the relations
+e +
2
es
0,
el
>
e.2
e3
The auxiliary quantity v can defined by the equation

V
now be replaced by an
j
auxiliary quantity u,
-2
)*
}
u,
{ff (<*+*))
and then the inversion of the integral gives
= p (w +
where
e
is
,
e),
roots e 1} e2
a constant of integration and the function e 3 which are given by the equations
,
is
g>
formed with the
2a
+ a + ft 3~(a + o)
_ -ajf_a -2ft 3(a + a)

,
-a-2a + ft
3 (a
+ a)
motion z evidently lies between a. and ft, it follows that lies between es and e2 and therefore (as we wish u to be real) the e) imaginary part of the constant e must be the half-period 3 the real part can be taken to be zero, since it depends merely on the lower limit of the
&>
As p (u +
in the actual
integral
for u.
We
have therefore
-~ a-, 6
9
since
+ ft = 9
108

to determine
t is
[CH. TV
The equation
t
I
(a
+ z)
dv
and
this equation gives
in terms of the auxiliary variable u.
Lastly, \ve have to determine the

,
azimuth
(j)
for this
we have
kdt
kdt
2
la (a
/
v + o)J
a
fr
a,,)
-e
4a
-a+a+
du,
and therefore
4a
3 (a
a)
where
</>
is
a constant of integration, and
I is
an auxiliary constant denned by
the equation
j
ft>
(I)
--
3(
so
The equation can now be written

,
ku,
"
a
the integral of to be
a
found (as in the problem of the spherical pendulum)
which
is
i(0
=e
<T
0) 3
this equation expresses the solution.
in
^>
terms of the auxiliary variable
u,
and so completes
(iv)
The
cone.
is
Consider next the cone, whose equation

r
z tan
o,
where a
is
the semi-vertical angle.
55, 56]

is
109
54,
Since this
a developable surface,
we can apply the theorem
of
and
see that the orbit of a particle on the cone under gravity becomes, when the cone is developed on a plane, the same as the orbit of a particle of unit
we
mass in the plane under a force of constant magnitude g cos a acting towards a fixed centre of force (namely the point on the plane which corresponds to the vertex of the cone). This ( 48) is one of the known cases in which the
problem of central motion can be solved in terms of
this solution furnishes at once the solution of the
elliptic functions,
and
problem of motion on the
cone.
Example
whose axis
is
1.
Shew
vertical can also be solved in
that the motion of a particle under gravity on a surface of revolution terms of elliptic functions when the surface is
2
,
given by any one of the following equations

z(z
3a)
(r
az
a2 ) 2 = a 3z.
in
(Kobb and
terms of
Stackel.)
Example 2. Shew that the same problem can be solved when the surface is 2 3 2 6 (a* +3/ ) + 2a = 8a% (x* -f y ).
elliptic
functions
(Salkowski. )
an algebraic surface of revolution is such that the equations of its geodesies can be expressed in terms of elliptic functions of a parameter, the surface must be such that r2 and z can be expressed as rational functions of a parameter, i.e. the 2 equation of the surface regarded as an equation between r and z is the equation of a unicursal curve are the cylindrical coordinates of a point oil the where z, r,
Example
3.
Shew that
if
surface.
(Kobb.)
4.
Example
1.
Shew that
is
in the following cases of the

:
motion of a particle on a surface
of revolution, the trajectories are all closed curves
a sphere, and the force is directed along the tangent to the meridian and proportional to cosec 2 #, where 6 is the angular distance from the particle to the pole. (The trajectories are in this case sphero-conics having one focus in the pole.)
the surface
When
2.
When
the surface
is
a sphere, and the force

6.
meridian and proportional to tan 6 sec 2 having the pole as centre*.)

56.
directed along the tangent to the (The trajectories in this case are sphero-conics
is
Joukovskys theorem. We shall now shew how to determine the potential-energy function under which a given family of curves on a surface can be described as the orbits of
a particle constrained to
in terms of
move on the
surface.
of a point on the surface can be expressed two parameters, say u and v, so that an element of arc ds on the surface is given in terms of the increments of u and v to which it corresponds by an equation of the form
The three rectangular coordinates
ds 2
= Edu + ZFdudv +
2 v.
Gdv*,
where E, F,
*
are
known
functions of u and
Darboux has examined the
possibility of other cases, in Bull, de la Soc.
Math, de France,
v.
(1877).
110
[OH. iv
Let the family of curves which are to be the orbits under the required system of forces be defined by an equation
q (u, v)
= Constant,
=
Constant
and
let
p (u,
denote the family of curves which
v)
is
orthogonal to these.
Then instead of u and v we can take p and q as the two parameters which define the position of a point on the surface let the line-element in this system of parameters be expressed by the equation
;
ds*
=E
df+G dp
:
z
,
the term in
q
dqdp being absent, because the curves p = Constant and and G being known functions of Constant cut at right angles
and
q.
The
kinetic energy of a particle which
moves on the surface
is
the Lagrangian equations of motion are therefore
i-T^cto
(G p}
[-5
V
<f
8p
op
2
)
=
/
op
it is
where
V denotes the unknown
potential-energy function, which
required
to determine.
These equations are to be
satisfied
by the value q =
they then become
2
1
P=
~dq~
85"
9//v^
Eliminating
_p
we have
dq
we have
,,;
+ V =f(q\ where f is
an arbitrary function,
dq

or
111
^-
and therefore
G
first
where g denotes an arbitrary function.
Now
-~~
AI (P\ the differential parameter* of the
order of the
function p; and thus we have a theorem enunciated by Joukovsky in 1890, that if q = Constant is the equation of a family of curves on a surface, and
p=
Constant denotes the family of curves orthogonal to these, then the curves Constant can be freely described by a particle under the influence of forces q derived from the potential-energy function
V=*
where
(p)g(p) + &
(p)ff(q)^\^--ldq,
the first differential
and g are arbitrary functions, and A! denotes
parameter.
The above equations give
~
dq
_
dq~
G
is
and hence the equation of energy in the motion
/
1.
A
s
particle
moves under gravity on the smooth

s
cycloid
whose equation
is
= 4a sin $,
made by
the tangent to the curve with the
where
denotes the arc and

<f>
the angle
is
horizontal
shew that the motion
periodic, the period being
4v
*/
t/
2. particle moves in a smooth circular tube under the influence of a force directed to a fixed point and proportional to the distance from the point. Shew that the motion is of the same character as in the pendulum-problem.
If the line-element
on a surface
is
d2 = E du 2 + 2Fdu dv + G dv*,
the
first differential
parameter of a function
<f>
(u, v) is
given by the formula
The
differential
is
parameter
is
variables
formed in
(
,
made from (u, v) to (u v ), the same way with the new

,
a deformation-covariant of the surface, i.e. when a change of the differential parameter transforms into the expression variables (u v ) and the corresponding new coefficients
,
).
112

A
[CH.
3. particle moves in a straight line under the action of two centres of repulsive Shew that, force of equal strength p., each varying as the inverse square of the distance. if the centres of force are at a distance 2c apart and the particle starts from rest at
a distance
kc,
where k
<
1,
from the middle point of the

IT
line joining
them,
it will
perform
oscillations of period
2
Jo
4.
(1
-F
sin 2
6^
dQ.
I,
(Camb. Math. Tripos, Part
1899.)
particle
under the action of gravity travels in a smooth curved tube, starting
of the tube. from rest at a given point If the particle describes every arc OP in the same time that would be taken to slide down the corresponding chord OP, shew that the tube has the form of a lemniscate.
downwards along the concave side of the curve y 3 + ax2 = with a velocity f (2#)2 from the origin, the axis of x being horizontal shew that the vertical component of the velocity is constant. (Nicomedi.) A particle moves in a smooth tube in the form of the curve r2 = 2a 2 cos 2$, under 6.
5.
particle is projected
the action of two attractive forces, varying inversely as the cube of the distance, towards the two points on the initial line which are at a distance a from the pole. Prove that if
the absolute force
of
is
2
p.,
and the velocity at the node 2/^ /a, the time of describing one loop
I,
thecurveis
7.
7ra /2/ii.
1898.)
particle describes a space-curve under the influence of a force whose direction always intersects a given straight line. Shew that its velocity is inversely proportional to the distance of the particle from the line and to the cosine of the angle which the
plane through the particle and the line makes with the normal plane to the orbit.
(Dainelli.)
heavy particle is constrained to move on a straight line, which is made to rotate with constant angular velocity co round a fixed vertical axis at given distance from Shew that the motion is given by the equation it.
8.
where
r is the distance of the particle

line with the horizontal,
by the
from a fixed point on the and A, B are constants.
line, a is
the angle
made
(H.
am
Ende.)
9. heavy particle is constrained to move on a straight line, which is made to rotate with given variable angular velocity round a fixed horizontal axis. Shew that the equation of motion is 2 2 sin a sin B r8 sin a + ad sin a,
r=+g
the angle between the line and the axis of rotation, 6 the angle made with the vertical by the shortest distance a between the lines, and r the distance of the
where a
is
particle
from the intersection of this shortest distance with the moving
line.
(Vollhering.)
particle slides in a smooth straight tube which is made to rotate with uniform about a vertical axis shew that, if the particle starts from relative angular velocity rest from the point where the shortest distance between the axis and the tube meets the
10.
o>
tube, the distance through which the particle

2(7
moves along the tube

u>t
in
time
t is
2 -^ cot a cosec a sinh (^
sin a),
where a
is
the inclination of the tube to the vertical.
I,
1899.)
iv]
11.

A
is
113
particle is constrained to move under no external forces in a plane circular tube constrained to rotate uniformly about any point in its plane. Shew that the motion of the particle in the tube is similar to that in the pendulum-problem.
which
12.
small bead
is
strung upon a smooth circular wire of radius

o>
a,
which
is
con
strained to rotate with uniform angular velocity about a point on itself. The bead is initially at the extremity of the diameter through the centre of rotation, and is projected
is
with velocity 2& relative to the wire given by the equation

sin
shew that the position of the bead at time
= sn
<f)
bu>t\a
(modulus a/b)
cot,
or
isin
(f)
= (bja) sn
(modulus
b/a)
or according as a b, $ being the angle which the radius vector to the bead makes with the diameter of the circle through the centre of rotation.
<
>

13.
I,
1900.)
Shew
that the force perpendicular to the asymptote under which the curve
.r
+^ 3 = a 3
2
can be described
is
proportional to
xy (x
14.
+y
}~
3
.
particle is acted on
are conjugate functions of the coordinates always soluble by quadratures.
by a force whose components (X, Y} parallel to fixed axes Shew that the problem of its motion is (x, y).
15. If ((7) be a closed orbit described by a particle under the action of a central force, the centre of force, the centre of gravity of the curve (}, G the centre of gravity of the curve (C) on the supposition that the density at each point varies inversely as the velocity, shew that the points S, 0, G are collinear and that 2<7 = 3SO.
(Laisant.)
16. Shew that the motion of a particle which is constrained to move in a plane, under a constant force directed to a point out of the plane, can be expressed by means
of elliptic functions.
17.
Shew
that the curves
where a, b, c are arbitrary constants and /is a given function, can be described under the same law of central force to the
origin.
18.
Shew
its
that
when a
circle is described
is
under a central attraction directed to

fifth
a point in
19.
circumference, the law of force
the inverse
power of the distance.
particle describes the pedal of a circle, taken with respect to any point in plane, under the influence of a centre of force at this Shew that the law point. of force is of the form
its
where
A and B
are constants.
of force is also of this form when the inverse of an ellipse with described under a centre of force in the focus.
(Curtis.)
.
Shew that the law

respect to a focus
is
w. D.
114
20.
[en.
Prove that, if when projected from r=R, 6 = with a velocity V in a direction an making angle a with the radius vector the path of a particle be/(r, 0, R, F, sina) = 0, the path with the same initial conditions but under the action of an additional central
force
^-.
is
f(r,nd,R,
where
(Coll-
Exam.)
21.
origin
A particle of unit mass describes an orbit under an attractive force and a transverse force T perpendicular to the radius vector. Prove
<Pu
to the
that,
the
differential equation of the orbit is given
~~
P
by T du
dd>
<M?_
d6~
particle
If the attractive force is
always
zero,
and the
moves
r
in
an equiangular spiral
of angle
a,
prove that
^,.2860*0-3 and
A = (^ sin
sec2a
.
cosa)^
I,
1901.)
22. varying as the distance, particle, acted on by a central force towards a point so as to pass through a point Q such that OP is equal to OQ projected from a point shew that the least possible velocity of projection is OP(^s,mPOQ}^ where p. OP is the force per unit mass at P. (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1901.)
is
23. Find a plane curve such that the curve and its pedal, with regard to some point in the plane, can be simultaneously described by particles under central forces to that point, in such a manner that the moving particles are always at corresponding points
of the curve and the pedal
and
find the
law of force
for the pedal curve.

I,

24.
1897.)
If /(#, y) be a
homogeneous function of one dimension, then the necessary
and
l be capable of description under accele sufficient condition that the curve f(x,y) ration tending to the origin and varying with the distance alone, is that f be subject to a condition of the form
Hence shew that the only curves

r (A
of this class are necessarily included in the equation

ff)
+ B sin 6 + C cos
=1
Proceed
dimensions.
25.
to
the discussion of the case wherein f(x, y)
is
homogeneous and of n (Coll. Exam.)
An
ellipse of centre
is
described under the influence of a centre of force

ellipse
;
at a point
on the major axis of the

nt
shew that
u,
esin
where
%Tr/n is the periodic time, e is the ratio of
CO
eccentric angle of the point reached by the particle in time

26.
to the semi-major axis, t from the vertex.
and u
is
the
Two
free particles
p.
and
M move in a plane under the influence of
a central force
to a fixed point 0.
ratio of the velocity of the particle p at an arbitrary point TO of its path, to the velocity which is possessed at TO by the central projection of on the orbit of p., is equal to the constant ratio of the areas described in unit time by the
radii 0/x,
Shew that the
which expresses the
OM, multiplied by the square ratio of OM, Om.
of a certain function
of the coordinates of
(Dainelli.)
TO,
iv]
27.

A
115
that, if
under an attraction to the focus. Shew particle is moving freely in a parabola at every instant a point be taken on the tangent through the particle, at distance from the particle, this point will describe a central orbit about 4acos0/(<9 + sin<9)
where the focus, and the rate of description of areas will be the same as in the parabola 4a is the latus rectum, and 6 the vertical angle of the particle measured from the apse line. (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1896.)
;
a periodic comet receives a small increment 8v.

28.
When
is
Shew
at its greatest distance from the sun, its velocity that the comet s least distance from the sun
will
be increased by the quantity

48v.
3
{
(l-e)//x(l
+<?)}-.
(Coll.
Exam.)
If POP is a focal chord of an elliptic path described round the sun, shew that 29. to P through perihelion is equal to the time of falling towards the the time from sun from a distance 2a to a distance a (1+ cos a), where a = Zir - (uf - u\ and u -uis the
difference of the eccentric anomalies of the points P,

30.
(Cayley.)
forces
2
,
radii
3 moves in a plane under attractive ^/rV /z/rV along the if it is projected Shew 2d distance at two fixed that, apart. r, points with the velocity due to a fall from rest at infinity, a possible path is a circle with regard to which the two fixed centres are inverse points, and that, if the radius of this circle is a,
drawn
particle to
the periodic time
is
-
(Coll.
Exam.)
31. A heavy particle is projected horizontally with a velocity v inside a smooth sphere at an angular distance a from the vertical diameter drawn downwards shew that it will never fall below or never rise above its initial level according as
:
v2
>
or
<ag
sin a tan
a.
(Coll.
Exam.)
A particle is projected horizontally with velocity V along the interior of a smooth 32. sphere of radius a from a point whose angular distance from the lowest point is a. Shew that the highest point of the spherical surface attained is at an angular distance /3 from the lowest point, where /3 is the smaller of the values of ^, x given respectively by the equations 2= (3 cos -^-2 cos a) # + F 0j ,, ivXMi. Hixam.j 9 = nf V* sin*
(cos
x + cos
a)
2ag
OJ
motion of a spherical pendulum of length a be wholly between the levels ia below the fa, point of support, shew that at a time t after passing a point of greatest depth, the depth of the bob is
33.
If the
fca{4-sn
V(130/14a)}
(mod. V(?/65))
is
and that a horizontal coordinate referred to the point of support as origin by the equation
which
34.
is
determined
a case of
Lame s
if
equation.
is
(Coll.
Exam.)
Shew that
a conical pendulum
projection of the bob describes an ellipse with the angular velocity
whose axes turn
executing small oscillations, the horizontal in the sense of the motion
H
where $
I
i s the angle of greatest deviation from the vertical, the length of the pendulum, and g gravity.
that of least deviation,

(Resal.)
3
116
35.

A
particle is constrained to
[CH. iv
move on the
surface of a sphere, and

2
is
2
attracted to a
r2 )
fixed point
M on the surface of the sphere with a force that varies as r~
(o?
% where
the diameter of the sphere and r is the rectilinear distance from the particle to M. If the position of the particle on the sphere be defined by its colatitude 6 and longitude $,
is
with
M as pole, shew that the equations of motion furnish the differential equation
b are constants
;
where a and
and integrate
this equation,
shewing that the orbit
is
a sphero-conic.
36. particle of semi-vertical angle is
mass m moves on the inner surface of a cone of revolution whose 3 from the axis the a, under the action of a repulsive force mp/r
;
angular
is
momentum
of the particle
about the axis being

is
-Jp tan
a,
shew that the path

I,
an arc of a hyperbola whose eccentricity
sec
a.

37.
1897.)
Shew that the necessary
central force to the vertex of a circular cone in order

is
that the path on the cone
may
be a plane section
4-^.
..1
ifO
(Coll. *
Exam.)
A particle of unit mass moves on the inner surface of a paraboloid of revolution, rectum 4a, under the action of a repulsive force pr from the axis, where r is the distance from the axis shew that, if the particle is projected along the surface in a
38.
latus
direction perpendicular to the axis with velocity 2a/*2
it will
describe a parabola.
(Coll.
Exam.)
39.
A
its
about
formed by rotating the catenary s = cta,n<p axis of symmetry, and a particle is projected along its surface from a point
smooth surface
of revolution
is
distant b from that axis with velocity h (a 2 + 6 2 )^ /fe2 The direction of projection is such that the component velocity perpendicular to the axis is h/b and the particle moves in
.
contact with the surface, under the influence of a force of attraction A 2
(r
+ 2a 2 )/r5
in the
Shew that, if gravity be neglected, the direction of the perpendicular r to the axis. projection of the path on a plane at right angles to the axis will have a polar equation
csmh- = a#.
40.
(Coll.
Exam.)
particle
moves on a smooth
helicoid,
z=a(f>,
under the action of a force pr
per unit mass directed at each point along the generator inwards, r being the distance from the axis of z. The particle is projected along the surface perpendicularly to the
generator at a point where the tangent plane
velocity of projection being p*a. the plane of xy is
2
makes an angle a with the plane
of xy, its
Shew
2
that the equation of the projection of

cos a)
1.
its
path on
/r
= sec 2 a cosh 2
((f>

41.
I,
1896.)
motion of a particle under no forces on a ruled surface, whose generators cut the line of striction at a constant angle, and for which the ratio of the length of the common perpendicular to two adjacent generators to the angle between these generators is constant, can be solved by quadratures. (Astor.)
of the
42.
Shew that the problem
particle (x, y,
z}
move on the sphere x2 +y 2 + z 2
whose potential energy is (ax2 + by 2 + cz2 ) l. Determine the motion. (C. Neumann, Journal fur Math. LVI.
is
constrained to
(1859), p. 46.)
CHAPTER V
THE DYNAMICAL SPECIFICATION OF BODIES
57.
Definitions.
Before proceeding to discuss those problems in the dynamics of rigid bodies which can be solved by quadratures, it is convenient to introduce and
number of constants which can be assigned to a rigid body, and which depend on its constitution it will be found that these constants determine the dynamical behaviour of the body. Let any rigid body be considered and let the particles of which (from the dynamical point of view) it is constituted be typified by a particle of
calculate a
:
mass
situated at a point whose coordinates referred to fixed rectangular

(x, y, z).
axes are
The quantity
2m (y + z
2
2 ),
where the symbol 2 denotes a summation extended over all the particles of the system, is called the moment of inertia of the body about the axis Ox*. Similarly the moment of inertia about any other line is defined to be the sum of the masses of the particles of the body, each multiplied by the square of These summations are evidently in its perpendicular distance from the line.
the case of ordinary rigid bodies equivalent to integrations
f
;
thus
2m (y + z )
2
2
ff
2
I
is
equivalent to
(y
z2 )
pdxdydz, where p
(x,
is
the density, or mass per
unit volume, of the body at the point
y,
z).
The quantity
is
^mxy
called the product of inertia of the
similarly the quantities the other pairs of axes.
my
body about the axes Ox, Oy and and ^nizx are the products of inertia about
;
For the moments and products of inertia with reference to the coordinate
axes, the notation
A=2m(y + z F = Zmyz,
2
),
B=Zm(z* + x G = ILmzx,
2
),
G = 2m (x + H = ILmxy
2
2 ),
will
be generally used.
of inertia about every line in space are equal be equimomental. It will be seen later that this involves also the equality of the products of inertia of the bodies with respect
to each other are said to to
Two
bodies whose
moments
any pair of orthogonal

*
lines.
Moments
of inertia were first introduced by

1673).
Huygens
in his researches
on the pendulum
(Horolog.
oscill.,
The name
is
due to Euler.
118
If
The dynamical
specification
of bodies
[CH.
mass of a body and if k is a quantity such that Mk 2 is equal to the moment of inertia of the body about a given line, the quantity k is called the radius of gyration of the body about the line.
In the case of a plane body, the
dicular to its plane
is
M denotes the
moment
often spoken of as the
of inertia about a line perpen moment of inertia about the
point in which this line meets the plane.

58.
(i)
The moments of inertia of some simple bodies*.

The rectangle.
Let
plate,
its
be required to find the moment of inertia of a uniform rectangular whose sides are of lengths 2a and 26 respectively, about a line through
it
centre
line
and a
parallel to the sides of length 2a. Taking this line as axis Ox, other as axis Oy, the required to the sides parallel through
is
moment
of inertia
or
where
cr is
frequently called of inertia
the mass per unit area of the plate, or the "surface-density as it is evaluating the integral, we have for the required moment
;
3
|<ra6
,
or
Mass of rectangle x ^6 2
The moment
of inertia of a uniform rod, about a line through its middle point perpendicular to the rod, can be deduced from this result by regarding the rod as the limiting form of a rectangle in which the length of one pair
of sides is
indefinitely
small.
It follows that
the
moment
of inertia in
question
is
Mass of rod x |6 2
where 26
(ii)
is
the length of the rod.

block.
The rectangular
26,
Consider next a uniform rectangular block whose edges are of lengths 2a, let it be required to find the moment of inertia about an axis Ox 2c
;
passing through the centre
and
parallel to the edges of length 2a.

rb
I
This
moment
of inertia
is
ra
re
n
Zm(y + ^
2
),
or
J
-aJ -b- -c
p(y
+ z }dzdydx,
2
where p
inertia
is
the density.
c
(fca
Evaluating the integral, we have for the
moment
of
^L
+ c^
or
Mass of block x 1
(6
).
* For practical purposes the moments of inertia of a body are determined experimentally convenient apparatus is described by W. H. Derriman, Phil. Mag. v. (1903), p. 648, and by W. R. Cassie, Phys. Soc. Proc. xxi. (1909), p. 497.
57, 58]
(iii)
The dynamical
The
ellipse
specification
of bodies
119
and
the circle.
Let
plate
it
now be required
is
to find the
moment
of inertia of a uniform elliptic
whose equation
about the axis of

ra
I
x.
It is
ra
I
a-y^dydx, where
cr is
the surface-density.
Evaluating the integral, we have for the required moment of inertia z or Mass of ellipse x 6 2 \7rab ar,
.
The moment
of inertia of a circle of radius b about a diameter
is
therefore
Mass of
(iv)
circle
x \6
2
.
The ellipsoid and the sphere.

of inertia of a uniform solid ellipsoid of density
The moment
equation
is
T2
/T^ tv
ift
71
?%
2
p,
whose
fc
L/
r O
about the axis of x

\p(y*
is
similarly
+ z^dxdydz,
integrated throughout the ellipsoid.
To evaluate
this integral, write
where
77,
are
new
pab
variables
3
the integral becomes
c III
2 ?
is
now taken throughout
a sphere whose equation
is
Since the integrals

^,
and
of inertia can be written in the
are evidently equal, the required
moment
form
or or
Trpabc
(fe
c ) [ J -i
| (1
2
- f)
2
-^Trpabc (b
),
2
or
Mass of
i ellipsoid x
(6
+c
2 ).
120
Tlie
dynamical
specification
of bodies
[CH.
The moment
is
of inertia of a uniform sphere of radius
a about a diameter
therefore
Mass
(v)
of sphere x
â
2
.
The
it
triangle.
Let
now be
required to find the
moment
of inertia of a
uniform
;
triangular plate of surface-density a, with respect to any line in its plane the position of the line can be specified by the lengths a, ft, y of the per
pendiculars drawn to
it
from the vertices of the triangle.
to be the areal coordinates of a point of the plate, the distance from this point to the given line is (ax + /3y + yz), and perpendicular the required moment of inertia is therefore
Taking
(x, y, z}
ax
4-
fiy 4- yz) dS,
where dS denotes an element of area of the
plate.
Now
side c
if
Y denotes
c
on the side
the length of the perpendicular from the point (x, y, z) of the triangle, and if denotes the length intercepted on the
between the vertex
and the
foot of this perpendicular,
we have
Y = zb sin A
and
X sin A
We
Fcos
A = perpendicular
= yc
sin
from
(x, y, z)
on the side b
A.
have therefore
dydz
where
= 387 (| -4- dXdY =

d(X, Y)
x
be sin
A dXdY= 2A
-.
dS,
denotes the area of the triangle.

is
Hence the
integral \\y-dS,
where
the integration the form
extended over the area of the triangle, can be written in

is
2A
lly-dydz, where the integration
extended over
:
all
positive
values of y and z whose
sum
is
less
than unity
this
is
equal to
r r
rr
I
I
or
A.
By symmetry,
the integrals
la^dS and
z-dS have the same value,
and a similar calculation shews that the integrals
ffyzdS,
each have the value TV A.
ffxedS,
\\xydS
58, 59]
The dynamical
values
in
specification
the
of bodies
cr
1 1
121
Substituting these
integral
(ax
+ /3y + yz^dS,
the
moment
of inertia of the triangle about the given line becomes

2
<rA
(a
+ @- + f +
/
+ 7 + a/3),
i x Mass of triangle x
+ (?-?Y + f* J(*?Y 2 2 \ (\
\ /
+ *Yl
2
/
j
But
given
this expression evidently represents the
moment
of inertia about the
middle points of the mass of each particle being one-third the mass of the triangle; the triangle is therefore equimomental to this set of three
sides of the triangle, the
particles.
line of three particles situated respectively at the
is equimomental to a set Example. Shew that a uniform solid tetrahedron of mass of five particles, four of which are each of mass and are situated at the vertices of the tetrahedron, while the fifth particle is at the centre of gravity of the tetrahedron
-^M
and
is
of
mass
-iM.
59.
Derivation of the
moment of
inertia about
the centre
any axis when

is
the
moment
of inertia about
a parallel axis through
of gravity
known.
of inertia found in the preceding article were for the most taken with part respect to lines specially related to the bodies concerned these results can however be applied to determine the moments of inertia of
:
The moments
the same bodies with respect to other lines, by means of a theorem which will
now be
given.
Let f(x., y, z, x, y, z, x, y, z) be any polynomial (not necessarily homo geneous) of the second degree in the coordinates and the components of Let (x, y, I) denote the velocity and acceleration of a particle of mass m.
coordinates of the centre of gravity of a body which arid write
is
formed of such
particles,
If now we we obtain the

(1)
substitute these values for x, y, following classes of terms

:
z,
respectively, in the function/,
Terms which do not involve x y

l
,
,z 1
these terms together evidently
give
f(x,
(2)
y, z, x, y, z, x, y, z).
Terms which do not involve x,y,z: these terms give /(!,

2/j,
z 1} x lt
y l} zlt x lt y l}
z\).
(3)
Terms which
are linear in x lt y lt z lt x lt ly z lt x lt y
y lt
when the
expression ^mf(x, formed, the summation being taken over all the particles of the body, these terms will vanish in consequence of the relations
y, z, x, y, z, x, y, z) is
^mx =
l
0,
Sray!
0,
S mz =
t
0.
122
The dynamical
=
specification
of bodies
[CH.
We have
therefore the equation

y, z, x, y, z, x, y, z)
^mf(x,
(x lt y,, z lt
+/(>
x,, y,,
z>
z lt x,, y,, z,}

y>
V>
x>
z, 5, y,
z)
Sw,
and consequently the value of the expression 2m/, taken with respect to any system of coordinate axes, is equal to its value taken with respect to a
parallel set of axes
through the centre of gravity of the body, together with the mass of the body multiplied by the value of the function f at the centre of gravity, taken with respect to the original system of axes.
From this it immediately follows that the moments and products of inertia, of a body with respect to any axes are equal to the corresponding moments and products of inertia, with respect to a set of parallel axes through the centre of
gravity of the body, together with the corresponding moments and products of inertia, with respect to the original axes, of a particle of mass equal to that
of
the body and placed at the centre of gravity. As an example of this result, let it be required to determine the moment
of inertia
of a straight uniform rod of mass It follows perpendicular to the rod.
M and
length I about a line through one extremity from the last article that the moment of inertia
2
;
and hence, applying the
above
result,
we
see that the required
moment
of inertia
is
60.
Connexion between moments of inertia with respect

result of the last article enables us to find the
to different sets
of
axes through the same origin.
moments of inertia of a given body with respect to any set of axes, when the moments of inertia are already known with respect to a set of axes parallel to these. We shall now shew how the moments of inertia of a body with respect to any set of
rectangular axes can be found when the moments of inertia are known with respect to another set of rectangular axes having the same origin.
The
Let A, B,
C, F, G,
H be
the
to a set of axes Oxyz,
and
;
let
moments and products of inertia with respect Ox y z be another set of rectangular axes
having the same origin

respect to the other will
the direction-cosines of either set of axes with
be supposed to be given by the scheme
^
li
59, 60]
If the
The dynamical
moments and products
,
,
specification
of bodies
123
are denoted by A B A = 2m(y + z where

2
C",
F G
,
of inertia with respect to the axes

,
Ox y z
we have
is
),
the summation
extended over
all
the particles of
the body,
= 2m {(I x + m y + n z) + (I x + m y + n z) = 2m [x (l + } + y (m + w ) + z (n + n/) +
2
2
2yz (m 2 n.2
mn
3
3)
= 2m = 2m
[x (m,
2 2
{I,
(y
+ n, ) + if (n + ) + z (I, + m ) - Zm^yz - ZnJ.zx - Zl^ + z ) + m* (z + x + n (x + ) - Zmj^yz - Zn^zx - Zljn.xy

2 2
I,
r/
and similarly
B = A1 + Bm.? +
2 2
On? - 2Fm.2 n2 - 2Gn 2 2 - 2Hl.2 m,

l.
C = Al, + Bm +
2 * s
Cn.?
- 2Fm n 3 3
2Gn,l3
- 2Hl m
3
We
have also
F = 2my z = 2m (l^ + m y + n z] (I x + m y + n z) = 2mx + m m 2my + n n 2mz + (m. n + m n

2
2 3
12 1 3
2)
(n
2 l3
n 3 l2 )
2
2mzx +
s
(I 2
m + m
3 I3
2
2)
2mxy
= ^ IJ, (B + G-A) +
or
>n
m C + A - B) + i n. n + (w + m n,) F + (n.
3 ( 2 i3 s
2
(A
+ B - C)
n z l2 }
2 l3
G + (I m +
3
F = Al. + Bm m + Cn. n -F(m. n

2 l3
m n - G (I n.
3
2)
+-
l.M 3 )
- H(l. m 3
2
and similarly
-G =
Al,l,
+ Bm^n, +
Cn-.n,
2
-H = Al,L + Bm.in, + Cn,n

, ,
- F(m. n, + m,7i ) - G (I n + n^ - H (l^ni, + I^m - F(m,n + m^) - G (Ln, + l^) - H (l^t,, + l^n,).
A
3
}
ls
3 ),
The quantities A B C F G are thus determined; these results, combined with those of the last article, are sufficient to determine the moments and products of inertia of a given body with respect to any set of
,
,
rectangular axes when the moments and products of inertia with respect to any other set of rectangular axes are known.
Example.
that the
If the origin of coordinates is at the centre of gravity of the body, prove of inertia with respect to three mutually orthogonal
lines

r
and intersecting
(l\i
whose coordinates are

Xj, Mi,
"i),
"h,
i>
(1 2
<i,
n 2 X 2 ^,
, ,
2 ),
(? 3 ,
3>
%,
I,
X3
/x 3
i/
3)
are
A + Jf^S + rf+vft
etc.
and
F M (X
-
X 3 + M:
/X3
2J, 3 ) etc.,
where A\
0",
have the sarue values as above and
is
the mass of the

(Coll.
Exam.)
124
61.
The dynamical
specification
of bodies
ellipsoid.
is
1,
[OH.
The principal axes of inertia ; Cauchys momental If now we consider the quadric surface whose equation
Axwhere A, B,
0, F,
+ By +
2
G, H
2Gzx - 2Hxy = are the moments and products of

Cz*
-<LFyz-
inertia of a given
body with respect to the axes of reference Oxyz,
it
follows from the equation
that the reciprocal of the square of any radius vector of the quadric is equal to the moment of inertia of the body about this radius. The quadric is therefore the same whatever be the axes of reference provided the origin
is
unchanged, and consequently
its
equation referred to any other rectangular

is
axes
Ox y z having
the same origin
where
A a? + B f- + C z* - ZF y z - ZG z x - IR x y = A B C F G H are the moments and products

, ,
, , ,
of inertia with
respect to these axes.
This quadric
its
is
called the
momental
ellipsoid of the
body at the point
principal axes are called the principal axes of inertia of the body at the equation of the quadric referred to these axes contains no product-terms,
and therefore the products of inertia with respect

the
to
them
are zero
and
moments
moments
regard to
of inertia with respect to these axes are called the principal inertia of the body at the point 0*. of
ellipsoid is also called the ellipsoid of inertia
is
The momental
its
centre
another
ellipsoid,
which
is
its polar reciprocal with sometimes called the ellipsoid of gyration.

;
Example.
of its base.
The height of a solid homogeneous Shew that its momental ellipsoid at
right circular cone
is
half the radius
the vertex
is
a sphere.
62.
Calculation of the angular

shall
momentum of a moving
of a
rigid body.
We
now shew how the angular momentum
moving
rigid
body
about any line, at any instant of its motion, can be determined. Let be the mass of the body, (x, y, z) the coordinates of
its
centre of
gravity G, and (u, v, w) the components of velocity of the point G, at the instant t, resolved along any (fixed or moving) rectangular axes Oxyz whose
and let (oj 1; 2 be the components of the angular 3) body about G, resolved along axes Gx y z parallel to the axes Oxyz and passing through G. Let m denote a typical particle of the body, and let (x, y, z) be its coordinates and (u, v, w) its components of velocity at the instant t and write
origin
is
fixed;

velocity of the
x
U
*
= x + xi, U +
11^
y = y
V =
V
+ yi, +V
l
,
=z+z W=W+W
z
1
The existence of principal axes was discovered by Euler, Mem. de Berl., 1750, 1758, and by A. Segner, Specimen Th. Turbinum, 1755. The momental ellipsoid was introduced by Cauchy in 1827, Exerc. de math. i. p. 93.
J.
61, 62]
The dynamical
2m^j =
s2)ecification
of bodies
we have
;
125
so in virtue of the properties of the centre of gravity

0,
^myj =
0,
Sm^j =
moreover since
17)
z
we have
y^w^,
Vl
U
it
=Z w
l
=X
o>
2 l &)j
W =y
l
(0 l
follows that
Sm^! =
0,
Sravj s= 0,
mw = 0.
l
If A 3 denotes the angular have therefore
momentum
of the
body about the axis Oz, we
h3
= Sm (xv yu) = 2m {(x + #,) (v + Wj) - (y + yj (u + u,)} = 2m (xv yu) + 2w (x^ yîii) = M (xv yu) + 2m (X^W x z a) y^z^w* + y^w^) = M (xv yu) Gw Fw + C(D
A
l l
where A, B,
C, F, G,
H are the moments and products of inertia of

momenta about
zv}
the body
with respect to the axes Gx-^y^.

Similarly the angular
are
the axes
Ox and Oy
Gco 3
,
respectively
= M (yw h? = M (zu
h
1
+ Aw
Ha)
Hw
n _
xw}
+ Bwo
Fo) 3
The angular momentum about any other line through the origin can be found ( 39) by resolving these angular momenta along the line in question.
Corollary.
If the body is constrained to turn round one of its points, fixed in space, it is unnecessary to introduce the centre of gravity. &) 3 ) be the o) 2 components of the angular velocity of the body
,
which
For
is
let
(&>!,
about the fixed point with respect to any rectangular axes (fixed or moving) which have the fixed point as origin, and let A, B, C, F, G, denote the moments and products of inertia with respect to these axes. The com
ponents of velocity
coordinates are
(u, v,
w) with respect to these axes of a particle
in
whose
(x, y, z) are
(17)
v
=
z,
and the angular
momentum
about the axis of
which
is
2m
(xv
yu}, can
therefore be written in the form
Sm
or
Similarly the angular respectively are
momenta
A(i) l
of the
body about the axes of x and y

Gu>
Hw
and
126
63.
The dynamical
specification
of bodies
[on.
Calculation of the kinetic energy of a moving rigid body.
in the in
The kinetic energy of a rigid body which is in motion can be calculated same way as the angular momenta. If the- general theorem obtained
59 is applied to the case in which the polynomial f(x, y, z, x, y, z, x, y, z) has the form (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ), we immediately obtain the result that the kinetic
is equal to the kinetic energy of a moving rigid body of mass energy of a mass which moves with the centre of gravity particle of of the body, together with the kinetic energy of the motion of the body relative to its centre of
gravity.
To determine the
kinetic energy of the motion of the
body
relative to its
centre of gravity G, take any rectangular axes (whose directions may be fixed or moving) having their origin at G; let be the 1; 2 3) components of the angular velocity of the body about 0, relative to these axes, and let
&> o>
(a>
denote the coordinates of a typical particle of the body referred The components of velocity of the particle parallel to these axes, in the motion relative to G, are (17)
(x, y, z)
to these axes.
and therefore the kinetic energy of the motion relative

gravity
is
to the
centre of
2m
\(za>
- yo
or
(Aw,C, F,
+ Bw.?
+ + Co)./ 2 s}
(.v<o
- zco^ + (y Wl xca^-}, 2Fco 1&

2
2 (,) 3
2&>
&>
2#&>
>,),
where A, B,
the axes.
G, H are the moments and
products of inertia relative to
This expression may (by use of 60) be interpreted as half the square of the resultant angular velocity of the body in the motion relative to the centre of gravity, multiplied by the moment of inertia of the body about
the instantaneous axis of rotation in this motion.
If one of the points of the body is fixed in space, it is not For let (co 1} 2 necessary to introduce the centre of gravity. 3 ) denote the resolved components of angular velocity of the body about the fixed point
Corollary.
a>
&>
along any rectangular axes (fixed or moving) Oxyz which have the point as origin, and let (x, y, z} be the coordinates of a of the typical particle to referred these axes. The of of the body components
velocity
particle
are
17)
zo) 2
yo) 3
xais
zw^
yw
xo) z
and
so as before
we
see that the kinetic energy of the motion
is
where A, B,
C, F, G,
H denote the
of inertia of the
body with respect to the axes Oxyz.
63, 64]
The dynamical
specification
of bodies
127
this it follows that if one of the coordinate axes say the axis of x the instantaneous axis of rotation of the body, the kinetic energy is Âa)^; and hence, since the directions of the axes can be arbitrarily chosen, the kinetic energy of any body moving about one of its points, which is fixed,
is
2 ^/&) where / is the axis of rotation, and
From
is
moment
is
of inertia of the body about the instantaneous
&>
the angular velocity of the body about this axis.
lamina can turn freely about a horizontal axis in its own plane, and the Example. axis turns about a fixed vertical line, which it intersects. If be the azimuth of the horizontal axis, and the inclination of the plane of the lamina to the vertical, shew that
(f>
the kinetic energy
is
axis
where A, B, Zf are the moments and product of inertia of the lamina about the horizontal and a perpendicular to it at the point of intersection with the vertical. (Coll. Exam.)
64.
Independence of the motion of the centre of gravity and the motion

it.
relative to
shews that the kinetic energy of a moving can be as body regarded consisting of two parts, of which one depends on the motion of the centre of gravity and the other is the kinetic energy of the motion relative to the centre of gravity. We shall now shew that these two parts of the motion of the body can be treated quite independently of each other*.
result of the last article
The
Let a rigid body of mass

forces
As coordinates defining
(x, y, z)
be in motion under the influence of any its position we can take the three rectangular
coordinates
of its centre of gravity G, relative to axes fixed in space,
and the three Eulerian angles (6, 0, i/r) which specify the position, relative to axes fixed in direction, of any three lines, orthogonal intersecting in G, which are fixed in the body and move with it. The kinetic energy is therefore
T=
where f(0,
to G. 0, &,
0,
M (x* + p + *) +/(B,
0,
+,
e,
0, ^),
0, ^) denotes the kinetic energy of the motion relative
Let
denote the work done on the body by the external forces in an arbitrary dis placement (Bx, By, Bz, B0, 80, 8^r) of the body. The Lagrangian equations of motion are
MX = X, My =
<*L
Y,
Mz = Z,
dt
di
80
df
d
dt
*
Euler, Scientia navalis,
i.
(1749),
128.
128
The
first
The dynamical
specification
of bodies
[CH.
three of these equations shew that the motion of the centre of gravity of body is the same as that of a particle of mass equal to the whole mass of the body, under the influence of forces equivalent to the total external
the
forces acting on the body, applied to the particle parallel to their actual directions since the work done on such a particle in an arbitrary displace ment would evidently be Bx + YBy + Z8z.
;
The second three equations shew that

;
the motion
of the body about
its
centre of gravity is the same as if the centre of gravity were fixed and the body subjected to the action of the same forces for in the motion relative to the centre of gravity, the kinetic energy of the body is f(6, and -^r, 6, $, i^), the work done by the forces in an arbitrary displacement is
<f>,
+
These results are evidently true also
Corollary.
<J>S
for impulsive motion.
If a plane rigid body (e.g. a disc of any shape) is in motion in its mass, y) are the coordinates of its centre of gravity, 6 the angle made by a line fixed in the body with a line fixed in the plane, 2 the moment of inertia of the body about its centre of gravity, and if (A F) are the total components parallel to the axes of the external forces
its plane,
and
if (x,
Mk
,
acting on the body, and L the moment of the external forces about the centre of gravity, then the kinetic energy is
\M (x + y- + k*fr\
2
and the work done by the external
forces in a displacement (Bx, By, 86)
is
and therefore the equations of motion of the body are
MX = X, My = Y, M&0 = L.
Example.
the form
Obtain one of the equations of motion of a rigid body in two dimensions
in
the mass of the body, / is the acceleration of its centre of gravity, p is the perpendicular from the origin upon this vector, J/F is the moment of inertia about the origin, 6 is the angle made by a line fixed in the body with a line fixed in its plane, and L is the moment about the origin of the external forces. (Coll. Exam.)
where
is
64]
The dynamical
specification
of bodies
129
1.
homogeneous right circular cone

is
I.
is
of
mass M;
its
semi-vertical angle
is
/3,
and
the length of a slant side
Shew that
its
moment
of inertia about its axis is
and that
its
moment
of inertia about a line through its vertex perpendicular to its axis is
f
atid its
(l-f
sin 2 /3),
moment
of inertia about a generator is
2.
Shew that the moment
of inertia of the area enclosed

r2
by the two loops
of the
lemniscate
=
a2
cos20
about the axis of the curve
is (37r
8) -
x mass of area.
3.
Any number
,
distances apart o?12 i2, ..., prove that

*
...,
of particles are in one plane; if the the relative descriptions of area A 12 ,
masses are
...,
Wj,
...,
their
and the
relative velocities-
are respectively the moment of inertia about the centre of inertia, the angular momentum about the centre of inertia, and the kinetic energy relative to the centre of inertia.
(Coll.
4.
Exam.)
Prove that the
moment
of inertia of a hollow cubical box about

is
an axis through
the centre of gravity of the box and perpendicular to one of the faces
where
is
the mass of the box and 2a the length of an edge.
The
sides of the
(Coll.
box are
supposed to be thin.
5.
Exam.)
Shew
that the
moment
of inertia of
an anchor-ring about
its
axis
is
where a
is
of the anchor-ring,
6.
the radius of the generating and p is the density.

to find at
is
circle, c is
the distance of
its
centre from the axis
Shew how
if
body, and
there
what point, if any, a given straight line is a principal axis of such a point find the other two principal axes through it.
a-
A uniform square lamina is bounded by the axes of x and y and the lines x=2c, y = 2c, and a corner is cut off it by the line xja+y/b = 2. Shew that the two principal axes at
the centre of the square which are in
given by
its
own plane
are inclined to the axis of
at angle?
ab tan 20 = -
- 2c j(a
(a- 6)
7.
+b
(Coll.
Exam.)
2c)
Shew that the envelope
of lines in the plane of
constant
of inertia is a set of confocal ellipses direction of the principal axes at any point.
moment
an area about which that area has a and hyperbolas. Hence find the
(Coll.
Exam.)
9
w. D.
130
8.
The dynamical
specification
of bodies
[CH.
rectum
Find the principal moments of inertia at the vertex of a parabolic lamina, latus 4a, bounded by a line perpendicular to the axis at a distance h from the vertex.
if 15A>28,
Prove that,
is
two principal axes at the point on the parabola whose abscissa

are the tangent and normal.
(Coll.
-a + (a 2 - 4aA/5 +3A 2/7)i

9.
Exam.)
Find how the principal axes of inertia are arranged in a plane body. Write down the conditions that particles m^ at (x ?/,-), where z =l, 2, ..., may be equimomental to a given plate. Shew that the six quantities m 1 m 2 &\, x 2 y^ y 2 can be eliminated from
{
,
these conditions.
If three equal particles are
formed by them
centre of gravity.
10.
is
equimomental to a given plate, the area of the triangle 3 ^/3/2 times the product of the principal radii of gyration at the
(Coll.
Exam.)
uniform lamina bounded by the ellipse b 2x2 + a 2y 2 = has an elliptic hole (semi-axes c, d) in it whose major axis lies in the line x=y, the centre being at a distance r from the origin prove that if one of the principal axes at the point (x, y) makes an angle 6 with the axis of x, then
aW
tan 26 =
ab [4
Sabxy
~ d^
(x
(x*
2 - cd y*) + a &*] [2
^~^ ^~ ^(
"
r)
~
2
(c
~
(y
(x
r)
-2
^} ^2
r)
(Coll.
Exam.)
system of bodies or particles is moved or deformed in any way, shew that the sum of the products of the mass of each particle into the square of its displacement is equal to the product of the mass of the system into the square of the projection in any given direction of the displacement of the centre of gravity, together with the sum of the products of the masses of the particles into the squares of the distances through which
11.
If a
to
they must be moved in order to bring them to their final positions after communicating them a displacement equal to the projection in the given direction of the displacement
(Fouret.)
;
of the centre of gravity.

12.
moments of inertia of a body at its centre of gravity are (A, B, G ) if a small mass, whose moments of inertia referred to these axes are (A B C ), be added to the body, shew that the moments of inertia of the compound body about its new principal axes at its new centre of gravity are
principal
,
,
The
A+A
accurately to the
13.
first
B+B
C+C
order of small quantities.
(Hoppe.)
that the principal axes of a given material system at any point are the normals to the three quadrics which pass through the point and belong to a certain confocal system.
If (I, m, X, /*, i/) be the six coordinates of a principal axis and the associated Cartesian system be the principal axes at the centre of gravity, then shew that
,,
Shew
A l\ + Bmp. + Cnv = 0,
and therefore
all
principal axes of a given system belong to a quadratic complex.

(Coll.
Exam.)
angular momentum of the system about the origin of coordinates, in terms of the coordinates (A; y) of the centre of gravity and the between the two pairs of angles 6 and
<
smoothly jointed framework is in the form of a parallelogram formed bv attaching the ends of a pair of rods of mass m and length 2a to those of a pair of rods of mass m and length 26. Masses are attached to each of the four corners. Express the
14.
sides
and the axis of x.
(Coll.
Exam.)
CHAPTER
VI
THE SOLUBLE PROBLEMS OF RIGID DYNAMICS

65.
The motion of systems with one degree of freedom

etc.
motion round
fixed axis,
to apply the principles which have been developed in the foregoing chapters in order to determine the motion of holonomic systems of rigid bodies in those cases which admit of solution by quadratures.
It is natural to consider first those
We
now proceed
freedom.
We
have seen
it
systems which have only one degree of 42) that such a system is immediately soluble by
quadratures
when
possesses an integral of energy:
sufficient for the integration in we are dealing with systems in
most cases. which one of the surfaces or curves of con straint is forced to move in a given manner), the problem as originally formu lated does not possess an integral of energy, but can be reduced (e.g. by the
and this principle is Sometimes, however (e.g. when
theorem of
when
this reduction has
29) to another problem for which the integral of energy holds been performed, the problem can be integrated as
;
before.
The
(i)
following examples will illustrate the application of these principles.

axis.
Motion of a rigid body round a fixed
Consider the motion of a single rigid body which is free to turn about an axis, fixed in the body and in space. Let / be the moment of inertia of the body about the axis, so that /0 2 where 6 is the angle made by a moveable plane, passing through its kinetic energy is
,
the axis and fixed in the body, with a plane passing through the axis and fixed in space. Let 6 be the moment round the axis of all the external forces acting on the body, so that $ is the work done by these forces in the infinitesimal displacement which changes 6 to
6 -\fid.
of motion
d_
SVT\ _ dT_
IB = 0,
dt\ti)
then gives
dd~
which
is
a differential equation of the second order for the determination of
G.
92
132
The Soluble Problems of Rigid Dynamics

and V
(6}
[CH. vi
If the forces are conservative,
denotes the potential energy, this equation
becomes
10=
-^ 80
V(ff)
which on integration gives the equation of energy
$I6
Integrating again,
= c, + constant,
where
c is
a constant.
we have
t
= I\
t
f{2 (c
V}}
"%dd
and
this relation
between 9 and
determines the motion, the two constants of integration
being determined by the
initial conditions.
that in which gravity is the only external force, and the let G be the centre of gravity of the body, C the foot of The potential energy is the perpendicular drawn from G to the axis, and let CG = h. is the mass of the body and 6 is the angle made by CG with the Mgh cos 0, where
case
is
The most important
axis is horizontal.
In this case
downward
vertical
and the equation
of motion is
This is the same as the equation of motion of a simple pendulum of length J/Mh, and the motion can therefore be expressed in terms of elliptic functions as in 44, the solution being of the form
.
sin
in the oscillatory case,
6 = A sn
,
--
and of the form
in the circulating case.
The quantity IjMh
is
called the length of the equivalent simple
pendulum.
If be a point on the line CG such that OC=IjMh, the points and C are called curious result in this respectively the centre of oscillation and the centre of suspension. connexion is that the centre of oscillation and the centre of suspension are convertible, is the centre of oscillation when C is the centre of suspension, then C will be i.e. if
the centre of oscillation when
is
the centre of suspension.
To prove
this result,
we
have by
59
of inertia of the
Moment
body about
Moment
of inertia about
G + M. GO 2
Moment
of inertia of
body about
2 2 _ I- Mh + M (I/Mh - A)
Distance of centre of gravity from
IjMh - h
If therefore the
body were suspended from

6+
v
0, the equation of
.
motion would
still
be
Mqh sin = 0,
Joscillation
which establishes the result. It is evident that the period of same about either of the points C and 0.
would be the
65]
(ii)

Motion of a rod on which an
insect is crawling.
133
We shall next study the motion of a straight uniform rod, of mass m .and length 2a, whose extremities can slide on the circumference of a smooth fixed horizontal circle of radius c an insect of mass equal to that of the rod is supposed to crawl along the rod at
;
a constant rate v relative to the rod.
Let 6 be the angle made by the rod at time t with some fixed direction, and let x be the distance traversed by the insect from the middle point of the rod. The kinetic
2
5-1 3 (2a
/
c2
#2
and the kinetic energy of the insect
is
due to
a component of velocity {x - (c2 - a 2 ) 2 0} along the rod and a component of velocity xB perpendicular to the rod, so the total kinetic energy of the system is
there
is
no potential energy.
(t
Since x=vt,
being measured from the epoch
when x
is zero),
we have
T= \m (c
The coordinate
6,
- 2a2/3) now
+ \m {v - (c 2 - a 2 )^ 0} 2 +
mv*t*0\
which
is
the only coordinate,
is igriorable,
and we have therefore
= constant,
or
(c 2
-|- )
0-m (c
0(2c
2
- a 2 )^
3
2
{v
- (c 2 - a
i!
)* 0}
+ mv2
= constant,
or
t;
2 2
)
= constant.
~
)
we have
arctan
{vt (2c
2 2
#-0
where
-|a
},
and k are constants. This formula determines the position of the rod at any time.
Motion of a cone on a perfectly rough inclined plane.
(iii)
Consider now the motion of a homogeneous solid right circular cone, of mass and /3, which moves on a perfectly rough plane (i.e. a plane on which only Let I be the rolling without sliding can take place) inclined at an angle a to the horizon. be the angle between the generator which is length of a slant side of the cone, and let in contact with the plane at time t and the line of greatest slope downwards in the plane.
semi-vertical angle
^ be the angle made by the axis of the cone with the upward vertical, ^ is one whose vertices represent respectively the normal to the plane, the upward vertical, and the axis of the cone ; the other two sides are a and the
Then
if
side of a spherical triangle
angle included by these sides being
(TT
- 0}.
ft
We
(?),
have therefore.
ft
cos x = cos a sin
sin a cos
cos
but the vertical height of the centre of gravity of the cone above its vertex is I cos ft cos ^, and the potential energy of the cone is Mg x this height if therefore we denote by V the
;
potential energy of the cone,
we have
(disregarding a constant term)

cos 2
ft
V=
^Mgl sin a
cos
0.
134

;
[CH. vi
have next to calculate the kinetic energy of the cone for this the moments of about its axis and about a line through the vertex perpendicular to the axis are required these are easily found (by direct integration, regarding the cone as
inertia of the cone
:
We
composed of
sin 2 /3 and discs perpendicular to its axis) to be J/7 2 (cos 2 /3 + Jsin 2 /3) moment of inertia about a and so the theorem of 60 the is, generator respectively, by (since the direction-cosines of the generator can be taken to be sin ft, 0, cos $ with respect
^MP
to rectangular axes at the vertex, of
which the axis of

ft
z is
2
the axis of the cone),

ft
MV
or
2 2 1 (cos ft + sin ft) sin 2
+ ^MP sin Jft 2 sin 2 0(cos 2 + i).

is
cos 2
ft,
Now
all
points of that generator which
in contact
with the plane are instantaneously
at rest, since the motion is one of pure rolling, and therefore this generator is the If w denotes the angular velocity of the instantaneous axis of rotation of the cone.
cone about this generator, the kinetic energy of the cone

jj-
is
therefore
63, Corollary)
MP sin
a)
2 ft
(cos
2
ft
+ J)
w2
But
15)
we have
=6
cot
ft,
and substituting
the value
this value for
o>,
we have
2
ft
finally for the kinetic

2
energy
of the cone
T=%MP cos
of motion
(cos
becomes therefore
in this case
2 2 | Ml* cos ft (cos ft
+ Mgl sin a cos2 ft sin 6 = 0,
This
is
the same as the equation of motion of a simple

I
pendulum
of length
cosec a (cos
2
ft
the integration can therefore be effected in terms of elliptic functions, as in

(iv)
44.
Motion of a rod on a rotating frame.
Consider next the motion of a heavy uniform rod, whose ends are constrained to move in horizontal and vertical grooves respectively, when the framework containing the grooves
is
made
to rotate with constant angular velocity
co
about the line of the vertical groove.
Let 2a be the length of the rod, its mass, and 6 its inclination to the vertical. of the allowed for by adding to the potential energy the effect rotation be 29, may By a term
where p is the density of the rod and x denotes distance measured from the end of the rod which is in the vertical groove integrating, this term can be written
;
The term
in the potential
energy due to gravity
is
6,
Mga
and the
total potential energy
cos
V is therefore given by the equation V= - Mga cos d - % Jfo*a* sin 2 6.
65]
The
135
are a sin 6 6 and a cos 6

.
horizontal and vertical components of velocity of the centre of gravity of the rod motion of the $, so the part of the kinetic energy due to the
.
centre of gravity
is
is
is
\Ma?6
z
;
and since the moment of
inertia of the rod
about
its
its
centre centre
the part of the kinetic energy due to the rotation of the rod about It Ma?, 2 2 6 Ma we have therefore for the total kinetic energy T the equation J
;
The
integral of energy
is
2
therefore
62
Ma
or,
Mga cos 6
2
M<o
a 2 sin 2 6 = constant,
writing
where
is less
are positive.
this constant must evidently be positive, since x 2 and is not very large and that suppose for definiteness that than unity, so that x oscillates between the values 3^/4aco 2
e
denotes a constant
(1
x2 )
We
shall
3<7/4or
e/&>.
To
integrate this equation,
we write*
#=!+.
^8a
where
equation,
is
18"
64
2
o>
+ ^12
a new dependent we have
variable.
Substituting this value for x in the differential
where the values
correspond respectively to the values
it is
easily seen that
ei+e 2 + e 3
|jf>
is
zero
and that
el
>e
2 >e 3 .
We have therefore = + y), where the function is formed with the roots e e 2 es lies between e 2 and e3 for and where y denotes a constant. Since e^, and (P (<+y) real values of t (since x lies between 3#/4co 2 and 3^/4aa) 2 + e/a)), the imaginary part of the real part of y can then be taken as zero, the constant y must be the half-period
(<
$>
} ,
e^~>
e<{>
e/o>
o>
;!
since
it
depends only on the choice of the origin of time.
We
have therefore
and hence
this equation determines ^ in

(v)
terms of
<.
Motion of a
disc,
one of whose points
is
forced
to
move in a given manner.
plane,
Consider next the motion of a disc of mass M. resting on a perfectly smooth horizontal when one of the points A of the disc is constrained to describe a circle of radius c
in the horizontal plane,

*
with uniform angular velocity
o>.
Cf.
Whittaker and Watson,
Course of Modern Analysis, % 20
6.
136
Let

G
[OH. vi
of the point
if
be the centre of gravity of the disc, and let A G be of length a. The acceleration A is of magnitude cw 2 and is directed along the inward normal to the circle therefore we impress an acceleration cw 2 directed along the outward normal to the
,
:
circle,
on all the particles of the body and suppose that A is at rest, we shall obtain the motion relative to A. The resultant force acting on the body in this motion relative to A
is
therefore
2
J/co>
acting at
in a direction parallel to the
outward normal to the
circle.
Let 6 and be the angles made with a fixed direction in the plane by the line AG and the outward normal to the circle respectively then the work done by this force in a small
;
displacement 86
is
2
Mca>
sin (0
,
<9)
8<9,
and the kinetic energy of the body is i J/ 2# 2 where Mk2 is the moment of The Lagrangian equation of motion is therefore body about the point A
.
inertia of the
Mm = Macrf
But
since
sin (0
- 6\
0),
=
a>,
we have
= 0;
so
if
^ be
written for (6
.
we have
acco 2
^+-p-sm^
= 0.
2
;
This is the same as the equation of motion of a simple pendulum of length k2 the integration can therefore be performed by means of elliptic functions as in 44.
(vi)
gjaca>
Motion of a disc rolling on a constrained disc and linked
to
it.
Consider the motion of two equal circular discs, of radius a and mass J/, with edges perfectly rough, which are kept in contact in a vertical plane by means of a link (in the form of a uniform bar of mass m) which joins their centres the centre of one disc is fixed,
:
and
constrained to rotate with uniform angular acceleration a to determine the motion of the other disc B and the link.
this disc
is
it is
required
let 6
is
be the angle which the link makes with the downward vertical at time t, and Let be the angle turned through at time t by the disc A. The angular velocity of disc A 0, and the velocities of the points of the discs which are instantaneously in contact are
Since the velocity of the centre of the disc B is 20, it follows that the angular velocity of the disc B about its centre is 20-0. Since the moment of inertia of each disc about its centre is i Ma 2 the kinetic energy of the system is
therefore each a@.
,
+ lM. T=M.^V m
and
*-(2$-eT- + lM.(2a?<tf +
iu
m.~&o
= at +
f,
where
f is
a constant.
is
The
potential energy of the system
F=
(2M+m) ag cos 0,
is
and the Lagrangian equation of motion
(o_T\_
2
dT__dV ~
80
80
sin 0.
<ti\d<p)
or
j {(6Af+f m) a 0t
Ma*0}= - (2J/ + wi) ag
Since d = a, this equation gives

(6
M+ 1 m) a
- J/a 2a + (2 M+ m) ag sin
J/u 2 n0
= 0. = c,
Integrating,
we have
2 (3J/+ % m) a (fi-
(2J/+ m) ag cos
65, 66]
where
c is

:
137
</>
are a constant depending on the initial conditions and as the variables t and by a quadrature: this final integral determines the motion.
separable, this equation can again be integrated
Example.
If the
system
is initially
at rest with the bar vertically downwards, shew

if
that the bar will reach the horizontal position
66.
The motion of systems with two degrees of freedom.
In the dynamics of rigid bodies, as in the dynamics of a particle, the possibility of solving by quadratures a problem with two degrees of freedom The integral generally depends on the presence of an ignorable coordinate.
as an integral of momentum or angular solution of the differential equations is
corresponding to the ignorable coordinate can often be interpreted physically momentum. The formation and
effected
:
principles developed in the preceding chapters
by application of the this will be shewn by the
following illustrative examples.

(i)
Hod passing
through ring.
Consider, as a first example, the motion of a uniform straight rod which passes through a small fixed ring on a horizontal plane, being able to slide through the ring or turn in any way about it in the plane.
rod
its
Let the distance from the ring to the middle point of the rod at time t be r, and let the make an angle 6 with a fixed line in the plane let 21 be the length of the rod, and mass.
;
The moment
is
of inertia of the rod about its middle point
is
\ MP, and the kinetic energy
therefore
is
there
no potential energy.
B
is
The coordinate
ignorable,
and the corresponding integral
is
dT =
r
constant,
vB or
>2
(?
+ %l-) 6 = constant.
_|_
The
integral of energy is
;,2 _|_
,.202
^ I lfri
_ cons tant.
first,
Dividing the second of these integrals by the square of the
we have
dry
dft)
1
where
C 1S
a constant
or
B + constant
1 Writing cr = s, this becomes
=
j
{(r
+}
I )
(cr*
+ J cl 2 - 1 )}
4 dr.
+ constant =
{4s (s
+ \ cP)
+ J cP - 1 )}
* ^s.
138

g>
[CH. vi
If therefore
denotes the Weierstrassian elliptic function with the roots
which
satisfy the relation e }
dr
>e
>e
3 if
-^
is
sufficiently great initially,
we have
;
s=ft>
(0)>
gj
where
is
a constant of integration
since
is
positive,
is real.
we have
0>(0-0
ei
for real values of 0,
and consequently the
constant $
The
solution of the problem
is
therefore contained in the equation
(ii)
0ê cylinder rolling on another under gravity.
Let it now be required to determine the motion of a perfectly rough heavy solid homogeneous cylinder of mass m and radius r, which rolls inside a hollow cylinder of mass and radius R, which in turn is free to turn about its axis (supposed horizontal).
Let
<j)
denote the angle which the plane through the axes of the cylinders at time
makes with the downward vertical, and let 6 be the angle through which the cylinder of mass has turned since some fixed epoch. The angular velocities of the cylinders about their axes are easily seen to be 6 and {(R r} R6}jr respectively and the moments of inertia of the cylinders about their axes are MB? and \ mr 2 respectively so the kinetic
energy
T of the
system
is
i m (R - r? A*
while the potential energy
is
F=
The coordinate 6
is
mg (R
;
r)
cos$.
it is
clearly ignorable
the integral corresponding to

constant,
dT =
r
30 or
MR^ -\mR{(R-r)4>-RQ} = k,
The
integral of energy is
where k
is
a constant.
T+
or
V=/i,
2
tf>
where h
is
a constant,
\MRW + }m{(R - r)
m (3J/+m)
This
is
- BflY+m (R - r) 2
mg
(R -
r}
cos
= h.
Eliminating 6 between the two integrals, we obtain the equation

.
the same as the equation of energy of a simple pendulum of length

(l
the solution can be effected by

(iii)
means
of elliptic functions as in
44.
Rod moving
in a free circular frame.
shall next consider the motion of a rod, whose ends can slide freely on a smooth vertical circular ring, the ring being free to turn about its vertical diameter, which is fixed.
We
66]
Let
139
be the mass of the ring and r be the mass of the rod and 2a its length let let 6 be the inclination of the rod to the horizontal, and $ the azimuth of the ring referred to some fixed vertical plane, at any time t.
;
its
radius
The moment of inertia of the rod about an axis through the centre of the ring 2 2 perpendicular to its plane is m(r fa ), and the moment of inertia of the rod about the The kinetic energy of the vertical diameter of the ring is r{(r 2 -a 2 ) sin 2 5 + Ja 2 cos 2 0}.
system
is
therefore
T=\m (r
The
potential energy
- a2 )
+ } Mr^ + lmty (r2 sin 2 6 - a 2 sin 2 6 + J a 2 cos 2 0).

V
mg
dT=
d<j>
is
2 2
(r
;
)i
cos
6.
The coordinate

m<j)
2 (r sin
6 - a 2 sin 2 6 + \a 2 cos 2 6)
= k,
where k
a constant.
Substituting the value of
found from this equation in the
integral of energy
T+
we have
lm
2
V=h,
(r
- f a2) G 2
h + mg
(r
a 2 ) a cos
x.
-1
-
& \Mi + m
-- ....
2 2 (r sin
;
k2 9 ^ - a 2 sin 2
.
0+â2 cos
,
2~m
2
5)
In this equation the variables 6 and t are separable a further integration will therefore give 6 in terms of t, and so furnish the solution of the problem.
(iv)
Hoop and
ring.
next discuss the motion of a system consisting of a uniform smooth circular hoop of radius a, which lies in a smooth horizontal plane, and is so constrained that it can only move by rolling on a fixed straight line in that plane, while a small ring whose mass is 1/X that of the hoop slides on it. The hoop is initially at rest, and the ring is projected
We shall
from the point furthest from the

Let
</>
fixed line with velocity
v.
denote the angle turned through by the hoop after a time t from the commence ment of the motion, and suppose that the diameter of the hoop which passes through the ring has then turned through an angle \^. Taking the ring to be of unit mass, so that the
hoop is X, the moment of inertia of the hoop about its centre is Xa 2 and this moves with velocity 0, while the velocity of the ring is compounded of components a$ and a\^, whose directions are inclined to each other at an angle \^. The kinetic energy
mass
of the
centre
of the system
is
therefore
T=
is zero.
The coordinate
<j)
is
evidently ignorable, and the corresponding integral
is
cT
r
= constant,
= the
initial
80
or
(2X
+ 1) a- ^ + a 2 ^
cos
\/^
value of this expression
= av.
140

we have
[CH. vi

(2X + 1)
(f>
+ sin
vt -=the
>//
initial
value of this expression
=0,
1
vt
This equation determines
in
is
terms of
\^.
The equation
and substituting
of energy
T
for
its initial
value = 4*2
>
its
value (v/a-cos-^-
4-)/(2X
+ l)
in this equation,
we have
-j= v v2X J
Writing
= sin\^
.r,
this
becomes
--%= v v^2X
equation
+ P(2X o
,
In order to evaluate this integral, we introduce an auxiliary variable

X
I
defined
by the
u=
Write x2 = 2X/, where |
is
(2X + .r
2
)
Jo
a
-4(1- .r 2
;
~
)
dx.
new
variable
the last integral becomes
which
is
equivalent to
where the function
$>
()
is
these roots are real and satisfy the inequality ei for real values of u.
6i>e 2
>e
so
is
$>(w)
real
and greater than
Now we
or
have
dt =
%=. (2X + # vv/2X
)4
- a;2 ~ 4 dx.
)
JVKvdt a
Integrating,
^2X
+ ^^-,
2X
\du.
we have
where
(u)
denotes the Weierstrassian Zeta-function.
Thus
finally the coordinate
and
2X
the time
are expressed in terms of
an auxiliary
variable u by the equations
66, 67]
67.

Initial motions.
141
We have already explained in 32 the general principles used in finding the initial character of the motion of a system which starts from rest at
a given time.
for
The following examples will serve to illustrate the procedure of rigid bodies. systems
A particle hangs by a string of length b from a point in the circumference of a disc (i) The disc can turn about its axis, which is horizontal, and of twice its mass and of radius a. To find the the diameter through the point of attachment of the string is initially horizontal.
initial
path of the
particle.
Let 6 denote the angle through which the disc has turned, and string to the vertical,, at time t from the beginning of the motion
particle.
the inclination of the

let
m be the mass of the
horizontal and (downward) vertical coordinates of the particle with respect to the centre of the disc are
The
a cos 6 + b
sin
and
a sin 6 + b cos 0,
so the square of the particle s velocity is
a2
+&
z
- 2ab sin
2
(6
+ 0) 00,
(6
and the kinetic energy of the system

-|
is
2
T= ma-6 + m&
while the potential energy
is
mob sin
+ 0) #0,
mg
(a sin 6
+ b cos 0).
of motion are
dt\d0
d_
/dT\ _ dT_ _ 9 F
c0
dt\d(p/
2
30
J2
<9-a&cos
(0
6 2 0-a6cos(0
a& sin (0 + 0) = 0, + 0)0 + #6sin0-a6sin(0 + 0) 6 =0.
+ 0)02 -#acos$
2
Initially the quantities 6, 0, 6,

<9=gr/2a
are all zero
term
so the expansion of 6 begins with a hiher suare of t. Assumin higher than the square Assuming
,
and
= 0,
these equations therefore give initially term gt 2/4a and that of with a
= C + Dt* + Et+Ff< + ...,

t--
substituting in the
above
differential equations,
;
and equating powers
of
t,
we can evaluate
the coefficients A, B, C,
...
we thus
find
0-^+0. 4a
2
+...
*=
ff
32a6
^
1920a6 2
2
,
Now if x and y are the

vertical axes
coordinates of the particle referred to horizontal and (downward)
through
its initial position,
we have
approximately,
x=a
and
(1
- cos 6} -
b sin
= \ ad - 60 = -E-
y = a sin 6 + b (cos 0-l)=a0=~, approximately.
142

t
[CH. vi
Eliminating
between these equations, we have
and
this
is
the required approximate equation of the path of the particle in the

its initial position.
neighbourhood of
A ring of mass m can slide freely on a uniform rod of mass and length 2a, which (ii) can turn about one end. Initially the rod is horizontal, with the ring at a distance ra from To find the initial curvature of the path of the ring in space. the fixed end.
Let (r, 6) denote the polar coordinates of the ring at time t, referred to the fixed end of the rod and a horizontal initial line, 6 being measured downwards from the initial line. For the kinetic and potential energies we have
4/7 2
-
T=%m(r* + rW}+%M.~6\
V=
mrg sin &
Mag sin
6.
of motion are
~dtdf
-._. W~
dr
r
r8 2
g sin 6 = 0,
<9
Since
r, 0,
- Mga cos 6 - mgr cos [f Ma*d + mr d + 2mrf0 and 6 are initially zero, we can assume expansions
z
= 0.
of the form
substituting these expansions in the differential equations, and equating coefficients of powers of t, we find
_ ~
its initial
coordinates of the particle, referred to horizontal and vertical axes at position, are
The
x = r cos 6
or approximately
r
r
and y = r sin
t*,
6,
.
x=(
b^}
y=r
6 2 12
The curvature
of the path is given

-
by the equation
y
62
and on substituting the above values of

1
and
(4a
we have
()
~~
Ma
9r
2
3r
(Ma + mr
This
is
the required initial curvature of the path of the ring.

,
Two uniform rods AB, SC, of masses mi and m.2 and lengths a and b turn round the point A, which is fixed. are freely hinged at B, and can respectively, Shew vertical. and is horizontal that, if C be released, the equation of Initially, nearer to G can be put in the form of trisection of of the the initial
Example.
AB
EC
path
point
BC
f = 60 (1 + 2?n 2 /m
1)
abx.
I,
1896.)
67, 68]
68.

The motion of systems with three degrees of freedom.
143
The possibility of solving by quadratures the motion of a system of rigid bodies which has three degrees of freedom depends generally (as in the case of systems with two degrees of freedom) either on the occurrence of ignorable
coordinates, giving rise to integrals of momentum and angular momentum, or on a disjunction of the kinetic potential into parts which depend on the
coordinates separately.
(i)
The
following examples illustrate the procedure.
Motion of a rod in a given field of force.
Consider the motion of a uniform rod, of mass and length 2a, which is free to move on a smooth table, when each element of the rod is attracted to a fixed line of the table
with a force proportional to

Let
(#, y)
its
mass and
its
distance from the line.

its
be the coordinates of the middle point of the rod, and 6

kinetic energy
is
inclination to the
fixed line.
The
is
r= ~
or
11
4<2
J -a
(y
+ rsm6} z dr,
2
where p
is
a constant,
V=pm(iy 2 + %a
$in 2 d).
of motion are therefore
#=0,
|
y
((20)
w>
+ fi sin
ct
20 = 0.
The
first
two equations give
+ d,
where c, d, /, e are constants of integration the centre of the rod therefore describes a sine curve in the plane. The equation for 6 is of the pendulum type, and can be
;
integrated as in
(ii)
44.
Motion of a rod and cylinder on a plane.

next discuss the motion of a system consisting of a smooth solid homogeneous mass and radius c, which is moveable on a smooth horizontal plane,
We shall
circular cylinder, of
and a heavy straight
mass m and length 2a, placed with its length in contact with the cylinder, in a vertical plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder and passing through the centre of gravity of the cylinder, and with one extremity on the plane.
rail of
Let 6 be the inclination of the rail to the vertical, and x the distance traversed on the plane by the line of contact of the cylinder and plane, at any time t. The coordinates of the centre of the rod referred to horizontal and vertical axes, the origin being the initial point of contact of the cylinder and plane, are easily seen to be
x
Let
ccot(\4
-)
zj
+ asin$ and
acosd.
t.
$ be the angle through which the cylinder has turned at time of the system is energy
The
kinetic
+ A ma 2 sin 2 6
d2 +
MX
144
The

potential energy
is
[CH. vi
V=-
mga
cos
6.
The coordinates x and
<
are evidently ignorable
the corresponding integrals are
ar =
ox
(which
of x)
constant
may
be interpreted as the integral of

tiT
momentum
of the system parallel to the axis
and
^ = constant
(which
axis).
may
be interpreted as the integral of angular
momentum
of the cylinder about its
These integrals can be written
ic cosec 2 [ \4
2/
+ a cos 6
. f-
+ Mx= constant,
2
c;
<>
= constant.
Substituting for
x and
</>
the vahies obtained from these equations in the integral of
energy
T+ F= constant,
we have the equation
If
(
6 ,/TT -kc cosec 2 - - -
This equation is again integrable, since the variables t and 6 are form it gives the expression of 6 in terms of t the two integrals found above then give x and $ in terms of t.
is
;
where d
a constant.
separable
in its integrated
69.
Motion of a body about a fixed point under no forces.

of the most important problems in the dynamics of systems with
One
three degrees of freedom is that of determining the motion of a rigid body, one of whose points is fixed, when no external forces are supposed to act*. This problem is realised ( 64) in the motion of a rigid body relative to its
centre of gravity, under the action through the centre of gravity.
of
any
forces
whose resultant passes
momentum of the body about every line which the fixed passes through point and is fixed in space is constant ( 40), and the line consequently through the fixed point for which this angular momen
In this system the angular
Let this line, which is called the greatest value is fixed in space. be taken as axis OZ, and let invariable line, and be two other axes
tum- has
its
OX
through the fixed point which are perpendicular to OZ and to each other. The angular momenta about the axes OX and OF are zero, for if this were
not the case the resultant of the angular momenta about OX, OY, OZ would give a line about which the angular momentum would be greater than the
*
first
Euler, Memoires de Berlin,
Annee
1758.
Elliptic functions were applied to the

:
by Eueb, Specimen inaugurale... (Utrecht, 1834) Journal fur Math, xxxix. (1849), p. 293.
problem and the solution was completed by Jacobi,
68,
69 J

momentum
about OZ, which
is
145
It follows
angular
(
contrary to hypothesis.
line
39) that the angular
momentum about any

6,
through
making an
about OZ.
angle 6 with
OZ
is
d cos
where d denotes the angular
momentum
is sufficiently specified by the position of the body at any time t knowledge of the positions at that time of its three principal axes of inertia at the fixed point let these lines be taken as moving axes Oxyz let (6, ty)
The
<f>,
denote the three Eulerian angles which specify the position of the axes Oxyz with reference to the axes OXYZ, let (A, B, C) be the principal moments of
inertia of the
body
,
&>
and
let
(&>
1( to 2
3)
at 0, supposed arranged in descending order of magnitude, be the three components of angular velocity of the system
(
about the axes Ox, Oy, Oz respectively, so that
10, 62)
&>!
Bw<,
Ca) s
= = =
d sin 6 cos ty, d sin 9 sin d cos

0,
ty,
or
16)
/
sin
-v/r
sin 6 cos
cj>
^=
=
-v/r
"
-j
sin 6 cos
ty,
<
6 cos
-fy
(f)
sin 6 sin
^
d
TY
sin 6 sin
ty,
Y+
;
cos
cos
"
These are really three integrals of the differential equations of motion of the system (only one arbitrary constant however occurs, namely d, our special set of axes being such as to make the other two constants of integration
zero);
we can
ential equations of
therefore take these instead of the usual Lagrangian differ motion in order to determine 6, ty.
<f>,
Solving
for 6, 0,
-\jr,
we have
,*
rj v
(A-B)d Cl
j.
.
I//"
1
-j-j
T\ t/ if \_v*Jo Prid O-L1-1
\lf
Gl Tl olll
lf/>
\Lf
A. tj
,
q>
= d
-T-
cos 2
Y+
d
d
>
^D sin
TJ
Y = \n VO
The
(d
d
cos r
J A
D B
sm
,\ r cos
]
"
may
integral of energy (which is a consequence of these three equations) be written down at once by use of 63 it is
;
where
c is
a constant
replacing
o>
a>i,
2,
w s by
their values in terms of 6
and
this equation can be written in either of the forms

w. D.
10
146
[OH. vi
A-B sm
. .
"
c s
"
Bc-d*
~- + B-C
Ad
2
c s
>
or
A-B 6 sin sm ZQ
.
AB
.
2
-v/r
=
(cA
:
^- d?)
we
the
2 A-G ^lc-d ---
AC
cos 2
2
&>
0.
Since
positive,
>
>
C, the quantity
or
B (A -B)
(.Be
+ C (A 2
and (cC
first
d}
1
:
is
negative
quantity
shall
d
it
may
C) 3 is be either
o>
positive or negative
for definiteness
suppose
to be positive.
The
d
of the three differential
equations may, by use of the last
equations, be written
Bc-dr-B-C
Ac-d AdT
A-G
This equation shews that cos 6 is a Jacobian elliptic function* of a linear and the two preceding equations shew that sin 6 cos ty and function of t sin 6 sin ty are the other two Jacobian functions.
;
We
therefore write
sin 6 cos
i|r
= P en u,
sin 6 sin
is
-fy
Q sn u,
cos 6
= R dn
say \t
u,
-f
where P, Q,
are constants and u
a linear function of
t,
the
quantities P, Q, R, A, and the modulus k of the elliptic functions, are then to be chosen so as to make the above equations coincide with the equations
& cn
A? sn 2
= - k + dn u, 1 dn u, u=
u
2 2 2
du
~r dn u
k 2 sn u en
u.
The comparison gives A(d*-cC}
d*(A-C)
B(d*-cC) d*(B-C)
2
C(cA-ffi)
d*(A-C}
(B -C)(cA-d*)
(A-B)(d -cC)
(B-C) (Ac -d*)
The equation
for
ABC
is real,
k2 shews that k
and the equation

2
(A-Q(Bc-.ffi)
(B-C)(Ac-d
shews that
(1
k2 )
is
positive,
i.e.
that
k<
1.
The
quantities P, Q, R,
X,
are
also evidently real.
Now
equations
a real
quantity a
may be
defined by
the
mutually consistent
sn la
*
=i
T-TT:
cma =
will be
in Whittaker
The theory of elliptic functions required in this and the succeeding problems and Watson s Modern Analysis, Chs. xx. xxn.
found
69]
Since

_i
(A)
I
147
where the theta-functions are defined by the expansions
= 1 + 2q cos 2iri/ + 2g ^ (y) = 1 - 2g cos 27Ti/ + 2q$

(y)
01
+ 2g cos 47TZ/ 2g
cos 4?
cos cos GTTV
+
. .
.,
% 0) = 2i
Sn (v)
and q = e~
7>
cos TTV
sin ^TV
+ ~
2q* cos Sirv

4 2? sin STTV
+
+
cos 5?
2^"*"
.,
%<f
2g"
sin
we have
4 4
+ 2g cosh 2 7 + 2g 1 -2g cosh 2 7 +2^

1
:
cosh
4-y
,,_i
cosh 4 7
-...~
where 7 stands for Tra/2K from this equation 7 (and consequently a) may readily be determined by successive approximation.
The Eulerian angles 6 and
-^ at
time
are
now given by the equations
sin 6 cos ^r
=
cnza
sin 6 sin
\|r
=
=
dn
ia sn (\t + e)
cnm
sn la dn (\i + ^ :
cos 6
e)
en la
or (omitting the
e)
The modulus k
of the elliptic functions
is
known; we can
therefore
determine the parameter q of the theta-functions by the equation
or
by the more rapidly convergent

q
series
10
2 $ tan
/3
+ TV tan
-$fa
tan 18
/3
.,
where cos
= (k y. /9
K may then be calculated from the series

4<K/\
and thus the period
of the inclinations of the axes
Oxyz
to the line
OZ
is
determined.
102
148
If

now we
i/
[CH. vi
write
(>jra/2K)
=7
and
4
(-TrX/2
K} =
/A,
we have
4
- 2a cosh 27 -f 2o cosh47- ...)(cos u,t + ... (1 sin cos \f cos cos + + + + (1 (cosh 7 2yu, 4/4 .) (fcosh 87 -2q 2# .) + ...)(sin /4 o sin 3/4 + ...) (1 + 2a cosh 27 + 2o cosh sin u sin cosh 87 + cos 2/4 + 2(? cos 4^ +...) (cosh 7 + ) (1 2g cos 2 __ ~ (sinh 7 y sinh 87 + ...)(!+ - 2g cos 2/j.t + 2q* cos 4/u^ + ...) (cosh 7 4- 9 cosh 87 + ...)(1
. .
. .
4>y
"vj/"
. .
<?
2<?
The
quantities motion.
Example.
q,
p,
7 may be regarded
as the constants
which specify the
Suppose that the body
is
a homogeneous ellipsoid of unit density, whose

6
three semi-axes are
a=l,
The three
principal
= 2,
= 3.
moments
of inertia are
2
^=
Suppose that the
7r
a6c(6
+ c 2 = 20-87T,
)
=1677-,
=&*.
initial velocities of rotation

ft)!
round the principal axes are
= J,
C0 2
=i,
W 3 =l.
The constant
of energy
is
= A a)! 2 +
2
Ha>2
f<03
2= 13
3r,
and the constant of angular momentum
is
so
The modulus
of the elliptic functions is given
by the equation
(4-5X^-c)_
whence we have
-(.g-cw-rf 2 2=i_2 = 0.760,
)"
....
= 1-0342,
#=1-68013,
K
TT
We
have also
so
A =0-6045
and
M = |^=0-5651.
of the angles 6
The period
and
is -r-
or
which has the value 11 11 8.
69]

and
149
In order to express
^ as trigonometric
series in
terms of
t,
we must determine y.
For this we have
and therefore
if
"*
be neglected we have
1
+ 2? cosh 2y_ ~
1-1094
0-9337
gi vi ng
cosh 2y = 2 -503,
and hence and
2y = 1-568
y= 0-784.
is
The quantity a
then given by the equation
a=
2A"
7T
y = 0-8385.
A
zero
and the
limiting case of the general problem is that in which A B, so that k reduces to In this case the solution may elliptic functions become circular functions.
be written
<9
>b
^= ^~cosha
cosX<
\- \(A-C)(Ac-d^ A 2C j \
sin An sm(9sm^ = cosh
r>.
of
where
<
smha=\
cosh a =
(C(Ac-d 2 )}%
.
(A (d
., 2
cos
0=tanha
~^
F=l
^J- cC)
(A (d^
so the motion
is
cC)}
a steady precession about the invariable line OZ, the body rotating also
about
its
own
axis of
symmetry
is
Oz.
Another limiting case
that in which
;
d 2 = cB,
so that
and the
elliptic functions
degenerate into hyperbolic functions
this is illustrated
by the following examples.
Example
1.
rigid body
is
2 and 3 being initially Bc, and 2 is zero when t is zero, (in the notation used above) d the direction-cosines of the B-axis at time t, referred to the initial directions of positive, then
a>
moving about a fixed point under no forces: shew that

if<a
a>i
ij
the principal axes, are
a tanh x
y sin
((A
/*
sech
^,
cos
/j.
sech ^,
y tanh x + a
sin
p-
sech ^,
where
f-B
To
_dt
_dt
-B\~-AC~-
- B) (B C)\%
)
= (A(B-C)\ \B(A-C}\
y=
(C(A-B)}^ \B(A-C]}
I,

obtain this result, coordinate Q becomes
1899.)
we observe that when Bc=d 2 the

,
differential equation for the
dt
BC
Ad 2
AC
the integral of which
is
cos 6 = y sech ^,
150

The equation
2
[CH. vi
where y and x are the quantities above defined.
A-B ...... Ac-d 0sm

j^-sm J.D
2
2
\//-=
---^ 2 u4d
A-C cos
J(7
then gives
sin 6 sin -^
= tanh ^,
-= JD
\//-.
and the equation

gives
d = -7 cos
(<
) 2
= y sin sin /*) These equations shew that the direction-cosines of the OXYZ, which ( 10) are
cos
<
.5-axis referred to the axes
cos 6 sin
\|^
sin
<
cos
\^,
sin
<p
cos $ sin
^ + cos
tanh
^.
<
cos
\|f,
sin $ sin
\^,
can be written
sin
p sech
^,
cos
p.
sech ^,
But
if
o) 10
W2o,
0)30
denote the
so that
,
^w = ao? and
1 3 yd, we see that the direction-cosines of are given by the scheme

C<o
W + CW = =
A
initial directions of
the principal axes, since
d 2 = Be = B ( A on 2 + Ccos2 ),
<B
IO , 0)20, 0)30,
referred to
X
y
0)20
0)30
69]

\t
151
Near the former of these points, writing only the lowest powers of e, we have
.
= ia + iK +
e,
and retaining
l2
"
=
2
dn2 ia/& 2 sn 2
m
dn 2 ia
dn
k sn- ia
e&
2
.
2 sn ia en ia
A;
sn2 ia
so the residue at this pole of sin 2 ty, considered as a function of \t, is
dn
2A;
2
ia
((B
sn ia en ia
2id
(A)\
-
-G)(Ac- &)AB}* C
j
Therefore the residue of dl-f.
VD
A]
sin 2
-\lr
at this point (considered as a
function of \t)
is
ABC
and the residue when \t/2K is regarded as the variable is consequently i\/4<K. As we now know the zeros, poles and residues of this function, we can write
down
its
fact, since
expression as a sum of logarithmic derivates of theta-functions ^ 01 (i/) has a simple zero at v ^ = iK /2K, we have
&>
in
J 01
r:z= Mp^
I
>
/ ^-
^ MOl f**!2i ^ r
I
<v
-J 01
A
and therefore
4A"
/\t
ia
/X
I
m\ ~
~9~V
:
(2id
~\~A
.
constant
AT
iN
ow S 01
2K/X
<,
/\tîa\
( I
/.
/
/\t-\-ia\
1
S- 01
is
- f\
ZtJ^L
//
purely periodic with respect to the real
period
line.
of
i.e.
^,
so the exponential on the right-hand side gives the
mean
motion of
the precessional motion of the system round the invariable
We
have
= 1 25- COS ô/ (^) = 4?r^ sin ZTTV

^01 (*
)
27TI>
2(?
COS
4t7TV
-..,
. .
S-rrq* sin kirv
.,
so the coefficient of
in
</>,
i.e.
the constant part of
<j),
or the precession,
which
is
may be
written
oI
A
in
**,
- 2q cosh 2 7 + 2^
q sinh 2y
4 + ... 2^ sinh 4 cosh 4 7 4<y
which form
it
may be
calculated readily.
152
6 = 2, c
[CH. vi
1,
Example 1. In the = 3, we have
case previously discussed, of an ellipsoid \vhose semi-axes are a =
2y=l
so the
568,
,
sinh2y = 2-294,
7r,
cosh
,
2-y
^=
=2 =
503,
mean motion
of $, which
when j 4
is
neglected
may
be written
I
is
q sinh
1
2-y
- 2q cosh 2y
0-5986 + 0-0970,
0-6956.
or
Example
2.
uniform circular disc has
its
centre
fixed,
and moves under the
action of no external forces.
The
in space, and coinciding with at any subsequent time
disc is given initial angular velocities Q about a diameter n about its axis coinciding with Of in space. Shew that
X = 2 arcsin f
LQ2
=
where ^
planes
is
arccot
LQ2 + 4% 2
the angle between
(Oz.
<f>
4?l 2i
sin {(Q 2 + 4
)^
-tan{(Q
+ 4?i 2 )i.
It]
\,
and the axis of the disc Oz and
o>
is
the angle between the
(Coll. Exam.) For let OZ denote as usual the invariable line, and consider the spherical triangle Z&, whose vertices are the intersections of the lines OZ, 0, Oz respectively with a sphere of
0% and
centre 0.
disc
In this spherical triangle we have Zz = d,

so
Zz = (fr.
Moreover we have
for the
C=<2B=2A,
and
The equations
of motion for 6
and
therefore
become
<j>
0=0,
= d/A
In the spherical triangle Zz, we have therefore
and hence
sin
= sin Z
sin
\Zz =
and
cot
a>
= cos Zf tan 1
^=
(Q
tan
2
+4n 2 )*
which are the required equations.

70.
Poinsot
kinematical representation of the motion; the polhode and

of representing kinematically the motion of a body is the following, which is due to Poinsot*.
herpolhode.
An
elegant
*
method
about a fixed point under no forces
Poinsot, Theorie nouvelle de hi rotation des corps, Paris, 1834.
69, 70]

of the
153
point,
referred to the
The equation of the momental ellipsoid moving axes Oxyz, is
body at the fixed
invariable line.
Consider the tangent-plane to the ellipsoid which is perpendicular to the If p denotes the perpendicular on this tangent-plane from
the origin,
we have
(since the direction-cosines of
are
Awjd, Bw^d,
Ca) 3/d)
= -r
d-
which
is
constant.
Since the perpendicular on the plane is constant in magnitude and direction, the plane is fixed in space: so the momental ellipsoid always touches a fixed plane.
Moreover,
ellipsoid
if (x y z) are the coordinates of the point of contact of the and the plane, we have on identifying the equations
, ,
Axx + Byy +
rhp UPC; uiic vn vdiiico
Czz
l
=1
/
and A(o x +
l
Bw
? z
y + Cw s z = pd
,11
i//
&>l
_.,
yc
?/
Mo --
G>2
-.
_1
&>)
_U>3
T~
pd
pd
\/c
,
pd
,
yc
and hence the radius vector to the point (x y z ) is the instantaneous axis of rotation of the body. It follows that the body moves as if it were rigidly connected to its momental ellipsoid, and the latter body were to roll about the
fixed point on
sliding
;
a fixed plane perpendicular
to the
invariable line, without
angular velocity being proportional to the radius to the point of contact, so that the component of angular velocity about the invariable line is
the
constant.
1. If a body which is inoveable about a fixed point is initially at rest and acted on continually by a couple of constant magnitude and orientation, shew that Poinsot s construction still holds good, but that the component angular velocity about the
Example
is
then
invariable line
is
no longer constant but varies directly as the time.
(Coll.
Exam.)
is
For in any interval of time dt the addition of angular

about the fixed axis
momentum
to the
body
+Ydt
OZ
of the couple
system at time
t is
Nt about OZ.
Now
A<a
so that the resultant angular momentum of the the components of angular momentum about the
, ,
principal axes of inertia Oxyz are of inertia and 2 MS) are the
o>
(<!,
C(o 3 where A, B, C are the principal moments z components of angular velocity: hence we have
l
,
Bu>
Aa>i=
JVtsin 6 cos
!//,
Bu>.
= Nt sin
6 sin
\^,
C(o 3
= Ntcosd,
where
6, 0, -^ are the Eulerian angles which fix the position of the axes Oxyz with reference to fixed axes OXYZ. But these equations differ from those which occur in the
will
motion of a body under no forces only in the substitution of t dt for dt so the motion be the same as in the problem of motion under no forces, except that the velocities are
;
multiplied by
whence the result
follows.
let
In the motion of a body, one of whose points is fixed, under no forces, Example a hyperboloid be rigidly connected with the body, so as to have the principal axes of
2.
154
inertia of the
[CH. vi
body at the point as axes, and to have the squares of its axes respectively 2 2 Ac, d Bc, cP Cc, where A, B, C are the moments of inertia of the proportional to d the fixed at point, c is twice its kinetic energy, and d is the resultant angular body momentum. Shew that the motion of this hyperboloid can be represented by causing it
to roll without sliding on a circular cylinder, whose axis passes through the fixed point and is parallel to the axis of resultant angular momentum. (Siacci.)
The curve which
in Poinsot s construction
is
traced on the
momental
ellipsoid by the point of contact with the fixed plane is called the polkode. Its equations, referred to the principal moments of inertia, are clearly the
equation of the ellipsoid together with the equation

are
p=
constant,
i.e.
they
Ax*
+ By- + Cz =
2
1,
Example
I.
Shew
that
when A =B, the polhode
is
circle.
C, shew that there are two kinds of polhodes, one kind Example 2. Taking A consisting of curves which surround the axis Oz of the momental ellipsoid, and correspond to cC, while the other kind consists of curves which surround the axis Ox, and z cB and that the limiting case between these two kinds of polhodes correspond to cA
cB>d">
>d
>
^B^
is
a singular polhode which corresponds to cB pass through the extremities of the mean axis.
d2 = 0, and
consists of
two
ellipses
which
The curve which

the moving ellipsoid
is is
traced on the fixed plane by the point of contact with called the herpolhode.
find the equation of the herpolhode, let p, % be the polar coordinates of the point of contact, when the foot of the perpendicular from the fixed
To
If (x, y z } denote the coordinates is taken as pole. point on the fixed plane of the same point referred to the moving axes Oxyz, we have
,
3/2
?.
_|_
-i
square of radius from point of suspension to point of contact

2
""
+#
,
Substituting for x
z their values as given

eoj/Vc
a).2
by the equations
x =
y
{
=
=
&>
= = /\/c = /\/c
cos 2
sin 6 cos ty/A^/c,
d sin B sin ty/B^c,
d cos 6/C\/c,
we have
p-
=-
c
-=-
d?
d2 A-c
-.
sin 2
T/T
2 T sin B-c
d2
sin 2 -\lr
~ +T G
2
d2
cos 2 #.
Replacing B and ^r by their values in terms of
t,
this
becomes
_
cd?A*B*G*
(
_
2
(B-C)(A-
_ (cA -
d*}
(c?
- cC)
cd*AC
70, 71]
155
where
denotes the half-period corresponding to the root e^, this equation expresses the radius vector of the herpolhode in terms of the time.
w
We
observe
have next to find the vectorial angle

that
2
in
terms of
t.
For
this
we
Vcp ^/c? vertices are the fixed point, the foot of the perpendicular from the fixed point on the fixed plane, and two consecutive positions of the point of contact, divided by the interval of time elapsed between these positions, and that this
is
six times the
volume of the tetrahedron whose
quantity can also be expressed in the form

x,
y,
z
2
,
Acx \d\
A
All
,
Bey Id
y
,
Ccz /d2
z
A, t x /
B,
>
C
t
l
y/y,
the quantities involved, except %, are known functions substituting their values in terms of t, and reducing, we have
of
on
A-C
which can be written in the form
_ %~
.
d
~B
(I
&))
This equation can be integrated in the same way as the equation for the Eulerian angle and gives
c/>,
a
where ô
ta)
is a constant of The current coordinates integration. herpolhode are thus expressed as functions of t.
(p,
^) of the
Example 1. particle moves in such a way that its angular momentum round the origin is a linear function of the square of the radius vector, while the square of its velocity
is
a quadratic function of the square of the radius vector, the coefficient of the highest
;
power being negative shew that the path is the herpolhode of a Poinsot motion, however J, JB, C are not restricted to be positive.
Jfxample
2.
in
which
secting on the
mean axis
Discuss the cases in which the polhode consists of (a) two ellipses inter of the momenta! ellipsoid, (/3) two parallel circles, (y) two points
shewing that in these cases the herpolhode becomes respectively a spiral curve (whose equation can be expressed in terms of elementary functions), a circle, or a point.
71.
Motion of a top on a perfectly rough plane ; determination of the

6.
Eulerian angle
top
is
and terminates in a sharp point

the axis.
defined to be a material body which is symmetrical about an axis the (called apex or vertex) at one end of
shall now study the motion of a top when spinning with its apex on a so that is placed perfectly rough plane, practically a fixed point. The
We
156
[OH. vi
problem is essentially that of determining the motion of a solid of revolution under the influence of gravity, when a point on its axis is fixed in *.
space
Let (A, A, G) denote the moments of inertia of the top about rectangular axes Oxyz, fixed relative to the top and moving with it, the origin being the be apex and the axis Oz being the axis of symmetry of the top let (6,
;
<,
\Jr)
the Eulerian angles defining the position of these axes with reference to fixed rectangular axes OXYZ, of which OZ is directed vertically upwards.
The
kinetic energy
is (
63)
where w
&>
angular velocity of the top, so that
denote the components relative to the moving axes of the ( 16) we have
=
&>j
6 sin ^r
sin 6 cos ty,
co 2
&>s
= 6 cos ty + sin =^ cos 6

-t4>
6 sin
ty,
the kinetic energy
is
therefore
2
T = \AB- + Âft sin
+ ^C (jr +
<j>
cos 0?,
and the potential energy is V = Mgh cos 6, where is the mass of the top and h is the distance of its centre of gravity from the apex.
The
kinetic potential
is
therefore
s
L=Tintegrals are
V=$A6* + 4
and
<f>
sin 2
+ 4C (t +
<
cos
0^-Mghcoa B.
the corresponding
The coordinates
are evidently ignorable;

.
dT =
^-r
d(f>
constant,
and
dT
--.-
constant,
d-fr
or
A<j>
sin2
+ C (^ + C ty +
:
cos 0) cos
fj)
- a,
=b,
cos
<9)
where a and
b are
constants
these
may be
interpreted as integrals of angular
momentum
about the axes
OZ
and Oz, and so are obvious a priori from

38)
is
general dynamical principles.
The modified
kinetic potential
R=L
a(>
b\s
The term -b 2 /2C can be

equation of motion
is
cos
neglected, as
it
is
merely a constant; the
d /dR\
dR _
p. 251).
Lagrange, Mec. Anal. (Oeuvres, xn.
71]

same
which the kinetic energy
(a
b cos 0)
2
157
so the variation of 6 is the
as in a dynamical system with one degree

is
of freedom for
Â6 and
is
The connexion between d and

energy of this reduced system,
2
is
therefore given
by the integral of
namely
2 2
(a-bcos0) Aa-2 \AQ = - 2A sin - - Mgh cos 6 + c,

^
where
c is
a constant.
Writing cos
= x, this equation becomes A*a? = - (a - bx) - 2AMgh (x - a?) + 2 Ac (1 - x

2
9 ).
The right-hand side when x = 1, the cubic
of this equation
is
is
a cubic polynomial in x
now
some real values of 6, i.e. for some values of x between 1 and 1, the cubic must be positive, since the left-hand side of the equation is positive; when x = I, the cubic is again negative; and when x = + oo the cubic is positive. The cubic has therefore two real roots which lie between 1 and 1, and the remaining root is also real and is
negative; for
,
greater than unity.
Let these roots be denoted by

cos
a,
cos
ft,
cosh
7,
where cos /3
>
cos
a,
so that a
>
/3.
The
now becomes
\Mghft A$ dt =
If
{4 (x
- cos a) (x -
cos
/3)
(x
cosh 7 }}~*dx.
we
write
we have
therefore
+ constant =
el}
e?,
{4 (z
ej (z
e.2 )
(z
where the constants
e 3 are
2Ac +
b2
_Mgh =
so that
e-i,
~~
2Ac + b
3
e, e3 are
all real
and
2
satisfy the relations

0,
el
+e +e =
el
>
e,
>
e3
158

z
[CH. vi
The connexion between

where
and
t is
therefore
e is
,
a constant of integration, and the function

fy
,
is
formed with the
roots e 1} e2
and hence we have
2A
for real values of t, it is evident that x must between cos a and cos fi, i.e. $ (t + e) must lie between e2 and e3 for real values of t and therefore the imaginary part of the constant e must be the
:
Now in order that x may be real
lie
The real part of e depends on 3 corresponding to the root e s the epoch from which the time is measured, and so can be taken to be zero
half-period
<w
by suitably choosing
this epoch.
We
have therefore
finally
^
and
this is the equation
=
which expresses the Eulerian angle 6 in terms of
of projection of the top are such that initially
the time*.
Example
1.
If
the circumstances
sheiv that the value of Q at
any time
t is
Mgk
sec0=l+sech(^p/),
so that the axis of the top continually approaches the vertical.
For
in this case
we
readily find for the constants a,
b,
the values
so the differential equation to determine
is
whence the
result follows.
2.
symmetry, and
solid of revolution can turn freely about a fixed point in its axis of acted on by forces derived from a potential-energy function p. cot 2 6, where 6 is the angle between this axis and a fixed line ; shew that the equations of motion can be integrated in terms of elementary functions.
Example
is
For proceeding as in the problem of the top on the perfectly rough plane, the integral of energy of the reduced problem the equation
(a -ft.
we
find for
Writing cos 6 = x, this becomes
for
The quadratic on the right-hand side is negative when # = 1 and x= 1, but is positive some values of x between 1 and +1, since the left-hand side is positive for some real
*
It
may
I,
55)
0,
when
P,
the quantities
k,
0,
be remarked that the present problem reduces to that of the spherical pendulum k are replaced respectively by M, C, A, h, a, b, c, cos 0, I,
<f>,
1,
h,
z/l,
<f>,
\,
fjL.
71, 72]
values of 6
:

1
159
+ 1.
Calling
the quadratic has therefore two real roots between these cos a and cos /3, the equation is of the form \-x z = (cos a - x] (x the solution of which
is
and
cos /3),
x = cos
72.
a sin
2
(</2X)
+ cos /3 cos2 (Z/2X).
Determination of the remaining Eulerian angles, and of the Cayley-
Klein parameters ; the spherical top. When the Eulerian angle 6 has been obtained in terms of the time, as in the last article, it remains to determine the other Eulerian angles and
<f>
-\|/-.
For
this
purpose we use the two integrals corresponding to the ignorable

:
coordinates
these,
when
(
solved for
<f)
and
-\jr,
give
^
1
I
_ = =
b cos 6
~Tsin2
b
(a
b cos 0) cos 6
\^
If
C~
Asin*0
as specified by the constants of the body of integration (a, b, c), it is evident from constants and the (M, A, C, h) that C does not occur except in these equations and the equation for for and therefore an auxiliary top the constant term of the expression ty can be whose moments of inertia are (A, A, A) projected in such a way that its axis of symmetry always occupies the same position as the axis of symmetry
;
we regard the motion
of the top considered, the only difference in the motion of the two tops being that the auxiliary top has throughout the motion a constant extra spin
b(C
A)/AG about its axis of symmetry. A top such as this auxiliary top, whose moments of inertia are all equal, is called a spherical top. It follows therefore that the motion of any top can be simply expressed in terms of the motion of a spherical top, and that there is no real loss of generality in supposing any top under consideration to be spherical.
If then
we take
=
:
G= A,
the equations to determine
and
<f>
i/r
become
_a
b
b cos
A sin
A
_ ~
a cos
sin 2
its
*
(
a b +b ~ - f) 2 A (cos 0+1) (cos a+b a b = + 1 2A 2X(cos + ) (coslT^Tj

a
24
<9
Substituting for cos
value from the equation
2A
and writing
m- M9h
2
12 A*
Mgh
2
160
so that
t
I
[CH. vi
o>
and k are known imaginary constants (being in fact the values of and TT of 6}, the differential equations corresponding to the values
become
= Mgh(a + b)
2
Mgh (a - b)
6)
^ %/i (a
6)
Now
the connexion between the function
once written
down by
substituting for
and its derivate x from the equation

%>
can be at
X=
in the equation
2
Wh
^} + 2Ac (1 - a?)
;
the argument of the ^-function is k, it follows from the definition of k that 1 and so the last equation gives the corresponding value of x is
if
;
A
or
2
.
{2Ap (k)/Mgh\* = (a +
(k)
6)
&>
= iMgh (a + b)/ 2A-.

= iMgh (a - b)/2A
and
</>
Similarly
we have
2
,
>
(/)
and therefore the equations
for
-fy
2^=*-,.
7\
...T.+
Now
the function
is
an
elliptic function,
t
3
with
+ w = k and t +
is
and the function
whose poles in any period-parallelogram are congruent = k, the corresponding residues being 1 and 1 3 Hence we have zero when t + 3 = 0.
o> &>
$ (t +
and therefore
&>
3)
(k}dt
v
cr (
-
log &
V-
-|-
<w
A;) /7x bv ( A;) y ~y^ + 2 ^

^<,
+ constant.
72]

integrals of the equations for
161
The
and
</>
-fy
can therefore be written in
the form
..
tr (t
+ +
&>
+ k) a- (t + a)
+
k)
a- (t
I)
a-
(t
o) 3
o>
/)
where
<
and
i/r
These equations lead to simple expressions for the Cayley-Klein parameters 7, 5 ( 12), which define the position of the moving axes Oxyz with reference to the fixed axes OXYZ: for by definition we have
a,
fi,
cos 1 6
e$
*& + +\
1
{3
= ism $6.
e*
l
{<t>
*\
y = ismê.e^ ^-^,
= cos^.
But we have
2 cos 2
0=1 +cos0
2A
~ (t +
<r
(0 3
k)
a- (t
+
w3 )
k)
Mgli
or
(k)
a>
(t~+
a-
cos \
A \l {a- (t +
k)
(t
a) 3
k)}$
Similarly
we
find
(
sin
(T \
ft
Tf
~T~
^3
v ) O~
7\
/4 \v
~T~ (J&v
7\) i * I f
and on combining these with the expressions we have

_
for e
21 *
and
2i *
already found,
t)
o-
(0
o- (
+
ft>
<o
3)
i( ^" 0o)
7 =
"
<?(<
\M~gh
<r(l)~
tr (t
os )
These equations express the parameters

time.
W. D.
a,
7, 8 as
functions of the
11
162
Example
the

1.
[OH. vi
symmetry :
gyrostat of mass
M moves about a faced point
in its axis of
moments of
point are
point.
vertical,
left
The
inertia about the axis of figure and a perpendicular to it through the fixed and A respectively, and the centre of gravity is at a distance h from the fixed gyrostat is held so that its axis makes an angle arccos l/ v/3 with the downward
is
and
given an angular velocity \jAJMgh */3/C about

the fixed point,
its axis.
If
the axis be
now
free to
move about
shew that
it
will describe the cone
sin 2 6 sin sin 2 6 cos

is the
20 = (
- cos
3
- l/v/3)* ( - cos 6 + v /3) *,
or
20 =
(^3/2
+ cos 0)^,
where
azimuthal angle and 6 the inclination of the axis to the upward vertical. (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1894.)
initially
For in this problem we have
cos0=
and these
initial
-l/v/3,
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
^=
values give
a = - jMAghltlZ,
= 4/3 jKAgh, c= 6,
Substituting in the general differential equation for
namely
we have
A6 2 sin 2
while the equation
6-- Mgh (cos 6 + l/v/3)

a
N/3
+ 2 cos 6) - cos 6 + v/3),

(
b cos 6
Dividing this equation by the square root of the preceding equation,
we have
= si
I
_ cos 6 - l/v/3)*
v/3
+ 2 cos 6)
"
"
*
(
~ cos 6 + ^3) i cosec 6 dd,
= 3*
Now
if
l(x-
1/^/3)* (v/3 -2a;)
(^
+ v/3)
~*
(1
-^)-i
ote,
where .r= -cos
we write
u = (xl/ N/3)
(x
+ N/3) *
(v
3/2
- x) ~ ^
we have by
differentiation
We
have therefore
or
tan
is
20 = 32
"
-cos
6- l/v/3) (-cos
~
<9)
*,
which
equivalent to the result given above.
72, 73]

2.
163
Example
Example
Shew that the logarithms

6,
of the Cayley-Klein parameters, considered as
functions of cos
3.
are elliptic integrals of the third kind.
functions of the time
Obtain the expressions found above for the Cayley-Klein parameters as t by shewing that they satisfy differential equations typified by
where I denotes a doubly-periodic function off, these equations being of the Hermite-Lame type which is soluble by doubly-periodic functions of the second kind.
"
simple type of motion of the top is that in which the axis of symmetry maintains a constant inclination to the vertical; in this case, which is generally known as the steady motion of the top, 6 and 6 are permanently
zero
;
since
we have
(a
b cos 0) 2 -
it
follows that
d ((a = -Ja\ n
b cos
,
QY
COS
/i
dd{
2A
sm ,a
2
A<f>sin-0,
Performing the differentiation, and substituting we have
for (a
b cos 6) its value
=bcj>
+ Aft cos 6 +
Mgh.
its axis) in
This equation gives the relation between the constants
depends on the rate of spinning of the top on

73.
and b (which (j), 0, steady motion.
We
shall
Motion of a top on a perfectly smooth plane. now consider the motion of a top which
in contact with a
vertical, so
is spinning with its apex smooth horizontal plane *. The reaction of the plane is now the horizontal component of the velocity of the centre of gravity,
;
G, of the top is constant we can therefore without loss of generality suppose that this component is zero, so that the point G moves vertically in a fixed two horizontal lines fixed in space and line, which we shall take as axis of Z
;
perpendicular to each other will
be taken as axes of
X and
Y.
the
(0,
</>,
Let Gxyz be the principal axes of inertia of the top at G, and (A, A, C) moments of inertia about them, Gz being the axis of symmetry and let be the Eulerian angles defining their position with reference to the -\/r)
:
axes of X, Y, Z.
of G above the plane is h cos 6, where h denotes the distance from the apex of the top the part of the kinetic energy due to the motion of G is therefore ^J/A2 sin 2 6 6 2 where is the mass of the top and
The height
of
so,
as in
71, the total kinetic
energy
is
cos
2
,

*
is
= Mgh cos6.
Poisson, TraitS de Mtcanique (1811), n. p. 198.
112
164

71,
ty,
[OH. vi
Proceeding now exactly as in and to the ignorable coordinates

</>
we have two
cos 6) cos 6
cos 0)
integrals corresponding
namely
<
sin 2 6
\A<j>
+ G (^ +
= a,
= b,
C(^+(j)
where a and
coordinates
b are constants; for
and on performing the process of ignoration of
we obtain
i
the modified kinetic potential the expression

sin* 0)
(A + Mh*
P-(
^~~? - Mgh
2
cos
0,
so the variation of 6
for
is the same as in the system with one degree of freedom which the kinetic energy is
(A
is
+ Mh* sin
0)
fr,
^-
(a
b cos
=
2 J. sin 2
BY ~ + Mqh
,
cos
0.
The connexion between

latter system,
and
t is
given by the integral of energy of this

"
namely
2
$(A+ Mh* sin

where
c is
0) ft
= - (a
6 C
-/I
sin;
?
c/
)2
Jfyfe cos
+ c,
= x, this becomes A (A + Mh - Mtta?) x =-(a- bx} - ZAMgh (x - a?) + 2Ac (1 - x

a constant.
2
Writing cos
2
).
are separated in this equation, so the solution can be expressed as a quadrature but the evaluation of the integral involved will require in general hyperelliptic functions, or automorphic functions of genus two.
The
variables
x and
74.
Kowalevski
s top.
of the motion under gravity of a body one of whose points is not in general soluble by quadratures and the cases considered in 69 (in which the fixed point is the centre of gravity of the body, so that 71 (in which the fixed point influence the motion), and in gravity does not of axis lie on an and the centre of gravity symmetry of the body), were for known to be integrable. In 1888 however Mme. S. long the only ones Kowalevski* shewed that the problem is also soluble when two of the
The problem
is
fixed
principal moments = third, so that
of inertia at the fixed point are equal and double the = 2C, and when further the centre of gravity is situated
in the plane of the equal
moments
of inertia.
and the centre of gravity be taken through the fixed point the fixed of centre let the and as the axis Ox, gravity be at a distance a from
Let the
line
* Acta
Math. xn. (1888),
p. 177.
73, 74]
point

<f>,
165
be the Eulerian angles which define the position of the principal axes of inertia Oxyz with reference to fixed rectangular axes OX YZ, co 3 ) be the of which the axis OZ is vertical; let 2 components along the
;
let (6,
i/r)
&>
(<uj,
be axes Oxyz of the angular velocity of the body, and let kinetic and potential energies are given by the equations
its
mass.
The
T = i (Aw* + Aw? + ) = C{fc + sin 6 + (^ +

2
Ca>
<j>
</>
cos 0) 2 },
V=
The coordinate
<j>
Mga
sin
cos
ty.
is
evidently ignorable, giving an integral
dT =
;r-r
constant,
cos 0) cos
is
Off)
or
20
is
sin 2 9
+ (-^ +
<j>
= k,
where k
a constant
and the integral of energy
T + V = constant,
or
2
2
<
sin2
(^ +
<j>
cos 0) 2
sin 6 cos -f
= A.
Mme. Kowalevski shewed

The
that another algebraic integral exists, which can
be found in the following way.

kinetic potential
is
L=C0* +
2
C<j>
sin2
+ ^C(^r +
<j>
cos 0)~
+ Mga
sin
cos
-i/r,
and the equations of motion are

dt
^(?^_ W =
\M)
_
dt
d
dt
the
first
of these
is
20
=
(rf>
cos d
- -dr) 6 sin 6 +
(j
cos
cos
ty,
and on eliminating
2
-fy
between the second and
third,
we obtain
cos
sin
^
rit
(4>
sin 0)
= - (A cos
0-<dr)
0+^
^.
Adding the
2
-=
((j>
first
of these equations multiplied

cos
(<
by
to the se.cond,
we have
sin0
+ t 0)=i
-^)(<f>
sin0
+ i0)+i
-^ cos 0e~^,
166

in the
[CH. vi
an equation which can be written

sin 6
form
+ i6)* + =i
(<
sin
1
- ijr)
~"
cos
(4 sin
i6)-
sn
or
cos ^
where
Similarly, if
7 = (i sin
+ i0) +
n ~
sin
F= (0 sin (9- i8? +

we have
"FT"
^
.,.
sin
=~
(0 cos ^
It follows that
J.
d7
tf dt
dt
or
UV = constant.
We
(<j>
have therefore the equation
sin
+ id)
7^-sin 0ar~*K j(0 sin
i6)
sin $6**
"^~
[
constant,
or
2
($
2
</>
sin 2 #) 2
+ (~^r
sin 2 #-|
l *l
^-sin0{e
((j>sm0
+ i0) +e~ ((j)sm0i0)

2
i *l
2]>
= constant,
and
this is the
required third algebraic integral of the system.
The first integrals which have been found constitute a system of three differential equations, each of the first order, for the determination of 0, (j), ty,
and they can be regarded as replacing the original
motion.
differential equations of does not occur explicitly in them and we can there fore use one of the three equations in order to eliminate from the other two: we shall then have a system of two differential equations, each of the first
The
variable
<f>
<
order, to
determine
and
-fy.
It has
been shewn by Mme. Kowalevski that

:
these equations can be solved by means of hyperelliptic functions solution reference may be made to the memoir already referred to*.
*
;
for this
Cf. also Kotter, Acta Math. xvn. (1893), p. 209 Stekloff, Gorjatscheff, and Tcbapligine, Trav. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, x. (1899) and xn. (1904) G. Dumas, Nonv. Ann. (4) iv. (1904), p. 355; Husson, Toulouse Ann. (2) vm. (1906), p. 73; Husson, Acta Math. xxxi. (1907), p. 71;
;
N. Kowalevski, Math. Ann. LXV. (1908), p. 528; P. StackeJ, Math. Ann. LXV. (1908), p. 538; 0. Olsson, Arkiv for Mat. iv. Nr. 7 (1908); E. Marcolongo, Rom. Ace. Rend. (5) xvn. (1908), F. de Brun, Arkiv for Mat. vi. Nr. 9 (1910) P. Burgatti, Palermo Rend. xxix. (1910), p. 698 a p. 396; 0. Lazzarino, Rend. d. Soc. reale di Napoli, (3 ) xvn. (1911), p. 68.
; ;
74, 75]
Example.

, ,
167
let variables x, y, r
Let y 1 y 2 y3 denote the direction-cosines of Ox, Oy, Qz referred to OZ, and be denned by the equations
2o>
o>
Mgay-> I
-,
0)30)!
-2a>
w2
0,3(0!
+ a, 3 2 a, 2
/
Shew by use
momentum)
of Kowalevski s integral (without using the integrals of energy or angular that the equations of motion can be written in the form
where V is a function of x and y only, so that the problem motion of a particle in a plane conservative field of force.
is
transformed into that of the

(Kolosoff.)
E. Liouville* has stated that the only other general case in which the motion under gravity of a rigid body with one point fixed has a third algebraic integral is that in which
1.
2.
The momental The centre of

If
ellipsoid of the point of suspension is
an
ellipsoid of revolution.
gravity of the body
is
in the equatorial plane of the
momental
ellipsoid.
3.
ratio
J, A, C) are the principal
moments
of inertia at the point of suspension, the
2C/A
is
an integer
this integer can be arbitrarily chosen.
On
this, cf.
the memoirs cited in the footnote on the preceding page.
Example. A heavy body rotates about a fixed point 0, the principal moments of inertia at which satisfy the relation A = B = 4C and the centre of gravity of the body lies in the equatorial plane of the momental ellipsoid, at a distance h from 0. Shew that if the constant of angular momentum about the vertical through vanishes, there exists an integral
:
w3
where
coj,
!
+ co 22
) +gha>i
cos 6 = constant,
are the components of angular velocity about the principal axes Oxyz, to the centre of gravity and hence that the problem can be Ox being the line from solved by quadratures, leading to hyperelliptic integrals. (Tchapligine.)
2,
o>
75.
Impulsive motion.
in 36, the solution of problems in impulsive motion does not depend on the integration of differential equations, and can The following examples generally be effected by simple algebraic methods.
illustrate various types of impulsive systems.
As has been observed
Two uniform rods AB, BC, each of length 2a, are smoothly jointed at B horizontal table with their directions at right angles. An impulse is applied to the middle point of AB, and the rods start moving as a rigid body : determine the direction
Example and rest on a
1.
of the impulse that this

ratio
may
be the case,
and prove
that the velocities of A,
C will
be in the
V13
1.
(Coll.
Exam.)
We can without loss of generality suppose the mass of each rod to be unity. Let (x, y} be the component velocities of B referred to fixed axes Ox, Oy parallel to the undisturbed
*
Acta Math. xx. (1897),
p. 239.
168
position

<
[CH. vi
be the angular velocities of BA and BC. The BA, BC of the rods, and let 6, components of velocity of the middle point of AB are (x, y + ad), and the components of y), so the kinetic energy of the system is velocity of the middle point of BC are (x given by the equation
a<,
Let the components parallel to the axes of the impulse be
/, J.
The components
of
the displacement of the point of application of the impulse in a small displacement of the system are (bx, By + add) and hence the equations of 36 become
;
0= -ax + â 2
while the condition that the system moves as
),
if rigid is
=
<p.
\x=y=lae =
Hence /=/, which shews that the and as the components of velocity
lai>
= \I=lJ.
;
direction of the impulse makes an angle of 45 with BA of A are (x, y + 2a0), and the components of velocity of
are (x
2a<,
y),
we have
for the velocities of
and of C the values \/65y and *Jby

is
respectively, so the velocity of
is
^/13 x the velocity of C: which
the required result.
Example
k,
2.
A framework in
is
the ends of tivo pairs of
the form of a parallelogram is made by smoothly jointing uniform bars of lengths 2a, 26, masses m, m and radii of gyration
,
moving without any rotation of its sides, and with velocity V, in the direction of one of its diagonals; it impinges on a smooth fixed wall with which the sides make angles 6, $ and the direction of the velocity V a right angle, the vertex which impinges being brought to rest by the impact. Shew that the impulse on the wall is
k
.
The parallelogram
(Coll.
Exam.)
Let x and y be the coordinates of the centre of the parallelogram, x being measured at right angles to the wall and towards it. The kinetic energy is
T= (m + m
(x
The ^-coordinate of the point of the axis of point of contact parallel to

(&r, By,
B6,
+y 2 + (mk2 + m a2 2 + (mb 2 + m contact is # + asin# + &sin0, so

) }
2
k"
2
)
.
the displacement of the
80)
/,
is
x corresponding to an arbitrary displacement The equations of motion, denoting the S.r + acos#50 + &cos080.
impulse by
are therefore
fdT_ (dT\
dx
_ _
/^T\
= =
la cos
0,
- Ib cos
80/o
(mk
(mb
+ m a2 +m k 2
6

.
<f>
= 0.
b 2 cos 2
from these equations, we have
[2
(m + mf)
which
is
the result stated.
The next example relates to a case of sudden fixture if one point (or line) of a freely-moving rigid body is suddenly seized and compelled to move in a given manner, there will be an impulsive change in the motion of the body,
;
which can be determined from the condition that the angular momentum of the body about any line through the point seized (or about the line seized) is unchanged by the seizure this follows from the fact that the impulse of
;
seizure has
no moment about the point (or

3.
line).
Example
diameter when a point

the centre is equal to
uniform circular disc is spinning with an angular velocity Q about a P on its rim is suddenly fixed. Prove that the subsequent velocity of J of the velocity of the point P immediately before the impact.
(Coll.
Exam.)
disc, and let a be the angle between the radius to P and the diameter about which the disc was originally spinning. The original velocity of P is Q.C sin a, where c is the radius of the disc. The original angular momentum about P is 2 about an axis through P parallel to the original axis of rotation, and of magnitude ^mc Q. and this is unchanged by the fixing of P, so when P has been fixed, the angular momentum
Let
be the mass of the
about the tangent at

tangent at
is
rac 2 I2 sin a.
But the moment
of inertia of the disc about its
so the angular velocity about the tangent at is ^ 12 sin a. The of the original velocity velocity of the centre of the disc is therefore Jflcsina, which is of P.
,
P is f me A
and
lamina in the form of a parallelogram whose mass is has a smooth Example 4. It is struck at an angular pivot at each of the middle points of two parallel sides. point which adheres to it after the blow. Shew that the impulsive by a particle of mass reaction at one of the pivots is zero.
(Coll.
Exam.)
1. Prove that for a disc free to turn about a horizontal axis perpendicular to its plane the locus on the disc of the centres of suspension for which the simple equivalent pendulum has a given length L consists of two circles and that, if A and B are two
;
points, one
on each
circle,
and
about
the centre of suspension is its centre of inertia is given by the equation
the length of the simple equivalent pendulum when the middle point of AB, the radius of gyration k of the disc
is
where 2c
2.
is
the length of AB.
(Coll.
Exam.)
heavy rigid body can turn about a fixed horizontal axis. If one point in the body is given through which the horizontal axis has to pass, discuss the problem of choosing the direction of the axis in the body in such a way that the simple equivalent pendulum shall have a given length shewing that the axes which satisfy this condition are
;
the generators of a quartic cone.
(Coll.
Exam.)
170
3.

A
sphere of radius b
rolls
[CH.
without slipping down the cycloid
x=a(0 + sin6),
It starts
y = a(l
by
costf).
from rest with
its
centre on the horizontal line
y = 2a.
Prove that the velocity
of its centre
when
at the lowest point is given
F 2 =-W (2o- 6).

4.
(Coll.
Exam.)
rests symmetrically on two shelves uniform smooth cube of edge 2a and mass each of breadth b and mass m and attached to walls at a distance 2c apart. Shew that, if one of the shelves gives w&y and begins to turn about the edge where it is attached to the wall, the initial angular acceleration of the cube will be
:-& + a) 2
where Mb and / are respectively the of the shelf about its edge.
2
moments
of inertia of the cube about its centre
and
I,
1899.)
5. A homogeneous rod of mass and length 2a moves on a horizontal plane, one end being constrained to slide without friction in a fixed straight line. The rod is initially perpendicular to the line, and is struck at the free end by a blow / parallel to the line. Shew that after time t the perpendicular distance y of the middle point of the rod from
the line
is
(l-$ xtf(l-x )-%dx=3lt/2Ma.

2
t
(Coll.
Exam.)
6. Four equal uniform rhombus ABCD. The joint
rods, of length 2a, are smoothly jointed so as to form a is fixed, whilst C is free to move on a smooth vertical rod
through A. Initially C coincides with A and the whole system is rotating about the Prove that, if in the subsequent motion 2a is the least vertical with angular velocity angle between the upper rods,
o>.
w 2 cos a = 3g
sin 2 a.

7.
I,
1900.)
a smooth horizontal table, and a smooth circular groove A particle of of radius a is cut in it, passing through the centre of gravity of the disc. is started in the groove from the centre of gravity of the disc. mass Investigate the
A disc of mass M rests on

is
^M
Prove that if a$ round by the disc, then

motion.
the arc traversed by the particle and 6 the angle turned
Mk 2
8.
being the
moment
of inertia of the disc
about a vertical
line
through
(Coll.
its
centre
of gravity.
Exam.)
A
G>
velocity
motion.
latus
body is moving freely under the action of gravity and rotating with angular about an axis through its centre of gravity perpendicular to the plane of its Shew that the axis of instantaneous rotation describes a parabolic cylinder of
rigid
2
rectum (^/4a+
*j2g/ca}
of the centre of gravity of the body described by the centre of gravity.
whose vertex is at a distance vSâ/w above that of the path where 4a is the latus rectum of the parabola
;
(Coll.
Exam.)
smooth uniform tube which can rotate in a A particle of mass m 9. The system starts from rest when the tube is vertical plane about its middle point. If 6 is the angle the tube makes with the vertical when its angular velocity is horizontal. a maximum and equal to prove that
is placed in a
o>,
4 (mr* + J/F)
4
&>
- Smgrco 2 cos 6 + mg 2 sin 2 6 = 0,
vi]
where
The
Mk z
is
Soluble Problems of Rigid
Dynamics
(Coll.
171
the
moment
of inertia of the tube about its centre and r the distance of the
particle
from the centre of the tube.
Exam.)
10. Four uniform rods, smoothly jointed at their ends, form a parallelogram which can move smoothly on a horizontal surface, one of the angular points being fixed. Initially the configuration is rectangular and the framework is set in motion in such a manner that the angular velocity of one pair of opposite sides is Q, that of the other pair
being zero. Shew that when the angle between the rods angular velocity of the system is Q.
is
maximum
or
minimum, the
Exam.)
(Coll.
11. Two homogeneous rough spheres of equal radii a and of masses m, m rest on a smooth horizontal plane with m at the highest point of m. If the system is disturbed, shew that the inclination of their common normal 6 to the vertical is given by the
equation
(l-cos<9).
(Coll.
Exam.)
12.
uniform rod
c.
AB
is
sible string of length
The other end
of length 2a and is attached at one end to a light inextenof this string is fixed at to a point in a smooth
Initially
horizontal plane on which the rod moves. projected without rotation with velocity
GAB
is
a straight line and the rod
is
in the direction perpendicular to its length.

is
Prove that the cosine of the greatest subsequent angle between the rod and string
l-/6c.
13.
(Coll.
Exam.)
To a
them
slides,
fixed point arc smoothly jointed two uniform rods of length 2a, and upon by means of a smooth ring at each end, a third rod similar in all respects.
Initially the three rods are in a horizontal line
with the ends of the third rod at the middle points of the other two and, on the application of an impulse, the rods begin to rotate with angular velocity Q in a horizontal plane. Shew that the third rod will slide
right off the other
two unless
J3.
(Coll.
Exam.)
hollow thin cylinder of radius a and mass 14. is maintained at rest in a horizontal position on a rough plane whose inclination is a, and contains an insect of mass at rest on the line of contact with the plane. The cylinder is released as the insect starts off with velocity V: if this relative velocity be maintained and the cylinder roll up
shew that it will come to instantaneous makes an angle d with the vertical given by
hill,
rest
when the
radius through the insect
F 2 {1 - cos (0-a)}+ag (cos a -cos
<9)
= (1 +M/m) ag (d-a)
sin
a.
(Coll.
Exam.)
smooth plane tube can turn smoothly about a fixed axis of rotation and intersecting it the moment of inertia of the tube about the axis is 1. Initially the tube is rotating with angular velocity Q about the axis, and a particle of mass m is projected with velocity V within the tube from the point of intersection of the tube with the axis. The system then moves under no external forces. Prove that, when the particle is at a distance r from the axis, the square of its velocity relative to the
15.
A uniform
lying in its plane
tube
is
1
Q2
16.
(Coll.
Exam.)
that each of
mass
uniform straight rod of mass is laid across two smooth horizontal pegs so its ends projects beyond the corresponding peg. A second uniform rod of and length 21 is fastened to the first at some point between the pegs by a
172
[CH.
:
universal joint. This rod is initially held horizontal and in contact with the first rod and then let go, so as to oscillate in the vertical plane through the first rod. Prove that if 6
be the angle which the second rod makes with the vertical at any instant, and distance through which the first rod has moved from rest,
x the
(M+m) x + ml sin 6 = ml,

and
17.
(t d
\
--
m + M cos
^>
6\
/
ifr
= 2g cos 6.
(Coll.
Exam.)
plane body
body
is free
to slide along a
;
the same plane and the angle of rotation & (no external forces being supposed to act on the system) is of the form
rotate in its plane about a fixed point, and a second plane smooth straight groove in the first body, its motion being in shew that the relation between the relative advance x along the groove
is free to
where
18.
P and Q are
respectively linear
and quadratic functions of x 1
-.
(Coll.
Exam.)
pendulum is formed of a straight rod and a hollow circular bob, and fitting bob is a smooth vertical lamina in the shape of a segment of a circle, the distances of the centre (C) of the bob from the point of suspension (0) and from the Prove that if M, m are the centre of gravity (G} of the lamina being I and c respectively. masses of the pendulum and lamina, k and 1J their respective radii of gyration about and G, 6 and $ the angles which OC and CG make with the vertical, then twice the work done by gravity on the system during its motion from rest is equal to
inside the
2
(
+c 2
2
)
<j>
+ 2mcZcos (6-$)
6$.
(Coll.
Exam.)
is attached to the end of a fine string which passes round 19. particle of mass the circumference of a wheel of mass M, the other end of the string being attached to a point in that circumference, a length I of the string being straight initially, and the wheel (radius a and radius of gyration k) being free to move about a fixed vertical axis through
its
centre; the particle, which lies on a smooth horizontal plane, is projected at right angles to the string, so that the string begins to wrap round the wheel prove that, if the is string eventually unwinds from the wheel, the shortest length of the straight portion
;
(P
20.
- a 2 - J/F/m)*.
(Coll.
Exam. )
carriage
is
rolls straight
down without any
the horizon and placed on an inclined plane making an angle a with The floor of and the wheels the between plane. slipping
is
the carriage is parallel to the plane and a perfectly rough ball that the acceleration of the carriage down the plane is
placed freely on
it.
Shew
where
is the mass of the carriage excluding the wheels, m the sum of the masses of the that of the ball. The friction between the wheels which are uniform discs, and wheels, and the axes is neglected. (Coll. Exam.)
A uniform rod of mass m t and length 2a is capable of rotating freely about its upper extremity and is initially inclined at an angle of Tr/6 to the vertical. A second to the lower end of the first and rests rod, of mass m 2 and length 2a, is smoothly attached Shew that if the centre initially at an angle of 2-/3 with it and in a horizontal position. of the lower rod commence to move in a direction making an angle -rr/G with the vertical,
21.
fixed
then 3wH = 14m 2
(Coll.
Exam.)
vi]
22.

A
uniform circular disc
is
173
symmetrically suspended by two elastic strings of
natural length c inclined at an angle a to the vertical, and attached to the highest point of the disc. If one of the strings is cut, prove that the initial curvature of the path of the centre of the disc
is
(c
sin 4a
b sin 2a)/6 (b
c),
where
23.
b is the equilibrium length of each string.
(Coll.
Exam.)
rods AC, CB of equal length 2a are freely jointed at (7, the rod being freely moveable about a fixed point A, and the end B of the rod CB is attached to A by an inextensible string of length 4a/ x/3. The system being in equilibrium, the string is cut
Two
AC
shew that the radius of curvature of the

_!_
initial
path of
at
is
181V
24.
f
"
I,
1897.)
rod of length 2a
is
supported in a horizontal position
by two
light strings
which
pass over two smooth pegs in a horizontal line at a distance 2a apart and have at their other extremities weights each equal to one half that of the rod. One of the strings is cut prove that the initial curvature of the path of that end of the rod to which the cut string
;
was attached
25.
is
27/25.
straight
(Coll.
Exam.)
A heavy plank,
is
and very rough,
is
free to
turn in a vertical plane about
its centre of gravity is c. A rough heavy placed on this plank at a distance b from the axis, on the side remote from the centre of gravity the plank being held horizontal. The system is now left free to move.
a horizontal axis from which the distance of sphere
radius of curvature of the path of the centre of the sphere is Mc )j(mb + Ma ) m and are the masses of the sphere and 110), where d = (tnb 21&#/(5 the plank, and Mob is the moment of inertia of the plank about the axis.
initial
i
Prove that the
(Coll.
Exam.)
two equal particles of mass m at distances k from the centre on each side of it to each end of the rod is tied an end of an inextensible string of length 2a on which is a ring of mass m Initially the string and rod are in one straight line on a smooth horizontal table with the string taut and the ring at the loop the ring is then projected at right angles to the rod, shew that the relative motion will be
26.
A light stiff rod of length
2c carries
oscillatory if
c2
/P
>
+ 2i/m
c,
(Coll.
Exam.)
27.
Three equal uniform
ABC of weight W; the triangle at C. This system rests in equilibrium in contact with the surface of a fixed smooth sphere of radius a, being horizontal and in contact with the sphere, and the bar being in the vertical plane through the centre of the triangle the bar, and the centre of
triangle
are firmly joined to form an equilateral a uniform bar of length 26 and weight is freely jointed to
rods, each of length
AB
the triangle, are on opposite sides of the vertical line through C. Prove that the inclination of the plane of the triangle to the horizon is the angle whose tangent is
[abfj.
+ 2c\ 2 ]
2
-T-
[np (a
+ 1 c2 + A V - 2a6c]
)
,
where
= a -rc -^c,
2
= 12a 2 -c2
and
n=W/W.
I,

28.
1896.)
A body, under the action of no forces, moves so that the resolved
velocity about one of the principal axes at the centre of gravity is angular velocity of the body must be constant, and find its resolved parts about the other two principal axes when the moments of inertia about these axes are equal.
;
part of its angular constant shew that the
(Coll
Exam.)
174
29.

Shew
that a herpolhode cannot have a point of inflexion.
this result is given
[CH.
(Hess.)
(A simple proof of
xxxiv. (1906),
p.
by Lecornu,
Bull, de la Soc. Math, de France,
40.)
In the motion under no forces of a body one of whose points is fixed, shew that the 30. motion of every quadric homocyclic with the momental ellipsoid relative to the fixed point, and rigidly connected with the body, is the same as if it were made to roll without sliding on a fixed quadric of revolution, which has its centre at the fixed point, and whose axis is
the invariable
31.
line.
(Gebbia.)
In the motion of a body under no forces round a fixed point, shew that the three
diameters of the momental ellipsoid at the fixed point and the diameter of the ellipsoid reciprocal to the momental ellipsoid, determined respectively by the intersection of the
invariable plane with the three principal planes and with the plane perpendicular to the instantaneous axis, describe areas proportional to the times, so that the accelerations of
their extremities are directed to the centre.
(Siacci.)
When a body moveable about a fixed point is acted on by forces whose moment 32. round the instantaneous axis is always zero, shew that the velocity of rotation is proportional to that radius vector of the momental ellipsoid which is in the direction
of this axis.
Shew that
this
also constrained to slide

33.
theorem is still true if the body on a fixed surface.
is
moveable about a
fixed point and (Flye St Marie.)
plane lamina is initially moving with equal angular velocities Q about the axes of greatest and least moment of inertia at its centre of mass, and has principal no angular velocity about the third principal axis express the angular velocities about these axes as elliptic functions of the time, supposing no forces to act on the lamina.
;
If 6
be the angle between the plane of the lamina and any fixed plane, shew that

34.
I,
1896.)
A rigid
body
is
point above its centre of gravity and
kinetically symmetrical about an axis which passes through a fixed is set in motion in any manner shew that in the
;
subsequent motion, except in one case, the centre of gravity can never be vertically over
the fixed point
35.
;
and
find the greatest height
it
attains.
(Coll.
Exam.)
set of axes
In the motion of the top on the rough plane, shew that there exists an auxiliary also with respect OTJ whose motion with respect to the fixed axes OXYZ the invariable planes being the horizontal to the moving axes Oxyz is a Poinsot motion
&n<\
plane in the former case, and the plane perpendicular to the axis of the body in the second
case.
36.
(Jacobi.)
uniform solid of revolution moves about a point, so that its motion may be represented by the uniform rolling of a cone of semi-vertical angle a fixed in the body upon an equal cone fixed in space, the axis of the former being the axis of revolution. Shew that the couple necessary to maintain the motion is of magnitude
Q 2 tan
where Q
is
{C+ (C- A]
cos 2a},
the resultant angular velocity and A and C the principal moments of inertia at the point, and that the couple lies in the plane of the axes of the cones. (Coll. Exam.)
vi]
37.

A
vertical plane is
175
made
to rotate with
uniform angular velocity about a vertical
itself, and a perfectly rough cone of revolution has its vertex fixed at a point of that axis. Shew that, if the line of contact make an angle 6 with the vertical, and /3 and y be the extreme values of #, and a be the semi-vertical angle of the cone,
axis in
K2
A?#\ 2 _
-
-,
&Q n,
\dt /
sin 2 a (cos & - cos /3) (cos y cos a cos @ cosy
- cos
where h
is
the distance of the centre of gravity of the cone from
its vertex,
and k
I,
its
radius
of gyration about a generator.

38.
1896.)
body can rotate freely about a fixed vertical axis for which its moment of / the body carries a second body in the form of a disc which can rotate about a horizontal axis, fixed in the first body and intersecting the vertical axis. In the position of equilibrium the moments and product of inertia of the disc with regard to the vertical and horizontal axes respectively are A, B, F. Prove that if the system start from rest
inertia
is
:
with the plane of the disc inclined at an angle a to the vertical, the through an angle
first
body
will oscillate
IF
arctan
f^sinal -
r
}-
(Coll.
Exam. )
gyrostat consists of a heavy symmetrical flywheel freely mounted in a heavy case and is suspended from a fixed point by a string of length I fixed to a point spherical in the case. The centres of gravity of the flywheel and case are coincident. Shew that,
39.
if
the whole revolve in steady motion round the vertical with angular velocity and the axis of the gyrostat inclined at angles a, to the vertical, then
?
i2,
the strin-
Q2
and
whore
(I
sin a +
/3
sin
/3
+ b cos
=g tan a,
(/3
/Q
sin
- Afl 2 j3
sin
cos /3=
Mg sec a
(a sin
a)
+ b cos
(/3
a)},
the mass of the gyrostat, a and b the coordinates of the point of attachment of the string with reference to axes coinciding with, and at right angles to, the axis of the flywheel, / the angular momentum of the flywheel about its axis and A the moment of
is
inertia
about a line perpendicular to
its axis.
I,
1900.)
initially in
system consisting of any number of equal uniform rods loosely jointed and the same straight line is struck at any point by a blow perpendicular to the rods. Shew that if u, v, w be the initial velocities of the middle points of any three consecutive
40.
rods,
u + 4;V + w = Q.
(Coll.
Exam.)
41. Any number of uniform rods of masses A, B, C, ..., Z are smoothly jointed to each other in succession and laid in a straight line on a smooth table. If the end Z be free and the end A moved with velocity F in a direction perpendicular to the line of the
rods, then the initial velocities of the joints
(AB\
(BC),
...
and the end
Z are
a, b, ...,
z,
where
0=A
and
42.
(F + 2a) +
(2a + &),
= B (a
y + 22 = 0.
(Coll.
Exam.)
points
Six equal uniform rods form a regular hexagon loosely jointed at the angular a blow is given at right angles to one of them at its middle point, shew that the
opposite rod begins to
move with T]o
of the velocity of the rod struck.
(Camb. Math. Tripos, 1882.)
176
43.

A
:
[OH. vi
shew that the initial axis of fixed, is struck body at rest, with one point diametral with to the momental ellipsoid at 0, of is the line, respect body the plane of the impulsive couple acting on the body.
rotation of the
The positive octant of the ellipsoid ^72 /a 2 +3/ 2 /62 + 22 /6 2 = l has the 44. Shew that if an impulsive couple in the plane
.
origin fixed.
2 \b
a/
c
z.
act
upon the
octant, it will begin to revolve about the axis of
(Coll.
Exam.)
An ellipsoid is rotating about its centre with angular velocity 45. 2 , w s) referred the centre is free and a point (#, y, z) on the surface is suddenly to its principal axes (Coll. Exam.) brought to rest. Find the impulsive reaction at that point.
&>
(<BI,
A is equal rods AB, BC inclined at an angle a are smoothly jointed at B prove that the initial parallel to the external bisector of the angle A BC angular velocities of AB, BC are in the ratio
46.
Two
made
to
move
2 + 3 sin 2 5 2t
15 sin | 2*
(Coll.
Exam.)
47.
A uniform cone is rotating with angular velocity

is
o>
about a generator when suddenly

is fixed.
this generator
loosed and the diameter of the base which intersects the generator
is
Prove that the new angular velocity
where h
is
the altitude, a the semi-vertical angle, and k the radius of gyration about a
(Coll.
its
diameter of the base.

48.
Exam.)
rough disc can turn about an axis perpendicular to
circular cone rests on the disc with its vertex just at the axis.
plane, and a 1 ough If the disc be made
to turn with angular velocity Q,
shew that the cone takes an amount of kinetic energy
equal to
|Q
49.
/{cos a/J
+sin 2
/{7}.
(Coll.
Exam.)
One end
in the surface of a
of an inelastic string is attached to a fixed point and the other to a point body of mass M. The body is allowed to fall freely under gravity
without rotation. Shew that just after the string becomes tight the loss of kinetic energy dvie to the impact is
where V
is
impact, the string only touching the body at the point of attachment, the coordinates of the string at the instant it becomes tight, and A, B,
the resolved velocity of the body in the direction of the string just before (I, m, n, A, p, v) are C are the principal
moments
of inertia of the
body with respect
to its principal axes at its centre of inertia.

(Coll.
Exam.)
CHAPTER
VII
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
76.
Vibrations about equilibrium.
exists
In Dynamics we frequently have to deal with systems for which there an equilibrium-configuration, i.e. a configuration in which the system
:
can remain permanently at rest thus in the case of the spherical pendulum, the configurations in which the bob is vertically over or vertically under the
point of support are of this character. If (q 1} q2 of a system and L its kinetic potential, and if ( 1?
,
...,
2
,
q n ) are the coordinates ..., n ) are the values of
the coordinates in an equilibrium-configuration, the equations of motion
d fdL\
"7-,Upat \oqrj
= -3oq r
...,
dL
(r=l,
2,
...,w)
must be
ji
satisfied
by the
#n
set of values
= 0, #2=0,
The
...,
= 0, ^ = 0,
#2
= 0,
gn
= 0,
ql
=a
,
</
or 2
...,
qn
= an
values of the coordinates in the various possible equilibrium-con figurations of a system are therefore obtained by solving for q lt qz ..., qn the
,
equations
|=
in
,
(,.
1,2,. ..,),
which q l} q 2 ..., q n are to be replaced by zero. In many cases, if the system is initially placed near an equilibrium-con
figuration, its particles
having very small initial velocities, the divergence from the equilibrium-configuration will never become very marked, the
particles always remaining in the vicinity of their original positions and never acquiring large velocities. shall now study motions of this type*;
We
they are called vibrations about an equilibrium-configuration^.

in this chapter the limiting form to which this type of divergence from a state of rest in the equilibrium-configu ration tends to zero the study of the motions which differ by a finite, though not large, amount from a state of rest in the equilibrium-configuration is given later in Chapter XVI the discussion
strictly speaking,
More
we study
initial
motion approximates when the

;
of the present chapter may be regarded as a first approximation to that of Chapter XVI. t The theory of vibrations has developed from Galileo s study of the small oscillations of a
pendulum.
In the
first
half of the eighteenth century the vibrations of a stretched cord were
investigated by Brook Taylor, D Alembert, Euler, and Daniel Bernoulli, the last-named of whom in 1753 enunciated the principle of the resolution of all compound types of vibration into inde
pendent simple modes. The general theory of the vibrations of a dynamical system with a number of degrees of freedom was given by Lagrange in 1762-5 (Oenvres, i. p. 520).
w. D.
finite
12
178
Theory of Vibrations
[CH.
vn
In the present work we are of course concerned only with the vibrations of systems which have a finite number of degrees of freedom the study of the vibrations of systems which have an infinite number of degrees of freedom, which is here excluded, will be found in treatises on the Analytical Theory of Sound.
;
suppose that the system is defined by its kinetic energy T and potential energy F, and that the position of the system is specified by the coordinates (qlt q2 ,..,q n ) independently of the time, so that T does not
shall
its
,
We
we shall also suppose that no coordinates have been explicitly the kinetic energy T is therefore a homogeneous quadratic function ignored with of coefficients involving q lt q2 ..., q n in any way. There t^n, ^2. is evidently no loss of generality in assuming that the equilibrium-con
involve
t
:
<?i,
figuration corresponds to zero values of the coordinates q lt q. ...,qn so that are very small throughout the motion considered. 9
2>
<?i*
<?*>
9i>
<?t>
>9n
The
small,
coefficients of the squares

q.2
,
functions of qlt
...,
qn
as
however
we can
in approximating to
and products of q 1} q 2 ..., q n in T are all the coordinates and velocities are the motion retain only the terms of lowest
,
all these coefficients by the constant values which they assume when q q. ..., q n are replaced by zero. The kinetic energy is therefore for our purposes a homogeneous quadratic function of
l
,
2>
order in T, and so can replace
<jn
i2,
>
??i
with constant
if
,
coefficients.
Moreover,
,
we expand the function
by Taylor s theorem in ascending

,
powers of q l q2 ..., qn the term independent of q ly q.2 ..., qn can be omitted, since it exercises no influence on the equations of motion and there are no
;
terms linear in q 1} q z
...,
qn
dV since if such terms existed the quantities dqr

position, as they
would not be zero in the equilibrium

of
must
be.
The terms
,
.
V are therefore the terms quadratic in q l} q2 ...,q n terms of the expansion in comparison with these, the higher Neglecting we have therefore expressed as a homogeneous quadratic form in the variables q lt q.2 ..., q n with constant coefficients.
lowest
order in
problem of vibratory motions about a configuration of equilibrium depends on the solution of Lagrangian equations of motion in which the kinetic and potential energies are homogeneous quadratic forms in the velocities and coordinates respectively, with constant coefficients.
the
Thus
77.
Normal
coordinates.
In order to solve the equations of motion of a vibrating system, we write the expressions for the kinetic and potential energies in the form
T = | (a n qf + a
22
q./
. .
+ a nn q n + 2a
2
l2
q,
q2
2a ls q q 3 +...+ 2a n _
l
1>
q n -iq n ),
76, 77]
;
179
of these T is ( 26) a positive definite form and the determinant formed of the quantities a rs is not zero (since if this condition is not satisfied, The equations of on less than n T will velocities).
depend motion are
independent
d /dT\
8F
-o-i,
-i
o
2,
....),
,
if
a change of variables
is
are linear functions of (q lt q a ...,q n ), the

,
q 2 ...,q n made, such that the new variables new equations of motion will be
(<?/,
(]b
U J- \
)
"
-J-.
brri
~t
Ck
\oqr j
-;, oq r
(r=l,
2,
...,),
and these equations are clearly linear combinations of the original equations. Suppose then* that the original equations of motion are multiplied m.2 ..., m n and added together. respectively by undetermined constants m,,
,
The
resulting equation will be of the form
where
provided the constants
Q=h
q1
,
+ h^q +
2
...
+ hn q n
,
lt
ra 2
...,
n h l} h a
,
...,
h n X satisfy the equations

,
~i~
tinn^îi
^~
"\
^/ \^m ^î
~i
^/i2^^2
II
*~
*
^nH***
\
n,)
^=
"\
A/t7j,.
These equations can coexist only

ftji A/
^ji>
if
is
a root of the determinantal equation

,
>
Gfi 2
Oj2
flinA/
Om
b.2r
a.21
62i
a 22 X
6 22)
2ri
b nl
this equation, we can determine from the ..., n h l h 2 ...,h n ; 2 preceding equations a possible set of ratios for these ratios may, in certain cases, be partly indeterminate, but in all cases at
Moreover,
if
is
any root of
m^ m
least
one function
can be obtained in this way, satisfying the equation
+
Now
so
let
U>
= o.
determined
a linear change of variables be effected so that the quantity Q there will be no ambiguity in is one of the new variables
:
This method of proof
is
due to Jordan, Comptes Rendus, LXXIV. (1872)
p. 1395.
122
180
,
[OH.
vn
denoting the new variables by q 1} q 2 ..., q n we shall take q to be identical with Q, so that the above equations are satisfied by the values h-L = \, A2 = 0, h n = 0. Since the form T is a positive definite form, the coefficients
\
. . .
"22,
33>
of q 2 q3
,
a nn of the squares of q z q 3) ..., q n will not be zero: so instead q n we can again take new variables respectively equal to
, ,
q*
+ ^12 ft. & +

.
îs
?i,
1*33
..,2
+ **in
,
"
?i-
1*22
Tin
By
this
T
.
so
we can assume
change of variables the terms in q^, q^q z that a 21 a 31 ..., a m are zero.
, ,
...,
q^q n are
removed from
h n =0, a 21
,
Now introducing the conditions h = \, h = 0, = in the equations which determine m m .., a nl

l
/i 3
= 0,
...,
,
= 0,
,
lt
...,
mn
h lt h 2
...
hn
X,
we obtain the
values
m = l/a n
1
ra.2
611
= Xiu,
fea
= =
0, 0,
m = 0,
3
...,
. .
.
m n = 0,
6 M1
631
= 0,
= 0.
It follows that the equation

.
dt
\dqj
0,
has the form
cfia
+ \qi =
d /dT\
"
while the equations
ji ( o^~ ) dt \dq r J
~*
dV
5~~
(**"*,
>
oq r
have the form
d /dT
3C
=TV9^r/
dV
^
9^r
(r
2, 3,
),
where
so that
T = T-a n q*, T
and
V = V- â^q*,
and qlf
do not involve
q^
This last system of equations may be regarded as the system of equations 1) degrees of freedom. corresponding to a vibrational problem with (n Treating them in the same manner, we can isolate another coordinate q2
such that
if
T"
=T - lavtf,
,
,
V"
- F - faoKqf
T"
do not involve q 2 or and a%, are certain constants), then are determined coordinates the and ..., n 4 by the equations of q q3 q q2 of a vibrational problem with (n freedom, in which the kinetic 2) degrees and and potential energies are respectively
(where X2 and
,
V"
T"
V".
Proceeding in this way, we shall finally have the variables chosen so that the kinetic and potential energies of the original system can be written in terms of the new variables in the form
T = % (a n gi + 229 + + a nn q n V = i (&i 2i + /3*q + ...+ &m? ),

2
*),
* z
where a n a^,
,
...,,
Ai.
^22,
Pnn are constants.
77]
181
If finally we take as variables the quantities â n qi, Va^g,, .... â instead of q l} q 2 ..., qn the kinetic and potential energies take the form
,
V = | (/ij^ +
2
fJ, 2
q<?
where pk stands
for fikkl akkit is
In this reduction
its roots all distinct
or has groups of repeated roots.
immaterial whether the determinantal equation has The final result can be
expressed by the statement that if the kinetic and potential energies of a vibrating system are given in the form
...
V=
it is
+ a nn q n + 2a ^ q + + b nn qn + 26 q +
2 12
+
4-
2a,l _ 1) n q n -^ q n \
12
<7,
. . .
2b n -i, n qn-iqn),
always possible
to
find a linear transformation of the coordinates such
that the kinetic
and
potential energies,
when expressed
in
terms of the new
coordinates, have the
form
= \ /Mi + ^2 9V +
2
+ Mn
s
,
where
the quantities
called the
^, /i.2) ..., n are constants. These new coordinates are normal coordinates or principal coordinates of the vibrating system.
fjt
Now
it is
a well-known algebraical theorem that the roots of the determi
nantal equation
b ln
2 A,
=0
an i A,
are the values of
o n i .................. a nn A,
o nn
X
2
for
which the expression

22 )
q<?
- 6 n ) q* + (a, X - 6 (a n \
+ (a nn \ - b nn ) q n + 2 (a u \ 2
can be made to depend on

,
less
than n independent variables (which
will
be
linear functions of q 1} q.2 ..., q n ). Since this is a property which persists linear of variables, we see that the determinantal equation through any change
f
is
<?i,
invariantive,
92,
,
i.e.
if g/, if
q2
qn
and
T and V when
2
q n are any n independent linear functions of expressed in terms of q^, q2 ..., q n take
,
the form
T=\
qi
+ a* q^ +
+ 2a
12
?/ q,
...),
182
[OH. vii
then the roots of the new determinantal equation a,./X &,./ same as the roots of the original determinantal equation a rg \
=0
b r^
are the
= 0.
But when the kinetic and potential energies have been brought by the introduction of normal coordinates to the form
the determinantal equation
is
X-ji
77, 78]
are, in fact, that
j|
183
\\
shall be linear*.
the elementary divisors (Elementartheiler) of the determinant a rs\ brs If however one of the two given forms is a definite form (as we saw was
the case with the kinetic energy in the dynamical problem), the elementary divisors are always linear, and the simultaneous reduction to sums of squares is therefore possible
this explains the circumstance that the reduction
can always be effected in the dynamical
problem of vibrations.
The universal possibility of the reduction to normal coordinates for dynamical systems was established by Weierstrass in 1858 1 previous writers (following Lagrange) had supposed that in cases where the determinantal equation had repeated roots a set of normal coordinates would not exist, and that terms involving the time otherwise than in trigonometric and exponential functions would occur in the final solution of the equations
;
of motion.
78.
Sylvesters theorem on the reality of the roots of the determinantal
equation.
We have seen in the preceding article that by introducing new variables which are linear functions of the original variables, it is always possible to reduce the kinetic and potential energies of a vibrating system to the form
i
+ Ma +
i.e.
The question arises as to whether this transformation is real, the coefficients h ly h 2 ..., h n which occur in 1} m 2 ..., n
whether
the trans
formation are real or complex. Sijice these coefficients are given by linear whose with the \n coefficients, equations possible exception of the roots Xj A,2
, ,
. . . ,
of the determinantal equation, are certainly real, the question reduces to investigation of the reality or otherwise of the roots of the equation
an
au
\b
a 12 X-&i2
ooX
...... ......
amX
a.2n
b ln b2n
\
=0;
ttojA,
b. 2l
^
b n2
.
a m^
it
~ b nl
a n2 \
u nn \
b nn
being known that the quantities a rs and

2
b rs are all real,

1
and that
gn_1 g n
Oiiî
is
+ a^q +
2 2
...+ a nn q n 2
+ 2a w g
ga
+ ... + 2a, _
l
]>n
a positive definite form.

,
Let A denote| the determinant \\a rg \ b rs and let Aj. denote the determinant obtained from it by striking out the first row and first column let A., denote the determinant obtained from A by striking out the first two
*
Cf.
Muth
s treatise
on Elementartheiler (Leipzig, 1899); or Bocher
Introduction
to
Higher
Algebra (New York, 1907). t Cf. Weierstrass Collected Works, Vol. i. p. 233. The following proof is due to Nanson, Mess, of Math. xxvi. (1896),
p. 59.
184
rows and
first
two columns, and so
a,i
ot 19
[CH. vii
on.
Then
,
in
any symmetrical deter

,
minant, say
where arg = agr
78, 79]
,
,
none of the functions in the series A, A ls A 2 ... A n general the condition that the shall have a negative root is that each of the functions must have
same sign
shall
at
X= X=
6 12 b
...
as at
A,
=-
oo
Hence the condition

be positive
as
is
,
to be satisfied
in order that all the roots of
A may
have
at
the
same sign
(- l)
n~r
that each quantity A,, that each of the i.e.
determinants
6n b b ln b
,
186
It
[CH.
vu
appears from these equations that if all the normal coordinates except one, say qr are initially zero, and if the constant \. corresponding to the non-zero coordinate is positive, then the coordinates (qi,q2 q r -i,q r +i,
,
,
>
<Jn)
will
be permanently
qr
the coordinate
zero, and the system perform vibrations in which Moreover the configuration of the is alone affected.
will
an interval of time 2?r/Vx,.. This is usually that each expressed by saying of the normal coordinates corresponds to an
system
will repeat itself after
independent mode of vibration of the system, provided the corresponding

constant
\r
is positive;
and
the period of this vibration is 2?r/Vx,..
Moreover, if the system be referred to any other set of coordinates which are not normal coordinates, these coordinates are linear functions of the
normal coordinates
anji the
normal coordinates perform their vibrations

.
quite independently of each other thus every conceivable vibration of the system may be regarded as the superposition of n independent normal vibrations. This is generally known as Daniel Bernoulli s principle of the
;
superposition of vibrations*.
If the quantities (Xj, \ 2 ...,X n ) are not all positive, it appears from the above solution that those normal coordinates q r which correspond to the non-positive roots X,. will not oscillate about a zero value when the system is in its equilibrium position, but will slightly disturbed from a state of rest
,
increase so as to invalidate the assumption made at the outset of the work, namely that the higher powers of the coordinates can be neglected. In this case therefore, there will not be a vibration at all, and the equilibrium
If however the initial disturbance is configuration .is said to be unstable. such that these normal coordinates which correspond to non-positive roots X r are not affected, the system will perform vibrations in which the rest
of the normal coordinates oscillate about zero values.
The normal modes

be
stable.
of vibration,
which correspond to those normal

X,.
coordinates for which the

If the constants
is
corresponding root
is
positive,
are said to
as a whole
are all positive, the equilibrium-configuration The condition for stability of the equi said to be stable.
is
Xr
librium-configuration
therefore,
by the theorem
of the last article, that

definite
of the vibrating system shall be a positive
form.
;
This result might have been expected from a consideration of the integral of energy
for this integral is
T+
V=h,
where T and F are the quadratic forms which represent the kinetic and potential energies, and where h is a constant. This constant h will be small if the initial divergence from the 7 if V is also a positive equilibrium state is small. But T is a positive definite form and definite form, we must have T and V each less than h, so T and V will remain small throughout the motion the motion will therefore never differ greatly from the equilibrium;
:
configuration,
i.e. it
will
*
be
stable.
p. 147.
Histoire de V Academic de Berlin, annee 1753,
79, 80]
80.
Examples of vibrations about equilibrium.
shall
187
We
(i)
now
discuss a
number
of illustrative cases of vibration about
equilibrium. To find the vibration-period of a cylinder of any a perfectly rough fixed cylinder.
cross-section which
can
roll
on the
outside of
Let s be the arc described on the fixed cylinder by the point of contact, s being measured from the equilibrium position let p and p be the radii of curvature of the cross-sections of the fixed and moving cylinders respectively at the points which are in contact in the equilibrium position p and p being supposed positive when the cylinders are convex to each other let be the mass of the moving cylinder, Mk* its moment of inertia about its centre of gravity, and c the distance of the centre of gravity from the
; :
initial position of
the point of contact in the moving cylinder.
between the common normal to the cylinders and the the angle between the common normal at time t arid the vertical, a + s/p + s/p is the angle made with the vertical by the line joining the centre of curvature of the moving cylinder with the original point of contact in the moving cylinder, and s/p + s/p is the angle made with the vertical by the line joining the last-named point to
If a denotes the initial angle
vertical,
then a + s/p
is
the centre of gravity of the moving cylinder.

is
The angular
1
velocity of the
moving cylinder
therefore
I
..,.,. so its kinetic energy is

.
\P
The
V
potential energy
is
Mg x height
of the centre of gravity of the
moving cylinder above some

P
fixed position
= Mg \(p (p + p )cos (o+-] -p

Neglecting
s3
cos(a + - +
P/
+ ccos
[\P
+
p
this gives
PP
\ PP
of motion,
fdT\
dT
dt \di gives
Jf (# + c 2) (1
P
+P/
(
PP
\ PP
and the vibrations are therefore given by the equation
where
X
is
A and
are constants of integration to be determined

ff PP -r~ 5 {( COSa K + C 2 (p + p
,
by the
initial conditions,
and

V9 X
}
C[
}
The vibration-period
(ii)
is 27T/X.
tion of
To find the periods of the normal modes of vibration about an equilibrium-configura a particle moving on a fixed smooth surface under gravity.
to
is
The tangent-plane
equilibrium-configuration
the surface at the point occupied by the particle in the evidently horizontal take as axes of x and y the tangents to
:
188
z
[OH.
vn
the lines of curvature of the surface at this point, and as axis of upwards so that the equation to the surface is approximately
:
a line drawn vertically
where p
The
and p 2 denote the principal radii of curvature, measured positively upwards. l kinetic energy and potential energy are approximately
and
T=\m(xi -\-i/2 V= mgz
(where
in is
the mass),
&
It is evident
y*
from these expressions that x and y are the normal coordinates
the
equations of motion are

P2
Pi
and the periods
of the
normal modes of vibration are therefore

9^ZiTT
fl
\
1
I
clIlLl
anH
9 -.
zAe normal modes of vibration of a rigid body, one of whose points is fixed, vibrating about a position of stable equilibrium under the action of any system of conservative forces.
(iii)
ô ymc?
is
and which
positions of the principal axes of will axes be taken as usual to be these the moving body We shall suppose the position of the body at any instant principal axes of inertia. as the 9 ; we shall regard defined by the symmetrical parameters (, ij, 77, x) of
as fixed axes of reference
inertia of the
Take
OXYZ the equilibrium

;
at the fixed point
independent coordinates of the system, x being defined in terms of them by the equation
The components
of angular velocity of the
body about the moving axes are (16)
On
the
so
first
as small quantities of account of the smallness of the vibration, we regard ?;, f order x therefore differs from unity by a small quantity of the second order, and
,
;
we
have, correctly to the
first
order of small quantities,
and the
kinetic energy of the body,
which
is
where A, B, written
are the principal
moments
of inertia at the point of suspension, can be
The
potential energy
r;,
is
some function
of the position of the body,

77,
and therefore of the
parameters (,
let it
be denoted by V (,
f ).
80]
Since zero values of
(|,
77,
189
correspond to the equilibrium position, there will be

:
no terms linear in (, 77, f) when F is expanded in ascending powers of (, 77, f) the lowest terms are therefore of the second order neglecting terms of higher order, we can therefore
;
write
V = a? + b^ + o? + 2fyC+ 2g& + Zhfa

where
a, b,
c,
f, g,
h are constants.
is
The problem
of reducing the
of determining the normal coordinates two quadratic expressions
therefore the
same as that
to the
form
where
(#, y, z)
are linear functions of (,
77,
).
Now
the equation, referred to the fixed axes, of the momental ellipsoid in

is
its
equi
librium position
consider in connexion with this the quadric whose equation
is
which we shall
call
the
"
ellipsoid of equal potential energy
"
and determine the common
be the coordinates, referred Let (X\ set of conjugate diameters of these quadrics. , ) to these conjugate diameters, of a point whose coordinates referred to the fixed axes
are (X, Y,
Y Z
,
Z\ and
let
the equations connecting
(X
Y Z
and (X,
7
,
Z) be
By
this transformation the equations of the quadrics are reduced to the
form
X ^+b^ + CjZ
=1,
in the
and therefore the transformation which gives the normal coordinates problem is
dynamical
It follows that in
a normal
mode
of vibration, say that in
which x alone
varies, the
quantities (,
77,
f) will
be permanently in the ratio
But from the
definitions of
it is
evident that
r;,
are, to
the
first
order of small
quantities, proportional to the direction-cosines of the line about which the rotation of the rigid body takes place, and consequently the normal mode of vibration of the
rigid
body consists of a small

line
oscillation
about a
line
2
:
whose equation
is
X
i.e.
Z=li
/,,
about the
r
which
is
=o,
=o,
one of the
common
conjugate diameters of the two quadrics.
190
Hence
finally
we have the result common conjugate
diameters of the momental ellipsoid
[CH.
vn
that the normal vibrations of the body are small
oscillations about the
and the
ellipsoid
of equal potential energy.
To find the normal coordinates and the periods of normal vibration in the (iv) system of three degrees of freedom for which
F= i
where a
is
small in comparison with p and q ; and to shew that if such a system be let go from rest with y and z initially zero, the vibration in x will have temporarily ceased z 2 2 after a time irp (q -jo )/a and that there will then be a vibration of the same amplitude in y as the original one was in x. (Coll. Exam.)
,
The form
which gives
of the kinetic
and potential energies suggests the transformation
(f7=
.
The
kinetic
variable
77
is
therefore a normal coordinate
to reduce the remaining terms in the
and potential energies to sums of squares, we write
and then we have
The
variables
?/,
<^>,
^ are therefore the normal coordinates.
Suppose that initially
we have
x = lc,
z = 0, y = 0,
^ = 0,
= 0, 2 = 0,
z
and suppose that k

neglected.
Then
so small that its product with other small quantities can be to this degree of approximation we have initially
is
r,
= U,
<f>
= U,
TJ
f=0.
<
The
vibrations of the normal coordinates

rj
and
are therefore given by the equations
k cos pt,
=1
COS
The
last
equation can be written

4.
U cos [pt L (l ---jL-Jl

I 2 t
.
or
(f>
jrW-tfU
r
= M cos pt cos r a 7 i
p(q -p-)
+ ~ k sin pt sin
a -t
80, 81]
therefore be approximately represented initially by
T)
191
The motion can

or
k cos
pt,
4>
= ^k cos pt,
x = k cos pt,
After an interval of time Trp(q
?7
y = 0.
is
)/a?,
the motion
approximately represented by
= \k cos pt,
0,
=
<f)
l;k
cos pt,
or
#
which establishes the result stated.
y~ kcospt;
the periods of
81.
Effect of
a new constraint on
a vibrating system.
shall now consider the effect produced on the periods of normal vibration of a dynamical system about a configuration of stable equilibrium when the number of degrees of freedom of the system is diminished by the introduction of an additional constraint
We
Suppose that the original system

coordinates (q 1 q, the form
,
...,
q n ),
is specified in terms of its normal so that the kinetic and potential energies have
and
let
the additional constraint be expressed by the equation
powers of q l}
we can expand the function / in ascending and retain ..., q n q.2 only the first terms of the expansion: we the constraint can thus express by the equation
Since q
l
,
<?
>
>
<?n
are small,
where A,,
...,
An
are constants.
As the
equilibrium-configuration
is
supposed
to be compatible with the constraint, there will be no constant term. means of this equation we can eliminate q n we thus have
:
By
V = \ X.V +
fore the (n
1) equations
+ ^n-i
/n-!
(A
9l
+A
_,
qn^y
of motion of the constrained system are there
Ar
I
*
(r
=
=
l, 2, ...,
I, 2, ...,
n-1),
qr
+ \ r *q r + f*A r =
(r
n-
1)
192
where
1
[CH.
vn
P = -T--. (A & + ^l
n
i
+ -4
_!</_,)
+ -j-iCAtfi + ... + ^-i^n-i)

-d.
so the equations of motion of the constrained form of the n equations
system can be written in the

(r
qr
+ Vgv + pA r =
1, 2,
.,
n),
where
//,
is
undetermined.
Now
consider a normal
mode
of vibration of the modified system, defined
by equations
(/!
cos \t,
qo
cos \t,
..,
qn
a.n
cos \t,
//,
v cos \t.
Substituting in the equations of motion,

ar
2
we have
(r=l,
2, ..., n).
(X,.
- X ) + vA r =
2
,
Substituting the values of a 1
a.
2>
...,
a n given
by these equations in the

0,
equation
A^ + A
\i>
2 a.2
...
+ A n *n =
we have
A* -V
_AJ_
-V
1) roots,
AJ_ ^n"
^
A 22
,
This equation in \- has (w

tion are evidently interspaced
which from the form of the equa

...,
between the quantities Xf,
XH
2
:
the
quantities 2?r/X corresponding to these roots are the periods of the
normal
modes of vibration of the constrained system, and it therefore follows that the (n l) periods of normal vibration of the constrained system are spaced
between the n periods of the original system.
82.
The stationary character of normal
vibrations.
We shall next consider the effect of adding constraints to a dynamical system to such an extent that only one degree of freedom is left to the Let (q 1} q 2 .... q n } be the normal coordinates of the system.
,
original
system the constraints may, as in the last article, be represented by linear equations between these coordinates, and can therefore be expressed in the
;
form
gi
,
= /*i?i
& = Wl,
q,i
= p n q,
where /^ 1 /i2 ..., n are constants and q is a new variable which may be taken as defining the configuration of the constrained system at time t. Let the kinetic and potential energies of the original system be
,
fj.
V=
81-83]
,
193
so 27T/XJ, 27T/X 2 ..., 2TT/\ n are its periods of normal vibration: the kinetic and potential energies of the constrained system are then
V = i (XV + V^ +
2
+ xn
>
f.
is
The period
where X
is
of a vibration of the constrained system
therefore
2-Tr/X,
_
If the constraints are varied, this expression has a stationary value when n are zero this stationary value is one 1) of the quantities /i 1} /u 2
, ,
:
f*>
(n of the quantities X a 2 X 22 ..., X n 2 and thus we have the theorem that when constraints are put on the system so as to reduce its number of degrees of freedom to unity, the period of the constrained system has a stationary value
, ,
:
for those constraints which make the vibration

unconstrained system.
83.
to be
a normal vibration of the
Vibrations about steady motion.
type of motion which presents many analogies with the equilibriumconfiguration is that known as the steady motion of systems which possess ignorable coordinates: this is defined to be a motion in which the nonignorable coordinates of the system have constant values, while the velocities corresponding to the ignorable coordinates have also constant values.
One example of a steady motion is that of the top, discussed in 72 as another example we may take the case of a particle which is free to move in a plane and is attracted by a fixed centre of force, the potential energy depending only on the distance from the centre of force; for such a particle, a circular orbit described with constant velocity is always a possible orbit, and this is a form of steady motion, since the radius vector is constant and the angular velocity corresponding to the ignorable coordinate 6
;
is also
constant.
cases, if a system is initially in a state of motion differing only from a given form of steady motion, the slightly divergence from this form of motion will never subsequently become very marked we shall now consider
In
many
motions of this kind, which are called vibrations about steady motion. The steady motion is said to be stable* if the vibratory motion tends to
a certain limiting form, namely the steady motion,
when
the initial disturb
ance from steady motion tends to zero.
Let
will
(>!,
j>
2,
p k ) be the ignorable and
coordinates of the system.
(q lt &,..., q n ) be the non-ignorable Corresponding to the ignorable coordinates, there
be k integrals
dL
*
This definition
is
due
to Klein
and Sommerfeld.
W. D.
194
,
>
[OH.
vn
We shall suppose that these constants where &, /3 2 ftk are constants. in the value have the same vibratory motion as in the undisturbed steady motion of which it is regarded as the disturbed form; this of course only amounts to coordinating each vibratory motion to some particular steady
motion.
We
time
;
suppose the system conservative, with constraints independent of the let its kinetic energy be
n
n
T=\
where the
2,
2 ay fay + 2 2
-
byqipj
+b 2 2
.
coefficients a#, by, cv are functions of q lt qz
...,
qn
The
coordinates are integrals corresponding to the ignorable

pi
+ 2b
{j
qi
= fy
(j
= 1,2,
.,
k).
Let
Cy,
Cij
be the minor of
c y in
-
divided by this determinant;

,
the determinant formed of the coefficients then solving the last equations for the
quantities p r
we have
]j r
= 2 Cm (Ps
s
2 big qi).
I
Substituting for pi, pz ..., the properties of minors of determinants,

,
pt in the above expression for T,
and
utilising
we have
T=
2
i,
(a*,
- 2C
I,
ls
b u bjs ) q iqj
2 Cufrfr.
I,
Now
perform the process of ignoration of coordinates.
Let
be the
modified kinetic potential, so
R=
=
T-V\
i,
2 pr /3 r
ls
2 (ay - 2 Cubabjg) qiqj + 2 Crs @ r b

j
I,
qi
- $ 2 C&&& l,s
V.
l,f,s
We
can without
loss of generality
all zero.
q.2 ,
suppose that the values of q lt q 2
...,
qn
in the steady
motion are
If then the coefficients in
R are
expanded
in ascending powers of
expression of
variables
qi,
R
qz
,
qn by Taylor s theorem, and all terms in the thus obtained which are above the second degree in the
q-i,
...,
...,
qn
qi,
qz
...,
terms of the second degree, we

linear
q n are neglected in comparison with the an expression consisting of terms obtain for
and quadratic
,
in q l} qz
...,
qn
q l} q 2
...
qn
Now
,
the terms which
are linear in
and independent of q 1; q 2 q^, q z ..., q n from the equations of motion matically

-r.
...,
qn disappear auto
dt
d fdR\ dR (^ )-a r dq \dqj
(r-1,
2, ..., n),
and these terms can therefore be omitted.

satisfied
by permanent
zero values of q^ q2
Moreover, since the equations are that no terms ..., q n it is evident

,
83, 84]
linear in q 1} q2 ,
...,
, ,
195
It follows that the
q n and independent of q l q 2 ..., q n can be present in R. problem of vibrations about steady motion depends on the
in
solution of
Lagrangian equations of motion
which the kinetic potential
is
homogeneous
coefficients.
quadratic function of the velocities
and
coordinates, with constant
difference between vibrations about equilibrium and vibrations about motion consists in the possible presence in the latter case of terms of steady the type q r q s (i.e. products of a coordinate and a velocity) in the kinetic
The
These are called gyroscopic terms. The vibrations about steady motion of a system are in fact the same thing as the vibrations about equilibrium of the reduced or non-natural ( 38) system to which the problem
potential.
is
brought by ignoration of coordinates.
The equations
of motion for the vibrating system are therefore

-nlo-rdt \dq r j
d fiR\
dR -5 =
dq r
(r=l,
2, ...,w),
where
R=i2a
r,s
rf!
q r qs
+ =
2 &., gr
r,s
a,,.,
</
+ 2 jrsqr qs
r, s
(r,
= 1,
2,
. .
ri),
and where
$n =
to
/3 sr
but where y rs is not in general equal expanded form are

(11
j
|
jsr
The equations
of motion in the
ql
2i
& ~ $^3
q,
zi )
-/3&q3
etc.
coefficients, which are of the same character as the general corresponding equations in the case of vibrations about equilibrium they differ only in the presence of the gyroscopic terms, which involve the coefficients (7^. The presence of these terms makes it 7^).
;
These are linear equations with constant
impossible to transform the system to normal coordinates*; but as we shall next see, the main characteristic of vibrations about equilibrium is retained, namely that any vibration can be regarded as a superposition of n purely
periodic vibrations, which vibration of the system.
84.
we
shall call (as before)
the normal modes of
The integration of the equations.

shall
We
now shew how
the nature of the vibrations can be determined,
by integration of the equations of motion.

That
formation
:
is
to say, impossible to transform the system to
it is
possible to effect the transformation to

is
normal coordinates by a point-trans normal coordinates by a contact-trans
formation, and this
actually done in Chapter XVI.
132
196
[OH.
vn
It will be convenient first to transform
each of the
first order.
Let
R
,
them into a system of equations denote the modified kinetic potential of the
is
R system, so that in the vibratory problem Write function of q 1} q2 ..., q n q l q z ..., q n

,
,
a homogeneous quadratic
R==
<5~T~
Qn+T
<V-1
"
>
*/>
so that qn +i, q n +2,
&n
are linear functions of q 1} q2
...,
qn
and
vice versa:
the equations of motion can be written

^ n+r
=
dq r
(r
=l
n)
Now
if
B denote
q n +i, ---,qzn,
an increment of a function of the variables q lt q z due to small changes in these variables, we have
...,
qn
8R =
Bq r
-
-.
&<]>,
r =i
\oqr
*
oq r
"
n
^ 2/ \qii-\-roqr ~T q n .^-roqr)
S^
=
Let the quantity
S
\r=1
qn +rqr
n
S (q n+r &q r }+ r=l

R,
q r $q n +r)-
q n+r qr
when expressed as a function of q l} q2 ..., qzn be denoted by H, a known homogeneous quadratic function of the variables q 1} q
,
,
so that
z
,
H
,
is
..-,q2n
the
last
equation can be written
and therefore*
the first order,
of motion, which consisted originally of n equations can be replaced by a system of 2n equations, each of each of the second order,
the equations
namely
9
= dH
0n+r
...,
=
.
dH
oq n+r
the independent variables being q l
,
-goqr
(r- 1,2,
/no
...,),
q2
q 2n
as the now shew that the function H, which has replaced of the sum the kinetic and of the function equations, represents determining considered. of the dynamical system potential energies
shall
We
For
contains terms of degrees
2, 1,
and
in the velocities,
and
This transformation
is really
a case of the Hamiltonian transformation given later in
Chapter X.
is
197
equivalent to twice the terms of degree two together with the terms of degree one, by Euler s theorem it follows that H, being defined as
;
v 2
r=\
dR
qr
oqr
^-R,
:
T?
will be equal to the terms of degree two in the velocities in R, together with the terms of zero degree in R with their signs changed on comparing the
expressions for
T and R
given on page 194,
it
follows that
H=T+V,
so
is
the total energy

,
of the dynamical system, expressed in terms of the
variables q lt qz
...
,q.
In the case of vibrations about an equilibrium-configuration, we have

seen that the condition for stability is that the potential as well as the kinetic energy shall be a positive definite form we shall now make a similar assumption for the case of vibrations about steady motion, namely that the
;
total
energy
is
a positive
definite
form
in the variables q 1} q 2
...,
gwj
assumption we shall shew that the steady motion that the equations of motion
this
is stable,
and
in fact
dqr
-rr at
= 5dff
oqn+r
dqn+r -^f^ dt
dH
^
(
dq r
can be integrated in the following way*. Consider the set of linear equations in the variables q lt qz
S
qnj-r
,
..., q^ n
~ + dH( qi ,q
,...,q2n )
~-yr
(r- 1,2, ...,);
if
we denote the determinant
of the system by/(s),
and the minor of the
element in the Xth row and
/ith
column by
f(s)
(X, /*
,
= !,
is
2,
...,2n),
the expression of q lt q2
...,
q^
in terms of y lt y9
...,
ym
given by the
equations
and the degree of f(s) in than (2n-l).
s is 2n,
while the degree of f(s)^
is
not greater
q\,
In order to solve the equations of motion, consider expressions -, q.2n of the form q?,
for
The method
of integration
which follows
is
due to Weierstrass, Berlin. Monatsberichte, 1879.
198
[CH.
vn
is taken round a large circle C which encloses all the roots of the equation f(s) 0. These values of q 1} q 2 ...,q2n will satisfy the equations of motion, provided the equations
, ,
(r=l
dp n+r
If therefore p l9 p 2 ..., p 2n are polynomials in 5 so the expressions in brackets under the integral sign vanish when one of the roots of the equation f(s) = 0, these equations will since the integrands will then have no singularities within the
,
...
n)
are satisfied.
chosen that
s is equal to
be
satisfied,
contour C*.
It follows that Pi,j}.2
",pzn
must be a
~r
set of solutions of the equations

,
lie ....gn
o
Pr
when
s is
a root of the equation f(s)
=
. .
.
this condition is satisfied
by the
expressions
P* (s) where a
:
,
I/(*)I F
+o
/(5) 2M
+ a 2n f(s}.
2n>>l
(^
1, 2,
.,
2n),
a2
...,
a^
The equations
<?
of motion are therefore satisfied
by the values
and nega
= coefficient
tive
powers of
of 1/5 in the Laurent expansion -|- in positive s of the expression
{Oi/()m + Ot/(*). +
e s(t-t
t>mf(*)m,t]
-77-75
7v
(p = 1,
2, ..., 2?i).
Now
types
on inspection of the determinant /(s) we see that minors of the

(X<H*
(#*!,
2,
...,)
are of degree (2?i 1) in s, and the other minors are of degree (2n 2) in s; so the coefficient of 1/5 in the Laurent expansion of f(s)\n/f(s) is zero unless \ = n + p, or fj, = n + \; in the former case it is 1, and in the latter case it
is 1.
Hence on taking
we
see that the quantities

,
ttj
OF-2
. . .
dzn
are respectively the values of
at the time
Whittaker and Watson, A Course of Modern Analysis,

5-6.
5-2.
t 76id.
84]
If therefore
(f)
we
write
of l/s in the Laurent expansion of
ft,
199
() A/x
= coefficient
>,
J
..
e*
and
to
if ft,
...,ft
are the values of

t
...,
22
respectively corresponding
any
definite value
of
t,
we have
{ft,+a<MO,M-
^=
it is necessary to discuss the In order to evaluate the quantities let ki+l, where nature of the roots of the determinantal equation f(s) = of this k and I are real and i denotes \/-l, be any root equation; then
<f>(t)^,
the 2n equations
(ki
n +
,
7\
I)
q n+a
9j +.
^(?i>
?,
>
&n)
(- 1.2, ....)
can be satisfied by values of q 1} system of such values be
1
q^, ...,
q^ which
,
are not all zero.
Let a
+
T),
7i
+ M?2
>
&n + ^2i
where %
gz
...,
%zn
rji,
^ 2 i are real quantities.

-"
Then
if
we
write
dH(q
we
l>q2
o7
,...,q 2n )_
Wi>
&>
<12n)n>
have, on separating the last equations into their real and imaginary parts,
+
+
- ^ n+ . = - â + Atya =
+, +a
a
0|
i
= =
(a
=1
2,
W).
But
since
is
homogeneous and of degree two

,
in its arguments,
-..,
we have
2tf(&, |a
-.,
)= 2 =
A
fxfl d!,
l
f)A,
and using the
first
two of the preceding equations

,
this gives
&,
....
A S
(A)
Similarly
2H
(77,
77.,
= 77^)
A;
2 (. ??+ =
l
i; a
n+a ).
Moreover on multiplying the first of the preceding equations by t) a and the second by r) n+a adding, and summing for values of a from 1 to n, we have
,
X=l
a=l
71
and similarly
2/1
200
[CH.
vn
Since the left-hand sides of these equations are equal,
we must have
2
But from equations (A) we
n
0.
see that, as
is
a positive definite form, neither

therefore have
I
k nor
(fa^n+a
yaZn+a) can be zero;
we must
zero;
is
and
so the equation f(s)
has each of
zero.
its
roots of the
form
ik,
where k
a real
quantity different
from
which the equation f(s) = has a J-tuple root s each of the functions f(s)\n is divisible by (s s )i~ For let Cj, c 2 ..., c2n be a set of definite real quantities; define quanti
shall next
,
We
shew that
in the case in
ties q 1} q 2
...,
q2n
by the equations
Sq n+a
((fr, q.2 ,
...,
<?2Tl)a
= Ca
(a=l,2,
...,n)...
-sq a
so that
we have
(/=!,
be any root of the equation f(s) positive integer for which all the functions
s-ii
2,..., 2n).
Let
= Q,
and
let
be the smallest
m
(s
Sj i)
are finite for the value sî of
s.
When
1
s is
taken sufficiently near

s i i)~ m+l
s x i,
we can
expand
where
q^ in a series of the form

(<7
+ hî) (s
...
sî)""
+ ((// + hp i) (s
+ ...,
<jr
M , h^, g^, h^,

c:
,
quantities of (s
c2
-.,
c.2n
denote real constants; and we can suppose the so chosen that the quantities g^ and AM are not zero.
Substituting this value of q^ in equations (B),
m we have Sii)~
,
and equating the
coefficients
H H (g
TT /I
(gi,
l
,
g2
. . .
g
T
.
2>
= gm ) n +a + sji* =
gzn)a
Sihn+a
(C),
T
/\
and on equating the
coefficients of (s
(0
s 1 t )~ m+1 ,
we have
>
when
when m 1 = [c n+a when m

[0
>
(a
= 1,2,... ,)
(D).
w* = o
la
=0
84]
201
Now
by Euler
theorem on homogeneous functions we have

1} 2
,
2H(g g
or
...,
gm )
= 2 yJHfr, g A=
l
Zn
...,g^)\,
by
(C),
%H (g
and similarly
l;
gs, ...,
g2n )
= s, 2
a=l
n
(ga h n+a
- h a g n+a - h a gn+a
is
),
2H
from which
it is
(/*!, 7*3,
. .
m ) = Si 2 =
a
(gji n +*
l
),
evident that
first
2
o.
=l
(g a h n+a
h a g n+a )
not zero.
Moreover, the
2n
two of equations (C) give

w
2 hiH(gl) gi ,...,gm)i + 8i 2 (hji n+a a=l A=l

and the
last
2n
h a hn+a )
=Q
(E),
two of equations (C) give

g^
2
A.
=l
(h,
A., ... ,
A an ) A
n
!
S
a=l
(g a g n +
- g gn +) =
(F).
But from the

2
first
two of equations (D), when

n
>
1, \ve
have
\=1
2 h ,H(g
i
g2
...,g2n
)\-s 2
l
a=l
(h a h
n+aL
-h a hn+ai )- 2
a=l
(g a h n+a
- ha gn+a ) =
(G),
and from the

Zn
last
two of equations (D) we have

n
2
X=l
gjl(&,k{>
>..,h^} ),
+s 2
l
a=l
(g a g n+a
2 (g a hn+a - h -ga g n+a )+ a=l
g n+a ) =
(H).
Also since
2n
.ST is
homogeneous
of the second degree in its arguments,

Zn
we
have the identities
A=l
2w
2 h^H (g,,g
2,
. . ,
gzn )\
A 2n ) A
= 2 #*# (A/, V, X=l

2n
^//)A
I
(K)
and
A=l
2 gJH Qh,
h2
= 2 h^H (g, g A=l

,
...,
gm
(L).
From
n
equations (E), (H), (K)
we have
n
2
o=l
(gji n+
a-h
gn+a )
n
sl
2
<x
=l
(h a.h n+a
-h
ai
h n+a )-s l
2
a= l
(ga g n+a
- g a g n+a
),
and from equations

n
(F), (G), (L)

n
we have
2
a=l
(ga h n+a
- h a gn+a = - s 2
)
l
(h a h n+a
- h a h n+a ) + s 2
l
a=l
a=l
(g a g n +*
~ ga gn+*).
Comparing these equations, we have

n
(ga hn+ai
-h
n+<1
0,
202
which
is
[CH.
vn
m m
>
The assumption that contrary to what has already been proved. which was used in obtaining equation (G), must therefore be false must therefore be unity, and consequently when f(s) is divisible - sîf, by (s
1,
each of the functions f (s)^
is divisible
k by (s-sî) -\
Now let Sj
s2 ,
.,
sr
be the moduli of the distinct roots of the equation/(s) = 0,

s 2 i, ..., s r i;
so that the functions f(s)^/f(s) are infinite only for s= s^, 1 then denoting the coefficient of (s in the Laurent Spi)
/()W/(*)
where
in
powers of
(s
- sp i)
expansion of
by
(X, fi)p
(X, /i) p
i (X,
fj,) p
and
(X, /*)/ are real,
function f(s)^/f(s) are the points s
and observing that the only poles of the = sp i, and that these are simple poles,
we have
(X,
n)p
+ i(\ s-si
+ i (\
Spi
M
rip
,
(\,f*)-i\,n
and therefore
<f>
(t)^
<-)
is
the coefficient of 1/5 in the Laurent expansion of

(X? /*)P
[
(
f
p =i
(\
rip s
~ i (\ + Spi
AQp
l
j
in powers of
s.
But the
-<o)i
is
e~
~
Sf>(t
8 (t ~^ coefficient of I/s in the Laurent sp i) is expansion of e f(s s{t t an(j t ^ e coefficient of in the Laurent of e l/s expansion /(s + sp i)
]
)
t
<>
)l
;
we have
therefore
=
and so
qn
finally
S
P=I
{(X, /i)p
cos sp
(t
t )
- (X,
fi) p
sin sp
)},
r
(*-*<>)
2 2 [&+. {(,AOP cos Sp a=l

p=l
p (i
-(a, M)P sin 5P

sin sp
(t
- ^ )}
- ^ a {(n + a, /i)p cos s

T/it s
- (n + a, /x)p
- 1 )}]
O=
1, 2,
.,
2w).
motion.
formula constitutes the general solution of the differential equations of Hence finally we see that when the total energy of a system vibrating
about a state of steady motion is a positive definite form, the vibratory motion can be expressed in terms of circular functions of t, and the steady motion is is 1} stable; the periods of the normal vibrations are ZTT/S!, 27r/s2 ..., where
,
is.2 ,
is
are the roots of the determinantal equation = 0, whose order in s 2 f(s) to the number coordinates the equal of non-ignorable of system.
...
The above
Between the
investigation
is
valid
whether the determinantal equation has

there exist the relations
,
repeated roots or not.

coefficients (X,
p.} p
,
(X, /x) p
(p-,
(^ M)P= -
x) P
(X,
(x, /i)p
=(M>
^)p
and so in particular
X) p = 0.
84, 85J
Cin virtue of their definitions) are
203
true for
These relations follow from equations which

/()>
/(*)*! namely
/(*)
-/(-),
Example. If the number of degrees of freedom of the system, after ignoration of the ignorable coordinates, is even, shew that when the ignorable velocities are large (e.g. if the ignorable coordinates are the angles through which certain fly-wheels have rotated,
would imply that the fly-wheels are rotating very rapidly), half the periods of vibration are very long and the other half are very short, the one set being proportional to the ignorable velocities and the other set being inversely proportional to these
this
velocities.
It was pointed out by Poincare* that the discussion of stability by the method of small oscillations does not take account of some features which are
Thusf, consider a particle moveable which rotates with constant angular bowl on the inner surface of a spherical If the bowl be perfectly smooth, the velocity about its vertical diameter.
likely to be present in actual problems.
the equilibrium of the particle in the lowest position is certainly stable, But if there be the slightest rotation of the bowl having no effect on it. friction between the particle and the bowl, and if the angular velocity of the bowl exceeds a certain value, the particle will work its way outwards in
a spiral path towards the position in which bob of a conical pendulum.
it
rotates with the bowl like the
85.
Examples of
vibrations about steady motion.
A number
will
of illustrative cases of vibration about a state of steady motion
now be
A
considered.
b,
(i)
which the potential energy

zero
= a, z = particle is describing the circle r 2 is F=((r, 2), where r

z
in the cylindrical field of force in

,
when r=a,
= b.
To find
the conditions
it being given that clV/dz for stability of the motion.
= #2 4-y 2
is
If
we
write
x=rcos8,
y = rsir\8,
particle,
we have
by m,
for the kinetic
and potential energies of the
whose mass
will
be denoted
The integral corresponding to the ignorable coordinate 6 is mr 2 6 k, where k The modified kinetic potential after ignoration of 6 is therefore constant.
is
R=T- V-W
t This illustration
Acta Math. vn. (1885), p. 259. is due to Lamb, Proc. Roy. Soc. LXXX. (1908),
p. 168.
204
[CH.
vn
For the steady motion we must have
the latter condition
is satisfied
2 3 by hypothesis, and the former gives k = ma
c(f>/da.
We
have therefore
is
<
r,
z-^-.
f,
Writing
and neglecting terms above the second degree in p and

0aa
we have
3 -
\
(Pa
same as a problem
of vibrations
As no terms linear
in p or f occur, this is essentially the

is
(
about equilibrium, and the condition for stability
79) that
shall be a positive definite form,
i.e.
that
\
(f) a )
<f>bb
+a
~
<t>
ab
and
(p bb
shall
both be positive.
These are the required conditions
for stability of the steady
motion.
Corollary.
If a particle of unit
mass
is
describing a circular orbit of radius a in a

<p
plane about a centre of force at the centre of the circle, the potential energy being where r is the distance from the centre, the modified kinetic potential is
(r)
(3
<aa
+a
\
/
-<M,
where
r=a + p,
so the condition for stability
is
<Paa
+a
3
<
P*
>
and the period of a vibration about the circular motion

3
is
To find the period of the vibrations about steady circular motion of a particle (ii) moving under gravity on a surface of revolution whose axis is vertical.
Let zf(r) be the equation of the surface, where (z, r, ff) are cylindrical coordinates with the axis of the surface as axis of z. If the particle is projected along the horizontal tangent to the surface at any point with a suitable velocity, it will describe a horizontal
circle
on the surface with constant
velocity.
Let a be the radius of the circle
we
shall
take the mass of the particle to be unity, as this involves no loss of generality.
The
kinetic potential
is
The integral corresponding to the ignorable coordinate 6 is r2d kinetic potential of the system after ignoration of Q is therefore
r}}
= k,
and the modified
-gf(r)
- F/2r2
85]
The problem
is
205
is thus reduced to that of finding the vibrations about equilibrium of the kinetic potential. The condition for one degree of freedom for which R is the system with
equilibrium
/) \or l r=a
is
= 0,
2
or
V=ga\f
(a\
2
.
and this gives
R = ir* {1 +/
Writing
(r)}-gf(r)
-ga?f (a)/2r
in
r=a + p,
where p
small,
and expanding
powers of
p,
we have
The equation
of motion
<^/
_
dp
dt\df>
is
therefore
p{l
+/
(a)}+0p{/"()
+ |/
()]
= 0,
and the condition
for stability is
r
the period of a vibration being
27T
<
Tg
axis Example. If the surface is a paraboloid of revolution whose vertex downwards, shew that the vibration-period is
is
vertical
and
where
is
the semi-latus rectum of the paraboloid.

the vibrations about steady
(iii)
To determine
motion of a top on a perfectly rough
plane.
Let A denote the moment of inertia of the top about a line through its apex perpen dicular to its axis of symmetry, and let 6 denote the angle made by the axis with the the mass of the top, and h the distance of its centre of gravity from its apex vertical,
then we have seen
that after ignoring the Eulerian angles (p and ^, the angle determined by solving the dynamical system defined by the kinetic potential
(71)
is
where a and
Let
a,
b are constants
depending on the
of 6
initial

steady motion, so
(
n be the values
and
<j>
respectively in the
72)
we have
A n z cos a + Mgk = bn,
An sin 2 a = ab cos a.
To
e
= a + x where x
discuss the vibratory motion of the top about this form of steady motion, we write in ascending powers of x, neglecting is a small quantity, and expand
of the powers of x above the second and eliminating a and b by use we thus obtain for R the value
last
two equations
RÂJP-lAx* {n
sin 2 a
+ (n cos a - MghjA n) 2
}.
206
The equation
of motion for
[OH.
vn
As
the coefficient of
is
x is therefore x + {n 2 sin 2 a + (n cos a - Mgh/ A nf] x = 0. x is positive, the state of steady motion is
27T
stable
and
the period
of a vibration
{* - 2Mgh cos a/ A + J*g
h*IA*n*}~t.
(iv)
The sleeping
top.
If we consider that form of steady motion of the top in which a is zero, so that the axis of the top is permanently directed vertically upwards, the top rotating about this axis with a given angular velocity, the method of the preceding example must be modified,
since
now the form
of steady motion in which a
is
a small constant
:
is
to be regarded as a
vibration about the type of motion in which a is zero so that we may now expect to have two independent periods of normal vibration, the analogues of which in the previous
example are the period of the steady motion and the period of vibration about
it.
As
in
71, the kinetic
and
potential energies of the top are

2 2
4<9
+ T=\ V= Mgh cos 6.

The
6
M(/>
sin 2
<?+|
tf(^ +
cos
<j>
2
<9)
integral corresponding to the ignorable coordinate
is
= ^(^ +
2
cos
<9),
and hence
after ignoration of
we obtain
for the kinetic potential of the
system the value
R=\Afr+%A<& sin 6
+ b$ cos 6 -Mgh cos 6.

1),
In the two last terms we can replace cos 6 by (cos 6 thus added disappear from the equations of motion.
since the terms

b<j)
and Mgh
As
6
<
is
not a small quantity throughout the motion,
we take
as coordinates in place of
and
<f)
the quantities
and
77,
where
From
these equations, neglecting terms above the second degree in
77,
rj,
we have
and so we have
&-lAt*
The equations
of motion are
"
dt
bf,-Mg
(Arj-b-Mghr,=0.
If STT/X is the period of a. normal vibration, on substituting
differential equations
=7
r)
Ke
in these
and eliminating
J and
K we obtain the equation

ib\
- A 2 /I - Mgh
ib\
= 0,
Mg,
- \2 A
2
or
(X
A + Mgh) 2 - 6 2 X 2 = 0.
The two roots of this quadratic in X2 give the values of X corresponding to the two normal vibrations we have therefore to determine the nature of these roots.
:
85, 86]
The
is
207
solution of the quadratic
The values of X are therefore real or not according as b 2 is greater or less than 4AMgh. In the former case the steady spinning motion round the vertical is stable in the latter
:
case, unstable.
It
must not be supposed, however, that
in the unstable case the axis
of the top
"unstable"
necessarily departs very far from the vertical: all that is meant by the term is that when b 2 <.4AMgh the disturbed motion does not, as the disturbance is
indefinitely
diminished, tend to a limiting form coincident with the undisturbed motion.
As a matter of fact, if b -4AMgk, though negative, is very small, it is possible for the axis of the top in its "unstable" motion to remain permanently close to the vertical but in this case the maximum divergence from the vertical cannot be made indefinitely small (for a given value of 6) by making the initial disturbance indefinitely small*.
2
:
86.
Vibrations of systems involving moving constraints.
If a dynamical system involves a constraint which varies with the time (e.g. if one of the particles of the system is moveable on a smooth wire or
to rotate uniformly about a given axis), the kinetic potential of the system is no longer necessarily composed of terms of degrees 2 and in the velocities terms which are linear in the velocities may also
is
;
surface which
made
occur.
The equations which determine the

:
vibrations of such a system will
therefore in general include gyroscopic terms, even when the vibration is about relative equilibrium the solution can be effected by the methods above
developed
for
the problem of vibrations about steady motion.
The
following
example
will illustrate this.
Example. To find the periods of the normal vibrations of a heavy particle about its position of equilibrium at the lowest point of a surface which is rotating with constant about a vertical axis through the point. angular velocity
u>
of the particle, referred to axes which revolve with the (.v, ?/, z) be the coordinates surface, the axes of x and y being the tangents to the lines of curvature at the lowest
Let
point,
and the axis of
being vertical.
i2
Let the equation of the surface be

of higher order.
z= ~
%>i
+ ~- + terms
2p 2
The
kinetic
and potential energies
of the particle are
V= mgz.
The
kinetic potential of the vibration-problem
is
therefore
5T(y& /Pi
*
+ j-
y2\
)
^Pz/
(1897), pp.
discussion of the stability of the sleeping top 129132, 292.
is
given by Klein, Ball. Amer. Math. Soc. in.
208
The equations
of motion are
[CH.
._
cy
Pi
If the period of a
the differential
normal vibration is 27T/X, we have (substituting equations, and eliminating A and B)
XAe, y = Be
lX
in
-2wiX
=0,
or
(X
- g/pi)
(X
2
o>
- glp z } - 4X2
= 0.
normal vibrations.
The
roots of this quadratic in X 2 determine the periods of the
1.
particle
moves on a curve which
potential energy V () of the particle depending Shew that the period of a vibration about a position of relative rest on the arc s.
rotates uniformly about a fixed axis, the the only on its position as defined by
curve
is
dVd
where
r is the distance of the particle
from the
axis.
Determine the vibrations of a solid horizontal circular cylinder rolling inside a 2. the hollow horizontal circular cylinder whose axis is fixed, shewing that the length of b is the radius and J/the where is (b -a) (3M+m)l(2M+m) simple equivalent pendulum the mass, of the inner cylinder. mass, of the outer cylinder, and a is the radius and
;
(Coll.
Exam.)
and radius a thin hemispherical bowl of mass 3. is in contact with the inner surface of the bowl, horizontal plane, and a particle of mass small oscillations, the motion of supposed smooth. Shew that when the system performs the particle and the centre of gravity of the bowl being in one plane, the periods of the
is
on a perfectly rough
normal vibrations are 2^/^X7 and 2^/^X3, where A t and X 2 are the roots of the equation - aA) - - a A) 0. (Coll. Exam. ) %
ma\g
is
(g
(\g
M=
B
4.
string of length 4a
loaded at equal intervals with three weights m,
M and m
if is
respectively,
and
is
suspended from two points

a cos a cos
and
symmetrically.
Shew that
perform small vertical vibrations, the length of the simple equivalent

sin (a - ft} cos (a- 0) 2 cos a + sin ft cos2 ft sin a
ft
pendulum
where a and
ft
are the inclinations of the parts of the string to the vertical.

(Coll.
Exam.)
;
A uniform bar whose length is 2a is suspended by a short string whose length is I that the time of vibration is greater than if the bar were swinging about one prove (Coll. Exam.) extremity in the ratio l+9/32a 1 nearly.
5.
:
vn]
209
6. An elliptic cylinder with plane ends at right angles to its axis rests upon two fixed smooth perpendicular planes which are each inclined at 45 to the horizon. Shew that there are two stable configurations and one unstable, and that in the former case the
length of the equivalent
pendulum
ab (a
2
is
+ 62 )/2 V2 (a - 6)
(a
+ 6),
(Coll.
a and
7.
b being the lengths of the semi-axes.
Exam.)
gravity
rough circular cylinder of radius a and mass m is loaded so that its centre of at a distance h from the axis, and is placed on a board of equal mass which can move on a smooth horizontal planei If the system is disturbed slightly when in a
is
position of stable equilibrium,
shew that the length of the simple equivalent pendulum

the
is
k 2 lh+\ (a- h} 2 /k, where
mk1
is
moment
of inertia of the cylinder about a horizontal

(Coll.
axis through its centre of gravity.

8.
Exam.)
is freely jointed to a point in a of a uniform rod of length b and mass smooth vertical wall the other end is freely jointed to a point in the surface of a uniform and radius a which rests against the wall. Shew that the period of the sphere of mass
One end
vibrations about the position of equilibrium
is ZTT/JO,
where
-
p 2 (sin
a and
/3
sin 2 (a
- /3)
+| cos a sin (a -/3) + f sin /3 cos 2 /3} =
-?--
2 (a sin a cos a + b sin
/3
cos 2 /3),
being given by the equations
a sin a + b sin /3-a=0,

(
m + M) tan - M tan a = 0.
ft
(Coll.
Exam. )
9. thin circular cylinder of mass and radius b rests on a perfectly rough horizontal plane, and inside it is placed a perfectly rough sphere of mass and radius a. If the system be disturbed in a plane perpendicular to the generators of the cylinder, find
the equations of finite motion, and deduce two first integrals of them be small, shew that the length of the simple equivalent pendulum is
and
if
the motion
l4M(b-a)/(WM+7m.).
10.
I,
1899.)
sphere of radius c is placed upon a horizontal perfectly rough wire in the form of an ellipse of axes 2a, 2b. Prove that the time of a vibration under gravity about
the position of stable equilibrium
is
that of a simple pendulum of length
where
F=2c 2/5
and d 2 = c 2 -6 2
given by
(Coll.
Exam.)
11. A rhombus of four equal uniform rods of length a freely jointed together is laid on a smooth horizontal plane with one angle equal to 2a. The opposite corners are connected by similar elastic strings of natural lengths 2a cos a, 2a sin a. Prove that if one string be slightly extended and the rhombus left free, the periods during which the strings are extended in the subsequent motion are in the ratio
(cos a)$
12.
(sin a)^.
(Coll.
Exam.)
attached by n equal elastic strings of natural length a to the fixed angular points of a regular polygon of n sides, the radius of whose circumscribing circle is c. Shew that if the particle be slightly displaced from its equilibrium position in
particle of
is
mass
the plane of the polygon, it will execute harmonic vibrations in a straight line, the length the simple equivalent pendulum being 2mgac/n\ (2c - a), and that for vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the polygon, the corresponding length will be mgacjriX (c - a), X being the modulus of each string. (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1900.)
of
w. D.
14
210
13.
The energy -equation
of a particle
2 f(x)x =
[en.
is
2<f)
(x)
+ constan t,
<<
If and a is a value of x for which (x~) is zero. which does not vanish for x=a, shew that the period
<$>
2p )
(x) is
the
first
derivative of
<j>(x)
of a vibration about the position
is
4
v
1
(i/2/>)
(2/>)
/ra
2p
)
where h
]
is
h F (1/2/3+^) ( (a) 4/30( the value of (x- a) corresponding to the extreme displacement.
(Elliott.)
of gravity at a distance c from its axis, there being in other If the cone oscillates on a horizontal respects the usual kinetic symmetry at the vertex. and the be shew that the length of the simple equivalent plane plane perfectly rough,
4.
A cone has its centre
pendulum
whereas
if
is
(cos a / Me)
2 (A sin a +
C cos 2 a),
(Coll.
this plane be perfectly smooth, the length is

(cos a/ Me) (sin a/A
2
+ cos2 a/C).
Exam.)
15.
number
extremity and of rods is put over a smooth fixed sphere of radius 6, each rod being in contact with the Shew that, if the system be slightly disturbed so that sphere, and rests in equilibrium. the hinge performs vertical vibrations about the position of equilibrium, their period is
of equal uniform rods each of length 2a are freely jointed at a common arranged at equal angular intervals like the ribs of an umbrella. This cone
where sec
16.
a sin a = a/6.
w 1+2
is
l+3sin 2 a\4
sin 2 a,
sm
a.
I,
1896.)
symmetrically suspended in a horizontal position by four light elastic strings attached to the corners of the board and to a fixed point Shew that the period of the vertical vibrations is vertically above its centre.
heavy rectangular board
^WM)
where
c is
the equilibrium distance of the board below the fixed point, a
is
the length of
a semi-diagonal,
17..
=(
+ c2 )2,
and X
is
the modulus.
(Coll.
Exam.)
heavy lamina hangs in equilibrium in a horizontal position suspended by three Shew that the normal vibrations are vertical inextensible strings of unequal lengths. (1) a rotation about either of two vertical lines in a plane through the centroid, and
(2)
a horizontal swing parallel to this plane.

18.
(Coll.
Exam.)
A uniform rod of
is
of length b
length 2a is freely hinged at one end, at the other end a string attached which is fastened at its further end to a point on the surface of a
c.
homogeneous sphere of radius motion of the system when
If the masses of the rod
slightly disturbed
from the
and sphere are equal, find the vertical, and shew that the
1
equation to determine the periods is 3 2 - 3 2a6c/x gp? (66c + 19ca + 5a6) +g n (35a +156 + 2k ) g = 0.
(Coll. 19.
A uniform
wire, in the shape of
an
ellipse of semi-axes a,
6,
rests
horizontal plane with its minor axis vertical and a particle of equal mass is a fine string of length I attached to the highest point. If vibrations in a vertical plane be performed, prove that their periods will be those of pendulums whose lengths are the value of x given by the equation
{x (36
Exam.) upon a rough suspended by
- 2a 2 /6) + 56 2 + i?} (x-l) + 46 2 / = 0,

(Coll. Exarn.)
where k
is
the radius of gyration about the centre of gravity.
vn]
20.
211
A fine inextensible string has its ends tied to two fixed pegs in a horizontal whose distance apart is three-quarters of the length of the string. The string also passes through two small smooth rings which are fixed to the ends of a uniform The rod hangs in equilibrium straight rod whose length is half that of the string. in a horizontal position and receives a small disturbance in the vertical plane of the Shew that initially its normal coordinates in terms of the time are Lcos(pt+a) string. and Mcosh (qt + fi), where p 2 and q 2 are the roots of the equation
line
yA
X _ ^9 a
2
ff* a-*
= o.
(ColL
Exam
heavy uniform rod of length 2a, suspended from a fixed point by a string Shew that the periods of the slightly disturbed from its vertical position. normal vibrations are 2nlp l and 27r/p2 where pi2 and 2 2 are the roots of the equation
21.
of length
b, is
p>
abp*-(4a
22.
point 0.
circular disc, mass M, is attached by a string from its centre C to a fixed is fixed to the disc at a point on the rim. Find the particle of mass
which equations of motion on a vertical plane in terms of the angles 6 and make with the vertical, and prove that if the system vibrates about the
equilibrium the periods in these coordinates are given by the equation
OC and CP
position
of
where a
is
the length
(M+ m) (p~a - g] {(M+ 2i) cp 2 - 2mg] = 2m 2cap\ of the string OC and c the radius of the disc.
(Coll.
Exam.)
23. A hemispherical bowl of radius 2b rests on a smooth table with the plane of its rim horizontal within it and in equilibrium lies a perfectly rough sphere of radius b, and mass one-quarter of that of the bowl. A slight displacement in a vertical plane con taining the centres of the sphere and the bowl is given prove that the periods of the consequent vibrations are 2ir/pi and 2ir/p z where p^ and p% 2 are the roots of the
; :
equation
1566%2 - 2606a^ + 75#2 = 0.

uniform circular disc of mass
(Coll.
Exam.)
and radius a is held in equilibrium on a smooth horizontal plane by three equal elastic strings of modulus X, natural length 1 and
24.
stretched length I. The strings are attached to the disc at the extremities of three radii equally inclined to one another and their other ends are attached to points of the plane Shew that the periods of vibration of the disc are lying on the radii produced.
J )}
and
I,
where /i=2m^
25.
/3X.
1898.)
particle is describing a circle varying as the nth power of the distance.
under the influence of a force to the centre Shew that this state of motion is unstable if n
be
less
than -
3.
Shew
that, if the force vary as e

is less
2
"/r
,
the motion
is
stable or unstable according as

(Coll.
the radius of the circle

26.
or greater than a.
Exam.)
particle
moves
in free space
under the action of a centre of force which varies

:
as the inverse square of the distance and a field of constant force shew that a circle described uniformly is a possible state of steady motion, but this will be stable only provided the circle as viewed from the centre of force appears to lie on a right circular cone whose semi-vertical angle is greater than arccosj. (Coll. Exam.)
142
212
27.
uniformly particle describes attract inversely as the square of the distance.
<<1,
[CH.
a circle
which
3 cos e cos
where 6 and
<f>
are the angles
under the influence of two centres of force Prove that the motion is stable if which a radius of the circle subtends
at the centres of force.

28.
I,
1889.)
on the interior of a smooth cone with heavy particle is projected horizontally from the apex is c and the its axis vertical and apex downwards; the initial distance a horizontal circle should be that condition the Find is a. cone of the semi-vertical angle and shew that the time of a vibration about this steady motion is that
described; of a simple
29.
pendulum of length ^csec
a.
(Coll.
Exam.)
A circular disc has a thin rod pushed through its centre perpendicular to its to the radius of the disc prove that the system the length of the rod being equal plane, cannot spin with the rod vertical unless the velocity of a point on the circumference after falling from rest of the disc is greater than the velocity acquired by a body (Coll. Exam.) ten times the radius of the disc.
;
vertically through
30.
Prove that for a symmetrical top spinning upright with sufficient angular two types of motion, differing slightly from the steady motion velocity for stability, the functions of the time, in the upright position, which are determined by simple harmonic
and that are the limits of steady motions with the axis slightly inclined to the vertical, the period of the vibrations is the limiting value of that which corresponds to steady motion in an inclined position when the inclination is indefinitely diminished.
(Coll.
Exam.)
One end of a uniform rod of length 2a whose radius of gyration about one 31. end is k is compelled to describe a horizontal circle of radius c with uniform angular Prove that when the motion is steady the rod lies in the vertical plane velocity w. an angle a with the vertical given by through the centre of the circle and makes
w2
2
(k
+ ac cosec a) = ay sec a.
,
Shew that the
are 27r/\i, 27r/X 2 where X l5 X 2 are the periods of the normal vibrations
(FX
sin a
2
a>
ac)
X2 sin a -
2
a>
ac -
2
a>
&2 sin 3 a) =
2
4a>
X 2 sin 2 a cos 2
a.

disturbed from
I,
1889.)
conical pendulum when 32. Investigate the motion of a harmonic oscillation of the point of support. Can the steady motion by a small vertical such a disturbance? (Coll. Exam.) steady motion be rendered unstable by
33.
it
its state of
The middle point
to the middle point of the opposite side
of one side of a uniform rectangle is fixed and the line joining is constrained to describe a circular cone
of semi -angle
find
The rectangle being otherwise free, a with uniform angular velocity. about the the positions of steady motion and prove that the time of a vibration sin a. divided of revolution the to by period position of stable steady motion is equal
(Coll.
its
Exam.)
A solid of revolution, symmetrical about a plane through 34. b which is is suspended from a fixed point by a string of length perpendicular to its axis, The mass of length 2a. axis this the of axis of the being end one to solid, attached moments of inertia at its centre of gravity are and its the solid is
of
centre of gravity
M,
principal
(A, A, C}.
from the state of steady motion in which the , is spinning on its axis with angular velocity the and axis are and body vertical, string where p^ and p 22 are 2 shew that the periods of the normal vibrations are îrlp l and
If the solid is slightly disturbed
27r//>
the roots of the equation

HaPgp*-
= (g- fy2 (Mag + Cnp - Ap*}.

)
vn]
213
A symmetrical top spins with its axis vertical, the tip of the peg resting in 35. a fixed socket. A second top, also spinning, is placed on the summit of the first, the tip
of the peg resting in a small socket.
Shew
1
that the arrangement
is
stable provided the
equation
(Mcgx* +
has
CQx + A {(M c + MK) gx* + C Q x + (A + Mh?}} = J/ 2AV)

)
;
M,
all its
roots real
fl,
ii
their masses, C,
their
being the spins of the upper and lower tops respectively, moments of inertia about the axis of figure, A, A about
c,
perpendiculars through the pegs, the distance between the pegs.
the distances of the centroids from the pegs, and h (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1898.)
A homogeneous body spins on a smooth horizontal plane in stable steady motion, 36. with angular velocity w about the vertical through the point of contact and the centre of The body is symmetrical about each of two perpendicular planes through the gravity.
The principal radii of curvature at the vertex on which it rests are pi p 2 the of inertia about the principal axes through the centre of gravity (parallel to the lines of curvature) are respectively A and and that about the vertical is C. The
vertical.
, ;
moments
height of the centre of gravity about the vertex weight of the body.
is
a = a l + p l = a.2 +p 2
and Xw 2
is
the
Shew that the

(i) (ii)
(iii)
following conditions
must be
satisfied
The value
(A
of X
must not
2
lie
between the two values
+ B - C] \JB {M +
(A
- Cf)Y
JA
[a.2
B 4- a (E v
if
the two radicals in the expression are both real.
I,
1897.)
CHAPTER
NON-HOLONOMIC SYSTEMS.
87.
VIII
DISSIPATIVE SYSTEMS
multipliers.
Lagranges equations with undetermined
proceed to the consideration of non-holonomic dynamical systems. In these systems, as was seen in 25, the number of independent coordinates
>
We now
<?2,
(<?i>
In) required in order to specify the configuration of the
system at
any time is greater than the number of degrees of freedom of the system, owing to the fact that the system is subject to constraints which will be supposed to do no work, and which are expressed by a number of nonintegrable* kinematical relations of the form
A
where
q%,
i
,
lk
dq
,
+ A 2k dq +
2
...
An A
Qn
t.
>
12
...,
A nm
7\,
+ A nk dq n + Tk dt = T ..., Tm are
2
,
(k
= l,2,
...,
m),
of
given
functions
q 1}
familiar example of such a system is that of a body which is constrained to without sliding on a given fixed surface the condition that no sliding takes place is expressed by two relations of the type given above. A still simpler example is that of ,a
The most
roll
vertical wheel with a sharp edge which rolls on a horizontal sheet of paper, as in the integraph of Abdank-Abakanowicz and the integrator of Pascal the wheel moves only in its own instantaneous plane, the friction at the sharp edge preventing it from slipping
:
sideways.
paper, and $ the azimuth of

of condition
If (x, y} are the rectangular coordinates of its point of contact with the its plane, we have in this case the non-holonomic equation
dy
tan
<p
dx = 0.
being m, the system will have not possible to apply Lagrange s equations m) (n of the Lagrangian equations will an extension a but to such system, directly to discuss the motion of non-holonomic enable us which will be now given
of kinematical relations
;
The number
degrees of freedom
it is
systems in a way analogous to that previously developed

systems.
for
holonomic
Consider then a non-holonomic
instant is completely specified by kinetic energy be T, and let the kinematical conditions holonomic constraints be expressed by the relations
system, whose configuration at any n coordinates q l} q 2 ..., q n let the

,
due
to the non-
A.kdq,
+ A^dq +
2
...
+ A nk dq n + Tk dt =
it
(k
= 1,
2,
m).
* If these relations were integrable,

(<?i>
92
1
>
1 n)
would be possible to express some of the coordinates i Q terms of the others, and the n coordinates would therefore not be independent
:
which
is
contrary to our assumption.
87]
Non-holonomic Systems.
Dissipative Systems
215
is open to us either simply to regard the system as subject to these kinematical conditions, or in place of these to regard the system as acted on by certain additional external forces, namely the forces which have it
Now
be exerted by the constraints in order to compel the system to fulfil the we shall for the present take the latter point of view. Let Qi 8qi+Q*Bqt +... + Qn *q*
to
kinematical conditions;
displacement (Sq^ 8q 2 ..., Sq n ) (which kinematical conditions), and let

,
be the work done on the system by these additional forces in an arbitrary is now not restricted to satisfy the
8q 1
+Q
Sq 2 +...
+ Qn Sq n
be the work done on the system by the original external forces in this dis placement. Since the substitution of additional forces for the kinematical relations has made the system holonomic, we can apply the Lagrangian we have therefore equations
;
as the equations of motion of the system.
The
forces
Q/>
Qz,
>
Qn are unknown
but they are such that, in any
displacement consistent with the instantaneous constraints, they do no work. It follows that the quantity
Qi
is
dq
+ Q2 dq +
2
...+
l
Qn dq n
:
zero
for
all
values
of
the
ratios
dq :dq 2
...
...
dqn which
0;
satisfy
the
equations
A*dql + A ti dqa +
t
+ A nk dq n =
hence we must have
Qr =
altogether the (n
\A n + \a4 + ...+ \m A rm
,
(r
r.
1, 2,
n),
where the quantities \ l} \2
...,
\ m are independent of
We
thus have
+ m)
dT
equations
dT\
îfcffi
+ A 2k q +
2
...+
A nk qn +
the
is
2^
(n
(k=l,2,
...,
m),
and
<1\,
these
>
are
,
sufficient
)u>
to
determine
+ m) unknown
quantities
X. q n î, of this set of equations*.

fc,
,
The problem
thus reduced to the solution
The extension
Monatshefte fur
Journ. Math. xn. (1871), p. 1
of Lagrange s equations to non-holonomic systems is due to Ferrers, Quart. C. Neumann, Leipzig Berichte, XL. (1888), p. 22: and Vierkandt, Math. u. Phys. in. (1892), p. 31.
:
216
88.
Equations of motion referred
to
Dissipative Systems [CH. vin

axes moving in any manner.
The method given in the preceding article depends essentially on the reduction of the non-holonomic system to a holonomic system by introducing the forces due to the non-holonomic constraints. In practice, this is often
most conveniently done by forming separately the equations of motion of each of the bodies of the system. It is moreover frequently advantageous to use axes of reference which are not fixed either in space or in the body, and we shall now find the equations of motion of a rigid body referred to axes which have their origin at the centre of gravity of the body, and are
turning about
it
in
any manner*.
be the centre of gravity of the body, and let Gxyz be the moving (u, v, w) be the components of velocity of the centre of gravity resolved parallel to these axes, and let (0 l 2 #3) be the components of
Let
axes.
Let
0<
angular velocity of the system of axes Gxyz resolved along the axes them w 2 3 ) be the components of angular velocity of the selves; further let
&>
(&>j,
body, resolved along the same axes. Then ( 64) the motion of G is the same as that of a particle of mass M, equal to that of the body, acted on by forces equal to the external forces which act on the body (including all forces of
constraint, except the molecular reactions
;
of the body) let (X, Y, Z) be the components parallel to the axes these external forces.
between the constituent particles Gxyz of
The component of velocity of G parallel to Gx is u, and consequently v0 + wQ2 we 17) the component of its acceleration in this direction is u
3
;
have therefore the equation
which can be written
where
of
(u, v, w,
a>!,
denotes the kinetic energy of the body, expressed in terms of and similar equations can be obtained for the motion 3 ); 2
<w
&>
>
parallel to the axes
Gy and
Gz.
Consider next the motion of the body relative to G, which ( 64) is 62, 63, we see that the angular independent of the motion of G from
;
body about the axis Gx is dT/dwi, increase of angular momentum about an axis fixed
momentum
of the
so that the rate of

in
space
and
in
stantaneously coinciding with
Gx
is
A f^.\ -B
*
that the
In the applications of this method, the axes are usually chosen subject to the condition moments and products of inertia of the body with respect to them do not vary but this
;
condition
is
not essential.
88, 89]
If L,
Non-liolonomic Systems.
Dissipative Systems
217
denote the moments M, have therefore ( 40) we Gxyz,
of the external forces about the axes
d
and two similar equations.
dT
2
dT _ =
**j
Hence
finally the
motion of the body

ff
is
determined by the six equations
l*.(W\-aW
dt\du)
d.
d_T_
d_fdT^_.dT
dt
,dT
(W\ _
2
dt\dw/
It will
du
dv
dt\dwj
2
9o>i
3h
be observed that these are really Lagrangian equations of motion in terms of quasi-coordinates, and could have been derived by use of the
theorem of
30.
,
let (w 1} u 2 a) Example. If the origin of the moving axes is not fixed in the body, be the components of velocity of the origin of coordinates, resolved parallel to the of angular velocity instantaneous position of the axes; let (0 l5 2 3 ) be the components of the system of axes, resolved along themselves; let (vi, v 2 v 3 ) be the components of situated at the origin of velocity of that point of the body which is instantaneously
,
coordinates; and let

referred to the
o>
(&>!,
o>
3)
moving
axes.
be the components of angular velocity of the body, also Shew that the equations of motion can be written in
the form
tfiJ^-^W+e^X,
dt \c
(VL\-fi^J+eM=
dT - 7
dT
^ OV
5
00)2
.
00)3
.
+ u3
s
dT OVi
dT
^
Oo>3
0!
JT-
dT =
Oo>i
dT
where
(JT, F, Z, Z, J/, ^) are the reference to the moving axes.
dT
dT
dT
forces with
components and moments of the external
89.
Application
shall
to special
non-holonomic problems.
We
now
consider some examples illustrative of the theory of non-
holonomic systems.
Example
Let
it
1. Sphere rolling on a fixed sphere. be required to determine the motion of a perfectly rough sphere of radius a and which rolls on a fixed sphere of radius 6, the only external force being gravity.
mass
TO
218
Non-Jwlonomic Systems.
<)
Dissipative Systems [CH.
vm
Let (b, 0, be the polar coordinates of the point of contact, referred to the centre of the fixed sphere, the polar axis being vertical. We take moving axes GABC, where G is the centre of the moving sphere, GC is the prolongation of the line joining the centres of
the spheres, GA is horizontal and perpendicular to GC, and and GC, in the direction of 6 increasing.
GB
is
perpendicular to
GA
With these axes we have,

0i= -P,
in the notation of the last article,

0-2=
si"
-<j>
0,
03
cos
0,
and and
if
F,
denote the components of the force at the point of contact parallel to
GA
GB respectively, we
have
X=F, L = F a,
The equations
Y=mgsm0 + F N=0. M=-Fa,

,
of motion of the last article
become therefore
m (u
in (v-{-u0s)
"*"
v0 3 ) =
mgsin
O)l ~|~
F= =F =
1
fam
gam
(o>
w3 +
a>2
i),
(o>j
+ 0201s),
0)3
C/ 2
U I O) 2
w.
Moreover, the components parallel to the axes GA, GB of the velocity of the point of contact are u and consequently the kinematical equations which express 2 and v -f ao) t the condition of no sliding at the point of contact are
ao>
Eliminating F,
a^,
o>
2,
we have
-t70 3
|
<
v+u0 3
a02(>)
-f0i3=0, g sin $ = 0, = 0. 3
J *-
0)
The
last
in the first
where n is a constant; while substituting two equations their values in terms of 0, 6, 0, we have
equation gives
a>
= n,
for u, v,
1}
(a
sin 0) + (a + 6) + b}-r dt (0
cos
0<f>
anf>
= 0,
(a + b]
0-(a + b)<p?cos0sin
+ %an<f>sin0-%gsiu = 0.
The former
by
sin 0,
of these equations can be integrated at once after multiplying throughout

2 (a + 6)0 sin $
and gives
+ f cm cos 0=k,
where k
the
first
is
a constant.
(/>
equation by
sin 0,
and Moreover, multiplying the second equation throughout by and adding, we obtain an equation which can be at once
n2 ^ +
integrated, giving
-2- cos
= h,
where h
is
a constant
this is really the equation of
energy of the system.
Eliminating
(a +
2
fe)
between these two integral equations, we have

.
sin 2
&=
- (k - f an cos
2
(9)
- ^-g
(a
+ b) sin
cos
+ h (a + 6) 2 sin 2
and on writing cos# = #,
this equation
becomes
89]
Dissipative Systems
219
x= + oc
The cubic polynomial in x on the right-hand side of this equation is positive when some real values of 6, i.e. for some values of x negative when #=1, positive for between -1 and 1, and negative when #=-1; it has therefore one root greater than - 1 we shall denote these roots by unity, and two roots between 1 and
, ;
cosh
y,
cos
/3,
cos
a,
where cos
j3>
cos a;
and we then have

t
\7 a + b)
where
e is
+f =
)
j {(x
J
- cosh
y) (x
- cos
|8)
(x
cos a)}
Writing
,
2 14 a+b 7A(a + 6) + â * + + i(coshy + cos/3 + cosa)= 3 +

.
v(a
6)
the equation becomes
or
2=
is
where the function
e2
~14(a + 6){
C S/3
"
30<7(a+i)
these quantities e^ e2 e3 are

,
all real,
and
satisfy the relations

el
>e
ei + 62 + 63=0,
>e
cos a and cos 3 (since x is real) lies between hence the imaginary part of the constant e in the we shall argument of the ^-function is the half-period corresponding to the root e3 which denote by the real part of e may be taken to be zero by suitably choosing the origin of time and therefore we have finally
Now
a*
is real
for real values of
and
so z is real
and
lies
between
ez
and
e3

this integration can be effected by a procedure similar to that used ( 72) to obtain the Eulerian angles which define the position of a top spinning on a perfectly rough plane.
Example 2. A rough sphere rolls in contact with the outside of a fixed rough sphere, under gravity if z2 z3 be the greatest and least heights of its centre, during the motion, and z be the height at a time t from an instant when z was equal to 2 2 prove that
; , ,
(*2
z}
[|f>
~ (0 e 2] = (*2 23)
(<?i
- e 2 ),
Exam.)
where
el
e2 , e3
(= -
el
- e2 )
are real quantities in descending order of magnitude.

(Coll.
220
Example
Consider
3.
vm
Sphere rolling on a moving sphere.
now the motion of a rough sphere of radius a and mass m which rolls under on another sphere, of radius b and mass M, the latter sphere being free to turn gravity about its centre 0, which is fixed.
Let (6, 0) be the polar coordinates of the point of contact referred to axes fixed in space with the fixed centre as origin, the axis from which 6 is measured being vertical.
To obtain the equations of motion of the sphei e m, we take (as in the last example) moving axes O ABC of which GC is the prolongation of the line OGf joining the centres of the spheres, and GA is horizontal. Let (0 $2 3 ) denote the components of angular velocity of the coordinate-system resolved along its own axes, and let (wj, 2 ^3) denote the components of angular velocity of the sphere m along the same axes. Then, as in the last example, we have
1
,
,
o>
T= \
and
if
111
U Z + V- + W2 +
((Bj
(B 2
2
0>
3 )
F,
be the components of the force acting on the sphere
at the point of contact
parallel to
OA
and
GB
respectively,
we have
L^F a,
so the equations of motion
M=-Fa,
N=Q,
become
(1)3
+ ^3 Wi) .................. (1),
(02
a) 3 -
+ 62013) .................. (2),
<9
an
+ 0j 0)2 =
...................................................... (3).
To determine the motion of the sphere M, we take moving axes parallel to the axes (JABC, but with their origin at 0; let (Q 1? Q 2 Q 3 ) denote the components of angular we have Then for the sphere velocity of the sphere resolved along these axes.
,
and
its
3)
=F
=0
.............................. (5),
Q 3 -(9 2 Qi +
The conditions
<9iQ
................................. (6).
of no sliding at the point of contact are

u-aa>2
= bQ 2
v+
aa>
= -bQ
.............................. (7).
In order to solve this set of equations we multiply equations

respectively, and add
;
(3)
and
(6)
by a and
thus, using
(7),
we have
a w 3 + bQ s + u&i + v6% = 0,
or
ai>
-f
&Q 3 = 0.
Integrating,
we have
a<a
+ bQ 3 =an,
where n
is
a constant.
89, 90]
(4)
Diasipative Systems
221
Moreover, from equations
and
(7)
we have
3v
- f M(u Eliminating
ao>
- b6iQ 3 2
- 6z
aa>^
= F.
(1),
ând
o>
#30>i
between this and equations

..
we have
(u
-63 v) =
.
rnr
(7),
.
1
, N
Similarly from equations (5) and
we have
ud 3 + 0.0%
this
<w
M
Eliminating
-v (
a&i
+ b6 2 Q 3 = F
)
and ^ - # 3 co 2 between
and equations
. z
(2),
.
we have
,
f- (v +
or
2
(9-sme
......... (B).
Now
the equations (A) and (B), from which 6 and
are to be determined in terms of
t,
are of essentially the same character as the equations found for the determination of 6 in the previous example the former equations being in fact derivable from the and
:
present ones by making very large compared with m. as in the former case. proceeds exactly
The
integration
therefore
forces
is
4. A uniform sphere rolls on a perfectly rough horizontal plane, under whose resultant passes through its centre. Shew that the motion of its centre the same as that of a particle acted on by the same forces reduced in the ratio 5 7.
Example
Example 5. Form the equations of motion of a perfectly rough sphere rolling under gravity inside a fixed right circular cylinder, the axis of which is inclined to the vertical at an angle a; and shew that, if the sphere be such that &2 =â 2 a being its radius and k
,
the radius of gyration about any diameter, and if it be placed at rest with the axial plane through its centre making an angle /3 with the vertical axial plane, the velocity of the centre parallel to the axis,
when
this angle is 6, is
{sin
\6 arccosh
(cos
6 sec
i/3)
+ cos i(9 arccos
(sin
\d cosec A/3)},
I,
where
+a
is
the radius of the cylinder.

cf.
1895.)
For other examples

90.
Woronetz, Math. Ann. LXX. (1911), p. 410.
Vibrations of non-holonomic systems.

shall
:
We
system
it
will
next consider the small vibratory motions of a non-holonomic appear that so far as vibrations about equilibrium are con
cerned, the difference between holonomic
and non-holonomic systems
is
unimportant.
For consider the vibrations about equilibrium of a non-holonomic system with n independent coordinates and (n m) degrees of freedom, in which the constraints are independent of the time. Let T be the kinetic and V the T will be supposed to be potential energy, so that for the vibrational problem
a homogeneous quadratic function of (q lt q,
...,
q n ), and
F to be a homogeneous
222
,
Dissipatlve Systems [CH. vui
quadratic function of (q l
constants.
There are
m
A
...,q n ], the coefficients in both cases being equations of the type

q.2
,
lk q!
+ Aaq* +
+ A nk q n =
:
= 1,2,...,
m),
which express the non-holonomic constraints

are
(
and the equations of motion
87)
d /?T\
} at (^\cq r j
-r.
dV = -^-+\jA n + \ A r2 +
z
...
+ \ m A rm
,
(r=l,
2,
...,>
oq r
these equations it is evident that \ l} X 2 ..., \m are in general small quantities of the order of the coordinates and therefore for the vibrational
From
problem only the constant parts of ^. n A 12 ..., A nm need be considered. The vibrational motion is therefore the same as if the coefficients A n A 12 ..., A nm were constants independent of the coordinates but in this case the equations
, , , ,
A lk q + A sk q + ... + A nk q n =
l
(k
= =
I, 2,
...,i)
can be integrated
in fact, they give
lk
ql
+ A^q, +... + A nk q n = = 0,
=
qn
(A
1, 2,
m),
the constants of integration being zero since the values

qi
q2
0,
represent a possible position of the system.
motion of the given non-holonomic system is the same as that of the holonomic system for which the equations of con straint are expressible in the integrated form
It follows that the vibratory
A
we can
nate
lk
ql
+ A 2k q. +...+A nk qn =
2
(k
1, 2, ....
m)
therefore determine the vibrations by using these equations to elimi of the coordinates (q l} q z ...,q n ) from T and V; we shall then have
,
and potential and the corre m) coordinates energies being expressed in terms of (n the sponding velocities the vibrations of this system can be determined by
a holonomic system with (n
m) degrees
of freedom, the kinetic
usual method described in the preceding chapter.
As an example, we
shall consider the following problem*.
horizontal heavy homogeneous hemisphere is resting in equilibrium on a perfectly rough second heavy homogeneous hemisphere is A itith its spherical surface downwards. plane a perfectly rough plane face of the first, the point of contact resting in the same way on The equilibrium being slightly disturbed, it is required being in the centre of the face.
to
find the vibrations of the system.
Take as axes
of reference
Z>>xyz
its
rectangular set of axes (1) centre of gravity 2
fixed in the
upper hemisphere, the origin being
Due
to
Madame Kerkhoven-Wythoff, Nieuw Archiefvoor
Wiskunde, Deel
iv.
(1899).
90]
Dissipative Systems
223
its
(2) rectangular set of axes centre of gravity Z\

.
Z ^^
l
fixed in the lower hemisphere, the origin being
A rectangular set of -axes Rlmn fixed in space, the origin R being the equi (3) librium position of the point of contact of the lower hemisphere and the plane.
We further
Z<iZ,
define these axes
by supposing that
Z\, and Rn
are vertical and
are parallel, the axes
Zz y,
t
Z^, and
in the equilibrium position the axes therefore coincident, while the axes z x, Z^, Rl being therefore also parallel.
Rm
Suppose that at time

of axes are connected
the coordinates of a point referred to these different sets
by the equations
= a+ n
The 24 coefficients in these transformation-formulae completely specify the position of the system at any instant. As however the system has only six degrees of freedom, there must be 18 equations connecting these coefficients or their differentials. Of these, 12 are the ordinary conditions of the types
which express the orthogonal character of the axes contact and rolling, which we shall now find.
Let
the remaining 6 are the conditions of
R R2
l
,
be the radii of the lower and upper hemispheres respectively, and
/j,
12
the distances of the centres of gravity from their plane faces, so li = %Ri, ^2 = f #2coordinates of the point of contact of the upper hemisphere with the lower are
The
x 2 =-li z yi,
yi= -
Rtf*,
zz
h-R-iyz
the conditions that this point shall be at rest relative to the lower hemisphere are
= 0.
The
last of these
equations gives 7 + ^273 = 0, which
is
the differentiated form of the
equation
^-7-73^2= -RZ,
an equation which expresses the condition of contact of the two hemispheres the first two of the equations give
:
while
a-
at
0!
R 2 y^ - a
R^y-i
a3
(^ 2
R-zy^
,
= 0,
R ayi - & RW +
/3 3 (1 2
- -R 2 y3 = 0,
These
and these express the condition of

equations give as a
first
rolling of the
upper on the lower hemisphere.
approximation
224
Dissipative Systems
[CH.
vm
and therefore on integration
Similarly the condition of contact of the lower hemisphere and the horizontal plane
is
and the conditions of
rolling are
a 2)
have thus now obtained the 18 equations connecting the 24 coefficients: taking c i as the 6 independent coordinates of the system, and solving for y\i a the other 18 coefficients in terms of these, we find with the necessary approximation
/3s?
2>
We
^3>
-l - $ (a 22 + 713
),
=-yi-
=1-
n
The
.-/sip,
2
U=i-i(yi
+33 2
).
potential energy of the system
is
F= J/j^c + M2 g (c + c ia + c2 /3 + c3 y),
or,
retaining only small quantities of the second order,
If
now we
hemisphere and form the sum
express the coordinates I, m, n of any particle of the in terms of its coordinates relative to the axes 2 xyz and l
i2m (P + m2 + h2
upper or lower
respectively,
for each hemisphere, neglecting
terms above the second
order of small quantities, and remembering that the principal moments of inertia of and radius R at its centre of gravity are %MR 2 a hemisphere of mass R*, we find for the kinetic energy of the system the value T, where
+ C! 2
{^ Wi + l/
Equations
if
(1J7? 2
+f
^2 +
^
a2
b3
^^^^
The equations
(i)
of motion evidently separate into three distinct sets, consisting of

for the coordinates
a 2 and
in F,
is
and do not correspond to vibrations
in the stricter sense
these coordinates give rise to no terms in fact, the equilibrium

;
not disturbed
revolution.
(ii)
We
either of the hemispheres is turned through can therefore neglect these equations.
any angle about
its axis of
Equations involving the coordinates
and
;
3.
(iii)
equations for 6 3 and
Equations for the coordinates c 1 and y l these are exactly the same as the so we need consider only the latter. /33
,
90]
for 6 3
Dissipative Systems
225
The equations
and
j33
are, in extenso,
- 1^2^2/3 2 J/2 6 3 +g (| 3-|^3 + ^/33=0.

)
RM ^
where
The corresponding determinantal equation
for X,
STT/V/X is a period, is
=0.
This
is
a quadratic equation in X
it is
easily
found that
its
roots are positive
if
and
this is the condition
for stability of the equilibrium.
The
in 88.
are most conveniently discussed
vibrations of non-holonomic systems about a state of steady motion by use of the equations of motion given
The method
will
be illustrated by the following example.
Example.
with angular velocity n
solid of revolution has an equatorial plane of symmetry, and is rolling round its axis in steady motion on a perfectly rough horizontal
plane, the equatorial plane of the solid being vertical. to find the period of a vibration.
This motion being slightly disturbed,
Let G be the centre of gravity of the solid, and let (C, A) be its moments of inertia about the axis and about a line through G perpendicular to the axis. Take as moving
axes of reference Gxyz, where Gz is the axis of the solid, Gy is perpendicular to the plane through Gz and the point of contact (so Gy is horizontal), and Gx is normal to the plane Let F, R be the components of the force acting on the solid at the point Gt/z.
of contact,
F F being in the plane

,
Gxz,
F
,
plane.
Let
(6 l
#3)
and
(wj,
w2
co 3 )
being parallel to Gy, and R being normal to the denote as usual the components of angular
velocity of the axes and of the body respectively, and let (u, v, w) be the components of the velocity of G, parallel to the moving axes. Further, let p be the radius of curvature of the meridian of the solid at the equator, a the radius of its equatorial circle, 6 the the angle between Gy and its undisturbed angle made by Gz with the vertical, and
direction.
Then we have
di
=
o>!
=4>
sin 6,
$ 2 =co 2 = #,
# 3 = $cos#,
and the kinetic energy
is
T= $ M (u 2 + v 2 + 708) + 1 A
The equations
of
2
(a>!
co 2 )
+\
2
<7o>
from this point on the
axis,
18 therefore give, if P is the point of contact, PAT the perpendicular and G the perpendicular from G on the horizontal plane,
M (u - w9
+ w6 2
=Fuo6-(R- Mg) sin 6,
ai-Ato<i0 3
+ Ca s 6 Z =- F GK,
.
2
.3
<7co
6^+Aê-^-F.GN-R. XP,
=F .PK.
In these equations, (rA and j!\Tare measured positively parallel to the positive direction of the axis of z and the horizontal projection of this direction respectively.
w. D.
15
226
of no sliding at
vm
The conditions
P are
sin 6
GN.
.O!
o>
= 0,
=o,
and the condition of contact of the body and plane
is
w cos 6 -11
sin 6
=
-^
- OK cos + PKsin 6).
These equations determine the motion in the general case, when the disturbance from When this latter assumption is made, steady motion is not supposed to be small.
we have
where
x,
"&,
*)
equal to Mg.
are small; and F, F u, w, wj, Moreover we have NP= (p - a) x,
o>
QI, # 2 , $3
The equations
is nearly are small, while therefore become
M (u + an6
Mr,
3)
= - R + Mg,
=F
=0,
,77
Cw w + atzr
l
=F a,
= 0,
=0,
W2=#2=x>
aa>2
where
Eliminating F,
o>i
=6
=^
QZ
1}
=
2
R, and replacing 6 1
62
a>
o>
by their
=0,
values, the equations
become
Cw
w
=ax,
=-aw.
From
or
the third and
fifth
and
77
are constants.
of these equations we The other three equations
see that
give,
and
are zero, and therefore
on eliminating w,
and therefore the equation
for the determination of

)
i-
s
2
A(A + Ma 2
this equation
x + {MgA ( P -a) +
Cn*
is
(C+ Ma
)}
x=
shews that the period of a vibration

2?r
2 2 (MgA (p-a) + Cn (C+Ma ))
91.
Dissipative systems
frictional forces.
proceed to the consideration of systems for which the principle of conservation of dynamical energy is not valid, the energy of the system being
We now
90, 91]
some other form
Dissipative Systems
(e.g.
227
continually changed into

in dynamics.
heat) which
is
not recognised
We
shall first consider frictional systems.
If two rigid bodies which are not perfectly smooth are in contact, the reaction between them at the point of contact may be resolved into a com
ponent along the common normal to their surfaces at the point, which is called the normal pressure, and a component in the common tangent-plane, which is called the frictional force. The frictional force is determined by
the following law*, which has been established experimentally
:
The bodies
will not slide on each other, provided the frictional force required for the does not exceed times the normal /j, prevention of sliding pressure, where /A
is
limiting coefficient of friction" ivhich depends only on the material of which the surfaces in contact are composed. If on the other hand the frictional force required to prevent sliding is greater than fj,
a constant called
the
"
the frictional force called into
times the normal pressure, there will be sliding at the point of contact, and play will be /* times the normal pressure.
Painleve has pointed out that the four hypotheses
(1)
that the above laws of friction
hold, (2) that there exist rigid bodies, (3) that the normal pressure between bodies cannot be negative, (4) that all accelerations and tensions are finite taken together lead in some
cases to contradictions of the fundamental laws of dynamics. For a discussion on this cf. Comptes Rendus, CXL. (1905), pp. 635, 702, 847: ibid. CXLI. (1905), pp. 310, 401, 546; Zeitschrift fur M. u. P. LVIII. (1909), p. 186.
subject,
The
following
examples
illustrate
the
motion
of
systems
involving
frictional forces.
Motion of a particle on a rough fixed plane curve. 1. Consider the motion of a particle which is constrained to move on a rough fixed tube of small bore, in the form of a plane curve, under forces which on its depend
Example
solely
Let f(s) and g(s) denote the components of force per unit mass acting on the particle in direction of the tangent and normal to the tube, where s is the distance of the particle from some fixed point of the tube, measured along the arc in the direction in which the particle is moving and let R be the normal reaction per unit mass,
position in the tube.
;
and p the
coefficient of friction.
2 vdv/ds and v /p, where v
Since the components of acceleration of the particle along the tangent and normal are is the velocity of the particle and p the radius of curvature of the
tube,
we have
S-/0-tt
Eliminating R, we have
dv*
__ + 2u
JV = 2
Integrating,
we have
where
(f>
= $ds/p,
and
c is
a constant depending on the
initial
The discovery that the friction is proportional to the normal pressure was G. Amontons, Paris Mem., annee 1699, p. 206.
made by
152
228
side of this equation is a
v2

known
function of
s,
vm
Then
The right-hand we have
say =F(s).
so the relation between s
and
is
t-t
t
/
{F(s)}~2
ds.
This equation represents the solxition of the problem.
Example
mass
or slide.
2.
m is attached
to the
circular hoop of mass stands on rough ground, and a particle of end of the horizontal diameter. To find whether the hoop will roll
friction required to
Let us investigate the rolling motion, assumed possible, and so determine whether the produce this motion is, or is not, greater than the maximum friction
i.e. p. times the corresponding normal pressure. Let 6 be the angle turned through by the hoop from the commencement of the motion, and let x and y be
actually available,
(downward) axes through
the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the system, referred to horizontal and vertical its own initial position, so that
a x = a6
ma
,
ti
a\
f (1 M+m^
cos#),
y= 9
ma
M+m sin
,,
6.
where a
is
the radius of the hoop.
The
kinetic
and potential energies are
T= Ma2 ft + ma?ft V= mga sin 6.

2 -T-
- sin 0),
of motion
is
therefore
2
Cvt
[2
M+ m(l- sin 0)}] + ma ft cos
= mga cos 0.
For the
so initially
initial
motion, this equation gives
we have
_
But
if
/J
ma
7
nf
_ ~
ft
F be the frictioual force and R the normal pressure,

F=(X+m),
R=(M+m)(
we have
we have
so initially
F
R
m(M+m)
2
-y+g
The hoop
less
will therefore roll or slide according as the coefficient of friction is greater or
than
m (M+m)
Example 3. A particle moves under gravity on a rough cycloid whose plane is and whose base is horizontal if be the inclination of the tangent at any point
:
vertical
to the horizontal, so that the equation of the cycloid can be written

s
= 4a sin
<,
and
if
tan
be the coefficient of
tar
friction,
shew that the motion
is
ce
where
c is
a constant.
91, 92]
92.
Dissipative Systems
229
Resisting forces depending on the velocity.
different type of dissipative system is illustrated by the motion of a projectile in the air, as the resistance of the air depends on the velocity of
No general rule can be formulated for the solution of prob lems involving forces of this kind a case of practical interest, however, namely the motion of a projectile under the influence of gravity arid of a resistance varying as some power of the projectile s velocity, can be integrated
the projectile.
:
in the following manner.
For low velocities (below lOOft./sec.) the resistance of the air to a projectile is nearly For high velocities (say 2000 ft. /sec.) the proportional to the square of the velocity. resistance is approximately a linear function of the velocity.
At time
let v
be the velocity of the
n projectile, kv the resistance per
unit mass, 6 the inclination of the path to the horizontal, and p the radius of The components of acceleration of the projectile curvature of the path.
along the tangent and normal to

its
path are vdv/ds and

kv n
v-/p
and hence the
(vdv/ds
\
v /p
= g sin 6 = g cos 6.
tan 6
ti"~
Dividing the
first
equation by the second,

1
l
v"+~
we obtain
k
dv
d0 d
-
gcos0
or
-T7j
d dv
(1 \ -^ n \v j
+ -= vn
sec 0) do (n log
nk
sec
0.
Integrating,
we have
n
(I/O sec
Constant
0.
= - (nk/g)
fsec n+1 0d0.

2
This equation gives v in terms of

gives
gt
To obtain
t,
the equation
= pg cos
Iv sec0d0,
and as
v is a known function of 0, this equation gives t as a function of 0. The rectangular coordinates (x, y) of the particle can now be found from the
equations
x=
The
solution of the
Ivcos0dt,
is
problem
n.
thus reduced to quadratures.

,
Resisting forces proportional
Newton, Principia, 1, of the velocity was then examined by John Bernoulli*

*
Book
z and av + bv z were considered by respectively to v, v 3. The case of a resistance 2, proportional to any power
in 1711.
Opera,
i.
p. 502.
230
shewed that
if
Dissipative Systems
ratio of the resistance to the
[CH.
vm
D Alembert *
gu denotes the
mass of the
projectile, the integration
can be effected in the four cases
u = a + bv n
u = a + b log v,
u=a
where
(log v}
+ R log v + b,
:
a, b, n are arbitrary constants and R is another constant depending on them. Siaccit obtained many more integrable cases, of which the following maybe mentioned
log 8
vdu
^c ^
{
I
du
l+a(u-\}
:
-r- + C, -icr j. l+b(u + l) c
du
where
a,
b,
c,
are arbitrary constants
number
of terms involved being finite
when
this equation defines c is rational.
in
terms of
u,
the
Poisson pointed out in 1806J that the theory of singular solutions of differential equations has applications in Dynamics, notably in the case of a particle under a resisting If a particle is moving in a straight line under a resisting force varying as the force.
square root of the velocity, the equation of motion

dv/dt =
is
av 2.
The
initial velocity
being
c2,
the motion
v
is
represented by the general integral

ât)
z
= (c
so long as
t<2c/a,
after
which
it is
represented by the singular solution
= 0.
Example 1. A heavy particle falls vertically from rest at the origin in a medium whose resistance varies directly as the velocity. Shew that the distance traversed
in time
t
is
9*
PHI?
1
ff,9 -- --
e -*t, K
where pv
is
the resistance per unit mass.
Example 2. A heavy particle falls vertically from rest at the origin in a medium whose resistance varies as the square of the velocity shew that the distance traversed in time t is
:
- log cosh
where
2
(Jgii. t),
p.v
denotes the resistance per unit mass.
93.
Rayleigtis dissipation-function.
a system is subject to external resisting forces which are directly proportional to the velocities of their points of application, it is possible to
of the kinetic
When
express the equations of motion of the system in general coordinates in terms and potential energies and of a single new function.
For
which
let
is
the energy lost to the system by the action of the resisting force applied to a particle ra of the system, whose coordinates are (x, y, z),
(Sac,
in an arbitrary displacement
By, Bz)
be
kz z8z,
du mouvement des fluides, t Comptes Rendus, cxxxn. (1901), p. 1175. I Journal de VEcole Polyt. vi. (Cahier 13), p. 60.
Traite de Vequilibre
et
Paris, 1744.
92, 93]
,
,
Dissipative Systems
231
where kx kv kz are functions of

typical particle ra will therefore
x, y,
z only.
The equations
of motion of the
be
(mx =
<my
\mz
kx x + X, = -k,J y+Y, = kz z + Z,
where X, Y,
Z are
the components of the total force (external and molecular)
on the particle, except the force of resistance.
Now
let
a function
F be
defined by the equations
where the summation

that F, which
is
which and let

system.
is extended over all the particles of the system; so called the dissipation-function, represents half the rate at energy is being lost to the system by the action of the resisting forces
;
(q lt
q.2
...,
q n ) be coordinates specifying the configuration of the
dz/dqr respectively,
,
Multiplying the equations of motion of the particle ra by dx/dqr dy/dq r and summing for all the particles of the system, we have
,
dx
>
dy + y ^+z=
..
..
,
,
dz\
^ =-S
dq r
dq r
dqj
(kx x
\
/,
dx
=
dy dz\ --h kyy ~ v y ^- T k,z

-f
dq r
dq r
^
dqj
oqr
-^
-.
dqr
As
s dq r j
in
26,
we have
.
dx
dqr
..
;^
* +y^-+^r r
dy
.,dz\ -
=d
/dT\ -
oq
dqj
dt \dqr j
-^
dT
,
dq r
where
T is
the kinetic energy
and
*
--
--
"
^,
oqr
dq r
dq rj
r>
where + Q2 8q2 ... Q n Sq n denotes the work done by the external forces (excluding the resistances) in an arbitrary infinitesimal displacement
Q^
while
we have
oq r
&+M
_dF
dqr
It follows that the equations
of motion of the system in terms of the co
ordinates (q lt q2
...,
q n ) can be written in the
form
dT\
dT
dF
232
Example.
If the resisting forces

relative (as
vm
y
t
,
depend on the
opposed to the absolute)
so that the forces acting on velocity of their points of application,
two
particles (x^
zt)
and
(# 2
>
3/2?
g z)
have the components
-kx (xi-x&
and
-**(#2-*l)>
-k v (yi-fa\
-*,(*i
-z)
-*(&-&)
-*(*2-*l)
the equations in general coordinates can be formed with the respectively, shew that,
expression
\ 2 {kx (x,
- xtf + k y (ft - ytf + *, fr - z,) 2 }
as a dissipation-function.
94.
Vibrations of dissipative systems.
is specified by its kinetic energy function, potential methods similar to those of and dissipation function, energy function, the nature of the small determine to order in Chapter VII can be applied an vibrations of the system about equilibrium-configuration.
If a dynamical system
system with two degrees of freedom. As in 76, we find that for the vibrational problem the kinetic energy and can be taken as homogeneous quadratic functions of the dissipation function
For simplicity we
shall consider a
and the potential energy as a homogeneous quadratic function of the coordinates, the coefficients in these functions being constants. Taking as coordinates those variables which would be normal coordinates if there function, we can write these three functions in the form were no
velocities,
dissipation
where
stable if
and X2 will be supposed there were no dissipative

of motion are
positive, so that the equilibrium

forces.
would be
The equations
drtT\dT + W + d_V =
dt \dqj
dq r
l
(r=l,2),
dqr
l
9<?-
or
q\
2
+
+
aq
</
A<jl
+ hq^ + \ q =0, + &?2 + ^2?2 = 0.

}
If
we attempt
to find a particular solution of these equations in the form
on substituting these values in the differential equations we have
A ( p* +ap + XO + Bhp = 0,
Ahp + B(p*+bp +
from which
it
=
X>)
0,
follows that
2
(p
p must be a root of the equation + ap + \0 (p + bp + X 2 ) - A ? = 0.

2 2
2
93, 94]
Dissipative Systems
233
so that suppose the dissipative forces to be comparatively small, on this supposition, the b can be neglected squares of the quantities a, h, roots of the last equation are readily found to be
shall
;
We
the second of the equations Corresponding to the root p^ we have, from
connecting
and B,
B _
ih
VXj
therefore given by
of the differential equations particular solution

~
is
= (Xj - X ) e ^ at (cos N/X] + i sin x/Xjtf), = h*J\ e~^ at (icos VXxi - sin Vx^), fa
^
2
i in these and a second particular solution is obtained by changing i to of the solutions It follows that two independent real particular expressions.
differential equations are

r
= (Xj - X
2)
e~
^ at
cos VXjtf
f (?!
= (Xj - X =
h
~
2)
^ at sin
Vx^,
f
and
-{
t al nns
v"X .
and therefore the most general

(q t
real solution involving e Pit is

2
= (Xj - X ) Ae ~ $ at sin (\/M + e),

sn
where -4 and e are real arbitrary constants. This represents one of the normal modes of vibration of the system. Adding to this the corresponding solution in e p **, we have finally the general solution of the vibrational problem, namely
1
= (\ - X ) Ae
2
at
sin
(\/M +
e)
+ A x 5e~
a
sin
sin
Vx^ +
+ (X2 - X ) Be~
:
bt
sin (*/\2 t
+ 7),
where
initial
-4,
-B,
<;,
7 are four constants which must be determined from the
Now we
tinually lost a and 6 are positive.
con suppose the dissipative forces such that energy is being to the system, so that F is a positive definite form, and therefore
The
last
equations therefore shew that the vibration

at
and e gradually dies away, on account of the presence of the factors e~^ of of u. the normal are vibrations the periods h, 6) the (neglecting squares
as if the dissipative forces were absent and in a normal vibration, the amplitude of oscillation of one of the coordinates is small compared with the
same
amplitude of oscillation of the other coordinate, while the phases of the vibration in the two coordinates at any instant differ by a quarter-period.
234
Non-1lolonomic Systems.
vm
similar analysis leads to corresponding results for systems with more than two degrees of freedom supposing that the dissipative forces are small and that the dissipation function and potential energy are positive definite forms, we find that the periods of the normal vibrations are (neglecting unaltered by the squares of the coefficients in the dissipation function)
;
and
dies away presence of the dissipative forces, but that the vibration gradually if (q lt q 2 ..., q n } are the normal coordinates of the system when the forces are absent, there is a normal vibration of the system when
:
,
dissipative
the dissipative forces are present, in which the amplitude of the vibrations in of the vibration in q 1} q-s, q n is small compared with the amplitude
<?2,
and the phase of the vibrations in q2 q 3

,
...,
q n differs
by a quarter-period
from the phase of the vibration in q lf

Example. Discuss the vibrations of a system which is acted on by periodic external which have the same period as one of the normal modes of free vibration of the system shewing the importance of dissipative forces (even where small) in this case.
forces
;
95.
Impact.
Another mode in which energy may be lost* to a dynamical system is by a collision generally the collision of bodies which belong to the system
;
results in a decrease of dynamical energy.
The
mental
law-f-.
is based on the following experi analytical discussion of collisions When two bodies collide, the values of the relative velocity of the
surfaces in contact (estimated normally
to the
surfaces) at instants immediately

:
impact bear a definite ratio to each other before this ratio depends only on the material of which the bodies are composed.
and immediately
after the
This ratio will in general be denoted by are said to be inelastic.
e.
When
e is zero,
the bodies
The general problem of impact reduces therefore to a problem in impulsive motion in which the unknown impulsive force at the point of contact of the
bodies is to be determined by the condition that the change in relative normal velocity of the bodies satisfies the above law.
96.
Loss of kinetic energy in impact.

shall
We
Let
(u, v,
*
now
find the loss of kinetic energy
when two
perfectly smooth
bodies impinge on each other.
and let (u v w ) and typify the mass of a particle of either body, after the impact, and and w) denote its components of velocity before
I.e. lost to
the system considered as a dynamical system
the energy
is
not annihilated, but
appears in some other manifestation, e.g. heat. t The laws of impact were discovered in 1668 by John Wallis (Phil. Trans. No. 43,
p. 864)
and Christopher Wren
(ibid. p. 867).
94-97]
let
(
Dissipative Systems
235
U, V,
W)
molecular) on this particle.
be the components of the total impulsive force (external and The equations of impulsive motion ( 35) give
u
ti
m (u
adding, and
U,
m(v - v ) =V,
m (w - w =
)
W.
Multiplying these equations by (u + eu 9 ), (v + ev Q ), (w + ewQ ) respectively, summing for all the particles of both bodies, we have
-MO)
2w {(u Now
(u
eu
+ (v
+ ev ) + (w - w } (w + ew )} = ${U (u + eu + V(v + ev ) -f
)
(v
W (w + ew
)
)}.
so far as molecular impulses are concerned,
we have
2 ( Uu + Vv + Ww) =
0,
and
2 ( Uu + Vv +
Ww = 0,
since the impulsive forces which correspond to each other in virtue of the law of Action and Reaction will give contributions to these sums which mutually
destroy each other.

Also, since the part of (u + eu ) due to the normal component of velocity has the same value for each of the particles in contact at the point where
the impact takes place (in virtue of the law of impact) it follows that the impulsive force between the bodies does not contribute to the sum
and 2TF (w
%U(u + eu,), and + ew
similarly does not contribute to
the
sums ^V(v+ev
).
We
have therefore
2{U(u + eu ) + V(v + ev ) +
and consequently
W (w + ew
(w
)}
0,
2m {(u - M
or
(u
eu
+ (v- v ) (v + ev ) +
-w)
(w
+ ew
)}
0,
This equation can be expressed by the statement that the kinetic energy impact is (1 e)/(l + e) times the kinetic energy of that motion which would have to be compounded with the motion at the instant before the
lost in the
impact in order
97.
to
produce the motion at the instant after the impact.
Examples of impact.
in
The impulsive change

rigid
bodies
of motion consequent on the collision of two free can be most simply determined by the space following
considerations.
The motion
of each
body before or
after
impact
is
specified
by
six
quantities (e.g. the three components of velocity of its centre of gravity and the three components of angular velocity of the body about axes through its centre of gravity). The total number of equations required to determine the
236
Dissipative Systems [OH.
vm
impulsive change of motion is therefore twelve. Of these, six are immediately furnished by the condition that the angular momentum of each body about
any axis through the point of contact

;
is unchanged (since the impulsive forces act at this point) another equation is obtained from the condition that the momentum of the system in the direction normal to the surfaces in contact
(since the normal impulsive forces on the two bodies at the of contact are equal and opposite), and another by the experimental point law of impact. If the bodies are perfectly smooth, the remaining four
is
unchanged
equations can be derived from the condition that the linear momentum of each body in any direction tangential to the surfaces in contact is unchanged
is no tangential impulse if the bodies are smooth) if on the other hand the bodies are perfectly or imperfectly rough, the condition that the linear momentum of the system in any direction tangential to the
(since there
is unchanged gives two equations if the bodies are condition the that the relative velocity of the bodies in perfectly rough, direction after the impact is zero gives the other two while any tangential
surfaces in
contact
if
the bodies are imperfectly rough, the coefficient of friction between the surfaces in contact being y-t, the remaining two equations are given by the
conditions that
the relative velocity in any tangential direction is zero after the impact, provided the tangential component of the impulse required for this does not exceed //, times the normal component of the impulse
(a)
;
(/3)
if
//,
the last condition
is
not
satisfied, there is
a tangential impulse
equal to
times the normal impulse between the bodies.

therefore, the required twelve equations can be found.
is fixed,
In
all cases,
If the motion takes place in a plane, or if one of the bodies procedure is still valid after making some obvious modifications.
this
The
following examples illustrate these principles

1.
Example
An
inelastic sphere of
mass
angle
inelastic inclined
plane of mass
M and
m falls
a,
with velocity
rests
which
V on a perfectly rough on a smooth horizontal plane.

is
Sheiv that the vertical velocity of the centre of the sphere immediately after the impact
Fsin a
omsin*a
Let
r-=-
n
.
,.
(Coll.
Exam.)
U be the
and
relative to the plane,
velocity of the plane after impact, u the velocity of the sphere parallel to the angular velocity of the sphere, arid a its radius.
<B
The equation
of horizontal
momentum
gives
TO (u cos a
U~)
= MU.
acau.
The kinematical condition
at the point of contact is
condition that the angular momentum of the sphere about the point of contact shall be the same before and after impact is
The
m Va sin a = g
ma-o>
+ ma (u
7 cos a).
97]
Non-liolonomic Systems.
give,
Dissipative Systems
eo
237
These three equations
on eliminating
and
U,
~
which
is
5
~1M
(M+m)
Fsin 2 a
+ -2m + 5m sin* a
the result stated.
Example 2. A sphere of radius a rotating with angular velocity Q, about an axis an angle a to the vertical and moving, in the vertical plane containing that axis, with velocity V in a direction making an angle a with the horizon, strikes a perfectly rough
inclined at
horizontal plane. If the plane be tangentialltj inelastic, find the angle which the vertical plane containing the new direction of motion makes with the old.
Take rectangular axes Oxyz, where is the point of contact, Oz is vertical, and yOz is the initial plane of motion; and let and 2 be the components of angular velocity about Ox and Oy respectively after the impact, and the mass of the sphere.
o>
o>!
Equating the
initial
and
final
angular
momenta about
2
.
a>i
Ox,
we have
Ma Fcos a = Ma
|-
Equating the
initial
and
final
angular
2
momenta about
.
Oy,
we have
= I J/a 2 co 2 | Ma Q sin a
The tangent
of the inclination of the
new plane
0)2/0)!,
account of the perfect roughness of the plane)
of motion to the plane yOz and this is therefore equal to
is
(on
\Ma?Q. sin a
Ma V cos a
or
f a (Q/ F) tan
a.
mass and radius c impinges upon turning freely about a pivot at its centre. If the point of impact is distant b from the centre of the rod, and the direction of motion of the centre of the disc makes angles a, ft with the rod before and after collision, shew that
Example
3.
a rod of mass
A perfectly rough circular and length 2a capable of
disc of
2 2 2 2 (3Mb + ma ) tan/3 = 3 (ema -3Mb tan a.

)
(Coll. %Exam.)
its final
Let
its final
F denote
is
the initial velocity of the disc, and let v denote
velocity
and Q
angular velocity.
Since there
no sliding at the point of contact, we have

v cos
j
Denoting by co the final angular velocity of the rod, and by / the normal impulse between the rod and disc, the equation of the motion of the rod is
Ib =
\ma
2
u>.
The equation
of impulsive motion of the disc in the direction
normal to the rod
is
M(vsin(i+ ^ sin a) = 7,
and the law of impact gives the
relation
v sin
ft
6o>
= e V sin a.
of the disc about the point of contact,
\ cO.
Equating the
initial
and
final
angular
momenta
ft
we have
Fcos a = v cos
Eliminating
v,
Q,
/,
o>
from these equations, we have

ft
2 tan
(3Mb
+ ma2 = 3 tan a (mea 2 )
which
is
the result stated.
238
Dissipative Systems
[CH.
Example 4. A circular hoop, in motion without rotation in its own plane, impinges on a rough fixed straight-edged obstacle in the plane. The velocity of the centre of the hoop an angle a with the edge, and the coefficient before impact is V, in a direction making
of friction
is
p..
To find
the impulsive
change of motion.
Let u and v denote the components of velocity of the centre of the hoop after the the impact, parallel and perpendicular to the edge, and let co be the angular velocity,
mass and a the radius
of the hoop.
Equating the angular momenta about the point of contact before and after the impact,
we have Ma-<a
+ Mau = M Va cos a.
The law of impact gives the equation

is zero after the impact, provided the frictional Since the plane is rough, u + impulse required for this does not exceed /x times the normal impulse but if this condition is not satisfied, the frictional impulse is p. times the normal impulse.
a<o
Let
F be the frictional and R the normal impulse
then we have
-ft,
We have
and
if
M(u- Fcosa)= -F, M(v+ 7 sin a) = R = M(\ + e) 7sin a, therefore

is zero,
Ma?v=-aF.
u+
aa>
we
shall
have
The quantity u + aw
will therefore be zero after the impact,
provided
and
if
p.
does not satisfy this inequality, we shall have
F=pM(l+e)
Thus
finally, if
7sino.
is
/x^cota/2(l+e), the motion
determined by the equations
while
if
p.
<
cot a/2 (1
+ e),
the motion
is
determined by the equations
7 sin a.
1.
A
is
which
fixed,
of radius a is made to rotate about a vertical diameter, perfectly rough sphere uniform sphere of radius b is with a constant angular velocity n.
distant aa from the highest point: investigate the motion placed on it at a point and determine in any position the angular velocity of the sphere. Shew that the sphere from will leave the rotating sphere when the point of contact is at an angular distance 6
the vertex, where

COS
10 =^
17
^119
a 2 w 2 sin 2 a
- JT
(a+o)g
I,
1889.)
on the surface of a cone of revolution 2. rough sphere of radius a rolls under gravity with uniform angular velocity n, axis its vertical about which is compelled to turn if a be the semi-vertical angle of the cone, r sin a be the vertex
its
being uppermost
distance of the centre of the sphere from the axis of the cone,
be the angle turned
vm]
and
o>
Dissipative Systems
239
through, relatively to the cone, by the vertical plane containing the centre of the sphere, 3 be the rate of rotation of the sphere about the common normal, prove that
14 cos a
(1^
where A, B,
3. (7
Qn}
r-=A,
I,
are determinate constants.

solid
1897.)
homogeneous
6,
radius c rolls
Shew
that
with a plane circular base of without slipping with its edge in contact with a rough horizontal plane. O are determined by the equations
of.
o>,
of revolution
mass
Mac
{
~ (a cos
6)
- Mc*& cos
2
= (C+ J/c2
)
cos 6
^
<9
A (C+Mc 2 ) - M*a?#}
2
~ (a cos
6)
+ C (C+Mc2
o,
cos 6
- Mac Ca cos 2 = 0,
<9)
= Constant, ) ( ) or + (a sin + c cos the inclination of the axis of the body to the horizon, Q the angular velocity of the vertical plane containing its axis, the angular velocity of the body about its axis, A the moment of inertia of the body about a diameter of its base, C the moment of inertia of the body about its axis and a the distance of the centre of gravity from the base (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1898.)
(-4
+ Me & + AQ? cos 2 6 - ZMacvQ. cos 6 + C+ Me 2

is
o>
2%
where 6
4.
wheel with 4
perfectly rough horizontal plane.
spokes arranged symmetrically rolls with its axis horizontal on a If the wheel and spokes be made of a fine heavy wire,
is
prove that the condition for stability
where a
5.
is
the radius of the wheel and

rolls
V its
velocity.
(Coll.
Exam.)
body
under gravity on a
fixed horizontal plane.
If this plane be taken as
plane of yz, shew that
2m
where
(y -.y A )z-
(z
-z A )y} = Constant,
and (.r^, yA ZA ) of the point of contact, (x, y, z) are the coordinates of a particle and the summation is extended over i\ll the particles of the body.
,
(Neumann.)
6.
One portion
of a horizontal plane
is
perfectly rough.
perfectly
smooth
(a, b, c)
arid the other portion is
uniform heavy ellipsoid of semi-axes
moves with
velocity v in the direction of its a-axis along the
its 6-axis vertical and smooth portion of the plane
has
towards the rough.
Shew
that, if
the ellipsoid will return to the smooth portion, k being the radius of gyration about the c-axis, and that the motion will then consist of an oscillation about a steady state of * motion.
portion,
In the special case a = 26, shew that after the return of the ellipsoid to the smooth the 6-axis can never make an angle with the vertical which is greater than
arctan
Vf
(Coll.
Exam.)
240
Dissipative Systems
[CH.
A shell in the form of a prolate spheroid whose centre of gravity is at its centre 7. contains a symmetrical gyrostat, which rotates with angular velocity to about its axis and Shew that in the steady whose centre and axis coincide with those of the spheroid. motion of the spheroid on a perfectly rough horizontal plane, when its centre describes
a circle of radius c with angular velocity Q, the inclination a of the axis to the vertical
is
given by
{
Mbc (a cot a + 6)
is
A b cos a + C (a sin a + c)} O 2 + C baQ - Mgb
(a
b cot a)
=0,
the mass of the shell and gyrostat, A the moment of inertia of the shell and to their axis, (?, C gyrostat together about a line through their centre perpendicular those of the shell and gyrostat respectively about the axis, a the distance measured the shell and plane from the centre and parallel to the axis of the point of contact of b its distance from the axis. (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1899.)
where
uniform perfectly rough sphere of radius a starting from rest rolls down under between two non-intersecting straight rods at right angles to each other whose gravity shortest distance apart is 2c and which are equally inclined at an angle a to the vertical. If po, po are the original distances of the points of contact from the points where the their distances at a subsequent time when shortest distance intersects the rods and
8.
p,
the velocity
is V,
shew that
*
-/
i6c4
,.
(p*-
and that
I,
1889.)
A particle moves under gravity on a rough helix whose axis is vertical. If a be the 9. radius and y the angle of the helix, shew that the velocity v and arc described s can be expressed in terms of a parameter 6 by the equations
_
cc y cos
. .
y + 2 sin
y)}
10.
plane.
inclined projected horizontally with velocity u so as to slide on a rough motion. the Investigate
is
if
A particle
Prove that
2p,cota>l,
the particle approaches asymptotically a line of greatest slope at distance
u2 g
where
p,
2p,
2
cos a
4/x
cos 2 a
is
- sin 2 a
Exam.)
is
the coefficient of friction, and a
the inclination of the plane.

(Coll.
A rough cycloidal tube has its axis vertical and vertex uppermost. If a be the 11. radius of the generating circle and a particle be projected from the vertex with velocity
\/4ag sin
a,
shew that
it will
reach the cusp with velocity equal to

(1
2 [4aff cos a
-2
sin
a~
(Jir
~ a) tana
}]*,
where
a is the angle of friction.
(Coll.
Exam.)
vm]
Non-1lolonomic Systems.
Dissipative Si/stenis
241
A heavy rod of length 2 is moving in a vertical plane so that one end is in contact 12. with a rough vertical wall and the other end moves along the ground supposed to be equally rough and the coefficient of friction for each of the rough surfaces is tan e. Shew that the
;
inclination of the rod to the vertical at
any time
(9
is
given by
(Coll.
0(&
13.
+ a 2 cos2f)-a 2
sin2e==a#sin(0-2f).
Exam.)
thin spherical shell rests upon a horizontal plane and contains a particle of finite mass which is initially at its lowest point. The coefficient of friction between the particle
and the shell is given, that between the shell and the plane being practically infinite. Motion in two dimensions is set up by applying to the shell an impulse which gives it an angular velocity Q. Obtain an equation for the angle through which the shell has rolled
when the
14.
particle begins to slip.
(Coll.
Exam.)
a is placed in a vertical plane touching a uniform rough board which can turn freely about a horizontal axis in the upper surface of the board (ft.) through its centre of gravity, the point of contact of the disc being at a distance b from
circular disc of radius
this axis.
string, parallel to the surface of the board, is attached to the point of the
from the board and to an arm perpendicular to the board at the axis, and The centre of gravity of the board and arm lies in the connected to the board. rigidly axis. The system starts from rest in that position in which the centre of the disc lies in
disc furthest
Shew that slipping will take place between the disc the horizontal plane through the axis. and the board, when the board makes an angle Q with the vertical given by
tan
=
by the mass of the (Coll. Exam.)
where
disc.
is
the
moment
of inertia of the board about the axis divided
15. hoop is projected with velocity V down a plane of inclination a, the coefficient of friction being p ( tan a). It has initially such a backward spin O that after a time ^ it starts moving uphill and continues to do so for a time t 2 after which it once more
>
descends.
Shew
that, if the
motion take place

(ti
in a vertical plane at right angles to the
given inclined plane, then
t2
)ff
sin a
= aQ. -
V.
(Coll.
;
Exam.)
ring of radius a is fixed on a smooth horizontal table a second ring is placed on the table inside the first and in contact with it, and is projected with velocity T 7 but without rotation, in a direction parallel to the tangent at the point of contact. Find the
16.
,
between them
time that elapses before slipping ceases between the rings if the coefficient of friction is p, and prove that the point of contact will in this time describe an arc
2)//*.
of length (a log
Discuss the motion that will ensue

released
if
at the
moment
slipping ceases the fixed ring be

rolls
and left free to move, and prove that during the time that the inner rinhalf round the outer one the centre of the latter will be displaced a distance
where m,
rin g17.
M are the
masses of the inner and outer rings and b is the radius of the inner (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1900.)
varies as the square of the velocity,
In the vertical motion of a heavy particle descending in a shew that the quantity
-ka.
e
medium whose
resistance
+e
are the distances described in two successive equal intervals r of time, depends only on T and is independent of the initial velocity.
/3
where kv
is
the resistance, and a and
(Coll.
Exam.)
16
w. D.
242
18.
Prove that a heavy
particle, let fall
Dissipative Systems
in a
[OH.
from rest
medium
in
which the resistance
varies as the square of the velocity, will acquire a velocity Uta.nh(gt/U), and describe 2 denotes the terminal velocity in the a space log cosh (gtjU)lg in a time t, where
medium.
Shew
also that, for the complete trajectory of a projectile in such a

is
medium, the angle 6
between the asymptotes
given by
U
where V
19.
is
z
j
T72
= arcsinh cot 6 + cot 6 cosec 0,

projectile
the velocity
when the
moves
horizontally.
(Coll.
Exam.)
gravity in a
Shew that the horizontal and vertical coordinates (x, y) of a particle moving under medium of which the resistance is R satisfy the equation
dx3
v* cos 3
(j)
v being the velocity
and
the inclination of the tangent to the horizontal.

(Coll.
Exam.)
asymptote be written in the form
in a medium in which the resistance 20. particle is moving, under gravity, Shew that the equation of the trajectory referred to the vertical varies as the velocity. and a line parallel to the direction of motion when the velocity was infinite, can
y=b
log (xjo).
(Coll.
Exam.)
Prove that in the motion of a projectile through a resisting medium which causes 21. with a retardation kv3, where k is very small and the particle is projected horizontally is the of (neglecting path velocity F, the approximate equation
2~.2-
the axis of x being in the direction of projection and the axis of y vertically downwards.
(Coll.
Exam.)
is
moves in a straight line under no forces in a medium whose resistance v is the velocity and s the distance from a given point in the line. where (^_ Shew that the connexion between s and t is given by an equation of the form
22.
particle
v s logs)/*,
where a and
23.
are constants.
if
A particle is moving in a resisting medium under a central attraction ; shew that, be the retardation due to the resistance of the medium, and v the velocity, the rate of vector to the fixed centre of force varies as description of areas by the radius
R
,-f^ctt v J v
(Coll.
Exam.)
Prove that in a resisting medium, a particle can describe a parabola under the 24. resistance at action of a force to the focus which varies as the distance, provided the vertex. a point, where the velocity is v, be k {v(v-v )fi where v is the velocity at the
;
Determine
k.
(Coll.
Exam.)
If
A particle moves in a resisting medium 25. R be the resistance, shew that

d
f 7
>
under a force
tending to a fixed centre.
dr\
-\Pp*-T-\ * ds \ dp)
r being the radius vector
-2%
2
,
and
the perpendicular on the tangent.
vrn]
If
M=
l/r,
Dissipative Systems
243
P=p.u
2
,
and
R = kv
2
,
and we neglect
and higher powers, shew that the
differential
equation to the path
is
P ecu ^2~ 3
A being a certain constant.
26.
1,7
\ctu
\~
-i
(Coll.
Exam.)
origin, in
A particle
is
moving under a central
force
<
(?)
repelling
it
from the
a resisting medium which imposes a retarding force equal to k times the velocity. that the orbit is given by the equations ~ ~ A -; 3 e 2fc = ( (f), r-6 = /ie~ r-^-kr
Jct
*
,
Prove
where A
is
a constant quantity.
(Coll.
Exam.)
A particle is moving in a circle under a force of attraction to an interior point 27. varying as the distance the resistance of the medium is equal to its density multiplied by Shew that the density at any point is proportional to the the square of the velocity.
;
tangent of the angle between the lines joining the circle.
it
to the centre of force
and the centre of

(Coll.
Exam.)
28. A rod of length a is rotating about one extremity, which is fixed, under the action of no forces except the resistance of the atmosphere. Supposing the retarding 2 shew that effect of the resistance on a small element of length dx to be Adx (velocity)
.
the angular velocity at the time
t is
given by
11
Aa*
where
Mkz
is
the
moment
of inertia about the fixed extremity,
and Q
is
a constant.
(Coll.
Exam.)
29.
smooth oval
angular velocity
of
mass
disc of mass M, turning on a smooth horizontal table with but without any translational velocity, strikes a smooth horizontal rod Prove that the angular velocity is diminished in at its middle point.
the ratio
e is the coefficient of elasticity, x the distance of the centre of gravity from the normal at the point of impact and k the radius of gyration about a vertical axis through the centre of gravity. (Coll. Exam.)
where
and mass TO, are jointed together at their upper ends symmetrically, with its plane vertical, on to a smooth inelastic Just before impact the joint has a velocity V and each rod has an angular plane. Shew that the impulse velocity 12, tending to increase its inclination a to the horizon. between each rod and the plane is
30.
Two
rods, each of length a

falls
and the system
m (P + c
where
c is
sin 2 a)
F+ aQ cos a)/{ 2 + c2 +a (a - 2e) cos2 a},

mk 2
is
the distance of the centre of gravity of each rod from the joint and
(Coll.
the
moment
of inertia of each rod about its centre of gravity.
Exam.)
31. Three equal uniform rods AB, BC, CD, each of length 2a, and hinged at B and C, are in one straight line and moving with a given velocity in a horizontal plane at The ends A and meet simultaneously two fixed inelastic right angles to their lengths.
obstacles, reducing
triangle,
A and D
1
to rest.
Determine when they
will
form an equilateral
(Coll.
and shew that
of the original
momentum
is
destroyed by the impacts.
Exam.)
162
244
Dissipative Systems
[CH.
vm
32. A smooth uniform cube is free to turn about a horizontal axis passing through the centres of two opposite faces and is at rest with two faces horizontal an equal and similar cube is dropped with velocity u and without rotation so as to strike the former along a line parallel to the fixed axis and at a distance c from the vertical plane containing it, prove that the angular velocity imparted to the lower cube is
;
(\+e)cu
where a
is the inclination to the horizon of the lower face of the falling cube, 2a length of an edge, k the radius of gyration and e the coefficient of restitution.
is
the
Find also the motion of the upper cube immediately
after the impact.

(Coll.
Exam.)
and radius c impinges without rotation perfectly elastic circular disc of mass and length 2a which is free to turn about a pivot at its centre, the upon a rod of mass point of impact being at a distance b from the pivot. Prove that if the component of the the velocity of the centre of the disc normal to the rod be halved Mb 2 = the
33.
by
impact,
ma?,
friction being sufficient to prevent sliding.
(Coll.
Exam.)
34. A perfectly rough sphere of radius a is projected horizontally with a velocity V from a point at a height h above a horizontal plane. The sphere has also initially an angular velocity O about its horizontal diameter to the of its
perpendicular
it
motion.
distance
Shew
that before
it
ceases to
bound on the plane
plane passes over a horizontal
where
e is
the coefficient of elasticity, and the distance
is
reckoned from the
first
point of
contact.
Compare the
35.
final
with the
elastic
initial kinetic energy.
(Coll.
Exam.)
homogeneous sphere (coefficient of elasticity e) is projected against a perfectly rough vertical wall so that its centre moves in a vertical plane at right angles to the wall. If the initial components of the velocity of its centre are u and v, and
angular velocity (Q) is about an axis perpendicular to the vertical plane, find the subsequent motion after impinging on the wall, and shew that if its centre returns to its original position the coordinates of the point of impact referred to this point are
its initial
g
where a
is
the radius of the sphere.
(Coll.
Exam.)
CHAPTER
IX
THE PRINCIPLES OF LEAST ACTION AND LEAST CURVATURE

98.
The
trajectories
of a dynamical system.
object investigation in Dynamics is the gradual change in time of the coordinates (q lt qa ..., q n ) which specify the configuration of a dynamical system. When the system has three (or less than three) degrees
,
The
chief
of
often a gain in clearness when we avail ourselves of a geometrical representation of the problem if a point be taken whose rect
is
:
of freedom, there
angular coordinates referred to fixed axes are the coordinates (q 1} q2 q3 ) of the given dynamical system, the path of this point in space can be regarded as illustrating the successive states of the In the same way when system. n 3 we can still regard the motion of the system as represented by the path of a point whose coordinates are (q lt 2 ..., n ) in q q space of n dimensions; this path is called the of the and its introduction makes trajectory system, it natural to use terms such as "intersection," "adjacent," etc., geometrical
,
>
when speaking
system.
99.
of the relations of different states or types of motion in the
Hamilton s
principle, for conservative holonomic systems.
Consider any conservative holonomic dynamical system whose configuration at any instant is specified by n independent coordinates (q1} q.2) ..., q n \ and let L be the kinetic Let a given potential which characterises its motion. arc in space of n dimensions of a of the system, represent part trajectory and let CD be part of an adjacent arc which is not a necessarily trajectory it would however of course be sub possible to make CD a
AB
Let t jecting the system to additional constraints. the representative point (q 1} q. ..., q n ) on AB: we occupies any position shall suppose each point on CD correlated to some value of the time, so that there will be a point Q on CD (or on the arc of which CD is a portion) which corresponds to the same value t as does. As the arc CD is
2>
by be the time at which

trajectory
be supposed to vary continuously in the same sense. A moving point which describes the arc CD will there fore pass through positions corresponding to a continuous sequence of values of q lt qi, ...,qn t, and consequently to each point on CD there will correspond
t
described, the correlated value of
will
a set of values of q 1}
q<>,
...,
qn
246
The Principles of Least Action

shall
[OH. ix
We
shall
denote by 8 the variation by which we pass from a point of
AB
to that point of
CD
t
,
which
is
,
correlated to the
same value of the time, and

t
denote by
t lt t
+A
+ A^
the values of
terminal points A, B, C,
respectively, and by
LR
which correspond to the the value of the function
at
any point
of either arc.
difference of the values of the integral
qn, t)dt,
If
now we form the

F
taken along the
q n qi, q, ((& q*, arcs AB and CD respectively,

, ,
we have
Ldt
CD
AB
Ldt
= L&t -L&t +
1
,
SLdt
-LA A +
(o
.
64,
,,
dt
r=
by Lagrange
at \rmi
,
equations,
dt
r=l
/s
\r=l
But
if
(Agr )B denote the increment of gr in passing from
to D,
we have
and similarly we have
if
(Agv)^ denote the increment of q r in passing from J. to C,
and consequently
f
j
cx>
Ldt -
Ldt =
^#
L*=I dq?
-^r-
Ag r
the times correlated to

>
and that Suppose now that C coincides with A, and D coincides with B, C and D are t and t, respectively, so that A^, an(^ -^ then the last equation becomes A(? n A, are zero a t ^ Ag 2
:
;
= 0,
which shews that
the integral
I
Ldt has a stationary value for any part of an
actual trajectory AB, as compared with neighbouring paths CD which have the same terminal points as the actual trajectory and for which the time has
the
same terminal
*
values.
This result
is
called
p.
Hamilton s principle*.
;
Hamilton, Phil. Trans. 1834,
307
ibid. 1835, p. 95.
99, 100]
and Least Curvature
247
If the kinetic potential L does not contain the time explicitly, we can evidently replace the condition that the time is to have the same terminal values by the condition that the total time of description is to be the same
for
AB
as for
is
the system,
Oq in this case constant.

c.
n gZ CD, since S q r ^ - L, which represents the r= l r
total
energy of
Helmholtz, J. filr Math. value of
p.
151,
remarked that the conditions
for
a stationary
...,
n,
ql
...,
q n)
+2
r
~
Vr
(f,-*r)l dt
}
(where the q s and
ffs
are regarded as independent variables) are
so that
we again obtain Lagrange s equations.
100.
The principle of Least Action for conservative holonomic systems.

is
Suppose now that the dynamical system considered
such that the
kinetic potential does not involve the time explicitly, so that the integral of energy
rl
exists.
4 2
qr
dL - T I L=h
dq r
be part of a trajectory and CD to be Taking part of to the successive points of which values of the time are so any adjacent arc, correlated as to satisfy an equation of the form
as before
*
AB to
r=l
dL
4r^~-
L = h + AA,
OQV
where AA
is
a small constant,
.
we have
2
=i
dL\
qr
\dt-
f
J
oqr J
(h
AB\r=\
qr
dqJ
dL\ ~ }dt
.
=
J
|
CD
+ A/0 dt- ! J
hdt
!
J CD
Ldt-
t
J
Ldt
AB
AB
2
we suppose that C zero, we shall have
coincides with
If therefore
and
coincides with B,
and that
A/&
is
248

n
"bL\
[on. ix
dt has a stationary value for any oq r / part of an actual trajectory, as compared with neighbouring paths between the same termini for which the time is correlated to the coordinates in such a way qr [2 // \r=i
^-r
\
to satisfy the same equation of energy. Least Action, the integral
as
This
is
called the principle of
being called the Action.
In natural problems, for which L is the difference of a kinetic energy T, homogeneous of the second degree in the velocities, and a potential energy F, independent of the velocities, we have (41)
and the stationary integral can therefore
in this case be written iTdt.
p.
"
The Principle of Least Action originated in Maupertuis attempt (Mem. de I Acad., 1744, 417) to obtain for the corpuscular theory of light a theorem analogous to Ferrnat s Principle of Least Time." Maupertuis principle was established by Euler (Addit. n.
309 of his Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas, 1744) for the case of a single particle under
(Miscell. Taurin.
II.
p.
a central
force, and by Lagrange more general problems.
(1760-1), Oeuvres,
I.
p.
365) for
much
Example
2
r=i
1.
Shew
which the integral of energy does not

qr
~^r
that the principle of Least Action can be extended to systems for Let the expression exist, in the following form.
;
vqr
be denoted by h
then the integral

n
.
2 qr
dL
c ?r
+ 1 dh\ -j- }dt

,
dt)
has a stationary value for any part of an actual trajectory, as compared with other paths between the same terminal points for which h has the same terminal values.
Example 2. If a dynamical system which possesses an integral of energy is reduced to a system of lower order as in 42, shew that the principle of Least Action for the original system is identical with Hamilton s principle for the reduced system.
101.
systems.
Extension of Hamilton
principle to non-conservative dynamical
We
Let
shall
systems in
now extend Hamilton s principle to holonomic dynamical which the forces are no longer supposed to be conservative.
n
let
denote the kinetic energy of such a system, and
r=l
2 Q r $q r
-
denote the work done on the system by the external forces in an arbitrary displacement (Bqi, &q, ..., &q n ) the equations of motion of the system are
,
therefore
-j. U-. dt \dqr/
d /dT\ - dT
-
Qr
(r=l,
2, ...,
?i).
dq r
100-102]
and Least Curvature
249
Let a denote a part of a trajectory of the system, and let ft be an adjacent same terminals, the times correlated to the path /3 at the terminals being the same as the values t and ^ of the time at the terminals in the trajectory a; then if 8 denotes the variation by which we pass from a position on a to the contemporaneous position on /3, we have
arc having the
*
8r +
!,
**) dt
t,
<
r=i (oqr
=
This result
0.
r=l
is (like
Qr Sqr
dt
the theorem of
principle.
99,
which
is
really a particular case of it)
known
as
Hamilton s
to
102. Extension of Hamilton non-holonomic systems*.
principle
and
the principle of Least
Action
is
shall now shew that Hamilton s principle, when suitably formulated, true even for dynamical which are not holonomic. systems
We
Consider a non-holonomic conservative system, in which the variations ..., q n ) are connected by non-integrable kinematical equations
of the n coordinates (q l} q2
,
A
where
that
if
lt
dq
+ A&dq +
a
...
+ A nk dq n + Tk dt =
(k=l,
2, ...,
m)
:
Au A
,
12
...,
A nm T
,
l ,
...,
Tm
denotes the kinetic potential, the motion the n equations
are given functions of q l}

is
q.2 ,
...,q n
(
so
determined
87) by
d fdL\
dt
r) (df
~ dL = ** An + ** A
r dq~
<*+
+ ^nA rm
(r
= 1,
2,
n),
together with the above kinematical equations; the
unknown
quantities
being
<?i>
$2>
<Jn,
^-i, ^-2)
^m-
Let
AB
*
derived from
Cf.
be part of a trajectory of the system, and let CD be a path by displacements consistent with the instantaneous kine-
AB
Holder, Gott. Nach. 1896,
p.
122,
and Voss,
Gntt.
Nach. 1900,
p. 322.

matical equations,
i.e.
[OH. ix
omitted
this path
the above kinematical equations with the terms Tk dt CD will not in general be itself a path whose continuous
description would satisfy the kinematical conditions, so
CD
is
really a kine-
matically impossible path.

It may naturally be asked why we do not take CD to be a kiriematically possible path the answer to which is, that in that case the displacements from to CD would not be
:
AB
displacements consistent with the kinematical equations for in non-holonomic systems, if two adjacent possible configurations are given, the displacement from one to the other is not in general a there are infinitely more possible adjacent possible displacement
:
positions than there are possible displacements from the given position.
Proceeding as in the proof of Hamilton

as usual a displacement from a point of
principle given in | 99, B denoting

to the
AB
I
contemporaneous point on
CD, we have
Ldt-l
CD
JAB
Ldt = L B
^-L
A &t
-f
Jtt r=i\oqr
(~
Bq r
~
oqr
Bq r ] dt
/
...
+\ m A rm )Bq rldt.
)
Since the displacements obey the relations
A
it
lk
8q l
+ A 2k Bq2 +
...
+ A nk Bq n =
0,
follows that the terms of the type
\ g A rs Bq r
-0
in the integral annul each
other, so
T
we have
TJ.
Left
>
J^
Z/<ft
T A T A = Lj Aj - LÂô 4i
/
\V44 L
.
Bqr
W
-
fV*<
-
. -
cv
7,
\<dt.
Jfcr-ll0$r
dt\dq r j
Bq 1r
From this point the proof proceeds as in 99. thus obtain the result that Hamilton s principle applies to every dynamical system, whether holonomic or not. In every case the varied path considered is to be derived from the
actual orbit by displacements which do not violate the kinematical equations representing the constraints; but it is only for holonomic systems that the varied motion is a possible motion ; so that if we compare the actual motion
We
with adjacent motions which obey the kinematical equations of constraint, Hamilton s principle is true only for holonomic systems.
to
The same remarks obviously apply to the principle of Least Action, and Hamilton s principle as applied to non-conservative systems.
103.
Are
the stationary integrals actual
minima
Kinetic foci.
we have only shewn that the integrals which occur in Hamilton s and the principle of Least Action are stationary for the trajectories principle The question now arises, whether they as compared with adjacent paths. are actually maxima or minima.
So
far
102, 103]
and Least Curvature
251
We shall select for consideration the principle of Least Action, and for convenience of exposition shall suppose the number of degrees of freedom in the dynamical a kinetic system to be two, the motion being defined
by
energy
T=â n (q
and a potential energy
q z ) q?
a 12 (q
l ,
qs )
q,
qa
discussion can be extended without difficulty to Hamilton s principle, with any number of degrees of freedom. The principle of Least Action, as applied to the above system, is ( 100) that the integral
The
and
to systems
F
I
a
n<?i
2a, 2 g 1 5 2
2
22<7"
dt
has a stationary value for an actual trajectory as compared with other paths between the same termini for which dt is connected with the differentials of the coordinates by the same equation of energy
T+V=h.
This latter equation gives
or
dt
{2 (h
~2
i/r)}
(a ll dq 1
2a 2 dq 1 dq
1
.
+ a^dq^,
so the stationary integral can
be taken to be
where q2 stands
for
dq 2 /dq
this integral is to be
1
taken between terminals,
at each of which the values of q
and
q.2
are given.
Writing
this equation
we
first
shall discuss the discrimination of its
effected
maxima and minima (which was by Jacobi) by a method suggested by Culverwell*.
Consider any number of paths adjacent to the actual These trajectory. paths will be supposed to have the same terminals, and to be continuous, but their directions may have abrupt changes at any finite number of For such a path let (q lt q2 + &q2 ) be a points. point corresponding to a point (ft, ga ) on the actual trajectory; we shall write for
frequently 8q 2 a small constant the order of which determines the order of is zero at the terminal magnitude of the quantities we are dealing with, and
a<
where a
is
</>
points.
*
Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.
xxm.
(1892), p. 241.
252
[CH. ix
Let the expansion of the function
f(q 1}
in ascending
qa
+a<f>,
g2
<
powers of a be
let
57 denote the terms involving a in the
first
degree in
and
let 8
/ denote the terms
in a2
When
value of
is
<
the range of integration

at
is
is
small,
and
its
terminals are fixed, the

<.
any point zero at the terminals,
large compared with the value of
For since
</>
we have
.p
.
where
and
denote the terminals.
If therefore
it
ft
greatest value of
(g KJZ)
<?i(p))/3,
between
(f>
and R,
follows that
be the numerically can never exceed

<f>
and consequently by taking the range

</>
sufficiently small the
ratio of
<
to
if
can be diminished indefinitely.

is
Thus
-
the range
;
very small, the
most important term in
82I is
Un
2
(j)
dq
and as the sign of
this is always the
same
as that of
U n (the
a
sign
of dq t is taken to be positive), we see that for small ranges, Now or minimum according as Uu is negative or positive.
is
maximum
Un = ~ = (h"
^\2 J?
(a n
+ 2a ls q + a^_q.2 2 )~ *
t
(a n a^
-a
2 12 ),
and
this is positive, since the kinetic
therefore a n a&
a 12
is
positive.
We
energy is a positive definite form and thus have the result that for small
the actual trajectory.
ranges the Action
is
minimum for
Now
consider any point
trajectory be drawn through
A on an actual trajectory, and let another actual A making a very small angle with the first. If
this intersects the first trajectory again, say at a point B, then the limiting
when the angle between the trajectories diminishes position of the point on the first trajectory, or the indefinitely is called the kinetic focus of
point conjugate to A.
We
For
shall
now shew
final
provided the
let
point
is
that for finite ranges the Action is a minimum, not beyond the kinetic focus of the initial point.
;
and Q be the terminals
we have seen
that
if
is
very near
2 2 to P, the quantity S / is always positive and of order a compared with the and Q. It is therefore evident that as we remove value of / for the limits
103, 104]
and Least Curvature
253
Q further from P, the quantity 8-1 cannot become capable of a negative value until after Q has passed through the point for which B 2I can vanish for a suitably chosen value of
(/>.
Suppose then that PBQ is an arc of an actual trajectory, Q being the first for which 2/ is zero point for which it is possible to draw a varied curve
PHQ
shew that the varied curve PHQ must itself be a For if trajectory. it is not a trajectory between two of its own points A and C (supposed near each other), let a trajectory ADC be drawn between these Then the points.
shall
we
integral taken along
taken along
fore
equal to Q cannot be the
ADC is less than that taken along AHC, so the integral PADCQ is less than that along PHQ, which by hypothesis is that along PBQ. Hence frl along PADCQ is negative, and there
first
;
point for which, as

is
we proceed from P, the
variation
It follows
ceases to be positive that is a
which
contrary to
what has been proved.
PAHCQ
is
trajectory,
and Q
is
the kinetic focus of P.
Hence
the
a true minimum, provided that in passing along the trajectory the final point is reached before the kinetic focus of the initial point.
Lastly we shall consider the case in which the kinetic focus of the initial point is reached before we arrive at the final point. Suppose, with the notation
just used, that the initial and final points are and be taken, the former on the curve
Action
P and R PHQ and the
and
let
two points
E
;
latter
on the arc
QR
these points being taken so close together that the trajectory them gives a true minimum. Since the integral taken
than that along EQF, it follows that the integral than that along PEQR but the latter is equal to that along both integrals are equal from P to Q; and therefore the
;
EGF joining along EGF is less taken along PEGFR is less

PBQR,
since
integral along
PBQR
minimum but it is not a maximum, since the integral taken along small any part of it is a minimum. Hence when the kinetic focus of the initial point is reached before we arrive at the final point, the Action is neither a
is
not a
maximum
nor a minimum,
trajectory not) proportional to the length of the path. The kinetic focus of any point A is the diametrically opposite point A on the sphere, since any two great-circles through A intersect again at A The theorems of this article amount therefore in this case to the statement that an arc of a great-circle joining any two points A and on the sphere is the shortest distance from A to B when (and only when) the point A diametrically opposite to A does not lie on the arc, i.e. when the arc iu question is less than half
is
.
simple example illustrative of the results obtained in this article is furnished by the motion of a particle under no forces on a smooth sphere. The trajectories are greatcircles on the sphere, and the Action taken or along any path (whether a
a great-circle.
104.
geodesies.
Representation of the motion of dynamical systems by means of
The principle of Least Action leads to an interesting transformation of the motion of natural dynamical systems with two degrees of freedom.
254
[CH. ix
Let the kinetic energy of such a system be
and
let its potential
energy be
^(g 1}
q.2 ).
By
total
to that family of solutions for
which the
100, the orbits corresponding energy is h are given by the
condition that
r
2
I
(an9i
Zouqiqi
+ a^q*} dt
is stationary for any part of an actual orbit, as compared with any other arc between the same terminals for which dt is connected with the differentials
of the coordinates
by the
relation
The
integral
r
I
(h
tyyz (a u dq*
2a 12 dq l dq 2
is
therefore stationary.
But
this integral expresses the principle of Least
Action for the motion of a particle under no forces on any surface whose linear element is given by the equation
ds 2
= (h
i|r)
{a n dq^
%a iz dq^dq z
aZ2 dq./),
and
is
therefore
Consequently
the equations
the defining condition of the geodesies on this surface. of the orbits in the given dynamical system are the
same as
the equations
1.
of the geodesies on
this surface.
Shew that the
parabolic orbits of a free heavy projectile correspond
to the geodesies
on a certain surface of revolution.

<p
Example 2. Shew that the orbits described under a central attractive force (r) in a plane correspond to geodesies on a surface of revolution, the equation of whose meridiancurve is z=f(p), where
and where
and p are connected by the
relation p 2 =r 2
<p
105.
The least-curvature principle of Gauss and Hertz.
We shall now discuss a principle which, like Hamilton s principle, can be used to define the orbits of a dynamical system, but which does not involve
the sign of integration.
(xr
In any dynamical system (whether holonomic or non-holonomic) let y r z r } be the coordinates of a typical particle m r at time t, and
,
(X
r,
Yr Zr )
,
the components of the external force which acts on the particle.
Consider the function
xr
..
X --
Fy -m j +(y V mj
\ r r
2
/..
104, 105]
and Least Curvature
255
where the summation is extended over all the particles of the system, and where (x r yr zr ) refer to any kinematically possible path for which the coordinates and velocities at the instant considered are the same as in some
,
,
actual trajectory. This function substantially represents what was called by Gauss the constraint and by Hertz (who however considered primarily the case in which the external forces are zero) the curvature* of the kinematically
possible path considered.
In what follows Hertz
terminology will be used.
We
shall
shew that of
to
are supposed
all paths consistent with the constraints (luhich do no work), the actual trajectory is that which has the
least curvature^.
In the simple case of a single particle moving on a smooth surface under no external reduces to the statement that the curvature in space (in the ordinary sense of the term) of the orbit is the least which is consistent with the condition that the particle is to remain on the surface.
forces, this result clearly
establish this result, let the equations which express the constraints to typify any one of the three coordinates of (using any particle) be
as r
To
?.xkr dxr
r
(k=l,2,
...,
m),
where the
coefficients
xkr are given functions of the coordinates.
Differ
entiating these relations,
we have
OTi*
xr xs =
necessarily actual trajectory), and let xro be the corresponding component of acceleration in the actual trajectory. Subtracting the preceding equation, considered as relating to the actual trajectory, from the same equation, considered as relating to the kinematically possible path, we have (since the velocities are the same in the two paths)
Safe. (x r
r
(which
Let x r be a typical component of acceleration in the path considered is to be but is not supposed the kinematically possible,
- xn) =
(A?
1, 2,
m).
This equation shews that a small displacement of the system, in which the displacement 8xr of the coordinate xr is proportional to (x r - x m ), is con sistent with the equations of constraint, i.e. is a possible displacement.
The components
*
of the forces exercised by the constraints are typified

itself,
by
Strictly speaking, the square root of this function, and not the function the curvature by Hertz.
was called
t Gauss, Crelle s Journal, iv. (1829), p. 232; Werke, v. p. 23. Gauss measured the constraint by "the sum of the masses of the particles, each multiplied by the square of its deviation from unconstrained motion." The above analytical expression for it was first given by H. Scheffler, Hertz s theory is given in his Mecltanik. Zeitschrift filr Math. in. (1858), p. 197.
256
(m r x n
work.
[OH. ix
r)
We
and in any possible displacement the forces of constraint do no have therefore

:
2 (m r x ro r
r)
(x r
- x ro = 0,
)
an equation which may be written in the form

xr
..
X- \ = ~ -2,m
2
r x ro ---..
\*
)
~
2,??i,.
... 2
(x r
Xro)
or (reverting to the use of y s
and z s)
F,
=^ 2,ra r
\/
<sc
x r\* + --r
(..
n --r
Fry
+
2
m
2 2
}-
+ Sl {(r - ^ro) + (j/r ~ j/ro) + (^r ~ ^Vo)
Since the terms in the last summation on the right-hand side are positive, it follows that
all
xr
.,
X\ -r
mj
+ y r -- + V mj
,
zr
\
m
f
t,
^
>
(/.. x,n 2<m r ] r (\
Z ---
r\
>nj
+ y n --- + mj
/..
Fr \
r
(zn
\
/.
which establishes the result

106.
stated.
Expression of the curvature of a path in terms of generalised
coordinates.
Lipschitz has shewn* that the curvature of a kinematically possible path in a holonomic dynamical system with n degrees of freedom can be expressed
in terms of the derivates of the n independent coordinates position of the system.
which define the
tions
,
q 2 ..., qn) be the coordinates; let (q 1} q2 ..., qn ) be the accelera these coordinates in any kinematically possible path, and let ..., q no ) be the accelerations in the actual trajectory which corre 20 (ry 10 to the same values of (q l} q 2 ..., q q 1} q. ..., q n ). Using xr to typifysponds of the three rectangular coordinates of any particle r and one r to typify any
Let
(<?!,
of
,
</
n>
2>
the corresponding component of force, the Gauss-Hertz curvature of the path 2 and it has been shewn in the last article that this can is ^ni r (x r r /m r )

(x ro
*
/m r }
"2.m
(x r
x r0 )~.
Journal far Math. LXXXII. p. 323. Cf. also Wassmuth, Wien. Sitz. civ. (1895) ; and for further work connected with the principle of Least Curvature see Leitinger, Wien. Sitz. cxvi. (1908), p. 1321 and Schenkl, Wien. Sitz. cxxn. (1913), p. 721.
105, 106]
and Least Curvature
257
summations is the same for all the paths considered, since on the actual trajectory we can therefore omit it without depends only the whole causing expression to lose its minimum-property, and we can call
first
The
of these
it
the remaining summation 2w,. (x r

r
x ro ) 2 the curvature of the path.
Let the kinetic energy be
T=^Za
k
I
kl
qk ql}
where the quantities ak{ are given functions of (q l} q 2 ..., q n ); let D denote the determinant formed of the quantities a and let AM denote the minor of ak in this determinant.
,
kt>
From
the equation
2,m r x; r2
r
I
= 2 S a k iq k q
t t
we have
XT Now
au =
r-*
2m r
r
\jdjrp
~
i
\}JUy
oqk dqi
av
=V 2
far
~
<fc
^ Xr v ~ 22 + V
k
toq*
q k qt *
dqrfqi
velocities are the
and consequently, since the coordinates and paths considered, we have

xr
..
same
for all the
_x
..
j_
r<)
3a?r v 2i _
...
..
(qk
qko ).
oqk
But
if
we
write
_dsdT\
"*
dT
""
3* at
\dqk j
55"
dq k
r ^ 5~ Xr
,.
dx
(k
= 1,
2,
.,
n),
dq k
since this expression
is
zero for the actual trajectory,

-=(
we have
path considered and
Sk =
the difference of the values of
for the
at \dq k
the actual trajectory,

or
8k = 2a w (qt -
q lo )
(k=l,2,
qk
...,
n),
whence we have
and consequently
-qko = ^ Â S
kl
(k
1,2,..., n)
The curvature,
2m
(x r
- a^)
2
,
is
therefore
or
W. D.
raSS ^ k
I
17
258

of determinants,
[CH. ix
But by a well-known property
we have
22
i
and therefore
(q\>
finally the curvature
can be expressed in terms of the coordinates
q2,
qn )
and
their derivates in the form
107.
AppelVs equations.
of Least Curvature is the basis of a form in which has to write the general differential equations of dynamics. Appell proposed* This form, as will be seen, is equally applicable to holonomic and non-
The Gauss-Hertz law
holonomic systems.
Consider any dynamical system
;
let
lk
dq,
+ A 2k dq +
2
...
+ A nk dqn + Tk dt =
(k=l,
2, ..., ni)
be the non-integrable equations connecting the variations of the generalised in holonomic systems these equations will of course coordinates q l q 2 .., q n be non-existent.
, ,
.
Let S denote the function
^m
k
(x k
i/ k
+ zk
2 ),
where
mk typifies the mass
(%k, Vk, Zk)-
of a particle of the system, whose rectangular coordinates at time t are By means of the equations which define the position of the at any time in terms of the coordinates (q 1} q2 ..., q n ), it is possible particles
,
,
to express 8 in terms of (q lt q 2 ..., qn ) and the first these variables with respect to the time. Moreover,
and second derivates of
of constraint
(q l} q 2 ..., q n ) in terms of the the coordinates corresponding to these latter be denoted by (pi,p 2 Pn-m)By differentiating these relations we can express q 1} q2 ..., qn in terms of the quantities p 1} p.2 ...,p n _ m p ly p2 ..., p n_ m q lt q2 ..., q and
,
we can express
m of the velocities
by use of the equations
others
,
let
n>
hence
can be expressed in terms of this
last set of variables.
Now any small displacement which is consistent with the constraints can be defined by the changes (Sp lt 8p 2 ..., Bp n _ m ) in the quantities
,
m
(Pi, Pz,
,
Pi-m);
let
2
r=l
r &p r
denote the work done by the external forces

26,
in such a displacement.
As
in
we have
Journal fUr Math. cxxi. (1900),
p. 310.
and Least Curvature

Let the equation which expresses the change in ..., p n - m ) be
ock
259
in
terms of the changes
in (PI, pa,
7T 2 7r n _ m ) are known functions of the coordinates: the ..., of this are of course non-integrable. From this we have equations type 9#/9pr *B irr and so the equation which expresses xk in terms of
(TTJ,
,
where
\pi>
PZ>
>
pnrn)
will
be of the form
n
2
r=l
ir r
pr +
a,
where a denotes some function of the coordinates. equation, we have n-m U7r fj rj n ftGC
.
Differentiating
this
-^
whence
It follows that
ctxic *
= 7rr =
..
dp r
n =^ P 2m t r
k
xk xk
V
..
^+
k
..
yk
..
f* + zk
9 r
..
dpr
~+y
+ zk 3
and therefore
/*e
equations of a dynamical system, whether holonomic or not,
can be expressed in the form
dS
dJr
=Pr
(r
= 1,2,..., n-m),
,
where
* 2 2 denotes the function k (x k + yk + z k ), and (p,, p 2 ...,p n - m } are coordinates equal in number to the degrees offreedom of the system*.
^8
&m
It is evident that the result is valid even if the quantities are not true coordinates, but are quasi-coordinates.
p lt
...,
p n _m
Example.
Obtain from AppelPs equations the equations
a>i
a>2
Co>
= L, (C A) 0)30)! = = -Ar (A B) 2
(
C)
a>2
(03
JJ/,
<o
<i
body one of whose points is fixed; where (o^, co 2 3 ) are the components of angular velocity of the body resolved along its own principal axes of inertia at the fixed point, (A, B, C] are the principal moments of inertia, and (L, M, N)
rigid
,
o>
for the
motion of a
are the
*
Sitz.
moments
of the external forces about the principal axes.

cf.
On
cxxn. (1913),
the connexion of these equations with the Principle of Least Action, p. 933.
H.
Brell, Wien.
172
260
108.

Bertrand
s .theorem.
[OH. ix
results
theorem in impulsive motion, which belongs to the same group of as the least-curvature principle of Gauss and Hertz, is due to Bertrand* and may be stated thus If a given set of impulses is applied to
:
different points
of a system (whether holonomic or non-holonomic) in motion, the kinetic energy of the resulting motion is greater than the kinetic energy
the same of the motion which the system would acquire under the action of to the reactions due constraints and and additional constraints impulses of any
of perfectly smooth or perfectly rough fixed surfaces, or rigid connexions between particles of the system.
For
(u, v
,
let
),
be the mass of a typical particle of the system, and let (u, v, w), before (u ly vlf Wi) denote the components of velocity of this particle
the application of the impulses, after the application of the impulses, and in the comparison motion, respectively.
Let (X, Y, Z) denote the components of the external impulse acting on the particle (X Y , Z ) the components of the impulse due to the con Y + Ylt Z + ZJ the components of straints of the system: and (X + lt
f
: ,
the impulse due to the constraints in the comparison motion.
The equations
of impulsive
motion are
m(v
,
m(v
-v)=Y+Y m(w -w) = Z+ Z -v)=Y+Y +Y m (w,- w) = Z + Z

,
+Z
Subtracting,
we have
u)
m(u
all
=X
m(v
)=Y
m(w
w}=Z
Multiply these last equations by u lt v 1} w 1} respectively, add, and the particles of the system we thus have
;
sum
for
2m
Now
acting on
forces
|(M I
-u
MJ
+ (v
- v ) V! + (w - w) wi] = 2 (X^ +
1
Y& + Z^).
finite
from the nature of the constraints,

all
it
follows that
forces
the particles of the system and proportional to the impulsive Zj), would on the whole do no work in a displacement whose are proportional to the quantities (u v 1} w^): and therefore we components
(X lt
have
I,(X 1 u
or
+Y
v1 v
+Z w
1
2m
2 2
2
{(ttj
u^
+ (Vj
2
v1
+ (w
w } w^\ =
- utf +
s
this equation can
2m (u + v + w ) - 2m
*
+ v? +
s
w,
=
;
2m
{(u
(v
- v,) + (w 2
w,)
},
Bertrand
notes to Lagrange
Mec. Anal.
and Liouville
Journal
(1),
vn. (1842),
p. 166.
108]
which shews that
and Least Curvature
261
2m (V + v + w
2
>
2m (V + vf + wf),
when
the forces are not
and so establishes Bertrand
theorem.
The theorem may
readily be extended to the case

:
in this case the increase of kinetic energy per impulsive but continuous unit of time is diminished by the introduction of fresh constraints that do not affect the potential energy.
The following result, due to Lord Kelvin and generally known as Thomson s theorem*, can easily be established by a proof of the same character as the above If any number of points of a dynamical system are suddenly set in motion with prescribed velocities, the kinetic energy of the resulting motion is less than that of any other kinematicalty possible
:
the
motion which the system can take with the prescribed velocities, the excess being the energy of motion which must be compounded with either to produce the other.
Lord Rayleigh has remarked + that the theorems of Thomson and Bertrand may both be comprehended in the statement that the introduction of fresh constraints increases the inertia, or moment of inertia, of a system. Example. A framework of (n-1) equal rhombuses, each with one diagonal in the same continuous straight line, and two open ends, each of which is half of a rhombus, is formed by 2n equal rods which are freely jointed in pairs at the corners of all the rhombuses. Impulses P perpendicular to and towards the line of the diagonals are shew that the initial velocity, applied to the two free extremities of one open end parallel to the diagonal, of the extremities of the other open end is
;
3P
where
sin a cos a
TO cos 2 a
/i
sin 2 a
is
the mass of each rod, and 2a
is
the points of crossing.
the angle between each pair of rods at (Camb. Math. Tripos, Part I, 1896.)
1.
If the
is
problem of determining the motion of a particle on a surface whose linear

ds z = Edu 2 +
element
ZFdu dv + Gdv\
under the action of forces such that the potential energy is V(u, v), can be solved, shew that the problem of determining the motion of a particle on a surface whose linear element is given by ds*= V(u, v)(Edu 2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv 2 ), under forces derivable from a potential energy
I/
V(u,
v),
can also be solved.

(Darboux.)
2.
If
Satjtjtji
two dynamical systems in which the kinetic energies are respectively an d S&ijtjijfr, and the potential energies are respectively 7 and F, the trajectories
in
*
Thomson and
Tait s Natural Philosophy,

i.
317.
t Theory of Sound, Vol.
p. 100.
262
are the
[CH. ix
same curves, though described with different velocities, so that the relations between the coordinates (q\, y 2 ..., q n ) are the same in the two problems, shew that
,
where
a,
/3,
y, 8
are constants, and that

"S,b
ik
dqi dqk =(yU+ 8) 2aik dqidqk
(Painleve.)
3.
potential energy of the particle subjected to a transformation
If all the trajectories of a particle in a plane, described under forces such that the is V(x, y\ with a value A of the constant of energy, are
x=$(X, Y\
where $ and
y=+(X, Y\
are conjugate functions of (#, y\ shew that the new curves so obtained are the trajectories of a particle acted on by forces derivable from the potential energy
with a zero value of the constant of energy.

4.
(Goursat.)
If
and
denote respectively the kinetic and potential energies of a dynamical
system, shew that
differs
from
i
_
(/
..
.9
rv
...an 2
..
arv
m
;
by a quantity which does not involve the accelerations
and hence that
is
as
maximum when the accelerations have the values corresponding to the actual motion, compared with all motions which are consistent with the constraints and satisfy the same integral of energy, and which have the same values of the coordinates and
a
velocities at the instant considered.
(Forster.)
CHAPTER X
HAMILTONIAN SYSTEMS AND THEIR INTEGRAL-INVARIANTS
109.
Hamilton s form of
shall
the equations
of motion.
We
now
obtain for the differential equations of motion of a con
servative holonomic dynamical system a form which constitutes the basis of most of the advanced theory of Dynamics.
Let (q 1} q2 ..., q n ) be the coordinates and L(q lt q2 ..., q n q 1} q2 ..., q t) the kinetic potential of the system, so that the equations of motion in the Lagrangian form are
, , , ,
n>
at \oqr/
O T
dL\ jiiaH-a r -0
f
dL
(r=l,
2, ...,
n\
dq
Write
^=Pr
09V-
(r
= =
l,2,
..., TO),
O so that
7"
Pr =
d</
(r
r
l, 2,
.,
n).
From
sets of quantities (fa, q 2 ,
the former of these sets of equations we can regard either of the ..., q n ) or (p 1} p 2 ..., p n ) as functions of the other set.
,
If 8 denote the increment in

(q lt q2
,
any function of the variables

or (q 1} q2
,
...,
qn PI,
,
p2
...,p n )
...,
q n ql} q z
,
...,
qn )
due
to small changes in the arguments,

T = oL
-ST
we have
^-^
,
2, r =i
ft** -
5-
oq r
+^
\dq r
oqr
(>
o<7
r=l
=
or
8
* 6
%
2<
r=l
pr q r +
,
4? /
2,
*
q,
r=l
(p r oq r
(r=l
2 p^r - L\ = 2 r=l
)
264
Thus
if
Hamiltonian Systems and

n
[CH.
the quantity
\
r=\
Ct
^ p r qr
Cl
L,
Cl
when expressed
*Y)
"/)
in terms of
f)
ft
be denoted by H, we have
*\
\_i
^40
**
s*
n
.
&H=
*-
2
r=1
(q r
p r - pr^qr)
dp r =
ai
/.
(1),
>f>
}<l
or
% = 8^
a^
IVie
7<-\
dH
*-\
. i
j-
T*
=1 2 &*#
-?? T*
i I
* *t
i2i *l /
dpr
dg r
motion of the dynamical system may be regarded as defined by these the equations, which are said to be in the Hamiltonian or canonical form
;
dependent variables are (q lt q 2 of 2n equations, each of the

consists of
...,
qn
1}
p.2
...,
p n ), and
the system consists
first order; whereas the Lagrangian system n equations, each of the second order.
The Hamiltonian form was introduced by Hamilton in 1834*. In part he had been anticipated by the great French mathematicians: for Poisson in 1809t had taken the step of introducing a function
2
r=l
,
,
pr^r-T
,
and expressing it in terms of (q l q 2 ..., q n p 1} ..., p n ), and had actually derived half of Hamilton s equations: while Lagrange in 1810 J had obtained a particular set of equations in the Hamiltouian form, the disturbing function taking the (for the variation of elements) Moreover the theory of non-linear partial differential equations place of the function H. of the first order had led to systems of ordinary differential equations possessing this form in 1814-15 and by Cauchy|| in 1819 (completing the earlier for, as was shewn by Pfaff work of Lagrange and Monge), the equations of the characteristics of a partial differential
:
equation
f(xi,xz -..,xn ,pi,pv

,
*->
...,j0 n )=0,
where
p.
o$
^,
~
dp l
dxl
Hamilton
the time,
etc.
dxz _ ~
_ ~
dxn
dpn
s investigation
by OstrogradskylF
(1)
was extended to the cases when the kinetic potential contains in 1848-50 and by Donkin** in 1854.
is
The equation
above
It
often called the Hamiltonian
equation of virtual work.

8
(
may
form of the be written in the more symmetrical form

HSt),
r= l
I p r dq r - Hdt) = d ( 5 p r Sq r /=!
Brit. Ass. Rep. 1834, p. 513; Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 95. t Journal de VEcole polyt. vin. (Cahier xv), (1809), p. 266. J Mem. de Vlnst. 1809, p. 343.
Berlin Abhand. 1814-15, p. 76.

||
Bull. soc. philomath. 1819, p. 10.
Melanges de VAcad. de St.-Pet. Oct. 1848
Mem.
de VAcad. de St. -Pet.
vi. (1850), p.
385.
** Phil. Trans. 1854, p. 71.
109, 110]
their Integral- Invariants

differential
265
form
which directly suggests the importance of the

n
p r dq r
r=l
Hdt
:
in connexion with the differential equations of dynamics
cf.
137 below.
When the kinetic potential L does not involve

function
t t
explicitly, the
explicitly,
will evidently likewise

(
not involve
Hamiltonian and the system
will possess
41) an integral of energy, namely

n
)
2
r=l
Or o^
-- L = h,
Oqr
where A
is
a constant.
This equation can be written
H
H
it
(q 1}
q2
...,q n ,pi,p 2
..,p n )
= h,
and this is the integral of energy, which is possessed by the dynamical system when the function does not involve the time explicitly. For natural problems,
follows at once from
41 that
is
the
sum
of the kinetic
and potential
energies of the system.

Example.
Shew
that the equations of motion of the simple
pendulum
are
>
__
dt~dp>
dt
where
ff=
-l
t,
and where q denotes the angle made by the pendulum with the vertical at time the length of the pendulum, and the mass of the bob is taken as unity.
is
110.
Equations arising from the Calculus of Variations.
From the preceding chapter it appears that the whole science of Dynamics can be based on the stationary character of certain integrals, namely those
s principle and the principle of Least Action similarly the differential equations of most physical problems can be regarded as arising in problems of the Calculus of Variations.
which occur in Hamilton
Thus, the problem of finding the state of thermal equilibrium in an isotropic conducting body, when the points of its surface are kept at given temperatures, can be formulated as follows to find, among all functions V having given values at the surface,
:
that one which makes the value of the integral
T + vy/ T M8PV
,
/3F\*
1
\//\dxdydz.
-5)
/8F\2)
integrated throughout the surface, a
minimum.
that all the differential equations which arise from problems in the Calculus of Variations, with one independent variable, can be expressed in the Hamiltonian form*
.
We
shall
now shew
Cf. Ostrogradsky,
Mem.
de VAcad. de St. -Pet. vi. (1850), p. 385.
266

;
[CH.
Suppose, for clearness, that there are two dependent variables

is
the proof
equally applicable to
any number
(m)
z,
z, z,
of variables.
(n)
Let
variable
L
t,
(t,
y, y, y,
..., y,
...,
z)
the dependent variables
y, z,
be a function of the independent and their derivates up to orders m, n,
respectively.
The conditions that the

f
integral
(m)
(n)
\L(t,y,
y, ...,
y,z,z, ...,z)dt
may be
tions,
stationary, can,
by the ordinary procedure of the Calculus of Varia
dt
dz
dt
Now
write
dt
dL
P.m
=
by
dL
Pm+2
+ (-
i)
dt-
Pm+n =
and write
&=
Then
if
(m-l)
y>
Qm+i
==
Qm+2
=z
>
(fm+n
=z
(n-D
-
+p m - q m +p m y
l
+ Pm+ni (fm+n T Pm+n z
110, 111]
(where

supposed expressed as a function of
(m)
(n)
267
...,
is
(t,
q lt
q m+n Pi,
,
Pm+n),
")
the quantities y and z being eliminated by use of the equations
pm = vLfdy,
pm+n = dL/dz), and

arguments q
(>,
if
...,
8 denote an increment
due
to small
changes in the
lt
qm+n
\JJ-J
J,
lt
...,
p m+n
-^
?
we have
r\
-rj-
î
\J-LJ
U JJ
(_/-/-/
r\
r=0
dv
dv
=0
dz
dz
r=l
2 pr 8q r+l + p m 8y
\
r=l
(n)
m-\-n
m+n
(n)
2
r=m+l
pr &?r+i +j?H*&* +
^ rm+1
qr+i&Pr
+ Z$p m+n
Using the
relations
dL
dL
dL
this
becomes
if
8H =
is
m+n
m+n
p,.8qr
2
r=l
+ 2
r=l
q,-8p r
Thus,
^f
expressed in terms of the variables

(t,
PI, PZ, ...,p m+n
qi,
q2
...,
qm + n
)>
we have
and
^7=^ at dp
dq r
dH
r
dp r
at
j7
dH = -^r~
dq r
(r=l,
2, ...,
m + n),
the differential equations
of the problem are thus expressed in the Hamil-
tonian form.
The systems of differential equations which arise in the problems of the Calculus of Variations are often called isoperimetrical systems.
111.
Integral-invariants.
The nature
mentally connected with Poincare * has given the
of Hamiltonian systems of differential equations is funda the properties of certain expressions to which
name
integral-invariants.
Consider any system of ordinary differential equations

dx\ ~ dt
- Y ^* =
dt
dxn
dt
_
An>
where
JTj,
...,
X n are given
functions of
xl} x2
...,
xn
t.
We may
regard
these equations as defining the motion of a point whose coordinates are (xlf xz ..., xn } in space of n dimensions.
,
Acta Math.
xm.
(1890).
268
If

now we
[OH.
consider a group of such points, which occupy a ^-dimensional at the of the motion, they will at any subsequent time t region f beginning
A _p-tuple integral taken over f is occupy another p-dimensional region called an integral-invariant, if it has the same value at all times t; the
number p
sents the
is
called the order of the integral-invariant.
motion of an incompressible fluid, the integral which repre volume of the fluid, when the integration is extended over all the elements of fluid which were contained initially in any given region, is an
Thus, in the
integral -in variant
;
since the total
volume occupied by these elements does
not vary with the time. Example

in a plane
1.
under no forces
velocity.
Consider the dynamical problem of determining the motion of a particle let (x, y} be the coordinates of the particle, and (u, v) its
:
components of
The quantity
The equations of motion may be written x = u, y = v, w = 0, v = 0.
7=
I(8x-t8u),
where the integration is taken, in the four-dimensional space in which (x, y, u, v) are coordinates, along the curvilinear arc which is the locus at time t of points which were
initially
solution of the dynamical problem
on some given curvilinear arc in the space, is an integral-invariant. is given by the equations u = a, v = b, x=at + c, y =
c,
For the
where
a, 6,
are constants:
7=
and
this is
independent of
2.
t.
In the plane motion of a particle whose coordinates are (x, y] and whose Example velocity-components are (u, v), under the influence of a centre of force at the origin whose
attraction
is
directly proportional to the distance,
shew that
l(u8x
is
x8u)
an integral-invariant. 112.
The variational equations.
integral-invariants of a given system of differential equations furnish integrals of another system of differential equations which can be derived
The
from these.
For
let
the given system of equations be

doc
-j
,
(ar. lt
x2
...,
xn
,
t)
1, 2, ..., w).
Let (X, x2 ..., xn } and (^ + Bx1} #2 + & 2 ..., xn + &cn ) be the values of the dependent variables at time t in two neighbouring solutions of this set of equations where (Sx^ 8x2 ..., xn ) are infinitesimal quantities. Then we have
;
,
-j-
(xr
Sxr)
= X r (x + &%!,
l
x2 + 8x2
..., a; n
+ Sa;n
t)
(r
= 1,
2, ..., n),
111-113]
and consequently,
their Integral-Invariants
dX r
j.
3X,,
9X r
(r- 1,2,
...,
n equations, together with the original n equations, a set of 2n equations in which (x l} x2 ..., xn 8x lt 8x2 regarded as are the dependent variables.
These
last
,
may be
...,
8xn )
Now
if
denotes an integral-invariant of the original system, the quantity
-^
2Fr (z\
-j
a.-
xn } 8acr
must, since the path of integration is quite arbitrary, be zero in virtue of precisely this extended system of differential equations and therefore
;
HFr
r
(x-i
x.2 , ...,
xn } 8xr
:
= constant
integral of these equations so that to an integral-invariant of order one of the original system of equations there corresponds an integral of the extended system of equations, and vice versa.
If a particular solution
(a?1}
must be an
x2
...,
we can substitute the corresponding values

,
Xn) of the original equations is known, #2 .... x n ) in the extended (ar 1}

,
and so obtain n linear differential equations to deter mine (&BJ, &fc 2 ..., &&n), i.e. to determine the solutions of the original equations which are adjacent to the known particular solution. These n equations are
called the variational equations.
113.
Integral-invariants of order one.

satisfied in order that
Let us now find the conditions to be

.Sx,
M Sx
2
+...
Mn Sxn
,
),
n ) are functions of (x1} #2 ..., xn t), may be an integralinvariant of order one of the system of differential equations
where
(Mlt
2,
...,
dxr jdt
= X r (X #
,
2,
. , .
xn
t)
(r
1, 2,
. . .
n).
We
must have
2
...
Mn Sx
n)
= 0,
where the derivates of (8x1} 8x2
...,
8xn ) are to be determined by the
270
[OH.
last article
extended system of differential equations introduced in the

therefore
11
and
rl
/l/i
/"/
i"
N
(
j.=i \ u/c
2(^&v + Jf ^F)-0 at
r
i
or
5
Since (&EI; &r2
,
,
Xtfcv
ft*
= 0.
&) are
independent, the coefficient of each quantity

:
$xr
in this equation must be zero
and consequently
the conditions
for
integral-invariancy are
Corollary
1.
If
an integral of the
differential equations, say
jFû
is
;r 2
>
î
= constant,
known, we can at once determine an integral-invariant.
For we have
a
-
dF\
dt\dxj
/a^\ a^\
^
Afc
k-\0&
OBr/
a^ az Z r ^5+ ^ dx
k=\oxk
r
fc
a
="^
/aF
I
dxr \dt
-^T-
a^
2t
\
A;
I
k=ioxk
.JL(*
dxr \dt
= 0,
and therefore
the expression
^ Ar-l9r
is
dF /Vv 2
an
integral-invariant.
2.
Corollary
n
The converse
of Corollary 1
is
also true,
namely that if
where
S ^ Sorj r=l u xr
is
aw integral-invariant of the
U is
a given function of the variables, then an integral of the system can
be found.
For we have
dx r )
k= i
dxk \dxr j
k=\3xk
()x r
and consequently the expression

dt
k=i dxk
113, 114]
, ,
271
(x^
,
which
let its
a given function of (# 1} x2 ...,xn t), is independent of this is a known quantity. value be (t)
is
:
<f>
x2
...,
xn )
Then we have
r
d U/dt
= $ (t), = constant
;
or
U
this is
(f)
(t)
dt
and
an integral of the system.
114.
Relative integral-invariants.
Hitherto we have only considered those integral-invariants which have the invariantive property when the domain of the initial values, over which the integration is taken, is quite arbitrary these are sometimes called absolute integral-invariants. We shall now consider integrals which have the
;
invariantive property only when the domain over which the integration is taken is a closed manifold (using the language of w-dimensional geometry) these are called relative integral-invariants.
The theory of relative integral-invariants can be reduced to that of absolute integral-invariants in the following way.
Let
\(M
Sx,
M 8x
,
+ Mn
xn }
be a relative integral-invariant of the equations
dx r /dt =
where
(r=l,
2, ...,
?i),
(M
lt
2,
...,
M X X
n
,
1}
2>
...,
Xn
are functions of (x lt
x.2 , ...,
xn
t);
so that this expression is invariable with respect to t when the integration is taken, in the space in which (xlt xz ..., x n ) are coordinates, round the closed curve which is the locus at time t of points which were situated on
,
initially
some
definite closed curve in the space.
By
Stokes theorem, this integral
is
equivalent to the integral
where the integration is now taken over a diaphragm bounded by the curve this diaphragm can be taken to be the locus at time t of points which were originally situated on a definite diaphragm bounded by the initial position of
;
the closed curve

is
and since the diaphragm is not a closed surface, this integral an absolute integral-invariant of order two of the equations.
:
Similarly, by a generalisation of Stokes theorem, any relative integral invariant of order p is equivalent to an absolute integral-invariant of order (p + 1 ).
272
115.
systems.
[en.
relative integral-invariant
which
is
possessed by all Hamiltonian
Consider now the case in which the system of differential equations Hamiltonian system, so that it can be written
dqr
dt
is
= dH
dpr
,
dpr
dt
...,
= _3H
dq r
,
r=
t).
i2..n)
where
is
a given function of (q 1} q 2
qn
p p
1}
pn
For
this
system
let
denote Hamilton
s integral, so
that
>
is
the kinetic potential

,
let
(!, O 2
>
a n,
fii, /3 2 ,
ftn)
be the
initial
values of the variables

(q l
,
q 2)
...,
qn ,pi, p 2
...,pn )
respectively, and let S denote the variation from a point of one orbit to the contemporaneous point of an adjacent orbit. By 99, we have
n
oil
= 2 p r oq r
r=l
2
r=l
f3 r oot r .
Let
(q 1} q
2
,
C
...,
denote any closed curve in the space of 2p dimensions in which ..., p n ) are coordinates, and let C denote the closed q n PI, p
,
z>
curve which
GO to C,
t of the points which are initially on G the last round the set of trajectories which pass from Integrating equation
is
the locus at time
we have
r
r
I
2 pfBor =
and
this equation
2
r
/3 r &ct r
n
>
shews that the quantity
2 p r &q r =
!
is
a relative integral-
invariant of any Hamiltonian system of differential equations.
116.
On
shall
systems which possess the relative integral-invariant
We
the last
article,
next study the converse problem suggested by the result of namely that of determining all the systems of differential
n
/
equations which possess the relative

(#!>
<li>
integral-invariant
2 p r 8q r where
,
,
qn) are half the
dependent variables, and (pi,p2
Pn) are the
other
half.
115, 116]
273
Consider then a system of ordinary differential equations of order 2n in which the variables can be separated into two sets, q 2 ..., qn ) and (pi, p2 ...,p n }, such that
(</,,
is
a relative integral-invariant of the equations, and consequently by Stokes
theorem
J
is
an absolute integral-invariant.
Let the system of
be
where (Q lf Q2
...,
Qn
t-fc. P P ..., Pn
lt
2
,
(<?!,
-P,
)
(r-l.
2, ..,),
are given functions of

,
&,
..-,
q n ,pi,p 2
...,p n
t).
As the domain of integration of the absolute integral-invariant is of two dimensions, we can suppose that each point in it is specified by two quantities X and p, which do not vary with the time but are characteristic of the
trajectory on which the point in question lies. invariant can therefore be written in the form
The absolute
integral-
v 9 (qt, ^ PJ)\ - , [[( ^ d\dfj,, //( 3 ,1 JJ \i=i (X, (A) J

and as X and
/x
do not vary with the time, we must have

_
dt
(A,,
(Qi.Pi)
a,
_
"*"
or
8 (X,
/i)
3p t
8 (x,
/*)
8^
8 (X, /*)
8^
8 (x,
Owing
to the
complete arbitrariness of the domain of integration and
the choice of
X and
the coefficients of
^ fi ^ ^,
d
dX
dytt
dX
and
d/u,
^ dX ^*
8/u,
in this
equation must vanish separately.
We
thus obtain
dpif
dpi
W. D.
lg
274
[CH.
qn
x
t)
These equations shew that a function

exists such that
H(q
lt
qz
...,
p,
p-2
...
pn,
Q r = dH/dp r
and thus we have the
P = - dH/dq
r
(r
- I, 2,
...,);
result that if a system of equations
~dt~ Qr
possesses the relative integral-invariant
f
I
dq r
dpr_ ~ p L
dt
(r=l
n)
( Pi
Sg,
+ p-2 S? +
2
+ Pn &g)
then the equations have the Hamiltonian
form
dqr dt
this is the converse of the
dH_ dp r
dPr
dt
= _dH_
dqr
last article.
theorem of the
Corollary.
If
I
(pi 8?i
+p
^q 2
...
+ p n fyn)
is
a relative integral-invariant of a system of equations
dqr /dt
=Q
dp r /dt
in the
=P
(r
2,
k),
where k
(qi,
q*>
is
greater than
qn pi,
:
P*>
n, it follows
same way that the equations
for
->
~.,pn) form a Hamiltonian system
dt
^^
dp r
,
_
dt
...,
dq r
where
is
a function of (q lt q z
q n p,,
,
pz
...,p n
only, not involving
(q n +i, q n +2, --,
qk,p n +i,
...,pk)-
117.
The expression of integral-invariants in terms of integrals.
If the solution of a system of differential equations
is
known, the absolute and relative integral-invariants of the system may
easily
be constructed.
Thus,
let
where
c l} c 2 , ..., c n
are constants, be
of
integral-invariants
n integrals of the system; the absolute order one are evidently given by the formula
116-118]
where
involve
275
...,
(N1}
t
:
2,
...,
Nn
are any functions of (y1
y2
y n ) which do not
and the
relative integral-invariants of order one are given
by the
formula
,
By,
+N
a?9
Sy2 +...+
xn
Nn Syn + SF),
r
where
F is any function
of (xlt
...,
t},
since the
term SF vanishes when
the domain of integration

It follows
infinite
is closed.
from this that any system of differential equations possesses an number of absolute and relative integral-invariants of the first order.
118.
The theorem of Lie and Koenigs.
results enable us to establish a theorem due to Lie* and on the reduction of any system of ordinary differential Koenigs f equations to the Hamiltonian form.
The preceding
Let
llf
= Zr
let
(r-1,2,...,*)
be the given system of equations, and
be any relative or absolute integral-invariant of order one of this system, where ,, ,, ..., j~ k are given functions of the variables we have seen in the last article that an infinite number of such integral-invariants exist.
:
Now
let
the differential form
be reduced to the canonical form
(PI,
,p n ,qi,
,
ft,
-,
qn
ty
are independent functions of (a^, a?a ..., xk \ in number not greater than k, be zero Let u u . be a set of other functions J. 2 k m may (u^ ) of (a?!, a?2 ..., a?t ), such that (u,, u 2 ..., u k _, n q lt qz ..., qn p lt p*, ...,p n ) are a set of k independent functions of (x 1} x.,, ..., xk ); and suppose that the
and where
,
. . .
Archiv for Math, og Natur. n. (1877), p. 10. t Comptes Eendus, cxxi. (1895), p. 875. J The proof of the possibility of this reduction (which however requires in general the solution of a number of ordinary differential treatise on Pfaff s equations) will be found in
any
problem.
182
276
[OH.
when expressed in terms of these k functions system of differential equations, as independent variables, becomes
dqr/dt
= Qr
dpr/dt
= Pr
(s
(r
=
2,
1, 2,
n),
du,/dt
= U8
1}
= 1,
k-
2w),
where (&, Q2
....
Qn
PI, P*,
>
Pn,
U,,
...,
Uk ^ n )
are functions of the
new
variables.
The expression
is
an integral-invariant
is
:
invariancy
a property
since integral(relative or absolute) of this system, as have been transformations such unaffected
by
performed and consequently have the form

dq_r
it
follows
116) that the
first
2n equations
= dH_
dpr
,
dpr
dt
....
,
= _3H^
~
=l
n)
dt
dqr
> >
where
is
a function of (q lt q2
system of differential equations is order 2n, together with the (k 2ri) additional equations
p n t) only. The given qn PI, p*, thus reduced to a Hamiltonian system of
119.
The Last Multiplier.
by
Before proceeding to discuss integral-invariants of higher order than those hitherto considered, we shall introduce the conception, introduced Jacobi* in 1844, of the Last Multiplier of a system of equations.
dx
dx2
dxn
_ dx
,
where (Xlt
are given functions of the variables (xl ,xz ,...,x n x), be a given system of equations: and suppose that (n l) integrals of this system are known, say
. . .
2>
Xn X
,
fr (T \Xi, J
v T X%, ..., tCn} ICJ

,
<r\
n U/ r
<Y
\i
=1
J.,
2 ^,
1)
From
and x
order
:
these equations let (xlt x 2 ..., xn ^} be expressed as functions of xn then there remains only the solution of the equation of the first
dxn _ dx
TT
/
A-n
to
~Y~
**-
be effected; in which accents are used to denote that (xl} x been replaced in n and by the values thus obtained.
z>
...,a; n _ 1 )
have
Crelle
Journal, xxvn. p. 199, xxix. pp. 213, 333.
118, 119]
277
We
shall
shew that
the integral of this equation is
fjf
)
(X dx n
X n dx) = constant,
where
M denotes any solution of the partial differential equation

+
(MX.) +
(* JO =
o,
anc?
denotes the Jacobian
The function
equations.
.M"
is
called the
as
Multiplier of the system of differential
For the proof of
this theorem,
we
shall require the following
lemma
If a system of differential equations
dxr jdt =
is
(r=l,
2, ..., ri)
transformed by change of variables into another system
dyr /dt=Yr
then
(r=l,
2, ...,n),
r=1 c
8
-5
where
denotes the Jacobian

o
(aSi
,
xz
. . .
xn )
To prove
this,
we have
xr
* ^
2
r=1
r=l dx r \ k=l
dy k
v
-îfc
/fc=l
5 3
k dxA -^Y = h
>-
_ -
v
-"
v
^-<
=i 3=1 k=i
oxr
y(v
J.
d* x
fc
r ^ dy.,dyk
dys dyk l
In this expression the coefficient of

or unity according as s
is
dYk /dy
is
,.=i doo r
^ ^,
dyk
which
is
zero
where
of
Yk
different from, or Also 3y,/9a?r = A rs /D, equal to, k. denotes the minor of dxr/dys in the determinant so the coefficient in the above expression, which is
^l rs
=l s=l
278

be written
[CH.
may
D
or
T8
or
- ? ~
5(^1, #2,
r =i s ri
dys dy
1 8Z) y: ^
dyk
We
have therefore
I
r =i
dxr _
dx r
| ajj
k=l dy k
%
k= i
Yk
dyk
which establishes the lemma.
Now
in the original
problem write
Ci x*
r
/y/>
d IT
ci A
and consider the change of variables from
by the lemma, we have
so the quantity
M, which
is
a solution of the equation
M
satisfies
dt
the equation
8
/XA
All
a
which shews that the expression
the perfect differential of some function of xn and theorem of the Last Multiplier.
is
a;
this establishes the
Boltzmann and Larmor s hydrodynamical representation of
the
Last Multiplier.
The theorem
siderations.
For
of the Last Multiplier may also be made apparent by physical con simplicity we shall take the number of variables to be three, so that the
may
be written
dx dy ~ U V
_ dz
W*
119, 120]
where
(u,
v,

w) are given functions of
(#, y,
z)
;
279
multiplier
and the
last
satisfies
the equation
+ ^(Mv} + ^ (Mw) = 0. x oz 3# (Mu) dy

j-
This equation shews that in the hydrodynamical problem of the steady motion of a fluid in which (u, v, w} are the velocity-components at the point (#, ?/, z), the equation of is taken as the density of the fluid at the point (#, y, z}. continuity is satisfied when
Now
let
(f)
(.v,
y, z)
=C
be an integral of the differential equations; then the flow will take place between the thus we can consider separately the flow in the surfaces represented by this equation two-dimensional sheet between consecutive surfaces C and (7+8(7. The flow through the
;
gap between any two given points P and Q on C must be the same whatever be the arc joining P and Q across which it is estimated and since the flow across arcs PR and RQ together is the same as that across PQ, we see that the flow across an arc joining P and Q
:
must be
if
expressible in the form
f(Q) -f(P).
So
if
r the (variable) thickness of the sheet, so that r
= {(d^/dx) 2 +
ds,
ds denotes an element of this arc, and ~ 2 + (90/9z) 2 } * 8C, and (B</8?/)

.
denotes the velocity-component perpendicular to
we have
so that
Mrds
is
the perfect differential of a function of position.
that this expression can be written in the form
MSC(vdx- u
u dy}
dy)/(d<t>/dz) ;
But it is easily seen and consequently
M
is
(v
dx
a perfect differential
this is the
theorem of the
last multiplier for the case
con
sidered.
We
readily find for
ds the value dz
;
u
<f>x
ID
$y
4>z
so the
theorem really states that
is
an
integrating factor
of the
equation
dx
u
(f) x
dy
v
(t>y
dz
= 0.
w
<>
This, as was remarked by Appell (Comptes Rendus, CLV. (1912), p. 878), form of the theorem of the Last Multiplier.
is
a symmetrical
120.
Derivation of an integral
from two
multipliers.
of the partial and Suppose now that two distinct solutions equation of the last multiplier have been obtained, so that
/
I
**\
differential
-rr
l
(X
V
U
^
f/T*
+ + X.,ûSC
"
-r-r
...
G U +X ^ +X n ~losrJ/+^ F/
-TV -rr
~v~
1 1
-i
C/-A
til*
ulT
fi
= 0, + ^r+ ... +^-- + ^f G3C

,.
^ ~v~ QA.Q
J
-
C-^- n
(jQC
o ~y
o ~v
J\
()
and
3
.
tr
d\
ÔX
HT
3^1
9^2
dX n
OXn
dX -- =
OX
0.
280
[CH.
Subtracting these equations, we have

3
-3
but this
is
the condition that the equation

log
(M/N) =
C&W2
-3T 2
constant
shall
be an integral of the system

Ct/tX/i
Ct t/
jj,
\AjJU
X^
Xn
.A.
and we have therefore the theorem that the quotient of two last multipliers of a system of differential equations is an integral of the system.
The reader who
is
acquainted with the theory of infinitesimal transformations will be

if
able to prove without difficulty that

8
the equation
,
Y f
admits the infinitesimal transformations
then the reciprocal of the determinant

A-l
ll
At,
^12
A. n
ln
A.
V
l
fen
is
a last multiplier.
121.
single
Application of the last multiplier

integral.
to
Hamiltonian systems
is
use of
known
If the system of differential equations considered
we have
evidently
^dXr /dxr = 0,
r
and consequently
M= 1
a Hamiltonian system, is a solution of the

;
partial differential equation
which determines the
last multiplier
so the last
multiplier of a Hamiltonian system of equations is unity. From this result we can deduce a theorem which enables us to integrate completely any conservative holonomic dynamical system with two degrees of
freedom when one integral
is
known
in addition to the integral of energy.
Let the system be

^2i
= ^h =
d_H
dpl
dp 2
~
fit
djf
dpi
_dH _dH
dqj.
dp2
dq2
I}
and in addition
to the integral of
energy H (q
q 2 PI, PZ)
,
h, let
an integral
it
V(q l} q pi, pz) follows that

2
,
be known.
1
From
,
the theorem of the last multiplier
(dH
dH
constant
9 (Pi.
120, 121]
is

;
281
another integral
where, in the integrand,
p and p
l
<?
replaced by
integrals
their values in terms of q 1
and
be 2 are supposed to obtained from the known
and
V.
But
if
V= c
for
we suppose that the result of solving the equations p and p is represented by the equations
1
H= h
and
then we have identically

"""
dpi dc
dp 2 dc
dc
dp 2 dc
and therefore
8/1
dH/dp,
df2
dc
dc~d(V,H),
p2 )
_-dH/dPl d(V, H}
d(p ,p2 )
l
so the theorem of the last multiplier can be expressed by the statement that
is
an integral.
This result leads directly to the theorem already mentioned, which be thus stated * If in the dynamical system defined by the equations
:
may
dq r
dt
the integral
_dH
dp r
, ,
dpr _
dt
dH
dqr
o\
of energy
other
,
denotes
Pidq
is
+p
any 2 dq 2
c 1} q 2 (q^., q%, PI, PZ) p l p^ h, and if then the the not time, integral expression involving where p-^ and p2 have the values found from these integrals, is
,
H (q
of a function 6 (g n q2 integrals of the system are

the exact differential
7\fi
h,
c)
and
the
remaining
o/3
^dc
constant,
and
dh
-j
=t+
constant.
This amounts to saying that if any singly-infinite family of orbits is selected (e.g. the orbits which issue from a point qi = ct 1} q2 = 2 ) which have
*
This theorem
is
really
an application
of the
well-known method for the solution of a
partial differential equation of the first order, the equations of the
dynamical system being
As a dynamical the partial differential equation. theorem, it was published for a simple case (motion of a single particle) by Jacobi in 1836 (Comptes Eendus, in. p. 59), and for the general case given here by Poisson in 1837 (J. de M.
the equations of the characteristics of
n. p. 317)
and Liouville
in 1840 (J. de
M.
v.
p. 351).
282
[CH.
the same energy, so that to any point (ft, q2 ) there correspond definite values of p and p.2 (namely the values of p l and p 2 corresponding to the orbit which passes through the point q l} q 2 and belongs to the family), then the value of
l
the integral
(fto, #20)
p dq
l
+p
dq 2 taken along any arc joining two definite points
and
(q u , q 21 ) is
independent of the arc chosen.
To complete the
and F =
c,
proof,
we have on
differentiating the equations
H=h
9ft
dpi 9ft
9/>
9ft
and consequently
9(F,
#)
d similarlv iri
9/;
9(F,
#)
,
_ - 3(p
ga )
But
since
V= c
is
an
integral,
we have
3F.
9 gi or
^-
ft
3F.
_PI
9pi
3F 3F. = + ^- q * + v- P 9
.
0,
g2
dp,^
8(F,
.ST)
( 9 (ft, Pi)
+ 3(F, ^7
,
9 (ft, PS)
--r=0,
^T)
0.
and therefore
M-^ =
9ft
l
oft
function 6 (q ly q2
last multiplier
This equation shews that fidq +f2 dq2 is the perfect differential of some h, c): and the result derived above from the theory of the
,
shews that d&/dc
constant
is
an
integral.
Moreover,
we have
and therefore
3F,
5
-7.
3F
1
dq
3(F, //)
9
(p a PI)
,
found,
But obtaining we have
9/1/3 A
and df2/dh in the same way as

,
9/l/9c
and
3/a/3c
were
df2
9A
dh
3(F,
J3
3(F,
121, 122]
283
Consequently
or
dt
?)f
PI/*
l
~j dq
-f
dq.2 ,
= W + constant,
JTT
-
on
which completes the proof of the theorem.

Example.
radii vectores to the centres of force, and (d, 6 line joining the centres of force, obtain the
In the problem of two centres of gravitation ( 53), if (r, /) denote the the angles formed by r, / with the }
integral
}
r 2 r 2 0ff
- 2c (p cos 6
+/* cos d
= constant,
and hence complete the solution by the above theorem.

122.
system.
Integral-invariants
whose
order
is
equal
to
the
order
of the
The theory of the last multiplier of a system of differential equations is connected with that of the integral-invariants whose order is equal to the order of the system.
Let
doc
~s
(r = 1 - i
,
,
*)
where (Z n
Z)
...,
k)
of ordinary differential equations be satisfied in order that
are given functions of (xl} xz ..., xk t), be a system and let us find the condition which must
;
fff ... JJJ

I
I
MQX, ox,,
J
6xk
may be an
Let
so that,
integral-invariant,
, . . . ,
where
is
a function of the variables.
(c l5 c 2
ck }
by solving the equations, (x l} xz

,
of (d, c2
..., a*, t).
be any set of constants of integration of these equations, ..., xk ) can be expressed in terms Then we have
,
[ .I
>
and therefore the condition of integral-invariancy
d
dt
~JI
(
i
M 8(^,^2, ^~
"
d
*
\ Oj
G2
is
...,xk y\
dt
8(c 1(
c 2) ..., ck )
M r=l
M
.
d(c1}
.,,...,
or
dt
8
C l , c 2 , ... ..., a
= i CXr
which shews that
M must be a last multiplier of the system of equations.
284
[CH.
whose motion
This result gives immediately the theorem that for a dynamical system is determined by the equations
dq,.
_?)H
r
dpr__dH
dt~
qn
,
_
pn
,
dt~dp
where
dq r
2
,
is
any function of
(q 1} q 2
...,
p p
lt
...,
t),
the expression
is
an integral-invariant theorem is of importance

;
This since in this case unity is a last multiplier. in the applications of dynamics to thermodynamics.
let
Example.
solved for
For a system with two degrees of freedom,
the energy-integral
when
p take the form
h,
to, Pi, Ps,
A)+_pt = 0.
to the
Shew
that, for trajectories
which correspond
same value of the constant
of
energy, the quantity
is
independent of
and
also of the choice of coordinates
trajectories of the problem can be represented as the stream-lines in the steady of a fluid whose density is
and hence shew that the motion
123.
Redaction of differential equations

to
:
to the
Lagrangian form.
Another question
applied
is
the following
which the theory of the last multiplier can be To find under what conditions a given system of
ordinary differential equations of the second order
is
equivalent to a Lagrangian system
d /dL\
dL
jlla-H-5 dt \dq r j dq r
where
-0
,
(r=l,
qn
,
2, ..., w),
is
a function of (q lt q2
,..,
q n q l} q2
,
...,
t).
If these
two systems are equivalent, the equations
^
k =i
3- o
<ik
\oqr dq k
oqr dq k
Qk z } /
+ ^-5.
dq r dt
^
dq r
(r
1, 2,
n)
must evidently reduce to identities when the quantities qk are replaced by the expressions fk and therefore the required condition is that a function L
;
shall exist satisfying the simultaneous partial differential equations
00
dqr ot
(r
= l,
i
2, ..., n),
dqr
where
(q lt q2
...,
q n ,qi,qz, ...,q n ,t) are regarded as the independent variables.
122-124]
285
When
= 1,
the question can be solved in terms of the last multiplier.

satisfied
For the equation
by
is
then
_
dq*
dqdq*
dqdt
dq
from which we have

_
_ ~
dq\dq
~ f-.
/
dq \dqdq
dqdt
dqj
and therefore
if
we
write d 2L/dq 2
= M,
the function
M
/%
satisfies
the equation
dM
but this
equations
is
--
the equation defining the last multiplier
of the system of
and therefore wAen w
1,
/<e
determination of the function
reduces
to the
determination of the last multiplier of the system.

124.
When
consists
Case in which the kinetic energy is quadratic in the velocities. the most important case is that in which each of the functions fr of a part Fr which is homogeneous and of the second degree in (q^, 2 ..., n ) and j q
n>l,
,
>
a part Gr which does not involve (j 1} j2 the equations

are equivalent to a system
j0) an d
it is
required to determine whether

r =l,
2,
qr =
Fr +O
dT
...,)
where T
is
variables (^, ^ 2
homogeneous and of the second degree in (j h j2 -,?) and also involves the 2 -, ?), and (&, ..., $ ) are functions of (g- 1? j 2 .... q n ) only.
,
,
ft
The value
of
is
clearly not dependent on (6 1

?
^j
..., 6- n ),
i.e.
and therefore we can
consider the problem in which (G 1} 6r 2 a function T such that the equations

are equivalent to the system
...,
6r M .)
are zero,
the problem of finding
ir
= Fr
dT
(r=l,2, ...,)
d /dT
The condition
equations
for this is the existence of a function
T satisfying the
"
<
partial differential
(r=1
*>
Since
k is
homogeneous, we have 2 qs dFk /dqs = 2Fk and therefore

,
8=1
286
But

since dF/dq r is homogeneous,
[OH.
we have
and therefore
k
~
s =\
k= i Oq r dqk
cq r Vfc=t 9yg dqk j
~*
"=\
9j r
3^
The equations
to be satisfied
1
by
T may
consequently be written
n
,
n v* fiF^ tiT k UJ
T?
(PT u L
dT _f\ UJ
, .
cT\
or
8
--
/.
2 5
9^9^ + 9T\ r rr
_
"
(r=1
%)
and evidently these may be replaced by the equations

*
i 2 ~-^ *k=i o^-^k
dFt dT
~ =0 +9
dT
(r=l,
,1,
(r=l,
2, ...,
).
?r
that if the system of equations Thus, writing/,, for (Fr + G r ), we have the theorem
qr
w/tere
=fr
reducible to the
2,
...,),
r consists of
a part which
is
homogeneous of degree two in

is
the velocities
and a
part which does not involve the
velocities,
form
then
must
be
an
integral of the system
+ Ô il^pl k= idq dq dq
2
r
(,.1,
2,
...,).
In the problem of two centres of gravitation, the distance between the centres of and the semi-major axes of the two conies which pass through the moving and have their foci at the centre of force are (q l q z }. Writing particle
1.
force is 2c,
shew that the equations
of motion are
dqr
Fa<
oH =^
ojo,.
dp r =
-T a^
(>H
, (
r=
,
l>
_.
d^
2),
where
JT"
and
/ni
and
/u 2
are constants.
2.
Shew that
j f jj
extended over the \n (n-l) combinations of the indices i and j, where the summation is an integral-invariant of any Hamiltonian system in which (qi, q 2 ..., q nt Pi, p^, ..., p n )
is
,
are the variables.
(Poincare.)
x]
3.
In the problem defined by the equations
287
dqr_dff^
dpr__dl[
dt~3p r
where
dt~
dqr
bq<?,
H= q
pl
2 q2 p 2 a?i +
shew that
is
f)a
bat
?i
= constant
121 obtain the two remaining integrals
constant,
an integral
and hence by the theorem of
(q^z
(log qi = t + constant.
4.
If
is
a last multiplier of a system of differential equations

dx-i
X
of which the equation
is
_ d.r2 _ A2
zi
>
_ dx n _ dx
An
xn x = Constant
,
known
integral,
and
r
if
indicate that
shew that
M /(cf/cxn
xn has been replaced

)
an accent annexed to a function of # l5 #2 ..., acn x is used to in the function by its values found from this integral,
,
is
a last multiplier of the reduced system

dx,
-=-,=... =
...,
dxn
dxn _i
,
=-7-
dx
(Jacobi.)
5.
If QI
Constant, 6 2
= Constant,
dx dx
6n
= Constant
dxn
are a set of integrals of the
equations
dxz
shew that
is
8(^,^ 2
0(X 1 #2
,
...,^)
---i
X
(iii,
*)
/2
...,
a last multiplier.
6.
Let
u2
...,
linear differential expressions
u n ) be n dependent variables, and let Tj, denned by the equations
/ be a
set of
k=l
If (vi,v z ,
...,
v n ) are functions of
such that
an exact differential, shew that the functions (vj, v 2 , ..., vn ) satisfy a set of n linear differential equations, which will be called the system adjoint to the system of linear
is
7r
If J ^. denotes the expression
1
(r=l,
2,
...,).
where
is
any given function of
(q l
j2
>
>
?>
?i>
?2>
>
qn
shew that the system
of
linear differential equations
is
adjoint to
itself.
Shew
that the converse of this latter theorem
is
also true.
(Hirsch.)
CHAPTER XI
THE TRANSFORMATION-THEORY OF DYNAMICS
125.
We
soluble
Hamilton s Characteristic Function and Contact-Transformations. have seen* that the integration of a dynamical system which is
by quadratures can generally be effected by transforming it into another dynamical system with fewer degrees of freedom. We shall in the present chapter investigate the general theory which underlies this
procedure, and, indeed, underlies the solution of
all
dynamical systems.
memoir on in Hamilton which was to the Irish optics, Royal Academy by presented the there introduced were afterwards transferred their 1824f principles by
The
:
origin of the
method
is
to be found in a celebrated
discoverer to the field of dynamics.
In order to follow Hamilton s thought, we must refer to the connexion between dynamics and optics a connexion which is perhaps less obvious in our day than in his, when the corpuscular theory of light was still widely If a ray of light traverses an optically heterogeneous but isotropic held.
medium, the
a ray
may
refractive index at any point (a?, y, z} being the path of be determined by Fermat s Principle J, namely that the integral
JJL,
(x, y, z)
ds
has a stationary value when the integration is taken along the actual ray joining two given terminal points, as compared with neighbouring paths joining them. If on the other hand we consider the motion of a free particle
mass in a conservative field of force where its potential energy is and its constant of energy is h, the path of the particle may be (IK, y, z}, determined by the Principle of Least Action ( 100), which in this case asserts
of unit
<b
that the integral

ff
I
i*
paths joining the same terminal points.

*
Cf.
has a stationary value for the actual trajectory as compared with neighbouring Comparing these two statements, we
Chapter
III,
38-42.
1.
t Trans. E. Irish Acad. xv. (1828), p. 69; xvi. (1830), pp. 4, 93; xvn. (1837), p. J Cf. ray History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, pp. 9-10, 102-3.
125]
The Transformation-Theory of Dynamics
289
see that the trajectories of the particle in the dynamical problem are the same as the paths of the rays in the optical problem, provided a suitable
correspondence
*-<*-*
is
set
up between the potential-energy function
in the one case
and the
refractive index in the other.

light, this was regarded as furnishing the of the explanation optical phenomena, the ray of light being conceived as a procession of But the statement in itself is rapidly-moving corpuscles.
In the corpuscular theory of
true whatever
supplies a This idea
hypothesis regarding light
be
adopted
and therefore
it
means
is
of connecting dynamics with the undulatory hypothesis. the starting-point of Hamilton s theory.
When
different
the undulatory hypothesis is adopted, we have the choice of two methods of discussing the propagation of light mathematically
:
the
to consider rays, the second is to consider wave-fronts. latter method, which was introduced by Huygens in 1690, may be
first
is
The
thus
explained.
it
exists at a definite instant
Consider a wave-front, or locus of disturbance in an optical medium, as Each element t, having the form of a surface
<r.
of this wave-front
may be regarded as the source of a secondary wave, outwards from it so that at a subsequent instant t the propagated disturbance originating in any point (x y, z) of the original wave-front will extend over a surface. To obtain the equation of this surface, we observe
; ,
t
medium from an arbitrary another arbitrary point (x y z ) depends only on the six quantities (x, y, z, x y z) let it be denoted by V(x, y, z, x, y z }. This function V(x, y, z, x y z } was called by Hamilton the characteristic function for the medium in A disturbance which originates at a point question.
that the time taken by light to travel through the
(x, y, z} to
,
,
point
(x,
y,
z} of
t
instant
(x,
extend
is
the original wave-front at the instant t will therefore at the over the surface whose equation in the coordinates
V(x,y,z, x ,y ,z
-t
(1).
according to the principle of wave-propagation laid down by Huygens, the wave-front which represents the whole disturbance at the instant t is the envelope of the secondary waves which arise from the
various elements of the original wave-front.
Call this
Now
new wave-front 2;
<r
and denote the direction-cosines of the normal to the wave-front at (x, y, z) by (I, m, n), and the direction-cosines of the normal to the wavefront 2 at the corresponding point* (x, y z } by (V, m n ): these are the
,
The point
(x, y, z}
from
(x y z ) is said to correspond to (x, touches the envelope S at (x y z ).

, , , ,
y, z) if
the secondary wave propagated
W.
D.
19
290

,
[OH. xi
direction-cosines of the rays at (x, y
z ) and (x, y, z) respectively, since in Then since to the wave-front*. normal an isotropic medium the ray is V to 2 is the envelope of the surfaces points on a, the corresponding
equation
dV
dx
satisfied
-=- doc
dV, dV, + -^- dy + -^- dz = Q

i
dy
those
dz
must be
relation
by
all
values
of
the
ratios
a-,
to correspond to directions in the tangent-plane
i.e.
dx dy which
:
dz which
satisfy the
ldx
+ mdy + ndz = 0.
Hence we have
1^? = 1LF = 1 8F
I
dx
dy
n dz
(2)
of the normal to the Moreover, since (I m, n) are the direction-cosines have we z the ), surface F at point (x, y,
,
=
I
dx
dy
n dz
1
Now
m, n) at time
(I,
a ray of light which passes through the point (x, y, z) in the direction at time t passes through the point (x, y /) in the direction (I m, n )
, ,
and equations
(1), (2), (3),

/a
together with the equation

/2
p + m +n
,
=l
................................. (4),
, , ,
of rays of
z are six equations, from which we can determine the six quantities (x y behaviour the these Thus equations by I m, n) in terms of (x, y, z, I, m, n). in the medium is completely specified in terms of the single
light
y, z,
function V(x,
x, y
}.
It will
be observed that they are not
differential
but that they give directly, in the integrated form, the changes in equations, after a finite interval of propagation through the medium. any system of rays in optics depend on the deter It is evident therefore that all problems function s characteristic Hamilton V(x,y,z, x ,y ,z } for the of
mination
optical
medium
or system of
media through which the rays
pass.
the point of view of Pure Mathematics, we regard the change from of variables (x, y z I m, n ), the set of variables (x, y, z, I, m, n) to the set to the surfaces 2, as surfaces the from or (to express it geometrically) be to is thus regarded as determining a a transformation. The function into a new surface 2. surface transformation of space which changes any a touch at point, the corresponding It is evident that if two surfaces a and on this transformed surfaces 2 and 2 also touch at the corresponding point
From
<r
<r
</
account the transformation has been called by
S.
Lie a contact-transformation.
Thus any function V(x,

*
y, z,
x, y
defines
a contact-transformation, which
is
For simplicity we are supposing that the medium, though optically heterogeneous, medium. Hamilton considered also the more general case of a crystalline isotropic.
125]

<r
291
transforms any wave-front

a-
into the wave-front
which
is
derived
t
t.
from
by propagation
through the
medium
in the interval of time
A simple example of a contact-transformation is the well-known geometrical trans formation known as reciprocation. In order to find the reciprocal of any given surface with respect to a given surface, we correlate to every point (#, y, z) on a plane, namely
o>
<r
the polar plane of (x, y\ z) with respect to the quadric. When the point (x, y, z) takes all possible positions on the surface a, the plane envelopes a surface 2, which is the reciprocal of a-. The transformation from o- to 2 is evidently a contact-transformation. In this
case Hamilton s function
(
is
linear with respect to (x, y,
z)
and
also with respect to
v*
r
1
} )
Proceeding now with Hamilton

written
problem, equations (2) and (3)
may be
Kl
= *m
^,
oy
dV =
r
7
ox
8F
\1H
8F =
-^r-f
Ml
oz
where K and \ are quantities not as yet determined. For the equations may be written readily found.
They can however be
dV =
Now
increase
K(ldx
+ mdy + ndz) +
\(l dx
+ m dy + n dz )
,
(5).
by proceeding a small distance ds along the ray at (x, y z }, we But if the by the time which light takes to travel along ds
.
units are so chosen that the velocity of light in free aether

,
is
unity, then
the velocity of light in the medium at (x, y z) is 1/X, where fjf denotes the refractive index at this point. Thus the time taken by light to describe
ds
is
[ids
or p!
(I
+m +
2
-}
ds
or //
A.
(I
//,
dx
.
+ m dy + n dz
Similarly K
s
).
this with equation (5), we see that denotes the refractive index at (x, y,
JJL,
Comparing where p
z}.
Thus Hamilton
(Idx
general formula
becomes
dV = p
If
(I
dx
+ m dy + =
n dz
/j,
+ mdy + ndz).
we
write
fjd
/Jim
77,
fin
yt/,7
fji
m =v
/j!n
"
this takes the form
quantities (f, 77, ), ( ?? ) were called by Hamilton the components normal slowness of of propagation of the wave at (x, y, z) and (x y z)
,
The
respectively.
between the two positions
Consider now the particular case in which the interval of time (t 1) a- and 2 of the same wave-front is very small
192
292
denote
it

by A. In Write
this case
[OH. xi
said to be
the
contact-transformation
is
infinitesimal.
=-MtAf,
Then equation
(6)
7/=77
v&t,
= + wA,
j
............... (7).
V=
becomes
.
WA*
or or
dW.At = (J; + u&t) (dx + da A) + 0? + v&t) (dy + dp A) + (f + wA) (ek + dy A) -vjdy= u&tdx + v&tdy + w&tdz + %dda. + rjAtd/3 + dW = udx + vdy + wdz + %da.+ qd/3 + %dy, d (go. + ?7/3 + 7 udx vdy wdz. W) = otdj; + /3dtj + yd
. .
<&c
%dz
%Atd<y,
Thus
if
we denote the
function fa
z,
+ rj/3 + 7
77,
TF by iT, and suppose
expressed as a function of x, y,
g,
f,
we have
vdy
dH=adt; + ftdrj +
ydûdx
wdz
d ~
dt
,
............... (8).
Now
evidently, from (7), in the limit u
becomes
a becomes
dx
-y,
dt
etc.
Thus we have
dx
,.,
dy
dz
-..,
-.
dn
- dt
77,
-.
so the rates of increase of the six variables (x, y,
z,
%,
are given
by the
equations
dx_
dt
dH
d
dy_
dt
dH
drj
dz_
dt
d_H
d
(Ph
dt
/m
dx
dt
dy
dt
dz
a Hamiltonian system of equations, such as occurs in dynamics. it may be regarded as representing an in finitesimal contact-transformation, that is to say, the motion of a wave-front from one position to a position indefinitely near it. The integrals of this Hamiltonian system are the equations (1), (2), (3), (4) above they represent a finite contact- transformation, that is to say, the motion of a wave-front from one position to the position which it acquires after a finite interval of and
this is
Our
investigation shews that
Thus we see how by using the ideas of the undulatory theory of light, Hamilton was able to obtain an integrated form for the differential equations of dynamics, depending on a single unknown function.
time.
126.
Contact-transformations in space of any number of dimensions.
rest of the present chapter will be concerned with the application of Hamilton s ideas, described in the preceding article, to the general case of a
The
dynamical system with any number of degrees of freedom, and the connexion
125, 126]

due
to
293
Pfaff,
of the results with certain theorems
Lagrange, Poisson,
and
Jacobi.
We
using
shall
first
define a contact-transformation in w-dimensional space,

article.
for
Let (q 1}
this purpose a generalisation of equation (6) of the last q2 ..., q n p^ p.2 ...,p n ) be a set of 2/i variables, and let
,
2/i other variables which are defined in terms of them by 2n equations. If the equations connecting the two sets of variables are such that the
be
differential
form
PidQj
is,
+ P. dQ +
2 2
...
+ Pn dQ n ,
p^ - p dq
2
, ,
...
- p n dq n
,
,
,
in terms of (qlt q2 ..., q n ,pi, PZ, p n ) and their differ the differential of a of function entials, perfect (q 1} q 2 ..., q n p l p 2 ..., p n ), then the change from the set of variables (q l q.2 ..., q n p 1} p2 ..., p n ) to the
,
, ,
when expressed
other set (Q 1}
It
Q2
...,
Qn
P P
1?
...,
Pn
) is
called a contact-transformation.
is
may
be observed that this
is
different in
form from the definition which
most
convenient when contact-transformations are studied with a view to their applications in geometry and in the theory of partial differential equations the latter definition may be
:
stated thus
(?i>
a contact-transformation
-,
is
a transformation from a set of (2w+l) variables

set
?2,
-,
qn ,Pi,Pn,
Pn,
z)
to
another
(# l5
@2
...,
Qn
P P
l5
...,
Pn
)
Z},
for
which the equation
dZ- PdQ - P2 dQ2 -... - Pn dQn = p (dz-p dq -p2 dq 2 - ... -p n dqn

l 1
is satisfied,
where p denotes some function of

,
(q 1
q2
...,
qn
p lt p z
...,
pn
z).
If the n variables (Q ly Q2 ..., Qn ) are functions of (q lt q2 ..., q n ) only, the contact-transformation from the variables (q 1} q 2 ..., qn p l ..., p n ) to the variables (Q 1 Q2 n ) is called an extended point-transformation, Qn 1}
, , ,
, ,
. . .
. . .
the equations which connect (q 1} q 2 .... q n ) with (Q l} case said to define a point-transformation.
,
...,
Q n } being
in this
From
the definition
it is
transformations in succession a contact-transformation.

(?!,
>
clear that the result of performing two contactis to obtain a change of variables which is itself
It is also evident that if the transformation to
from
<?2>
q n ,pi,
>p
n)
(Qi,Q
...,Q n PI,
,
..,
,
Pn
is
,
a contact-trans
,
formation, then the transformation from (Q n Q2 ..., Qn 1} 2 n ) to ..., is also a this is z n (qi,q ,q ,pi,p2, --^Pn) contact-transformation; generally
,
P P
expressed by saying that the inverse of a contact-transformation is a contactThis, together with the foregoing, shews that contact-trans transformation.
formations possess the group-property.

Example
1.
Shew that the transformation
is
a contact-transformation.
294

PdQ -pdq = (2qfi sin p {(2q) ~^cospdq- (2qfi siupdp} -p dq = d(q sinp cos p qp),
[CH. xi
In this case we have
which
is
a perfect differential.
2.
Example
Shew
that the transformation

1
is
Example
3.
Shew that the transformation
(P= 2(1+2^ cos p) q^ sin p,

is
We
shall
now
obtain the
explicit analytical expression of a contact-
transformation.
(Qi) Qz,
Let the transformation from variables (q 1} q 2 q n p ..., p n ) to variables Pn } be a contact-transformation, so that Qn, P\,
,
. . .
",
r=l
(P r dQ r -p r dqr ) =
where
dW
,
is
a complete differential.
From
(qi, q*,
the equations which define (Q lt

qn ,pi
,
.
...,
Qn
1}
...,
2
,
pn)
it
maybe
(Qn Qa
possible to
eliminate(P 1
. . .
Pn in terms of Pn p pn
)
,
,
completely, so as to obtain one or more relations between the variables

,
>
Qn,
k,
qi,
qn )
let
the
number
of such relations be
flrtei, 2,, -., q n
,
and
....
let
them be denoted by
(r=l,
2, ..., A)... (A).
Qn
Q) =
The meaning of these relations may be illustrated by reverting to the geometrical theory of contact-transformations in ordinary three-dimensional space, when there are three cases to consider
:
(a)
There
may
be only a single relation between the
new and
old coordinates, say
Q(x,y,
s,
x ,y /)=0.
, ,
~),
are given, this equation, regarded as the locus of a point (a/, y z represents a surface so that each point (#, y, z) is transformed into a surface, which we may call an Q-surface and any arbitrary surface is transformed into a surface 2 which
(#, y, 2)
;
:
<r
When
the envelope of the Q-surfaces corresponding to the individual points of 125. general case, and is the only one we considered in
is
(/3)
er.
This
is
the
There
may be two relations Q : (as, y, 2, x y

,
of this kind, say

z")
= 0,
Q2
y,
*,
/,
=0.
:
If (x, y,
(x, y, z) is
are given, these two equations in (a/, y , z ) represent a curve transformed into a curve, which we may call a .fiT-curve and
z]
:
so each point
any arbitrary
12(>]

is
295
surface cr is transformed into a surface 2 which sponding to the individual points of cr.
(y)
the envelope of the .ff-curves corre
There
flj (a?,
may
z,
,
be three relations of this kind, say

,
y,
x y
= 0,
O 2 (x,
y,
z,
x y
,
= 0,
Q 3 (.r,
,
y,
,
z,
x y
,
= 0,
in
surface
which case each point (x, y, z) is transformed into a point (x y z }, and any arbitrary cr is transformed into a surface 2 which is the locus of the points corresponding to
cr.
the individual points of
Since the variations (dq lf dqz
...,
dq n dQ lt
,
...,
dQ n )
in the equation
r=l
2 (P r dQ r - p r dqr ) =
dW
are conditioned only
by the relations
(r=l,
2, ...,&),
we must have
dW
an,
where (X^Xg,
.of (q
q equations to
l}
2
,
...,
is a function undetermined multipliers and where are (2n + k) and The n (B) ..., Q ). Q,, Q equations (A) determine the (2/i + k) quantities
...,Xt ) are
qn
(Qi,
Qn,
,
PI>
Pn>
Xi, ..., Xfc)
in terms of (q lt
qn
. . .
p n ).
These equations
may therefore
be
regarded
as explicitly formulating the contact-transformation, in terms of the functions (W, i( n.2 ..., n&) which characterise the transformation.
Conversely,
(<?i,
if (
W,
n H
if
n4
are
n,
?2
>
qn, Qi,
-..,
Qn),
where k ^
2
,
any (k + and if
..-,
1) functions of the variables
(Qi,
-,
Qn, Pi,
...,
Pn, X 1;
...,
fc
are denned in terms of (q l q2

,
qn
p 1}
...,
p n ) by the equations*
9TF
an, -
...
+X
...
90
fc
? =-^
dq r
an, -- Xi ^
dq r
an, X -rdq r
Vr
-L
>
,
)>
* These equations were first given in Jacobi s Vorlesungen iiber Dijnamik (1866), p. 470, where their utility in the transformation of partial differential equations of the first order (to which of contact-transdynamical problems can be reduced) was indicated. Their place in the theory
formations was pointed out by Lie.
296
then
the
The Transformation- Theory of Dynamics

transformation
) is
[CH. xi
from
M
(q lt q z
...,
;
q n Pi, ...,p w )
,
to
(Q 1}
Q2
...,
Qn
1}
...,
Pn
a contact -transformation
for
the expression
r=l
2 (P r dQr -p r dq r )
dW, and
so
is
becomes, in virtue of these equations,

Example.
If
a perfect differential.
Q = (Zq)k~
cosp,
P
...
P= dW
where
W
set of
TF= Q
(<2qk
- F$2 )* - q arccos
is
so that the transformation from (^ p} to ($, P)
127.
The bilinear covariant of a general

let (x 1}
differential form.
Now
form
x2
...,
#) be any
variables,
and consider a
differential
X dx
l
+ X dx2 +
2
. . .
+ X n dasn
where (X J}
kind
is
...,
Xn
denote any functions of
(x\,oc z ,
called a Pfaff s expression* in the variables (x1}
..,#); a form of this xz ..., xn ). Let this

,
expression be denoted by 0&, and write
where 8
8dd
is
the symbol of an independent set of increments.

1
Then we have
2
. . .
d6$
= & (X dx + X doc + 4- X n dx n ) d (X 8^ + X 8x + = 8X dx + + 8X n dxn + X 8dx + ... + Xn 8dxn

l 2
. . .
X n Sxn
.
dX
Using the
relations
8x1
r>
...
dXn 8xn
by
X d8x
l
...
Xn d8xn
8dxr = d8x
which exist since the variations d and 8

,
are independent, and replacing
dX r 8Xr
dXr
~
-^
dX r
-=
dx +... +
l
dX r
(]Xfi
dx n
6x 1
n
+
n
...
OX-^
OX-
dX r ~ oxn + -ÔXji
respectively,
we have
where
8dd
d0s= 2
i
y denotes the quantity dX{/dxj

,
dXj/dxj.
Let (y-i, 2/2 ..., yn ) be a new transformation let the some by

;
set of variables derived

differential
from (x lt
x.2 , ...,
xn }
form when expressed in terms of
these variables be
Fjefyi
* Pfaff s celebrated
+ Y dy2 +
2
...
+ Yn dy n
memoir on these expressions was presented

p. 76.
to the Berlin
Academy
in 1815
Abhandl. Akad. der Wiss. 1814-15,
126-128]
and
let

9P</<?$
297
- dJ}/3y< be denoted by by. Then since the the quantity 86 dd has d s expression obviously the same value whatever be the variables in terms of which it is expressed, we have
2 S
i
=l
j=l
ctijdtCiSxj
= 2 S
1
= 1 j = i bijdyibyj.
The expression taydxi&K)

bilinear covariant of the form
is,
on account of this equation, called the
dxr
128.
The conditions for a contact-transformation expressed by means of
the bilinear covariant.

(Qi, Qz,
<ln,pi,
Qn
PI,
.-.,
Pn
be variables connected with (q lt q2

n
...,
-.ipn) by a contact transformation, so that
X
r=i
P dQ
r
differs
from
r=l
by an exact
It is clear
is
differential.
from the last article that the bilinear covariant of a differential not affected by the addition of an exact differential to the form, since it depends only on the quantities dX ifoxj - bX}fixi which are all zero when the form is an exact differential: and we have shewn that the bilinear form
,
covariant of a form
n
is
covariant of the transformed form.
transformed by any transformation into the bilinear It follows that the bilinear co variants of
n
the forms
2
r=l
dQ r and 2 p r dq r r=l
are equal,
i.e.
that
^(8P dQ,-dP
r
8Q r ) = 2
(8p r dqr
-dqr 8p
r );
so that if the transformation

(qi,q^, ...,qn ,pi,
is
from
...,^)
to
(Q l} Qz
...,
Qn ,P
....
Pn
a contact-transformation, the expression

n
2
r=l
is
(8p r dq r
dqr 8p r )
invariant under the transformation.

Example.
For the transformation denned by the equations
we have
Q = (2q)* k~
4 cos
rfP-(2g)~ijt*sin
^cospdjz
298
By

multiplication
[OH. xi
we have
2
dP8Q-8PdQ=-sin*p(d<28p-8qdp)+cos p(dp8g-8pdq)
= dp8q
and consequently the transformation
129.
8pdq,
is
The conditions for a contact-transformation in terms of Lagranges

shall
bracket- expressions.
We
now
from variables (q l} q 2 q n p lt may be a contact-transformation.

,
. . . ,
give another form to the conditions that a transformation n) Qn 1 p n ) to variables (Qlt Q 2

,
.
. .
. .
If (q l q^, ...,q n ,pi, ...,p n ) are any functions of two variables (u, v) (and possibly of any number of other variables), the expression
,
3
r =i
r (dq tyr
dpr
dqA
is
\du dv
du dv )
usually denoted by the
is
called a
Lagranges bracket-expression*, and

qn
symbol
If
(Qi, Qz,
[u, v].
now
,
(q 1} q%,
...,
-,
Qn, PI,
...,p n ) are any functions of Pn), then in the expression

,
p l}
2n variables
2
r=l
(dp r q r
Bp r dq r )
we can
replace
dp r by
and similarly
for
the other quantities
we thus
[u k
,
obtain, on collecting terms,
2
r=l
(dpr &qr
- Bp r dq r ) = S
k,
I
u{] (diii8u k
- Suidu k
),
where the summation on the right-hand side variables (uk Ui) in the set (Q 1} Qz ..., Qn PI,
, ,
,
is
,
taken over
Pn)-,
,
all
pairs of
But
have
if the transformation from the variables (q l} q 2
qn, PI,
>
Pn)
to the variables
(&, Q
2>
...,
n>
1}
...,
Pn)
is
a contact-transformation,
we
r=l
I (dp^r -
Bprdq,)
= I (dP r SQr - 8Pr dQr

r=l
),
and
this holds for all types of variation 8 and d of the quantities with the above equation, we have therefore
comparing
i,P t ] =
0,
[Qi,
&] = = (i,k
(i,k l,2,
= I,
...,
2,
;
..,),
[Q*,P*]=0
[Qi,
i$k),
...,>
PJ=1
(t- 1,2,
vi. p.
Lagrange, Mem. de VInstitut de France, annê 1808: reprinted Oeuvres,
713.
128-130]
These
satisfied

be
,
299
may
regarded as partial differential equations which must be

...,
by (qlt q2
qn
p 1}
...,p n ), considered as functions of
(Qi,
Q, ...,Q,
PI, ...,Pn )
in order that the transformation
from
one set of variables to the other
may
be
These equations represent in an explicit form the
conditions implied in the invariance of the expression
r=\
(dp r Sq r
8p r dq r ).
130.
Poisson
shall
s bracket-expressions.
We
next introduce another class of bracket-expressions which are
intimately connected with those of Lagrange. If u and v are any two functions of a set of variables (q 1} q 2 Pi, Pn), the expression
,
...,
qn
I
is called
/8w
dv_
du
dp r
dv_
r =i\dq r
dp r
dqj u and
v,
the Poisson
bracket-expression* of the functions

(u, v).
,
and
is
denoted by the symbol
Suppose now that (u 1} u 2

, . .
...,
variables (q l} q2 g n plt ..., p n ), are functions of (u 1} u.2 ..., u 2n ). There will evidently be
. , , , ,
um ) are 2n independent functions of the so that conversely (q1} q2 q n p lf pn )

.
.
between the Poisson-brackets (u r u s )

,
some connexion and the Lagrange-brackets [u r us ]

,
:
this
connexion we shall
now
investigate.
We
have
t=\
2 (,,,)[,..]- 2 2 I
t=\i=ij=i \oqi dpi
(2?t*-lS dpi
Now
multiply out the right-hand side, remembering that

o t=i oqi
ou t
if i
t=l
pi
are each zero if
$ j and unity
=j
and that
.
^ t=ioqidu
t
^ 2
du dPj
r
t
and
^ S
du t d
t=l dpi d
are each zero
the equation becomes

%?
\ r
t>
-i
(%, w,) [n
t=i
wj
and consequently
2n
2
t=i
2n
(w t u r ) [u t , Ug]
,
=
= 1.
when r ^
s,
while
*
2
<=i
(w t
wr )
[w
<t
M,.]
Poisson, Journal d$ VEcole poly tech. vin. (Cahier 15), (1809), p. 266.
300
The Transformation Theory of Dynamics
[CH. XT
But these are the conditions which must be

two determinants
!,
satisfied in order that the
M,]
...
[U lt U2n ]
,
and
(U 2
,
[u2
u^
[u 2
u zn \
U2 )
...
(U 2n
U2 )
[U 2n
U-^ J
\_U 2n
U2n \
(Ûi
Uvn)
\U2n
may be reciprocal, i.e. that any element in the one should be equal to the minor of the corresponding element in the other, divided by this latter determinant the product of the two determinants being unity and thus the connexion between the Lagrange-brackets and the Poisson-brackets is expressed by the fact that the determinants formed from them are reciprocal.
; ;
Example
1.
If /,
<,
^ are
any three functions of
(j t
qz
...,
qn p1
,
...,
p n \ shew
that
Example
of (?D
<?2,
2.
If F,
are functions of (/l5
f2
...,
fk
),
which in turn are functions
>
$n,Pi,
-..,
p), shew that
where the summation
is
taken over
all
combinations
fr f
,
131.
The conditions for a contact-transformation expressed by means of

Poisson
Now
(î)
^2>
let
>
(Q lt
...,
Qn
lt
...,
Pn
denote 2 n functions of 2n variables

the conditions
c[n,p\,
-,pn)>
we
shall
shew that
which must be
satisfied in order that the
transformation
may
be
(
may
one set of variables to the other be written in the form
from
(Pi, Pj)
= 0,
(Qi, Qj]
(, j
1, 2,
n),
For we have seen in

are expressed
129 that the conditions
for
by the equations
f
[Pi, Pj]
= 0,
[Q {
Qj]
(i,
1, 2,
.,
n),
Hence the
relations
=0
130-132]

become
301
of the last article
while the relations

2n
(ut,
u r }[u
nr]
the theorem
is
thus established.
,
,
Example 1. If (Qlt Q2 ..., Qn Pl} ..., by a contact-transformation, shew that
Pn
are connected with ( gi ,q 2 ...,q n Plt

, ,
...,
Pn )
so that the Poisson-brackets of

variables are equal.
any two functions *
and
^ with respect
( ?1
,
?2>
to the
two
sets of
Example
2.
If
(&,..., Q n
are given functions of
..., ?(l ,
ft
...,p n \
and
satisfy the partial differential equations
(Qr,
,
^ )=
8
,
(r,=l,
,
2,
...,),
shew that % other functions (Plt P2 ..., Pn ) can be found such that the transformation from ( ?] ?2 ..., ?n Pl ;;. f plt ..., pw ) is a contact-trans 2 pn ) to (^ ..., Q n
, ,
, ,
formation.
/Lj e
132.
TAe sub-groups of Mathieu transformations and extended point-
Iran sformations.
If within a group of transformations there exists a set of transformations such that the result of performing in succession two transformations of the set is always equivalent to a transformation which also belongs to the set, this
is said to form a sub-group of the group. of the of contact-transformations sub-group general group constituted by those transformations for which the equation
set of transformations
is
evidently
S
r=l
is satisfied.
Pr dQ =
r
r=l
2 p r dq r
These transformations have been studied by Mathieu*.

same as the transformations
?n Pl ,...,p n
,
)"
They
are essentially the

(ft,
g- 2
,
called
"
homogeneous contact-
transformations in
...,
by
Lie.
In this case, we see from 126 that (&, Q 9 ..., Q n plf ..., n ) are to be obtained by eliminating (\ l} \ 2 ..., \ k from the ) (2n + k) equations
, ,
Journal de Math. xix. (1874),
p. 265.
302

,
[CH. xi
From the form of these equations it is evident that if (p j} p2 ...,p n ) are each multiplied by any quantity //., the effect is to multiply (P 1} P2 ..., n ) must be homogeneous of the first each by yu,; and therefore (Pj, P2 ..., ?l )
,
degree (though not necessarily integral) in (p 1}
pz
...,p n ).
sub-group within the group of Mathieu transformations is constituted by those transformations for Avhich (P P2 .. P n ) are not only homogeneous of the first degree in (p l} p2 ...,p n ) but also integral, i.e. linear, in them; so that we have equations of the form
: , ,
. ,
,
Pr = 2
k=\
p k frk (q 1} q2 ,..., qn )
(r=l,2,
. .
n}.
Substituting in the equation

n n
S
r=l
P dQ
r
2
r=
l*
rdgv
,
= 0,
and equating
to zero the coefficient of p k
we have
dq k
n
r=l
(fcl,
and
(r,
2, ...,n),
so
(<?!,
qz
...,
qn ) are functions of (Q 1}
frk
Q2
...,
Qn )
only,
= dqk/dQr
this
,
k=l,2,
..., n).
kind are obtained by assigning It follows that transformations of n arbitrary relations connecting the variables (q l} q2 ..., qn ) with the variables
(Qi,
Q 2,
Qn),
and then determining (P lf
...,Pn )from the equations
P = I
r
k=l
Pt j2* V^r
(r=l,
(
2, ...,n).
These transformations are extended point-transformations

n
126).
Example.
If
2
r=l
-
Pr dQr =
n 2
r=l
p r dqr
n
S hewtha,t
O0r
dPr
P*S^=
lf*în
"
133.
Infinitesimal contact-transformations.
shall
>
We
(Qi, $2,
now
consider transformations
->
which the new variables

, ,
Pn) differ from the original variables (q 1} q2 ... q n n p l} ...,p ) by quantities which are infinitesimal. Let these differences be denoted by (&q lt Ag 2 ..., A# &p lt ..., Ap n ), where
Qn, PI,
,
n>
and A^
is
an arbitrary infinitesimal constant
so that
r
Qr =
qr
+ &q r =qr +
<f>
132, 133]

is
303
and the transformation
specified
by the functions
Now
we have
suppose that the transformation
is
Then
r=l
(P r dQ r -p r dq r ) =
q.2
,
where
is
some function
of (q l}
...,
q n p lt
,
....
pn )
or
2
>=!
or
It is evident that the function
must contain
(^ :
,
A
,
as a factor
...,
W=
writing
U&t, where
?7 is
some function of
qz
...,
qn
lt
p n ), the
equation
becomes
Hence we have
M
/
r=l
r=l
= -dK(q 1}
and therefore
q2
...,q n ,p ly ...,p n ) say,
Thus
/te
mos<
general infinitesimal contact-transformation
is
defined by the
equations
where
is
an arbitrary function of
(q 1} q z
...,
qn
p lt
,
...,p n ),
...,
and
...,
A
p w ).
is
an
arbitrary infinitesimal quantity independent of (q 1}
q.2
qn
p 1}
The increment
ments
(q 1} q
z
,
in
any function f(q lt q z
...,
qn
p 1}
...,p n }
..., q n p 1} ...., p n ) when its argu are subjected to this transformation is

,
_
r
dp r dq
or
on this account the Poisson-bracket (/, K) is said to be the symbol of the most general infinitesimal transformation of the infinite group which consists
of
all
contact-transformations of the
2??,
variables (q 1}
q.2
...,
qn
p lt
...,p n ).
304
134.

The resulting new
[CH. xi
mew
of dynamics.
all
The theorem
established in the last article enables us to extend to
conservative holonomic dynamical systems, whatever be the number of degrees 125 for of freedom, the conception which was formulated at the end of
certain simple systems.
For the motion

dqr
j-
is
expressed
109) by equations of
the type
dff __
dp r
*
*
_ dH
dqr
fB
1 2
n)
dt
dp r
dt
interpret these equations as implying that the transformation from the values of the variables at time t to their values at time t + dt is an infinitesimal contact-transformation. The
last article it follows that
and from the
we can
whole course of a dynamical system can thus be regarded as the gradual selfunfolding of a contact-transformation. This result is really a generalisation
of the statement that the paths of the rays in a pencil of light can be specified by the gradual propagation of a wave-front. Taken in conjunction with
the group-property of contact-transformations,

transformation-theory of dynamical systems.
it
is
the foundation of the
From
this it is evident that if (q 1} q 2

(a
l>
...,
a.
qn
p lf
t t Q the equations which express (q qz qn a in of which terms constitute the @ n ..., lt 2 n 1} ..., j3 (a t) (and Pn) PI, solution of the differential equations of motion) express a contact-transforma tion from (!, or2 ..., ctn &, ..., /3 n ) to (q 1} q 3 ..., q n p lf ...,p n ); in this t is
,
in a dynamical system, and values at some selected epoch

>
ot 2
...,
{3 1} ..., /3 n )
...,p n ) are the variables are their respective

l ,
,
. . .
regarded merely as a parameter occurring in the equations which define the

transformation.
135.
Helmholtz
s reciprocal theorem.
,
Since the values of the variables (q l} q.2 ..., q n p lt ..., p n ) of a dynamical system at time t are derivable by a contact-transformation from their values
,
(!,
cr
2)
...,
an
fi l; ..., fin)
at time
we have (128)
where the symbols A and 8 refer to increments arrived at by passages from a given orbit to two different adjacent orbits respectively.
Now
orbit
which
suppose that 8 refers to the increments obtained in passing to that is defined by the values
(!,
2
,
...,
&,
/3 2 , ...,
&._!,
+S@
ftr+i,
>
fin)
at time
and
let
refer to the
increment obtained in passing to that orbit
which
is
defined by the values

(q l} qt
>
...,q n ,pi,
-, PS-I, PS
&Ps>
PS+I,
Pn)
134-136]
at time
,;

then the above equation becomes
&ps&qs=-8/3,-ky>;
305
so
the increment in
,
/3 1; ..., /3/--1, /3 r+1
...,
qs due to an increment in /3r (when a l cr2 ..., a n fi n are not varied) is equal to the increment (with sign
,
reversed) in a r corresponding to an increment in. p s (when qi,q 2 ...,q n ,pi, JOg-i, PS+-L, p n are not varied) equal to the previous increment in /3 r
,
.,
This result can for many systems be physically interpreted, as was observed by Helmholfcz*; for a small impulse applied to a system can be conveniently measured by the resulting change in one of the momenta
the change in a r due to a change in p g can be realised in the reversed motion, i.e. the motion which starts from some given position with each of the velocities corresponding to that position changed in sign, so that
(p-i,
...
,
p n and
),
the subsequent history of the system is the same as its previous history, but performed in reverse order. We can therefore state the theorem broadly thus the change produced in any interval by a small initial impulse of any
:
any other (or of the same) type, in the direct motion, equal change produced in the same interval of the reversed motion in the coordinate of the first type by an equal small initial impulse of the
is to the
type in the coordinate of
second type\.
Example. In elliptic motion under a centre of force in the centre, if a small velocity 8v in the direction of the normal be communicated to the particle as it is passing through either extremity of the major axis, shew that the tangential deviation produced after
a quarter-period
velocity
8v,
is
p.
"dtf,
where
/*
is
the constant of force.
Shew
also that a tangential
communicated
at the extremity of the

2
minor
axis,
produces after a quarter-
period an equal normal deviation
p.~
dv.
(Lamb.)
136.
Jacobi
theorem on the transformation of a given dynamical system
into another
dynamical system.
116 that
if
It
appears from
Hamiltonian system of
differential
equations
dq r
-nr dt
is
= dH ^,
dp r
dp r
dt
=-3dq
dH
(r=l,
2, ...,
w)
obtained will
transformed by change of variables, the system of differential equations so still have the Hamiltonian form
dQr_dK_ dt dPr
provided the new variables (Q l}
dPr__dK
~
dt
...,
dQr
ly
"**
:
Q2
Qn
...,
Pn
are such that
is
an integral-invariant
*
(relative or absolute) of the original system.

fiir
Journal
Math.
c.
(1886).
t Cf.
Lamb,
Proc. Loud. Math. Soc. xix. (1898), p. 144.
w. D.
20
306

transformation of this
i.e.
[on. xi
the
kind
is,
in general,
special
to
problem
considered,
it
transforms the
chosen
Hamiltonian system, but it Hamiltonian system
given Hamiltonian system into another will not necessarily transform any other arbitrarily
into a Hamiltonian system. Among these transformations however are included transformations which have the pro
perty of conserving the Hamiltonian form of any dynamical system to which they may be applied these may be obtained in the following way.
:
We
have seen (115) that
a relative integral-invariant of any Hamiltonian system. Let (Q l} PL ..., n ) be a set of 2n variables obtained from (q lt q 2 ..., q n by a contact-transformation, so that
is
...,
Qn
p 1}
...,p n )
P
r=\
dQrr=l
p r dq r =
The equations which
define the
...,
where
dW
denotes an exact differential.
transformation
may
,
,
involve the time, so that (Q 1}

>
...,
Q P
n
,
1}
Pn
are
but in the variation denoted by d functions of (q l q z ., q n ,pi, Pn, if t is supposed to in this equation the time is not supposed to be varied vary, the equation becomes
5
:
2
r=l
dQ r - 2 p r dq r =
r=l
dW+ Udt,
where
U denotes
some function of the
variables.
the variation denoted by S in the integral-invariant is a variation from a point of one orbit to the contemporaneous point of an adjacent orbit
if
Now
therefore
,
we regard the
variables as functions of (a l
a2
...,
a 2n
t),
where
(a 1} a 2
of ..., a 2n ) are the constants of integration which occur in the solution the equations of motion, the variation & is one in which (a 1} a 2 ..., a 2n ) are varied but t is not varied we have consequently, as a special case of the last
, :
equation,
I
r=l
SQr- 2 p r Bqr =8W,

r=l
r
and therefore
is
2
J }=!
;
i
r
&Qr
a relative integral-invariant
in
,
equations,
variables, will
so the transformed system of differential which (Q 1( Qz ..., Qn P1} ..., Pn ) are taken as dependent have the Hamiltonian form and can be written
,
dQr_dK_
dt
~dPr
,
dPI ~ __ dK
dt
...,
dQr
,
where
is
some function of (Q lt Q2
Qn
Pi,
...,
Pn
t).
136, 137]

,
307
,
>
Hence a contact-transformation of the variables (q lt q2 ..., qn Pn} of any dynamical system conserves the Hamiltotiian form of the equations of
T>\->
the system*.
In the case of an ordinary
"change
of
variables"
,
in the
dynamical
system, in which (Q1} contact-transformation

Example.
...,
Qn )
are functions of (q lt q 2
...,
qn ) only, the
is
merely an extended point-transformation.

p = 2Q)% kt dp =
dt
z
Shew
that the contact-transformation defined by the equations q
= (2#)4 k ~ * cos
P,
sin P,
changes the system
dq__3H_
dff
dg
di~dp
where
into the system
H = \(p* + k q*\
dQ_dK dP__dK_
~dt~dP
where
137.
"dt~
dQ
K=kQ.
Representation of a dynamical problem by a differential form.
The reason for the importance of contact-transformations in connexion with dynamical problems is more clearly seen by the introduction of a certain differential form which is invariantively related to the problem.
Let any be
differential
form with (2n
1)
independent variables (X, x2
...,
we have seen
127) that
its bilinear
2
covariant
+ l 2w+l
ddSaS
where a tj denotes the quantity (dXi/dxj

the form.
If
we equate
dXj/dxi), is invariantively related to to zero the coefficients of Sx 1} Sx2 ..., Bx^^, we

,
obtain the system of (2?i+l) equations
order, it is zero,
Since the determinant of the quantities a fj is skew-symmetric and of odd and these equations are therefore mutually compatible. They are known as the first Pfaff s system of equations corresponding to the
differential form
2
r=l
dxr and from the mode of their formation are

, ;
in-
variantively connected with it made, the new variables (yl} y2

#2n+i)>
and
if
the differential
any change of variables is ..., y m+1 ) being given functions of (ar,, x2 ..., form be changed by this transformation to
is
,
,
that
to say, if
2
r=l
*
Yr dy
This important theorem was
first
given by Jacobi, Comptes Rendus,
v. (1837), p. 61.
202
308
and
if

2n+l
[OH. xi
2
1=1
first
& fl cfa/;
0,
2
^=1
b^dyi
0,
...,
2
t=i
b ii2n+l dyi
be the
Pfaff s system derived from the differential form
2
then this system
2n+l
ii
F ety
r
r,
is
equivalent to the system
dxi
= 0,
Ui Z dxi
= 0,
;,
2?i+i
cî
= 0.
Consider
now
the special differential form
in the
(2n+
q
2
,
>
1) variables (g 1} q 2
...,
qn
p lt
...,
pn
t),
where
is
any function
of
(ft,
qn
>
P\>
find that the first
quantities a^, we Pn, Pfaff s system of differential equations of this differential

>
t).
Forming the corresponding
form
is
dp r
;r
dt
(r
= 1,
2,
n\
dq r
dH U = A -^dt
()
(r=I,
2, ..., n),
dp r
t
~^di
Of these the
last
equation
is
a consequence of the others
and therefore the
system of equations can be written
dqr
-*
dH
dpr
dp r
*
.
^^
dH
dq r
.
/
iv*
IV
7?
dt
dt
but these are the equations of motion of a dynamical system in which the It follows that the dynamical system whose Hamiltonian function is H. is invariantively connected with the differential Hamiltoniah function is
form
Pidqi
__
+p
dq2
...
+p n dqn
Udt,
inasmuch as
variables
(x
l
the equations of
,
motion of the dynamical system, in terms of any

whatever, are
the first
x2
...,
x 2n
T)
Pfaff s
system of the
differential
form
which
is
derived from the form
Pidyi+ptdqt
by the transformation
variables (xlt
...
+p n dq n
,
Hdt
...,
from
the variables (q lt q2
q n p\,
,
-,pn ,t}
to the
x2
..., x^,, T).
137, 138]
138.
309
The Hamiltonian function of the transformed equations.

result of the last article furnishes another proof of the
The
theorem that
the equations of dynamics
dq r
dt
_ dH
dp r
dp,.
dH
dq r
119
,
dt
all
conserve the Hamiltonian form under

qn>Pi>
>Pn),
and moreover
it
contact-transformations of (q l ,q.2 ..., enables us to find the Hamiltonian function
K of the system
For
thus obtained,
=
~df
let
dPr
~dT~~
~dQ r
(r
= l,2,...,n).
=1
J_
,
the contact-transformation be defined by the equations

(r
k}
an
-i
-, y~\
an 2
~T~
A>
,,
.-.
-T-
an*
A,
.-.
(j/j.
U*%r
d v/
^7*
>
A, ..., n),
an,
X;
u(/,.
X2 ^
an 2
.*.
an,
Xj-=
dgv
a^,.
d^
(ral,
2. .... n).
where (n^
...,
n,, TF) are any functions of the variables (q 1} q
From
these equations
we have
identically
p.r dq.r
2
r=l
Pr dQ
2 I-
dq r + ^~r
dQr }
2 Xs 2
in
(-5-^
<ferH
and hence (the symbol d denoting a variation

including
t,
which
all
the variables,
are changed)
o j ^ D j/a Z p r dqr = i Jr r d(^r -f

,
u
--_
"
ac
Jj
JTIT 4 a (r + z
,
27 p
w
r
dqr
TT 7j = 2 Hdt
V"
7/^ Pr dQ r
7^
/
I
TT H
a TF V
-__
^ ^ Xs 2
_
&
:
The
since
it
perfect differential
dW
first
Pfaff s system of the differential form hence the contact-transformation transforms the si/stem of equations
does not affect the
on the right-hand side can be neglected, and
da^ =
to the
ciH
dpr^_d_H
system
~
7~/
dt
dP r
r\
T\
^~"
^^
dt
^s /-^
X.
^.
>.
/fr /.
dQ r
s
where
K=H
^
ot
2 X
x= i
lt
-^ dt
K being supposed expressed in terms of (Q
Q2
...,
Qn
1}
...,
Pnt
t).
310
139.

Transformations in which the independent variable
result of
is
[OH. xi
changed.
The
(Qi, Qz,
137 also enables us to determine those transformations of
the whole set of (2n

>
+
>
1) variables (ql} q2
...,
qn
p l}
, . .
pn
t)to
new
~
variables
Qn>
PI,
Pn, T} by which any Hamiltonian system
dqr _ =
~dt
is
dH
dp r
dp r
~dt
_ =
dH
~dq^
transformed into a system of the Hamiltonian form
dQr _dK
For
this is the
dT~dPr
+
dPr _
dK ~dT~~dQr
which change the
same thing
Pidq-t
as finding the transformations
differential
form
+p
,
dq.2
...+ p n dqn
+
t,
hdt,
where the variables

equation
(q ly q 2
...,
n>
p lt
...,
pn
A)
are
connected by the
H(qi,
into the differential form
qt,
>
qn Pi,
,
"-,pn,
t)
0,
dQ
-f
dQ +
2
+ P n dQ n + kdT +
,
a perfect differential,
,
where the variables (Q 1} Q 2

the relation
Qn, PI, PZ,
Pn, T,
k). are
connected by
p lt
But any contact-transformations ...,p n h) to new variables (Q l} Q

,
of the (In
2
,
-\-
...,
Qn
T,
P P
2) variables (q 1} q2 ..., q n t, n k) will satisfy lf 3 ...,

, ,
,
this condition
the transformation has been assigned, the function obtained by substituting in the equation
;
when
is
q*, ...,
,
q n ,pi, ...,p n
,
t
>
the values of (q ly q2 ..., q t, p 1} ...,p n h} as functions of (Q lt ..., Qn T, Pj, ..., n k), and then solving this equation for k, so that it takes the form
n>
K(Q Q
l}
...,
Qn
15
...,
7l
T)
+ k = 0;
the required transformations are thereby completely determined.

140.
New formulation
have seen
(
of the integration-problem.
if
We
137) that
dqr
dt
any change of variables

dpr
dt
== ~
is
made
in the
dynamical system
= 3H
dp r
_dH
dq r
Pfaff s system of the form
the
new
is
which
differential equations will be the derived from
first
Pidq!
+p
dq2 +
...
+ pn dqn
Hdt
by the transformation.
139, 140]

is
311
Supposing that a transformation
found, defined by a set of equations
which
the
is
such that the above differential form, when expressed in terms of

variables,
new
becomes
P,dQ,
where
(Qi, Qz,
+P
dQ.
...+
Pn dQn - dT,
some function of the
first
dT
,
is
the
perfect
,
differential
,
of
variables
Qn, PI,
is
Pn
t);
the
corresponding
Pfaff s
system
of
equations
dQr = 0,
Qr =
dPr =
(r-
1, 2, .... n),
and the integrals of these equations are

Constant,
P = Constant
r
(r
1, 2,
n)
so the equations
qr=<l>r(Qi>Q...,Q n
,P
...,Pn,t} }\
l
constitute the solution of the
Qn, PI,
Pn
dynamical system, when the quantities (Q 1; Q 2 are regarded as 2n arbitrary constants of integration.
...,
The integration-problem is thus reduced to the determination of a trans formation for which the last term of the differential form becomes a perfect
differential.
1.
Shew that the transformation denned by the equations
= arctan
- arctan
P =\ arctan %L
2
a contact-transformation, and that it reduces the dynamical system whose Hamiltonian z z 2 z function is ^(pi 2 to the z + \~ qi +\whose Hamiltonian i
is
+p
!i
q.
dynamical system
function
2.
is
Qz
If (# 1?
x2
..., x. 2n )
denote any functions of (q lt
-,
? n Pi,
>
./>),
an d
if
moreover a mn denotes dXml dxn - d nfixm D denotes the determinant formed of the quantities amn A ik denotes the minor of a ik in D, divided by D, and u and v denote arbitrary functions of the variables, shew that
if
, ,
8v
CU
312
3.

Shew that
for
[OH.
xi
any Hamiltonian system the

f
integral -invariants
j j ...J8q
8q 2 ...8q n 8p l ...8p n
and
lff...J8Q
8Q2
...8Qn 8P l ...8P n
extended over corresponding domains, are equal if (qi, q 2 ..., q n are connected by a contact-transformation. Qn, A; (Qit
, i
$2>
Pi>
Pn) and
P")
4.
Prove that the contact-transformation denned by the equations
= Xj
"(24k)
cos î + X2~
l
(2^2)
2
cos
Ai
= -X!~4 (2i)4 cos P +\ ~^ (2$a)"oosP|,

=
changes the system
dq_r
o?
= dH_
9pr
dpr =
dt
_<W
(r=1
2)
dq r
where
into the system
dQr _dK dt~dP~ r

where
dPr _
>
tt
dt~~dQr
JT-X^+X^,.
the original system. Integrate this system, and hence integrate
CHAPTER
XII
PROPERTIES OF THE INTEGRALS OF DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

141.
Reduction of the order of a Hamiltonian system by use of the integral
of energy.
have shewn in 42 how the Lagrangian equations of motion of a conservative holoiiomic system can be reduced in order by use of the integral of energy of the system. shall require the corresponding theorem for
We
We
the equations of motion in their Hamiltonian form

follows.
this
may be
obtained as
Consider a dynamical system with n degrees of freedom for which the Hamiltonian function does not involve the time explicitly, so that
H+h=0,
where A
is
a constant,
is
the integral of energy of the system.

for
Let this equation be solved
the variable
p lt
so that it can be written
The
differential
form associated with the system

Pidq^
is
+ p^dq. +
2
n>
...+ p n dqn
2>
+
,
hdt,
where the variables

last
equation
p.2 dq 2
(qlt q2 ..., q PI, p. ..., p n h, t) are connected by the the differential form can therefore be written
,
+p
dq 3 +
...
+p n dq n + hdt- K (p p
2
,
...,
pn
q,, ...,
q n h) dq lt
,
where we can regard
(q
1}
...,
qn p.2
,
..,
pn
h, t)
as the
(2n+
1) variables.
(
But the
differential equations corresponding to this
form are
137)
3, ...,
ri),
dqr dK -r~ = ^
dqi
dp r
dp r = dK d~ ~i r
dq
dq
(r=2,
d
dq l
= d^K
dh
dk_ ~
dq l
The last pair of equations can be separated from the rest of the system, since the first 2) equations do not involve t, and h is a constant.
(2>i
314
The original
system
Properties of the Integrals of

[CH.
xu
can therefore be replaced by the reduced
dqr_dK
7
~\ 1
)
dp r
7
dK
o
">
"
/)
dq
which has only (n
This result
is
dp r
dq
dq r
1) degrees
of freedom.
42, as can be
equivalent to that obtained in
shewn by
direct transformation.
Example.
Consider the system

dt
where
~dp r
dt
dqr
a being a constant
these are easily seen to be the equations of motion of a particle

:
attracted to a fixed point with a force varying as the inverse cube of the distance and q 1 are respectively the radius vector and vectorial angle of the particle referred to the centre of force.
is
<?2
which
Writing
system
H=
h,
and applying the theorem given above, the equations reduce

dq<2_dK ~~
to the
dp.2
dK
dq 2
dq l
where
dp 2
dqi
Since does not involve q lt the equation Constant system, and we can therefore perform the same process again
*
K=
is
:
writing
an integral of this last - k, we have
and the system reduces to the single equation
ddL
^~r
k
o
~T
dq z
the integral of which (supposing
ok
-- *
q./
2
)
is
/u<
where e is an arbitrary constant. described by the particle.

142.
This
is
the equation, in polar coordinates, of the orbit
Hamilton s partial
differential equation.
if
If follows from
138 that
a contact-transformation defined by the
equations
p = dW P
-dQ r
Pr
= dW Tqr
q.2 ,
(r- 1,2,
...,
...,),
where
denotes a given function of (q 1}
qn
Qlt Q
...,
Qn
t),
is
performed on the variables of a dynamical system defined by the equations
dqr_m
dt~
dpr
dpr __dH
~dt
dqr
141, 142]
the resulting system
is
Dynamical Systems
315
dQr = dK dP r dt
where
If the function
dPr =
>
~di
dK -dQ r
K=H + dW/dt.
K
is zero,
the equilibrium-problem. function such that

*\
Now
the system will be said to be transformed into is a will be zero, provided the function
ft
i.e.
satisfies
variables (5^ provided TF, considered as a function of the the partial differential equation
^2,
,
<?n>
0>
dW ^t+ H( qi
This
is
dW dW
,
dW
\ =
q2 ,...,
qn
,^,
^-,...,
-,*J ?
associated with the partial differential equation in 1834*, being the Hamilton was published by given dynamical system. extension to dynamics of the partial differential equation which he had
called
Hamilton
It
discovered ten years previously in connexion with optics.

i.e. a Suppose that a complete integral of this equation, is known. additive to the in addition constant, constants n arbitrary taining Let (a,, 2 ..., w ) be these arbitrary constants, so that the solution can be written i, 8 0; and perform on the original (q ly qz ..., q n dynamical system the contact-transformation from the variables (q ly qz ...,q n
"
"
solution con
<*
>
Pi,...,
pn )
to variables (a x a2
,
. .
a n fr
,
&,
),
Since
satisfies
is zero,
new system
Hamilton s equation, the Hamiltonian function of the and consequently the equations of the system are
so that
(a,,
...,
an
/8i, ..., y3 M )
follows that if denotes a complete integral of Hamilton s partial differential equation, containing n arbitrary constants (a 1} a2 ..., y n ), then the equations
,
are constant throughout the motion.
It
dW ^ = -^
r
*>
= dW Wr
^=1
W
>
constitute the solution of the

>
(<7i></2>
c Ln,p\,
"-,pn)
dynamical problem, since they express the variables in terms of t and 2n arbitrary constants (a lt o2 ..., ctn
Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 247; ibid. 1835, p. 95.
316
&,
. . ,

/3 M )*.
[CH.
xn
In this
way the
depend
of freedom
is
made
first
to
solution of any dynamical system with n degrees on the solution of a single partial differential
equation of the
It
order in (n 4-1) independent variables.
should however be observed that the converse of this theorem
namely the theorem
that the solution of a partial differential equation such as Hamilton s depends on the solution of a set of ordinary differential equations (the differential equations of the characteristics), which in this case are of the Hamiltouian form, had been discovered by
Pfaff and Cauchy (completing the earlier work of Lagrange and Monge) before Hamilton and Jacobi approached the subject from the dynamical side. On the use that can be made of an incomplete integral of Hamilton s partial differential equation (i.e. one containing less than n arbitrary constants besides the additive constant),
cf.
Lehmann-Filhes, Astr. Nach. CLXV. (1904),

It
col.
209.
may
be rioted that Hamilton

:
s partial differential
equation
is
not applicable as
cf.
it
stands to non-holonomic systems

Rendiconti, xxn. (1906), p. 263.
for
an extension to such systems,
Quanjel, Palermo
The integration of Hamilton s equation by separation of variables is discussed F. A. Ball Acqua, Math. Aftn. LXVI. (1908), p. 398.
Example.
Consider the system
by
dq
dt
_3H
"
dp ~ =
dt
_3H
~dq
dp
where
IT jf=fc>-,
g
and
fj.
is
a constant.
The Hamilton s equation corresponding

9
to this system is
W
be found in the following way.
a complete integral of this equation
may
Assume
W-fW+tte),
where / and
are functions of their respective arguments
then we have
0=/
(0
2
H4>
(2)}
-F/?-
This equation can be satisfied by writing
where
a is a constant
which gives
(?)
/ (0 = 1*1 a,
The
TF= fMt/a + (2/xa)*
- (2,ia)* arcsin (gr/a)* + {^q (a - ?)/a}* arcsin + {fyq (a - ?)/a}*.

(g/a)*
solution of the original problem is therefore given by the equations /3= = d p Wfdq, where a and /3 are the two constants of integration.
143.
equation.
Hamilton s integral as a
solution of
Hamilton s partial
differential
There are an
infinite
;
number
*
and
of complete integrals of Hamilton s partial each one of them furnishes a contact-transformation

s
This theorem
is
due to Jacobi, Crelle
J.
xxvu. (1837),
p.
97 and Liouviltfs J. in. (1837),
pp. 60, 161.
142, 143]
Dynamical Systems
, ,
317
from the variables (q^, q2 ...,q n ,p 1 ...,p n ) of the dynamical system to variables (j, or 2 .., n @ lt ..., /3 n ), (the transformation involving t}, such that the equations of motion of the system when expressed in terms of
,
,
(oij,
>
-,
a
n>
fii,
-,
/3 W )
,
become the equations of the equilibrium-problem,

an
,
i.e.
the quantities (a l
0%, ...,
fti,
..., /3 n )
are constants.
number of transformations thereîs one of special in which the quantities (a l a2 ..., a n /3 X ..., /3 n ) are that interest; namely the initial values of (q 1} q z ..., q n p lt ..., p n ) respectively, i.e. their values at
Among
this infinite
a time
taken as an epoch from which the motion is estimated. In this case we can find in an explicit form the corresponding complete integral
t
,
which
s
is
of
Hamilton
partial differential equation.

s
For consider Hamilton
integral
(99)
Ldt,
the kinetic potential of the system. Suppose that & denotes S small 8a a variation due to 2 ..., n Sfti, ..., 8/3 n ) in the initial changes (S^,
,
,
where
L denotes
conditions.
Then
99)
we have
B [
Jtv
Ldt= I (p r 8q,.-l3 r S
r=l
ft
I
It follows that if the quantity

,
Ldt,
,
when the
,
integration
is
performed,
be expressed in terms of (q l} q2 ...,qn a ly ...,a n t), (we suppose this possible, i.e. we assume that it is not possible to eliminate (/3 1 /3 2 ..., /3n p ly ... p n ) from the relations connecting ( 1} ..., an ^, ..., fi n q ly ..., qn p l} ...,p n ), so
, , ,
(
as to obtain relations
between (q1} ..., qn a lt ..., a n )) and if the function thus obtained (which Hamilton called the Principal Function) be denoted by W(q l} q 2 ..., q n a 1; ..., a n t), then we shall have
,
,
9JF_
and therefore*
the transformation
,
^__
from
to
(q lt q 2
ifs
...,
q n PI,
,
pn )
(a jt a 2
...,
an
{3 lt ..., /9 n )
a contact-transformation, and the integral of the kinetic potential
is the
determining function of the transformation.

*
tions,
Hamilton. Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 307 ibid. 1835, p. 95. In his earliest dynamical investiga Hamilton used a "characteristic function" strictly analogous to the characteristic function
; :
which he had employed with such success in optics this function being the Action integral, expressed in terms of the final and initial coordinates. He found however that this function, when employed in dynamics, involved the constant of energy, and so substituted for it the "principal function" described above.
318
Also
[CH.
xn
we have
dW = dW
dt
T = L
dt
r= i dq r dt
I frWdqr
or
ot
V r r + 2, p q =i
,
or
OL
and therefore
the integral of the kinetic potential satisfies the equation
dW M
which
is
W
a2
,
dW
dW
Hamilton
Let
Pi,
partial differential equation.

...,
Example.
(qi, ?2,
,
(a l5
-,
an
ft,
...,
ft ( )
be the
initial
values (at time
fo)
of
?M
Pn) respectively,
dq,.
in the
dynamical system represented by the
equations
dt
= cH
dpr
dp J1==
dt
_dH
dqr
(aj,
(r
= l,
2, ..., w).
Suppose that
from
)
the
ifc
relations
connecting
a2
...,
On,
jo n
...,
ft,
...,
ft) with
possible to eliminate (ft, ft, ..., ft, -, ?n, Pi, P) 2, (?i, that a number (say m) of distinct relations exist between (q lt q 2 these be solved for (a ls a 2 , ..., a,), so as to take the form
is
,
q n a l5
,
...,pn) entirely, so ..., a n ) ; let
and
let
denote Hamilton
s integral
Ft
I
for the
^
qz
,
system, expressed in terms of
(q^,
...,
qn
o?n + i,
<*n)-
Establish the
equations
Pr =
5 da r
9F --
^ A*
fc=1
B/^
o
9a r
where
(Xi,
X2 ,
...,
X m ) are arbitrary
and shew that the function
W=V+
is
2 X t /t
fc=i
an integral of the partial
144.
TAe
connexion
of integrals
= dH
-
urith
infinitesimal
transformations
admitted by the system.
Let
r dq -
dp r =
;
- dH x
..
(r
1, 2, ... ,
n)
143, 144]
Dynamical Systems
let
319
be the equations of any dynamical system, and

0(?i,
921
.
q n Pi, -~,pn,
,
;
<)
= Constant
this
denote any integral of the system
we
shall
shew that the knowledge of
integral enables us to find a particular solution of the variational equations

(
H2).
For the variational equation

d
-T7
for 8q r is
_
o<?
dt
oq r
= d*H .
,.
R
o<fr
&H
J
&H
j.
,
djjj *
...
+~
&H
~
*"
6 n
j.*
j."
j.
j.
j.
j.~ *
but we have
8 2 zz
80
9 2 /i
80
8 2 /z
80
dq^
-/z
80
dqidp r dpi
3,
dq n dp,- dp n
dpidp r
dqjc
rf<
3p n dp r dq n
dp k 80
rfi
",
80 \
SÂ;/
^ ?)H
fc=i
/
82
dJJ
A;=I
9p
fc
ftli
ct /
9?* 9pt9p r
k=idpk dqkdpr
ct0
9/>r
90\
9^/
80 \
9
dt
90\
d^ V8p r /
\dp r )
"
d V8pr/
1 f?^
for (Sq 1} Bq2
,
and hence the variational equations

values
...,
8qn ) are satisfied by the
where
e is
a small constant.
Similarly the variational equations for

(Spi,
Sp 2)
...,
8p B )
;
can be shewn to be satisfied by these values
and hence
the equations
e is
a small constant and
is
an integral of the original equations,
constitute a solution of the variational equations.
This result can evidently be stated in the form The infinitesimal contacttransformation of the variables (q^ q 3 ..., qn p lt ...,p n ), which is defined by the equations
: ,
transforms any orbit into an adjacent orbit, and therefore transforms the whole family of orbits into itself. Adopting the language of the grouptheory, we say that the dynamical system admits this infinitesimal contacttransformation. We have therefore the theorem that a integrals
of
dynamical
320
system,
[CH.
xn
and contact-transformations which change substantially the same thing; any integral
4>(qi>
the system into itself, are
&,
"-,
q n Pi,
,
",
Pn,
Constant
(
corresponds to an infinitesimal transformation whose symbol Poisson-bracket ( f ).

(f>,
133)
is
the
It will be observed that the ignoration of coordinates arises from the particular case of this theorem in which the integral is p,. = Constant, where q r is the ignorable coordinate the corresponding transformation is that which changes q r without changing
;
any
of the other variables.
145.
Poisson
s theorem.
The last result leads to a theorem discovered by Poisson* in 1809, by means of which it is possible to construct from two known integrals of a
dynamical system a third expression which is constant along any trajectory of the system, and which therefore (when it proves to be independent of the
integrals already
known) furnishes a new

0(?i
-\Jr
integral of the system.

,
Let
?2,
</
>
q n P\,
, ,
Pn,
t)
Constant
and
(q-i,
...,
q n PI, --^Pn,
= Constant
finitesimal
(/,
-v/r)
;
denote the two integrals which are supposed known. Consider the in contact-transformation whose symbol is the Poisson-bracket
since ty
orbit.
is
an integral, this
144) transforms every orbit into an
adjacent
The increment
of the function
<
under this transformation

<
is e
(</>,
-v/r),
has constant values is an integral, where e is a small constant; but since -v/r) along the original orbit and along the adjacent orbit: the value of must therefore be constant throughout the motion. We thus have Poisson s
<f>
(</>,
theorem, that if
(<f),
is -v^)
and ty are two integrals of the system, the Poisson-bracket constant throughout the motion.
(f>
If
(<,
A/T),
which
is
a function of the variables (q lt q 2
...,
qn
} ,
...,
pn
t),
does not reduce to merely zero or a constant, and if moreover it is not ^r and such other integrals as are already known, expressible in terms of
(/>,
then the equation

(</>,
-^r)
Constant
constitutes
a new integral of the system^.

how Poisson s theorem can be applied when two integrals are already known.
p. 260.
The
following example will shew
to obtain
new
integrals of a dynamical system

*
Journal de VEcole polyt. vin. (1809),
discussion of this theorem

s
Lagrange
Mec. Anal. (1853)
cf.
given by Bertrand in Note VII to the third edition of Oeuvres de Lagrange, t. xi. p. 484.
is
On
the extension of Poisson
theorem
to
non-holonomic systems,
cf.
Dautheville, Bull, de la
Soc. math, de France, xxxvn. (1909), p. 120.
144-146]
Dynamical Systems
321
Consider the motion of a particle of unit mass, whose rectangular coordinates are
?2, &) and whose components of velocity are (p l p.2 , p 3 ), which is free to move in space under the influence of a centre of force at the The integrals of angular origin. momentum about two of the axes are
(?!>
ps ?2
- 5 3j2 = Constant,
r
and
i~
\% = Constant.
and
</>
Let these be taken as the two known integrals which is
\^
the Poisson-bracket
(<,
\//-),
r=l
becomes in this case
PWi-fcft!
and
in fact, the equation
i
= Constant
momentum
about the
is
another integral of the motion, being the integral of angular
third axis.
146.
The constancy of Lagrange

of Poisson has, as
The theorem
might be expected, an analogue
in the
theory of Lagrange s bracket-expressions.
Let
u r = 0r
(r=l,
2, ...,
2n)
denote 2n integrals of a dynamical system with n degrees of freedom, con stituting the complete solution of the problem: the quantities u r being given functions of the variables (q lt q2 ..., q n p lt ...,p n t], and the quantities ar
, , ,
being arbitrary constants.

(<fc,
By means
functions
,
q2
...,
q n ,pi, --^Pn)
as
of these equations we can express of (a 1; az ... a2n t), and form the
,
Lagrange
bracket-expressions [ar quantities (a 1} a 2 ..., am ).

,
a,],
where a r and a s are any two of the
time
Since the transformation from the variables (q 1} q 2 ..., q n p 1} ...,p n ) at t to their values at time t+ dt is a contact-transformation, we have (128)
,
,
d
at r= i
where the symbols
and
B refer to
independent displacements from one
If now we take the trajectory to an adjacent trajectory. symbol to a variation in which a t is the rest of the quantities varied, only
to refer
(a lt a2
...,
a 2n )
is
.remaining unchanged, and take 8 to refer to a variation in which a} only varied, the last equation becomes
d 3 /dq r dp r dt r= i\daidaj
w. D.
dqr dp r \
dajdaj
21
322
or

[a {
[on.
xn
=
,
-^
cij]
0,
which shews that the Lagrange-bracket [a;, a,-] has a constant value during the motion along any trajectory; this theorem was given by Lagrange in 1808.
Lagrange
integrals
;
s result,
unlike Poisson
to
s,
for
s
we have
know
all
does not enable us to find any new the integrals before we can form the
Lagrange
147.
bracket-expressions.
Involution-systems.
,
Let (u l} u2
...,
u r } denote r functions of 2n independent variables

(?l, ?2,
,
q n ,Pi,
,Pn)\
(iii,
if it is possible
to express all the Poisson-brackets

,
uk )
a,
as functions of
(wj.Mg, ...,u r ), the functions (u lt u2 ...,ur ) are said to form Any function of (u lt u.2 ..., u r ) belongs to this group.
,
function-group*.
If the quantities (uit n^} are all zero, the functions (u 1} u 2

to be in involution, or to form
...,
u r } are said
an involution-system.
>
Now
v
suppose that (i/ u 2 ...,w,-) are functions in involution: and let and w = be any two equations which are consequences of the
u^
equations
= 0,
M2
= 0,
ur
we
shall
shew that
and
satisfy the relation (v,
w)
= 0.
For since (u lt
u.2 , ...,
u r ) are in involution, each of the equations

M,
0,
u2
0,
ur
admits each of the r infinitesimal transformations whose symbols are

(
"
I,/), (W 2 ,/),
(Mr,/)5
and consequently the equation v = 0, being a consequence of these equations, must also admit these transformations that is to say, we have
;
("*,
)=0
=
ur
(k
l, 2, ...,*),
and therefore each of the equations

ii!
= 0,
u2
0,
=
is
admits the infinitesimal transformation whose symbol

equation
(v,f).
Since the
equation
w= w=
a consequence of these equations, it follows that the must also admit this transformation, and therefore we have
is
(v, iv}
= 0,
result.
*
Lie, Math. Ann.
vm.
(1875). p. 215.
146-148]
Hence we
Dynamical Systems
see that if(u 1} uy
v
}
323
...,
v. 2
u r ) are in involution, and the equations

0,
. . . ,
= 0,
=
vr
=
= 0,
are consequences of the equations

M,
0,
u2 =
0,
ur
then the functions (v lt v2
...,
v r ) are in involution.
148.
Solution of a dynamical problem

result
when half
the integrals are
known.
for systems with two degrees of freedom to extended 121 can now be in systems with any number of degrees of stated * If n distinct integrals thus The theorem may be freedom.
The
which was established
<f>r(qi,q*.
>
q n ,Pi,
>~,p
t)=a r
(r=l,
2, ..., n),
where (a 1} a 2
system
...,
a n ) are arbitrary constants, are known for the dynamical
dq r
~TT
dt
= dH ^
Opr
>
dp,._ ~ IT dt
,
~~
dH
"-5
.
"
>
v
,pi>
dq r
.
and if the >Pn,t), .,q n any given function of (q 1; q.2 are in involution, then on solving these integrals for functions (^,02, as them in the form so to obtain ipn) (p\,lh,
where
is
>
<f>n)
Pr=fr(qi,
q-
-.
n>
^2,
l
On,
,
(r
= l,
2, ...,
n)
and
substituting (/i,/2
...,/n) respectively
l
for (p
,p.2
...,pn) in the expression
p dq
+p
dqt
...
+p n dq n
:
Hdt,
denoting
it
the latter expression becomes
a perfect
q^
...,
differential
,
by
dV(q lt
the
qn
i,
a2
...,
an
t),
remaining integrals of the system are

^ oa r
=6,
(r
= l,
2, ...,n),
where
(b l} 6 2
>
b n ) are arbitrary constants.

<f)i-a lt
For since the functions

follows
2
<f>.
a.2 ,
...,
<
are in involution,
>
it
by the
last article that the functions
Pifi, p^-f*,
(r, S
pn
fn are
in involution,
and therefore
(Pr ~fr, PS ~fs)
=0
1, 2,
n\
or
|i-M=0 dq dq
r
s
(r,-l,2,...,n>
This theorem
is
essentially the application to
Hamilton
partial differential equation of the
well-knosvn
method
for finding a
of the first order.

p. 137.
Complete Integral of a non-linear partial differential equation As a dynamical theorem it is due to Liouville, Journal de Math. xx. (1855),
212
324
[CH.
xn
dH _ dp r _ dfr
dq r
dt dt
A+ | =d
dt
Mî
tyr dp s
s-i dq s dt
= dfr + | df.dH^ dt
s =i
and consequently
dfr
dt
= _d_H _ I dHdf^
dq r
s
=idp s dq r
_dH,
dq r
where H^ stands
for the function

(?1,
H when expressed in terms of the arguments

.
?2
?n,
i,
>
ni 0-
The equations
_
dqr
dq s
2 2
dt
dq r
n dqn
shew that
is
/i
rfg-j
+/ dq
...
+f
H^dt
q^, ...,

If
the perfect differential of some function V (q lt first part of the theorem.
qn
0,1,
an
t)
now
respect to all its arguments,
the symbol d denote the total differential of the function we have therefore
V with
d V =f dq
l
+/ dq +
2
2
...
+fn dq n - H^dt +*2 r
W da
r.
In this equation replace the quantities a r by their values obtain an identity in (q l} q2 ..., q n PI, p%, ,p n i), namely
,
cf) r
we thus
dV- 2 ^
dV
x
\) \AJ-f
dV
d(f) r
=p
dq
+p
dq 2 +
...
+p n dq n dV
,
where on the left-hand side of the equation we suppose that in

the quantities (a ly a z
,
and
0n).
...,
a n ) are replaced by their values
(<>!,
2
</>
...,
This equation shews that the differential form

Pidqi
+p
dq^+
...
+ p n dqn
(q l}
Hdt,
q.
2>
when expressed
takes the form
in terms of the variables
...,
qn
,
<}>i,
<f>z,
0n,
t),
and hence the
differential equations of the original dynamical to the first Pfaff s equivalent system of this differential form,
problem are
namely
. .
.
(d
= V/da r )
0,
d(f>
(r
1, 2,
n).
148, 149]
Dynamical Systems
325
i.e.
The expressions dV/dar are therefore constant throughout the motion, the equations
dV/da r
where
b2
,
br
(r=l,
2, ..., n),
;
(b lt arbitrary constants, are integrals of the system this completes the proof of the theorem.
...
,
b n ) are
new
Example. In the motion of a body under no forces with one point fixed, let ($, $, denote the three Eulerian angles which specify the position of the body relative to any fixed axes at the fixed point, (.4, J5, (7) the principal moments of inertia of the body at the fixed point, a the constant of energy, a t the angular momentum about
-v|/-)
OXYZ
let
the fixed axis OZ, and a 2 the angular
momentum about
dT/d<j>,
the normal to the invariable

respectively.
plane:
and
(# n
l5
^)
2
i
denote 37730,
dT/d^
Obtain
the
equations
Q
=arctan
{(
- #i 2 ) /a i}
Hence shew that
9d
is
the perfect differential of a function
F,
and that the remaining
integrals of the
system are
oV 9^~
where
6,
37
"*
97
^"*
a^T
(Siacci.)
&i, 6 2 are arbitrary constants.
149.
Levi-Civita s theorem.
Levi-Civita* has established a connexion between the integrals of a dynamical system and certain families of particular solutions of the equations
of motion.
Consider
q coordinates
(<?!,
Let
...,
;
a system in which some of the coordinates are ignorable. the non-ignorable -, q n ) m q ) be the ignorable and (q m +i, and let L denote the kinetic potential.
first
The
integrals corresponding to the ignorable coordinates are
dL/dq r
Constant
(r=l,
2, ..., ra),
and corresponding to these integrals there exists a class of particular solutions of the system, namely those steady motions ( 83) in which (q l} q 2 ..., q m ) have constant values which can be chosen arbitrarily, while (q m qm+z, qn) have constant values which are determined by the equations
,
+i>
dLjdq r
there are
oo
2in
=0
(?
=m +
1,
m + 2,
. . .
n);
of these particular solutions, since the

Lined,
x. (1901), p. 3.
constant values of
* Bend, dell Ace. del
Cf. Burgatti, ibid. xi. (1902), p. 309.
326
(q lt
2
,

...,
[CH.
xn
q m ) can be arbitrarily The theorem of Levi-Civita, to the consideration of which we assigned. shall now proceed, may be regarded as an extension of this result. q m ) and the
initial
values of
(qi, q-2
Let
dq r
l = ay/
1
dH
dp r
dH
(
*"-3
-%*.
.)
be the equations of motion of a dynamical system, the function supposed not to involve the time explicitly.
H being
...(A)
Let
be a system the form
F (q ,qt,...,q n ,p ,...,pn = Q of m relations, which when solved

r
l
(r
for
1, 2, ...,
2
m)
(p 1} p
...,p m )
take
Pr=fr(qi,
q*,
q n ,p m +i,
>
Pn)
(r
= 1,
2, ...,
m)...(A
1 ),
and which are invariant relations with respect to the Hamiltonian system, i.e. which are such that if we differentiate the relations (Aj) with respect to t, we obtain relations which are satisfied identically in virtue of the
These equations and of the equations (Aj) themselves. of as a the invariant relations include, particular case, integrals system in this case, they will involve arbitrary constants.
Hamiltonian
Since the relations (A x ) are invariant relations, we have
:
_ dH_df - ~T7r --$ * o

dqr
dt
dfrdH ~
5
| dfr *
-5
dH
o
j= m +\opjoqj
*>
*
>
"^^
j-\oqjOp)
and writing
(F,
this
Tf}=
S
/-*-
becomes
this
equation
becomes
(Pi,p2>
,pm) we
an identity when for each of the substitute the corresponding function r
quantities
Moreover,
we
shall
among
themselves.
suppose that the relations (A) or (Aj) are in involution This condition is expressed by the equations
!;-!
Let
i*"-
c--- 1.2,
...,.).
..(2).
K denote the function obtained from H on replacing

,
(p 1}
jo 2 ,
...,
pm )
by
their values (/i,/2
...,/m ), so that
3F = 8^_
dp r
~dp
8/7
.~idp,d
and
5T
"a
--- ^
^~
(r
1, 2, ...
m)
...(4).
149J
Dynamical Systems
(3)
327
From
we have
[H, fr \
[K,
fr}+^~ !/, /.} *=i wf*
f)ff
(r
1, 2,
m),
and combining
this
with (4) we have
Substituting in (1) this value ofdH/dq r the equations
+ {H,fr
},
and using
(2),
we obtain
We
shall
now shew
that the system of equations

(
Pr =fr
Pm+i,
pm+2
pn
q lt
.,
?)
(r
= 1,
2,
. . .
is
invariant with respect to the Hamiltonian equations,
i.e.
that
d fdK\ and
,
d fdE\
dt(dq r )
dt(ty,J
(r=m + l,m
are zero in virtue of equations (A), (B), (1), (2), (3), (4), (5).
We
have from the Hamiltonian equations
d
and
/7/ 57T I dt \oq r /

I
_ (BK\ ~
1
(
"
dq r )
-^ ^ ^T g=l oq r dq
(5) gives
on differentiation, using (B),
=
5T"
>/*f
now taking account
of (B),
we have from
(3)
and hence equations

dt
dp
-__
9?r
(6)
___
*=i9p, dq
>
become
dps ldpr dqs
dpr
i^r^
.r, dp. ldq r dqs

or by (7),
[CH.
xn
dK\
. = 0,
d /dK\
jrU
=
is
which proves that the system of equations (A) and (B) respect to the Hamiltonian equations.
invariant with
Now
from the equations (A) and (B),

(PI, Pa,
,
let
the variables
,
,pn, q m +i,
qn )
be determined in terms of (qlt qz ..., qm ): from the invariant character of (A) and (B) it follows that on substituting these values in the Hamiltonian
independent equations, namely those which express (dqjdt, dq 2 /dt, ..., dqm /dt) in terms of (q lt q z ...,qm), the others being and the general solution of this system, which will identically satisfied
equations,
we
shall
obtain
contain
oo m particular solutions of the arbitrary constants, will give Hamiltonian equations. The solution of this system can, by making use of the integral of energy, be reduced to that of a system of order (m 1)
and thus we obtain Levi-Civita s theorem, which can be thus stated To any set of TO invariant relations of a Hamiltonian system, which are in involution, m there corresponds a family of oo particular solutions of the Hamiltonian
:
system, whose determination depends on the integration of a system of order
(m -
1).
If the invariant relations (A) are integrals of the system, they will contain
integrals of a arbitrary constants and hence to a set of Hamiltonian system, which are in involution, there corresponds in general a family of oo 2m particular solutions of the system, which are obtained by
another set of
integrating a system of order

Example.
(m
1).
For the dynamical system defined by the Hamiltonian function
H= qi pi - q p
2
- aqi 2 + bq^,
shew that the Levi-Civita particular solutions corresponding to the integral ~ = Constant
(Pi
bqz)lq\
are given by the equations

2i
= 0,
qz
= e~ t+f
Pl
= ae~ t+e
p,
= be~ t+e
where
is
150.
Systems which possess integrals linear in the momenta.

shall
We
now proceed
to the consideration
of systems
which possess
integrals of certain special kinds.
Suppose that a dynamical system, expressed by the equations

dqr
_dH
dpr
dH
dqr
.!,*.....>
~df-dp r
dt~
149, 150]
has an integral which
is
Dynamical Systems
linear
329
,
and homogeneous in (p 1} p2
...,
p n ),
say
fipi
+f
p<t
+fnp n = Constant,
,
where (fi,f2
..,/) are given functions of (qi,q2
...,qn).
Consider the system of equations

dq\
_dq*_ =
2
_ dq n
"/.
7T~7
which
its
is
of order
(??
!); suppose that the (n
1) integrals
which constitute
2, ...,
solution are
Qr (qi,
and
let
q?,
qn )= Constant
(r=l,
1);
Qn
be a function defined by the equation
where in the integrand the variables by their values in terms of (q lt Q 1}

is
(q2
q3
...,
Q2
...,
Qn-i)
q n ) are supposed replaced before the integration
carried out.
Then
if
constant and Q n
the variables change in such a way that (Qx Q 2 ..., varies, it follows from the above equation that
,
Q M _j) remain
dqi_d<h_
f /i
so that if (Q 1}
/2
_ dqn _ j n
Jn
f
**
*<ln
>
which
((?!,
q2
...,
Q n ) are regarded as a set of new variables in terms of can be expressed, we shall have qn )
...,
Suppose then that we consider the contact-transformation which

extension of the point-transformation from the variables (q 1} q 2 variables (Q lt Q2 -, 2 Qn), so that the new variables (P l}
,
is
the
..,,
,
...,
qn ) to the n ) are
defined
132) by the equations
Pr =
By
are changed into a
*=1
i^|f O^r
dP r _J>K
(r
= l,
2, ...,n).
this transformation the differential equations of the new set of Hamiltonian equations
dynamical system
dQr_
dt
dPr
dt
bQ r
and the known integral becomes
Pn = Constant.
Since
dPn /dt = 0, we
:
have dK/BQ n
0, so
the function
K does not involve
n explicitly
and thus we obtain the
result that
when a dynamical system
330

and homogeneous in (p lt p2
,
[CH.
, .
xn
possesses an integral which is linear

exists
(Qi>
..,
p n ),
there
a point-transformation, from the variables (q l} q.2 ..., q n ) to new variables Qn), which is such that the transformed Hamiltonian function does not involve Q n The system as transformed possesses therefore an
Qs>
>
we have the theorem that the only dynamical which systems possess integrals linear in the momenta are those which possess ignorable coordinates, or which can be transformed by an extended pointtransformation into systems which possess ignorable coordinates.
ignorable
coordinate, and
The converse
of this theorem
is
evidently true.
(
This result might have been foreseen from the theorem

?2,
is
-,
144) that
if
q n ,Pi, --,Pn,
= Constant
an integral of the system, then the differential equations of motion admit the For when is linear and homogeneous infinitesimal transformation wr hose symbol is / ).
(<,
(f>
if in (p l , pi, ..., p n }, this transformation is ($ 132) an extended point-transformation this point-transformation is transformed by change of variables so as to have the symbol
:
df/3Qn
it is
clear that the
Hamiltonian function of the equations after transformation
cannot involve
Qn explicitly.
Considering
of a
now
...,
in particular
,
systems whose kinetic potential consists

qn
,
kinetic
energy T(q l} q2
,
...,
q l}
...,
q n)
which
is
,
quadratic in the
,
q n ) which is an we in order that see that of the velocities, integral linear in independent the velocities may exist the system must possess an ignorable coordinate, or must be transformable by a point-transformation into a system which
velocities (q l} q2
qn )
and a potential energy
V(q-i, q 2
But in either case the functions T and possesses an ignorable coordinate. evidently admit the same infinitesimal transformation, namely the trans
formation which,
when
the coordinates are so chosen that one of
them
is
the
ignorable coordinate, consists in increasing the ignorable coordinate by a small quantity and leaving the other coordinates and the velocities unaltered ; and conversely, if T and admit the same infinitesimal transformation, then
there exists an integral linear in the velocities.
This result
is
known
as
Levy
theorem, having been published by Levy* in 1878.

1.
Example
Shew that
if
integral linear in the components of belong to a linear complex.

(Cerruti, Collect, math, in
p.
the differential equations of motion of a particle admit an momentum, the line of action of the force must
cf.
mem. D. Chelini
P. Grossi,
Palermo Rend. xxiv.
(1907),
25.)
2.
Example
If the equations
<
"
(,-!,*...,
Comptes Rendus, LXXXVI.
150, 151]
where
f
(?i>
?2>
Dynamical Systems
ik
331
a mi ) are given functions
2 2 a T=% i=lk=l
qiq k , and where (ft,
Q.2 , ...,
Q n a u a 12
,
,
...,
?)) possess an integral of the form
Cl qi + C2 q 2 + ... + Cn q n + C= Constant,
where (C l C.2 ..., Cn C) are functions of (q 1} q%, ..., qn ), shew that it one of its positions displace an invariable system in one direction from any defined by the form
, ,
,
is
possible to
in the space
Sn
=
Shew that
for this a necessary
2
can be trans
i=l k=l
and
sufficient condition is that the ds 2
formed in such a way that one of the variables becomes absent from the
coefficients.
(Cerruti
and Levy.)
Determination of the forces acting on a system for which an integral is known.

151.
in the velocities,
in the
Before proceeding to discuss systems which possess integrals quadratic we shall obtain a result due to Bertrand*, namely that
motion of a dynamical system of given constitution,
for
which however
the acting forces are unknown (it being supposed that the forces depend of application, and not on the solely on the coordinates of their points discover the we can unknown forces provided one of these velocities points),
integral
is
known.
Moreover, this integral cannot be chosen at random, but
must
satisfy certain conditions.
Let (q1} q*,, ..., q n ) be the n independent coordinates of the system, T the kinetic energy, and (Q 1} Q2 ..., Q n ) the unknown forces, which are supposed to depend only on (qi,q 2 qn) so the equations of motion are
,
,
\ d idT\
dt \dq r
= Qr )-^9o,
>
8T dT
(r=l,
2, ..., n).
Let
<(?i>
?2,
qn
#1,
qn,
t)= Constant
it,
be an integral of the system
on differentiating
we have
Substituting in this equation for (q ly q2 ..., q n ) their values as given by the equations of motion, we have a relation involving (Q ly Q.2 ..., Q n ) linearly.
, ,
This relation, as
all
it
contains only the quantities (q lt q2
...,
q n q i9
,
...,
qn
>
t},
to
of which
we can
assign arbitrary independent values,

,
we can therefore differentiate it with respect to (q l} q2 n new equations which, likewise containing (Q1} Q2 ..., Q n ) The suffice in general to determine these unknown quantities.
,
must be an identity: ..., q n ), and so form

linearly, will
integral will
Journal de Math,
(i)
xvn. (1852), p. 121.
332
relate to

an actual system only when these values of (Q lf
[CH.
xn
...,
Qn )
satisfy
the equation
the cases in which the equations for the determination of (Q Q ..., Qn) are not independent, so that (Q 1} Q2 Qn) are indeterminate, are those in which the integral is common to several distinct dynamical problems.
} ,
2>
>
to
Example. If an integral of the equations of motion of a point two different problems, shew that it is of the form
F(<fi,
in a plane is
common
x, y,
t}
= Constant,
coordinates and $ is the derivate with respect to t of (x, y) are rectangular a function $ (x, y) which, equated to a constant, represents the equations of a set
where
of straight lines.
(Bertrand.)
152.
Application
to
the case
in possess an integral quadratic
of a particle the velocities.
whose equations of motion
let it be required to find the application of Bertrand s method, in order that the equations of nature of the potential energy function motion of a particle which is free to move in a plane under the action of
As an
conservative forces,
M
dv
.
da;
y~
/it
._
___
dv
dy
may possess an integral (other than the integral of energy) of the form = Constant, Ptf + Qxy + Rif + Sy+Tx+
where P,
Q,
R, 8, T,
K are functions of x and
y.
Differentiating the last equation, and substituting equations of motion, we have
for
x and y from the
^~
dy
dxj
^. y x T~
\dy
n /..8F -Q *
I
<fc
.dV\
.8F
^-
dx J
^ dx
-Kdy
8F ^8F = dK dK + -^-y-Sj--T^ ^-x r ox oes dy dy

.
.................................... (A).
/A
Equating
to zero the
terms of the third degree in x and
y,
we have
dP
^
dx
=0,
dR - =
dy
dP
0,
^
dy
-_- = 0, + dQ
ox
dQ + dR = ^ ^ ox
dy
U,
from which
integral
it is
in the readily deduced that the terms of the second degree
must have the form

(ay"
+
c,
by
6
,
+
c
,
c)
x 2 + (ax2
+ b x + c } y- + (- 2axy - b y -bx + Cj) xy,
where
(a, 6,
c^ are constants.
151, 152]
Dynamical Systems
to zero the
333
Equating (A), we have
terms of the second degree in x and y in equation
C/7/
^jOC
(jCC
(J
from these equations we deduce
8 = mx + p,
where (m, p,
q} are constants.
T = - my +
q,
Equating
to zero the
terms independent of x and y in (A), we have
or
dV,
(mx + p)-
97 d
This equation shews that if (m, p, q) are different from zero, the force is directed to a fixed centre of force, whose coordinates are p/m and qfm we shall exclude this simple particular case, and hence it follows that the con stants (m, p, q) must each be zero, so that the integral contains no terms of the first degree in x, y.
;
Equating
to zero the
terms linear in x and y in (A), we have
2P
8F dV ---~
ox
Q v
+ r
dK
-z.
oy
ox
-0 w,
Differentiating the former of these equations with respect to y, and the

latter with respect to x,
and equating the two values of
d*K
thus obtained,
we have
-
dxdy
dx dy
Q,
dy*
dy dy
dxdy
dx dy
dx
and replacing P,
by their values as found above, we have
87
dx
97
dy
Darboux* has shewn that
this partial differential equation for the function
can be integrated in the following way.

*
Archives Neerlandaises,
(ii) vi.
p.
371 (1901).
334
[CH.
xn
Excluding the particular case in which the constant a is zero, we can always by change of axes reduce the given integral to the simpler form
^ (xy
2
yx)
+ ex +
2
K = Constant,
d = 0;
which amounts to supposing that

tt
=
c
i,
c
= 0,
2
,
= 0,
if
moreover we replace
by ^c the
,
partial differential equation for

2
becomes
,
(y
~x +c
5-31 cxdy
- 3a?3-0. + 3y y =.
dV
dx
dV
dy
To
integrate this equation,

2
we form the
2 2 2
differential
equation of the
characteristics
xy (dy
If in this
- dx-) + (x -y - c ) dxdy = 0.
it
Clairaut
2 z equation we take x and y as new variables, equation: we thus find that its integral is
becomes a
(7?^
+ 1 ) (mx
me =
2
0,
denotes the arbitrary constant. can write this integral in the form
where
By
i
2
a simple change of notation, we
x2
I
<-
y-
a2
a2
-c
a.
This form puts in evidence the curves of the partial differential interesting fact that the characteristic
where the arbitrary constant
is
now
equation are two families of confocal conies.
Taking then as new variables a and ellipses and hyperbolas, so that

* = ?,
C
it is
/3
the parameters of the confocal
y^^-c^^-F)}*, C
that the partial differential equation will
2
known from the general theory

d
take the form
da. oaofi d/3
+ B^ = A^ da
"
0,
where
and
B are e
find
functions of a and
y3
in fact,
on performing the change of
variables
we
which can be immediately integrated, giving
are arbitrary functions of their arguments. It follows that the the motion of a particle in a plane, under the action of conservative cases only of
where /and
<
152, 153]
forces,
Dynamical Systems
335
which possess an integral quadratic in the velocities other than the integral of energy, are those for which the potential energy has the form
/(a)
where
a.
- $ (0)
-?T05-.
and
/3
are the parameters of confocal ellipses and hyperbolas.
Since by differentiation
we have
the kinetic energy
is
T= A (V - P) #
2
and an inspection of the forms of T and F shews that these problems are of Liouvilles class ( 43), and are therefore integrable by quadratures.
153.
General dynamical systems possessing integrals quadratic in the

of the explicit form of the
velocities.
most general dynamical system whose equations of motion possess an integral quadratic in the velocities (in addition to the integral of energy) has not yet been effected. It is obvious from 43 that all dynamical systems which are of Liouville s type, or which are reducible to this type by a point- transformation, possess such integrals : and several more extended types have been determined *.
The complete determination
Example
Let
(q k )
(&, I
=1
2,
. . .
n)
be n 2 functions depending solely on the arguments indicated, and

4>=
let
2
fc=i
W *H
(1=1,
2,
...,%)
denote the determinant formed by these functions. dynamical system is reducible to the form
Shew
that
if
the kinetic energy of a
is
zero, there exists
not only the integral of energy,
but also (n
1)
other integrals, homogeneous and of the second degree in the velocities,

1
""
namely
A-^f*
where
(a 1( a 2 ,
...,
(*
= 2,
is
3,
...,),
an)
are arbitrary constants:
and that the problem
soluble
by
quadratures.
(Stackel.)
2.
Example
freedom be
Let the equations of motion of a dynamical system with two degrees of
d
where
*
Cf. G. di Pirro,
Annali di Mat. xxiv. (1896),
p. 315.
336
and
(a, A, 6)

are
[on.
system possess an
any functions
of the coordinates (q, q 2 )
and
let this
integral
a q^ + 2A J! j 2 + & ?22 = Constant,

,
the equation of energy, where ( , A 6 ) are quadratic in the velocities and distinct from 2 2 If A and A denote (afc-A ) and (a & -A ) respectively, functions of the coordinates.
and
if
Jl
where
<?/
/
(
A\ _
)
(o jji
+ Zh ft qj + b q^\
stands for dq r jdf, shew that the equations
at \cq r / define the of motion,
,-
oq r
same relations between the coordinates (g^, q?) as the original equations and that one set of equations can be transformed to the other by the trans
formation
1.
dynamical system
is
denned by
its
kinetic energy
ni
(where $
denotes the determinant
$21
$22
$2rc
nl
......
in
which the elements of the th

its
line are functions of q k only,
and $ w denotes the minor of
$ w ), and by
potential energy
*
*
where
^ = ^11
\^ fc
and the quantity
denotes a function of q k only.
Shew
that a complete integral of the
Hamilton-Jacobi equation
n
C
i=U
where
2.
{a 1
$ + a 2 $j 2 + ...+a n
il
(a 1? a 2 , ..., a,t )
(Goursat.)
If
is
an integral of a dynamical system which possesses an integral of energy, shew that
= Constant, -^ ct
OT
*f
= Constant,
etc.,
are also integrals.
xii]
3.
Dynamical Systems
A
system of equations
337
-jf=
,
A r(qi,
?2,
-,
q n PI,
,
-,?*,
(r=l,
2,
...,n)
d{
is
= Br(3li
?2,
S n.l
l,
jn,
*//)
such that
integral.
if
<
and
-v|/-
are any two integrals whatever, the Poisson-bracket
is
also
(<,
an
Shew that the equations must have the Hamiltonian form

.
dqr
dff
~di-ty r
If at
dH ~dt~~dgr
dp r _
(Korkine.)
4.
= Constant,
a2
= Constant,
...,
a*-
= Constant, = Constant,
& = Constant,
are e any 2
!)
= Constant, /3 2
...,
/3 fc
integrals of a Hamiltonian system of differential equations, the variables being

>
?2,
g n,^!,
/>),
shew that
A,,...,
A*
O?AI
?A 2
oqx k
p^
p\ k
(Laurent.)
is
also
an
integral.
5.
Let the expression

f [JZi. /z.),
....
-.. uJ
:B(^,^...,^ -n
2r
-5-7
) r
i-l<K*Ui
^2t,
*<)
where HI,
...,
n are
functions of the nv variables

If G\,
AV>
xji (j=l,
,
2, ...,
il,
2, ...,
i>)
be called a Poisson-bracket of the nth order. A ^n, ^12, n 2, -, yn, Vi-2, ,i/h V
!
G2
(h
...,
Ghv
are
if
Ai>
functions of
where
+ k = ri),
and
denotes
all
the Poisson-brackets formed from every n functions G, shew that
represents the necessary and sufficient conditions that the functions
yt = F*t(xn,
#12,
Xkv",
i,
2,
-,
(i>hv)
(*
=
!>
2
>
=1
arising from the equations

<?
=
first
(i=l,
order
2, ...,
shall satisfy the
simultaneous partial differential equations of the
where Pi(y h F} denotes the expression which

,
is
obtained when
we
replace h of the
(Albeggiani.)
functions
6.
(.r,
in
P (F n
t
by as many y s. mass whose coordinates

h.
A
is
particle of unit
referred to fixed rectangular axes are
y)
free to
move
in a plane
under forces derivable from a potential-energy function
/(#, y\ the total energy being
Shew that
82 \
i
I
if
the orthogonal trajectories of the curves

y)}
+ 5~~9 lg {*/(*!
ayy
Constant
22
W. D.
338
Properties of the Integrals of Dynamical Systems [en.
xn
are orbits, the differential equations of motion of the particle possess an integral linear and homogeneous in the velocities (#, y).
7.
The equations
of motion of a free system of
particles are
^
If
=X
(s=l,
2,
...,3m).
an integral exists of the form

3m
8
2 =1
fx g
Ct
= Constant,
>
where
/i,
/2
...,
/3m
are functions of A^,
#2
>
^sm? an(*
C* is
a constant, shew that this
integral can be written
3m
3n
8
2
s=l
.r 8
+
r,
2
s=l
of ,.
(.,.
- xrXg)
Ct = Constant,
(Pennacchietti.)
where the quantities ks and a rg are constants.

8.
Two particles move on a surface under the action of different forces depending if their differential equations of motion have in their respective positions on only common an integral independent of the time, shew that the surface is applicable on
:
a surface of revolution.
(Bertrand.)
CHAPTER
XIII
THE REDUCTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES

154.
Introduction.
of
all dynamical problems be enunciated as follows
:
The most celebrated

of Three Bodies, and
is
known
as the Problem
may
Three particles attract each other according to the Newtonian law, so that between each pair of particles there is an attractive force which is proportional
product of the masses of the particles and the inverse square of their distance apart: they are free to move in space, and are initially supposed to be moving in any given manner ; to determine their subsequent motion.
to the
The practical importance of this problem arises from its applications to Celestial Mechanics the bodies which constitute the solar system attract
:
each other according to the Newtonian law, and (as they have approximately the form of spheres, whose dimensions are very small compared with the
distances which separate them) it is usual to consider the problem of deter their motion in an ideal in which the are replaced by bodies form, mining of masses to the masses of the particles equal respective bodies and occupying the positions of their centres of gravity*.
The problem
of three bodies cannot be solved in finite terms
by means
of any of the functions at present known to analysis. stimulated research to such an extent, that since the
This difficulty has year 1750 over 800
memoirs, many of them bearing the names of the greatest mathematicians, have been published on the subject f In the present chapter, we shall discuss
.
integrals of the system and their application to the reduction of the problem to a dynamical problem with a lesser number of degrees of
the
known
freedom.
The motions of the bodies relative to their centres of gravity (in the consideration of which and shapes of course cannot be neglected) are discussed separately, e.g. in the Theory Precession and Nutation. In some cases however (e.g. in the Theory of the Satellites of the
effect,
their sizes of
Major Planets) the oblateness of one of the bodies exercises so great an cannot be divided in this way.
t For the history of the
that the problem
probleme des
cf. A. Gautier, Essai historique sur le 1817) B. Grant, History of Physical Astronomy from the earliest ages to the middle of the nineteenth century (London, 1852) E. T. Whittaker, Report on the progress of the solution of the Problem of Three Bodies (Brit. Ass. Bep. 1899, p. 121) and E. 0. Lovett, Quart. Journ. Math. XLII. (1911), p. 252, who discusses the memoirs of the period 1898-1908.
Problem of Three Bodies,

:
trois corps (Paris,
222
340
155.
The Reduction of
The
the
[CH.
xm
and
of the problem.
(ra 1;
Let P, Q,
(TIB,
?
si>
R
,
denote the three particles,
m m
2
,
3)
their masses,
^12)
their
mutual distances.
, , , ,
Take any
is
and
let (q lt q 2 q 3 ), (q 4
tively.
The
q 5 q6 ), (q 7 qs q 9 ), kinetic energy of the system
fixed rectangular axes Oxyz, be the coordinates of P, Q, R, respec
T=
m,
+
:
2 3
the force of attraction between m^ and
m
,
is
Tc
mmr^
l
z
,
where k2
is
the
constant of attraction
we
shall
suppose the units so chosen that
so that this attraction
becomes
m^m^r^
~
12
1
.
the potential energy is therefore
is
m m. r
1
The
unity, and the corresponding term in potential energy of the system
&
is
m.2
m
{(q,
3 ??z 1
-q
2
7}
(q s
8
- q*)* +
2
(q6
-q
9)
"
- m.m,
-
{(q 7
{(q,
w,w a
- qj* + (q - qj + (q, - q )-} * - qJ + (q -q ) +(q -q Y}~^

3
2
The equations
of motion of the system are
m k q = -dV/dq
r
(r=l,
2).
2, ...,9),
where k denotes the integer part of ^ 9 differential equations, each of the 2nd
of order 18.
(r
This system consists of

is
order,
and the system
therefore
Writing
mk q r = p
(r
2,
9),
and
H= r= S
dq r
~r,
n
i
-g^+V, 2mjc
_ ~ oE ~~r~
oq r
the equations take the Hamiltonian form
at
_ oH ^
dp r
dp r
j
at
j7
_ ~
1
">
9h
and these are a
set of 18 differential equations, each of the 1st order, for the

l>
determination of the variables (q

It
q.2 ,
...,q a ,pi,p2,
,^9)-
which
was shewn by Lagrange* that this system can be reduced to a system That a reduction of this kind must be possible is only of the 6th order.
seen from the following considerations.
first place,
may be
In the
since no forces act except the
mutual attractions of the
* Eecueil des pieces qui ont remporte les prix de I Acad. de Paris, ix. (1772). Lagrange of course did not reduce the system to the Hamiltonian form. Cf. Boblin, Kongl. Sv. Vet.-Handl.
XLII. (1907),
No.
9, for
an improved Lagrangiau reduction.
155]
Problem of Three Bodies
341
particles, the centre of gravity of the
system moves in a straight line with
uniform velocity.
This fact
is
expressed by the 6 integrals
m q - (p, + m q- + m q - (p +p +p + m. q + m q - (p +p +p
3 7
8)
9) t
=a =a
where a lt a.2 ..., a6 are constants. It may be expected that the use of these integrals will enable us to depress the equations of motion from the 18th to the 12th order.
,
In the second place, the angular momentum of the three bodies round each of the coordinate axes is constant throughout the motion. This fact
is
analytically expressed
qiP-2
by the equations
q-2pi
q^p*
-qp +qp q p = a,, p q p + q p, q p = 03, =a + p4 qp qp qp

5 4 7 s a 7 e
s
a8) a9 are constants. By use of these three integrals we may to be able to depress further the expect equations of motion from the 12th to the 9th order. But when one of the coordinates which define the
a-,
where
azimuth, having an ignorable coordinate, and consequently the corre sponding integral (which is one of the integrals of angular momentum above-mentioned) can be used to depress the order of the system by two units the equations of motion can therefore, as a matter of fact, be reduced
the coordinate
<
position of the system is taken to be the azimuth of one of the bodies with respect to some fixed axis the axis of and the other coordinates (say z\ define the position of the relative to the this system plane
<
is
This way to the 8th order. Lagrange s memoir already cited) was
1843, and
Lastly,
is
in this
fact
first
(though contained implicity in explicitly noticed by Jacobi* in

nodes."
generally referred to as the elimination of the

is
it
two units as in time. So finally

6th order.
*
possible again to depress the order of the equations by 42, by using the integral of energy and eliminating the
the equations
of motion
may
be reduced to
a system of
the
From the point of view of the theory of Partial Differential p. 115. express the matter by saying that the integrals of angular momentum give rise to an involution-system, consisting of two functions which are in involution with each other and with and hence the Hamilton-Jacobi partial differential with 6
Equations, we
Journ. fiir Math. xxvi.
may
equation
variables can be reduced to a partial differential equation with 6 - 2 or 4 independent variables this will be the Hamilton-Jacobi partial differential equation for the reduced system.
independent
342
The Reduction of
the
[CH.
xm
Jacobi s equation. 156. number of free particles in space, which Jacobi*, in considering the motion of any Newtonian the to law, has introduced the function other each attract according
1
2
i,
where
m t and m, are the masses of two typical particles of the system, r^ is the distance is the total mass of the particles, and the summation is extended between them at time t, over all pairs of particles in the system. This function, which has been used in researches of the system, will be called Jacobi s function and denoted by the the
concerning
stability
symbol
*.
,
z>)
be the We shall suppose the centre of gravity of the system to be at rest ; let (#,-, yf coordinates of the particle m t referred to fixed rectangular axes with the centre of gravity The kinetic energy of the system is as origin.
r=Umi (#,*+&* +
i
**),
and consequently we have
= (2?H;) X 2m; (X
(^m x
t
But
(2ii) x 2 nii X?
i i
2
t}
=2m
i,3
% (x
%)
2
,
where the summation on the right-hand side is extended over every pair of particles in the = in virtue of the properties of the centre of gravity. system and we have S.m xi Q,
:
Thus we have
T=
^
*"
2 TO^- {(*
i,j
- %) 2 + (& - &) a + & -
2
>)
^,3
where v^ denotes the velocity of the particle In the same way we can shew that
TOJ
relative to ?ny
V being If now F denotes the potential energy of the system, the arbitrary constant in determined by the condition that V is to be zero when the particles are at infinitely great distances from each other, we have m * my s
F=-
1,1
IJ
The equations
of motion of the particle
are
8F
8F
w=-^,
,
:
**-~5,
, ,
**-- 5.
8F
z f respectively, add them, and sum for all the Multiply these equations by # f y { - 1 in the variables, we thus F is since homogeneous of degree particles of the system
obtain
27/1;
i
faSt+ytifi +
z i Zi)
=
>
or
2m
i (
or
^
This
is
called Jacobi s equation.

*
Vorlesungen
iiber
Dyn.,
p. 22.
156, 157]
157.

to the
343
Reduction
12th order, by use of the integrals of motion of the
centre of gravity.
to carry out the reductions which have been that it is possible to retain the Hamiltonian form appear of the equations throughout all the transformations.
shall
We
now proceed
described*.
It will
Taking the equations of motion of the Problem of Three Bodies in the form obtained in 155,
dqr_dH
dt
dpr__W
dt
dp r
dq r
reduce this system from the 18th to the 12th order, by use of the integrals of motion of the centre of For this gravity. purpose we perform on the variables the contact-transformation defined by the equations
first to
we have
dW
where
W = p.q,
m
+ p q + p.q +p q + p + p q + (p, + p + p + (P* + ps + Ps) qs + (p + p +p ) q

2 2 3 4
q<?
7)
q7
Interpreting these equations, it is easily seen that q2 q s coordinates of 1 relative to s (?/, qs qs } are the coordinates of to ra3 (q 7 q8 q) are the coordinates of s (pi, p 2 ,p 3 ) are the
(<?/,
)
2
are the
relative
m
6
of
momentum
,
of wi lf
(/>/,
p p
f
,
components are the components of momentum of w 2 and

, ,
(P?, PS Pa) are the
components of
momentum
(
of the system.
The
<%
now become
138)
= a#
"
rfp/__w
dt~
^qr
dt
dp r
,_ 1,4. 12 ..,),
we have
where, on substitution of the
new
variables for the old,
[PiP*
+ P*P* + P* P* + \Pi* + \ Ps +
2
"
3>p
-p
(pS
+p
K?/
*
- ?/
;
157 is due to Poincare, C.R. cxxin. (1896) that used due to the author, and was originally published in the first edition of this work (1904). It appears worthy of note from the fact that it is an extended point-transformation, which shews that the reduction could be performed on the equations in their Lagrangian (as opposed to their
in
The
contact- transformation used in
158
is
reduction
Hamiltonian) form, by pure point-transformations. The second transformation in the alternative Another reduction of the Problem of 160) is not an extended point-transfurmation.
(
Three Bodies can be constructed from the standpoint of Lie s Theory of Involution-systems and Distinguished Functions cf. Lie, Math. Ann. vin. p. 282. Cf. also Woronetz, Bull. Univ.
:
Kief,
1907,
and
Levi-Civita, Atti del R. 1st. Veiieto, LXXIV. (1915), p. 907.
344
Since
(//,
: ,
The Reduction of
the
[CH.
xm
coordinates
q s q 9 are altogether absent from the corresponding integrals are
H, they are ignorable
p = Constant,
7
p = Constant,
a
p = Constant.
9
We
can without
loss of generality
suppose these constants of integration
to be zero, as this only means that the centre of gravity of the system is taken to be at rest the reduced kinetic potential obtained by ignoration of
:
coordinates will therefore be derived from the unreduced kinetic potential by replacing p 7 p 8 p 9 by zero, and the new Harniltonian function will be
,
,
derived from
H in the same way.

r__
dt
The system of
the 12th order, to
which the
been reduced, equations of motion of the problem therefore be written (suppressing the accents to the letters)
of three bodies have
now
may
r__
dt
_
dqr
dp r
where
[q*
{(q,
- qtf + (9, - g
2
5)
+ (q 3
This system possesses an integral of energy,
H = Constant,
and three integrals of angular momentum, namely
where
A A A
l} 2
,
are constants.
to
158.
Reduction
the
8th
order, by use of the
integrals
of angular
momentum and
elimination of the nodes.
The system of the 12th order obtained in the last article must now be reduced to the 8th order, by using the three integrals of angular momentum and by eliminating the nodes. This may be done in the following way.
Apply
equations
q
to
the
variables
the
contact-transformation
denned
/
by the
/\
= dW
Wr
)
)
^ = Wr
/
dW
1C*
(r=l>2,...,6),
where
W =Pi
follows
(<?/
cos ql cos qs
+P* (q-A
:
~ q* -q
4
cos qt sin q s
cos g/sin q s
+p
(g/ sin q,
(q 3 sin q s
+p
+q +q
cos q6 cos qs cos g6 cos q 5
+p q ) +p qt
)
3 6
sin qt
sin qg
f
.
It is readily seen that the
new
variables can be interpreted physically as
157, 158]
345
;
In addition to the fixed axes Oxyz, take a new set of moving axes Ox y z is to be the intersection or node of the plane Oxy with the plane of the three bodies, Oy is to be a line perpendicular to this in the plane of the
Ox
three bodies, and Oz

(<?/,
is
to
be normal to the plane of the three bodies.
Then
relative to axes drawn through ??? 3 parallel q^) are the coordinates of to Ox Oy (q3 q) are the coordinates of m.2 relative to the same axes qs
l
,
is
the angle between Ox and and p 2 are the components of

3 s t
the angle between Oz and Oz q momentum of m relative to the axes Ox

;
Ox
is
p{ Oy
;
p and p p and ps
are the components of momentum of 2 relative to the same axes are the angular momenta of the system relative to the axes Oz
;
and Ox respectively.
The equations
of motion in terms of the
new
variables are
138)
dq^JbH_
"
dp^__dj[
dt
dt
dp r
dq r
for
where, on substitution in
Pi
H of the new variables

/
the old,
we have
j.
is
q\qi)
V*
IB
^* *
*"
j.
./.
* a*
j.*>
+p, qt
,
cosec qt
+
) tfa
_o
K Pi fc )8
^V + PS ?/ -
/>/&
cot ?/
2
+j3 5 ^2 cosec g/
1 ~
s
+ ^sV}
PiP
L
+P
p4
~
-jf>
(q-2
q3
-- T-, ^
1 qi q* )
3
-Pa qi + Pa q* - P* q) q*
cot qa
+p
q 4 cosec q9
2
+p
q3
q
}
- Pi qi + p
qt
- pt q,
qs cot q K
+ p, q
cosec q
+p
NOW
q 5 does not occur in

is
H, and
is
therefore an ignorable coordinate
the
corresponding integral
PS
a
= k,
where
A;
is
a constant.
The equation dq /dt = dH/dk can be integrated by a simple quadrature when the rest of the equations of motion have been integrated the equations
;
and p 5 will therefore system of the 10th order

for q 5
fall
out of the system, which thus reduces to the
=
where
/>/
^
it
(r
1,2, 3, 4, 6),
is to
be replaced by the constant k wherever
occurs in H.
We have now
(namely
made use
and
p =
s
k)
of one of the three integrals of angular momentum the elimination of the nodes when the other two
:
34(3
integrals of angular
The Redaction of
momentum
the
[CH.
xm
are expressed in terms of the
new
variables,
they become
(pa qi
(pz qi
- pi q + Pt qs - p q*) sin q cosec q - k sin ? - jpsV) cos & cosec + ^ cos ? -pi q* +Ko
3
/
f
?"
cot q cot q
+ P* +P
cos
qs=Ai,
sin ?
=^
The
values of the constants

;
J.!
and
J. 2
depend on the position of the fixed
axes Oxyz
we
a;?/-
shall choose the axis

(cf.
Oz
is
momentum
the special
system.
of the system, so that

last
to be the line of resultant angular and z are zero l 69) the constants
plane thus introduced
called the invariable plane of the
The two
equations then give

(/
k cos
=p*qi
- Pi
q.2
+^V - #V
in terms of the other variables,
p.
0.
These equations determine
q<?
and p a
and
so can be regarded as replacing the equations
dq
dt
_ dH
"
dpi _
dt
9-ff
"
dp 6
d</
in the system.
The system thus becomes

dq r
dt
_dH
"
<W
=
~
_d#
dq r
rr-12^4^
~dpr
dt
where
H = V2m
_ + 2m /
3
j/
^_ (q q*
3
i
q l q,
q*
-p*qi
+ ps q*
^V) cot
(?
& cosec
W}
t,
4
.
{(Pi
q*-Pa qi +ps q* -pt qs)
cot q 6
& cosec ^6
2
}
fl
4 /
iV - pi qi + ps q* - Piq-t) cot ^ +
^ cosec
2
}
and where, after

its
the derivates of
H have been formed, q
is
to
be replaced by
value found from the equation
k cos qt
= pi qi - pfq* + pfq* - p-iq.

,
Now
in
let
then
if s
be the function obtained when this value of q6 is substituted denotes any one of the variables g/, q 2 q3 q t p^, p2 p3 p4
, , , ,
we have
= ~
ds ds
dq6
ds
158, 159]

p =
K
347
But
since
0,
we have dH/dq =
6
/>
= 0, and
therefore
ds
fa
in other words,
we can make the substitution
for q6 in
H before forming the
derivates of
the
Problem
the equations of motion of H; Three are Bodies reduced to the of system of the 8th order
and thus (suppressing the .accents)
dqr
dt
_ dff
dp r
dp r _
dt
dH
dq r
where
"
*"
,-
T^
mm
2
(q^
+ qf)
mm
s
(q^
+ q% )
2
mm
l
{(<?i
qs )
+ (q
q4 J
Many of the
thus (q z q
have simple physical interpretations quantities occurring in is twice the area of the triangle formed by the bodies: and qiq4 )
1
2m
is
mm
2
(/
/I
the
moment
of inertia of the three bodies about the line in which the
plane of the bodies meets the invariable

gravity.
It is also to be noted that this value of terms which do not involve the variables p
plane through their centre of
H differs from the value of H when k

l ,
is
zero
by
p.2 ,
p3 p i
,
these terms in k can therefore be
regarded as part of the potential energy, and we can say that the system differs from the corresponding system for which k is zero only by certain modifications in the potential It may easily be shewn that when k is zero the motion takes energy. place in a plane.
159.
Reduction
to the Qth order.
The equations of motion can now be reduced further from the 8th to the 6th order, by making use of the integral of energy
H = Constant,
this reduction the
and eliminating the time. The theorem of 141 shews that in performing Hamiltonian form of the differential equations can be
conserved.
As the
actual reduction
is
not required subsequently,
it will
not
be given here in
detail.
state
the 6th order thus obtained is, in the present our the ultimate reduced form of the equations of motion of knowledge, of the general Problem of Three Bodies.
The Hamiltonian system of
348
160.
The Reduction of
the
[CH.
xin
Alternative reduction of the problem from the 18th to the 6th order.
shall
of the general problem of three give another reduction* bodies to a Ilarailtonian system of the 6th order.
We
now
Let the original Hamiltonian system of equations of motion be transformed by the contact-transformation
155)
where
W = Pi
(q*
~ ft) + p*
(ft
- ft) + P*
(ft
- ft)
nil
^2
The integrals of motion of the centre of the new variables, can be written
qr
of gravity,
when expressed
in terms
= q* = q* =p? = p* = p* =
f
>
and consequently the transformed system

pressing the accents in the
dqr dt
is
only of the 12th order: sup
new
variables, it is
= dH
dp r
dp^
dt
_<^_
(r=l,2,...,6),
dqr
where
H =~ (p? + pf + P/) +
2~~,
(PS
+ P? + Pe2 ) -
m.2 (qf
+ q, +
2
q/}
-f
~
*M
,
\2
2
.
+ m,/
?4
t
i"
*t<2
The new
Let
variables may be interpreted physically in the following way Then (q lt q2 q s ) are the the centre of gravity of m, and be 2
:
Due
to
Kadau, Annales de
Ec. Norm. Sup.
v. (1868), p. 311.
160]

,
349
projections of m^n^ on the fixed axes, and (g4 of Further 3 on the axes.
q5
qs ) are the projections
Gm
^=Pr
(r-1,2,3),
and
l*
^=pr
(r4,5,6).
The new Hamiltonian system clearly represents the equations of motion of two particles, one of mass p at a point whose coordinates are (q lt q2 q3 \ and the other of mass /* at a point whose coordinates are (g^, q q6 ); these
,
s>
supposed to move freely in space under the action of forces derivable from a potential energy represented by the terms in which are independent of the ps. have therefore replaced the Problem of
particles being
We
Three Bodies by the problem of two bodies moving under this system of forces. This reduction, though substantially contained in Jacobi s* paper of 1843, was first explicitly stated by Bertrandf in 1852.
We
plane
shall
for
suppose the axes so chosen that the plane of xy is the invariable the motion of the particles fj, and fjf, i.e. so that the angular
of these particles about
momentum
any
line in the plane
Oxy
is zero.
contact-transformation which
Let the Hamiltonian system of the 12th order be transformed by the is defined by the equations
^=
where
dW
W
+ q,
= dW
Wr
0-^-V-X
-p -p
l
W = (p
+
sin qs
+p
cos g5 cos qs
q^ cos q3
q2 cos qt
sin q3 {(p 2 cos q s

sin qt {(p s cos q*
sin q,
+p
2 3
}%
.
(p s sin qs
+p
+q
sin qt
)*
+ p^
variables are easily seen to have the following physical inter is the length of the radius vector from the qi pretations origin to the the radius from the origin to is particle //,, q., q3 is the angle between
:
The new
<//
and the intersection (or node) of the invariable plane with the plane through two consecutive positions of q^ (which we shall call the plane of instantaneous motion of /A), 4 is the angle between q.2 and the node of the invariable plane on the plane of instantaneous motion of pf, q^ is the angle between Ox and the former of these nodes, q^ is the angle between Ox and the latter of
</
these nodes, pS is pq\,p is ^ q^ps is the angular momentum of p round the origin, pl is the angular momentum of /// round the origin, ps is the angular momentum of /A round the normal at the origin to the invariable
plane,
and p s
is
the angular
momentum
of
/A
round the same

are
(
line.
The equations
of motion in their
new form
dt
138)
__dH _
dt
Journal fur Math. xxvi.
"
dp r
p. 115.
dqr
f Journal de math. xvn. p. 393.
350
where
The Reduction of
the
[CH.
xm
supposed expressed in terms of the new variables. system be transformed by the contact-transformation
is
Let this
pr=
where
dW
W"
dW
(r
**57
qi
"
6)>
W=
q*"
(p*
- p* ) +
<i
(p*
+# ) +
pi
q*"p*
q*"p*
+ qt p*.
The equations
of motion
now become
dqr
-_dH
",
dt
as may be seen either by expressing does not involve q 6 in terms of the new variables, or by observing that q depends on the while none of coordinates the other of the axis chosen Ox, position arbitrarily
But
W
= 0,
"
dPr
dt
"_
"
dH
"
~3q r
"
fi
depend on
this quantity.
"
We
have therefore
so
p6
where
A;
=;
dH/dq,"
p =
"
k,
is
a constant
momentum.
this is really one of the three integrals of angular Substituting k for p6 in H, the equation
q 6 "=dH/dk
can be integrated by a quadrature when the rest of the equations have been so the equations for p 6 and q 6 can be separated from the system, solved which reduces to the 10th order system
"
"
"
dqr
dt
_ ~
~dp7"
dt"
(
"
_,
dq r
We
have
still
to use the
two remaining integrals of angular
momentum
these, when expressed represented by
in terms of the
new
variables, are readily found to be
"
25
= 90,
Jcp 5 "=p s "*-pr-;
no arbitrary constants of integration enter, owing to the
fact that the plane of
xy
is
the invariable plane.

therefore be replaced by these two equations and the
"
The system may

equations
dq r
"dt
"
_ dH
~dpr"
dfr"
3#
"
dt
dq r
where, in this last
set,
qs
can be replaced by 90 before the derivates of

"
2 2 have been formed, and p 5 is to be replaced by (p3 p4 )/k after the denote the function derived from Let have been formed. derivates of and let s denote any one of the for p 5 substitution this making
"
"
H
\
by
",
variables
q",
#>",
qa
",
q",
p",
p",
pa
",
p"
then we have
. .
8^ _ 877
ds
ds
dH
"
dp,"
= dH
ds
dp,"
= dH
ds
dp &
ds
ds
160, 161]

p"
351
and
it is
therefore allowable to substitute for
in
H before the derivates of
have been formed. The equations of motion are thus reduced to a system of the 8th order, which (suppressing the accents) may be written in the form
~
_
dq r
dt
dp r
dt
where, effecting in
H the transformations which have been indicated, we have

+
(p*
H-
(p
+
)
.
1)
1 ""*-
2ra 2 <j/
kz -p,?-p?
*
5*-
-- smg smg *
.
.
2m! ft g a
~m<,m s
-\q^+m
(*
l + m^\
Mcosftcosft
---p,--p ^--^2
*
.
sin ft sin ft
**J
+7
(
2p,pt
The equations of motion may further be reduced to a system 6th order by the method of 141, using the integral of energy
of the
H
and eliminating the time.
will not
Constant
is
As the reduction
not required subsequently,
it
be given in detail here.
161.
The problem of three bodies in a plane.
The motion of the three particles may be supposed to take place in a plane, instead of in three-dimensional space; this will obviously happen if the directions of the initial velocities of the bodies are in the plane of the bodies.
This case
is
known
now proceed
Let
(</!,
to reduce the equations of the lowest possible order.
as the problem of three bodies in a plane we shall motion to a Hamiltonian system of

:
q z ) be the coordinates of
1}
(^5.
the coordinates of
<7e)
referred to
of the motion;
^ (r + 1).
and
let
pr = m k qr) where k
dqr_*ff
dt dpr
q 4 ) the coordinates of ??? 2 and any Oy in the plane

(q 3
, ,
fixed axes Ox,
The equations
of motion are (as in
denotes the greatest integer in 155)

l, -,..., Oj,
dpr__dH
dt~
dq r
where
^~to +jtf)+0tf+i* H(^

f
g3
- tfj) +
2
(ft
- ft) ~ - M! wi a
2
]
{(q,
- q Y + (ft - g )
3
2
}
"
These equations
will
now be reduced from the 12th
to the 8th order,
by
Perform on the using the four integrals of motion of the centre of gravity. variables the contact-transformation defined by the equations
dW
dW
352
where
The Reduction of
the
[OH.
xm
W=p q
l
+p
2 q*
+ pq + P*q* + (Pi+P* +P*) ft + (P* + P* +P) ti

a
(<//,
through
lt is easily seen that Wg parallel to the
ft )
are the coordinates of

t
relative to axes
relative to
the same
original axes, (pf, p.2 ) the components of momentum of
2 fixed axes, (q a qf) are the coordinates of the relative to of coordinates the are 3 axes, (q s q ) 1} (p 3 are the components of momentum of p t ) are
f
w
<?
and (p 6
are the components of
momentum
As
and
of the system.
, , ,
in | 157, the equations for 5 q 6 p 5 pi disappear from the system in the new variables) the equations of motion accents the (suppressing
reduce to the system of the 8th order,
dq r
dt
= 9#
ty
r
dp r _ -dl-
dH Wr
where
mm
2
(q/
+ ft )
2
~?
- m,m, (q? + q
)~
h*
{(?i
?s)
+ (q* ~ qtf]
"
an ignorable coordinate, Next, we shall shew that this system possesses which will make possible a further reduction through two units.
Perform on the system the contact-transformation defined by the equa
tions
^ = Wr
where
dW
P
f
dW
sin q t
^Wr
a
W = ptfi
The
cos qt
+p
qi
sinqS+ps (qj cos q4
- q sm ^ ) + P* (ft
+ ft cos g/).
:
of this transformation is as follows g/ is the physical interpretation are the projections of 2 3 on, and perpendicular to, distance 1 s ft and qi m z l and the axis of x pi is the component between the is 3 1 angle q4 of momentum of momentum of 3 m, 1 along p* and p 3 are the components is the and to t angular momentum p of m.2 parallel and perpendicular
mm
mm
mw
m.^
of the system.
The become
when expressed
in terms of the
new
variables,
"
dt
dp r
dt
where
-\f*v
~w
ik
-*7+rt~*.
161, 162]
Since qt
is

it is
;
353
sponding
not contained in H, = k, where k integral is p 4
the integral of angular momentum can be integrated by a quadrature when the rest of the equations have been and disappear from the system. integrated and thus the equations for p t the equations can therefore Suppressing the accents on the new variables, be written
;
<?/
an ignorable coordinate the corre this can be interpreted as a constant The equation q4 = dH/dpi of the system.
is
;
qr
Pr
dt
= __
dqr
dt
(r
= l,2,
3),
dp r
where
H-#)
2
2
-I-
<?,
9s
a system of the 6th order it can be reduced to the 4th order by the process of 141, making use of the integral of energy and eliminating
This
is
the time.
162.
The
restricted
problem of three
bodies.
Another
prominent this may be enunciated as follows
special case of the problem of three bodies, which has occupied a place in recent researches, is the restricted problem of three bodies ;
:
Two
orbits,
bodies $ and J revolve round their centre of gravity, 0, in circular A third body P, under the influence of their mutual attraction.
(i.e.
without mass
their motion),
such that
in the
it is
moves
is
same plane
attracted by S and J, but does not influence as 8 and the restricted problem
</;
of three bodies
to
determine the motion of the body P, which
is
generally
called the planetoid.
Let
and
be the masses of
8 and
J,
and write
m,
m.2
SP
Take any
:
JP
OX, OF, through 0, in the plane of the be the motion let (X, Y) coordinates, and (U, V) the components of velocity, of P. The equations of motion are
fixed rectangular axes
dt*~dX
or in the
dt*
~dY
Hamiltonian form,
dX = dH
dt
d7
dt
dH
atr
dv
<W__dH
dt"
dx
dV__3H
}
~dt~
ar
where
\v.
H= % (U
D.
+ 7 ) - F.
s
23
354
Since
The Reduction of
the
[OH.
t,
xm
H=
but also of and a function not only of of the an Constant is not system. integral
is
the equation
Perform on the variables the contact-transformation which

the equations
is
denned by
where
_3E _^W_ v _dW V _3W = = X dx ~3V ~dU dy cos = sin nt + W V (x cos nt y sin nt) +V(ae nt), y
is
and n
the angular velocity of 8J.
The equations become

du
dx
eft
_dK ~
8wT
<fy_c_K ~~
= ~
_dK
dx
~dt
~dv
~di
dv = dt~
_dK
fy
where (138)
dW K = H - -^
=
2
I (u
+ n (uy -vx)-F;
it is
at once seen that
to the
moving
and
line
as axis of y.
explicitly,
x and y are the coordinates of the planetoid referred OJ as axis of as, and a line perpendicular to this through is now a function of x and y only, so K does not involve t
K = Constant
;
is
an integral of the system
it is
called the Jacobian integral* of the restricted
problem of three bodies. Another form of the equations of motion

last
is
obtained by applying to the
system the contact-transformation
= dW
-^>
y=
may
dW
p
W>
where
W=q
variables
^^
3W
P2
2 ).
= dW
(u cos qz
+ v sin q
The new
be defined directly by the equations
and the equations of motion become

dq-r
_ dH ~
dp,.
dp,. =
_ _ dH
dqr
=12)
~dt
dt
where
H=
is
(pc
+ ~ -
np 2
- F.
Another formf
transformation
obtained by applying to these equations the contact-
dW Pr=Wr
dW
2
2
,
-,
^^Wr
(
^
.
where
*
W =p
t
q2
/.
j
\P,
A u^n -(P^-P^}
(
dv
"
p7*\ ) Pl
Jacobi, Comptes Rendus, in. (1836), p. 59. la Mec. Celeste. Adopted by Poincare in his Kouvelles methodes de
162]
355
where u denotes a current variable of integration.

written
These equations may be
p.
J
g/=arccos-i
-^ +
2
J)/
2(7
~4*
Q \* - -^Vj
#2
=a -arccos
2
and
it
is
easily seen that

it
is
<?/
the
mean anomaly
fixed
its
ellipse
which
would describe about a
of the planetoid in the body of unit mass at 0, if
projected from
is
its
instantaneous position with
instantaneous velocity
q2
the longitude of the apse of this ellipse, measured from

is
OJ; p
is a*,
and
the semi-major axis and e is the eccentricity of this ellipse. = Constant is an integral does not involve t explicitly, so of the equations of motion, which are now
2
{.(!
-e )p,
2
where a
is
dq^
dt If
= aff
~dp
"
dp r
3ff
~dT~~
dq?
1}
2^
we take the sum
of the masses of
1
denote these masses by
/u,
8 and J to be the unit of mass, and and p respectively, we have

~SP
This
is
an analytic function of p^,

2?r.
with the period suppose p to be
zero];
which is periodic in qf and q2 p2 q, qa Moreover, to find the term independent of fj, in H, we since SP now becomes q lt we have
,
,
1\
Thus
finally,
11
discarding the accents, the equations of motion of the restricted may be taken in the form
dqr
_ dH
dpr _
~dt~~
dt ~~dp r
dH ~3^
where
H can be expanded as a power-series in p in the form
while
H H
lt
...
are periodic in q 1
and q 2 with
,
the period 2?r.
The equations
of this 4th order system
may
system of the second order by use of the integral tion of the time, as in 141.
be reduced to a Hamiltonian = Constant and elimina
232
356
163.
*The Reduction of the

Extension
to the
[CH.
xm
problem of n
bodies.
Many
in the reduction of the
of the transformations which have been used in the present chapter problem of three bodies can be extended so as to
apply to the general problem of n bodies which attract each other according to the Newtonian law. In their original form, the equations of motion of the n bodies constitute a system of the 6?ith order this can be reduced to
;
12)th order, by using the six integrals of motion of the centre of gravity, the three integrals of angular momentum, the integral of energy, the elimination of the time, and the elimination of the nodes.
the (Qn
The reduction has been performed by

p.
T. L. Bennett, Mess, of Math. (2) xxxiv. (1904),
113.
1.
If in the
problem of three bodies the units are so chosen that the energy integral
2
i(vi
+ V+*V) =
1111 --+r +r
3l
is
?*23
12
where r 12
is
the distance between the bodies whose velocities are
positive constant,
Vi and v 2 and if r is a shew that the greatest possible value of the angular momentum of the
,
system about
its
centre of gravity
is
f\
2r.
I,
1893.)
2. In the problem of three bodies, let * be Jacobi s function, let Q be the angle between any fixed line in the invariable plane and the node of the plane of the three bodies on the invariable plane, let i be the inclination of the plane of the three bodies to the in be the area of the triangle formed by the three bodies. Shew that variable plane, and let
77
dQ,
<fc
_
=
"*
j_
where k
plane.
3.
di
dt
n*
(De Gasparis.)
is
the angular
momentum
of the system round the normal to the invariable
Let the problem of three bodies be replaced by the problem of two bodies p. and /* 160 let qi and q 2 be the distances of p. and p. from the origin let q 3 and q 4 be the angles made by q l and 2 respectively with the intersection of the plane through the bodies and the invariable plane let p and p 2 denote pqi and pf q-2 respectively and let p3 and be the components of angular momentum of p. and p. respectively, in the plane
as in
:
:
<?
pi
through the bodies and the
origin.
Shew
that the equations of motion
may
be written
}
dq r di where
_dH
tyS
dp r _
dff
~di~~dq r
(Bour.)
H= Constant
is
the integral of energy.
163J
4.

Apply the contact-transformation defined by the equations
qi = {(V*
92
357
?7)
<?i)
= {(?7 -
+ (?5 - ?8) 2 + (26 - ?9) 2 }*, 2 +

2
(<?
26)
=m
+m
=
"
&i (?i
+ iq$ + b 2 (g-4 + t
(r-0,
&
s>
i>
Pr = s
A;=0
XO^r
2
,
1, 8, ..., 8),
(where
stands for
V^l
3
and
i,
^2, b s
c l5 c 2 , c 3
are any nine constants which
satisfy the equations
a1
to the
+2 + =
^1
+ ^2 + ^3 = 0,
^ + 02 + 03 = 0,
(
a 2 &3-a 3 & 2 =l),
Hamiltonian system of the 18th order which
155) determines the motion of the
three bodies.
Shew
that the integrals of motion of the centre of gravity are

q&
q-i
= q = p& = PI =pa =
is
Shew
zero,
is
further that
when the
invariable plane
and that the integral of angular
momentum round
taken as plane of xy, the variable p5 is the normal to the invariable plane
p i qi
dq,!_dff ~dt~-ty?
where
=k,
where k
is
a constant.
Hence shew that the equations reduce to the 8th order system
dpr _ ~dt~
dff
fy?
Reduce this to a system of the 6th order, by the theorem of
141.
(Bruns.)
CHAPTER XIV
THE THEOREMS OF BRUNS AND POINCARE
164.
(i)
Bruns theorem.
Statement of the theorem.
155) that the problem of three bodies possesses 10 known the six integrals of motion of the centre of gravity, the integrals namely three integrals of angular momentum, and the integral of energy these are
We
have seen
:
generally called the classical integrals of the problem. algebraic integral, i.e. is of the form
/(<7i,
<?2,
Each of them
is
an
.,
q 9 ,Pi,P*>
->
Pa,
t)= Constant,
(q 1} q2
,
where / is an algebraic function of the coordinates and of t.
$9, PI,
-,^9)
Efforts have frequently been made to obtain other algebraic integrals of the problem of three bodies independent of these (i.e. not formed by combina tions of them), but without success; and in 1887 Bruns* shewed that no
such new algebraic integrals exist
the only independent algebraic integrals of the
in other words, the classical integrals are problem of three bodies.
It may be remarked + that the non-existence of algebraic integrals does not necessarily imply great complexity in a system. One of the simplest of differential equations, namely the linear differential equation with constant coefficients
has no algebraic integral except when

integral
î//n 2 is
a rational number, in which case the
first
-^ =
now proceed
Constant
can be transformed into an algebraic integral.

(ii)
Expression of an integral in terms of the essential coordinates of the

to a proof of
t
problem.
We
shall
Bruns
result, considering first those
integrals which do not involve
explicitly.
;
* Berichte der Kgl. Sachs. Ges. der Wiss. 1887, pp. 1, 55
Ada
Math.
xi.
p.
25.
Cf. also
Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Vol. in. (1900), Ch. xvn. t Cf. K. Bohlin, Astron. lakttagelser och Unders. a Sfockholms Observ.
ix. (1908),
1.
164]
The Theorems of Bruns and Poincare

of motion of the problem
359
The equations
form
may
160) be written in the
dqr
W-fa
where
_dH
dp r _ ~dt~
dH Wr
H=T-U,
T=
*
2P
(P
)-*
+ p + P^ +
*
5?
^ + p ^ + P^
+q
q6 )
l
+
\
2
_m
(m + m )
m
yu, 5
We
shall write
/,
^
6
//, 6
=
y
so that
T=
Let the coordinates of the three bodies be (g/, g/, and let mk qr = p r where k denotes the greatest
,
(g/, q s
q6
),
(g/,
gg
(r
g/),
:
the integrals whose existence

<
we
integer contained in to discuss are of the form propose

-,
+ 2)
(qi
q*,
q 9 Pi,
,
(j>
an arbitrary constant and is its The formulae of 160 enable us to the variables arguments. express q*, qLp\, ,p&) as linear functions of (qlt q2 ..., q 6 p 1} ..., p 6 ): we shall therefore, on making these substitutions in the integral, obtain an
is
(<?/,
where a
p 9 ) = a, an algebraic function of
,
equation
/(?i, q2
If the integral
gravity,
<
-..,
q,pi, ...,p 6 )=a
..................... (2).
is
compounded
.
of the integrals of motion of the centre of

;
/ will
evidently reduce to a constant

. .
,
if not,
will
be an algebraic
function of the variables (q1} existence of integrals, such as

(iii)
T
(2),
q6 p p s ). of the equations
,
. . .
We
have to enquire into the
(1).
An
integral
must involve
the
momenta.
W e shall first shew that an integral such as (2) must involve

quantities p,
i.e. it
some of the
cannot be a function of
(5-^
...,
6)
only.
For suppose,
if
possible, that the integral, say
does not involve (p lt
p.2
...,
6 ).
Differentiating with respect to
t,
we have
Q_
j.
df
_ 4 d/jy
360
[CH. xiv
and therefore the equations
= J^ r
dq
(r~l,2,
does not involve (q l} q2
,
...,6)
must be
so
is
satisfied identically; that
is,
...,
q6 ), and
a mere constant.
Only one irrationality can occur in the integral. As the mutual distances of the bodies are irrational functions of function of these q6 } the function U will be an irrational (q lt g 2j it is easily three mutual of the s the sum variables. distances, Denoting by seen that the mutual distances can be expressed as rational functions of the
(iv)
}
seven quantities (q l} q 2
in the
irrationality of s
...,
mutual distances are

;
q6 s); in other words, the irrationalities involved all capable of being expressed by means of the
,
we may
,
therefore suppose that
is
expressed as a rational
function of (q 1}
q.2
...,
q6
s).
Now
the function
is
algebraic, but not necessarily rational, in the

6)
,
variables (q 1} ...,q s ,pi,
...,
let
the resulting equation be arranged in
am
+ am -
1 (f) l
(q l ,q,, ...,qe ,pi,
...,
p )+a
6
the equation (2) be rationalised, and let powers of a, so that it becomes w~ 2

2
</>
(gi,
>
9s, PI, ...,p*)

...,2> 6 )
...
+
where
>
</>m(?i,
...,q 6 ,pi,
,
...(3),
If this fan are rational functions of (q lt ..., qK p lt ..., p6 ). fa, fa, is reducible in the variables (q lt ..., q 6 p lt ..., p 6 s}, i.e. if it can be equation into other equations, each of the form
,
decomposed ~ a + a ^(q
1 l
,...,q 6 ,p l ,...,p
.
e>
s)
...
+ î(q
,...,q 6 ,p 1 ,...,p 6 ,s)

l ,
. . . ,
fi ,
= 0... (4),
are rational functions of (q q p lt p6 s), then one of these last equations will give the value of a which corresponds to equation
where
ty z
>|r
(2),
equation instead of (3). As the type of the type represented by (3) as a equation represented by (4) be a to we shall given by an equation of the form (4), suppose particular case,
and we
shall consider this
includes
irreducible in (q 1}
...,
qs p lt
,
...,
p6
s).
Differentiating with respect to t, and using equations al + a^(^,H) + ... + (^ ,H)

l
(1),
we have
(5),
(^H}
p
where
(ty r
H}
denotes as usual the Poisson-bracket of tyr and H.
We
and
shall first
suppose that the expressions

q
6
,
(//>,
H}, which are rational
functions of (q 1}
...,
l}
(5) have one or more

>
p s), common roots

...,
6
, ,
are not
a,
all
zero.
Then equations
(4)
and consequently equation

,
(4) is
and reducible in (q 1} 2 Pe, *); but this equation is irreducible, q&, PI, are all and the is this therefore inadmissible, quantities (-v/rr H} hypothesis
,
<?
zero.
This implies that
all
the coefficients (^r
are integrals of the equations (1): and pounded algebraically from other integrals, which are rational functions of
in equation (4) can be com hence the integral

l
,
ifr
2>
..., tyi)
(?i,
...,%
Pi,
,&>*)-
164]
(v)

Expression of the integral as a quotient of two real polynomials.
We
need therefore henceforth only consider integrals of the type

?,... q,pi, ...,p,s)
=a
..................... (6),
where /is a rational function of the arguments indicated. The form of /can be further restricted by the following observation. If in the equations of motion we replace qr p r t by qr k2 pr k~ and tk3 respectively, where k is any
l
,
constant, the equations are unaltered.
If therefore these substitutions are

still
made
whatever k may
in equation (6), this equation be.

is
must
be an integral of the system,
Now /
(qi, $2,
>
a rational function of
pressed as the quotient of

(?e>
its arguments it can therefore be ex two functions, each of which is a polynomial in

:
in these polynomials we replace q r p r s the function / will (on multiplying its sk-, respectively, and denominator an numerator by appropriate power of k) take the form
PI,
l
,
>P<>>
s )-
When
2 by q r k
p r k~
where (A
df/dt
is
lt
...,
q)
are polynomials in (q 1}
...,
qe
p lt
...,p 6
s).
Since
zero,
we have
"fÊfr*-**
f
Now
k
is
"
+
powers of k in this
arbitrary, so the coefficients of successive

;
equation must be zero

n
and therefore
/7 4 U/-iln
/-77?
.
LLJJn
dA
dA,
dB
dB,
=
These
5,^ a
8
dB
(q+p +
_
l) equations are equivalent to the

_
system
A
from which
dt
it is
~A,
dt
A p ~dT
~dt
5g
B
rfi
evident that each of the quantities
362
is
:
[OH.
xiv
be
an integral and thus we have the result that any integral such as f can compounded from other integrals, which are of the form
6r 1? G.z is a polynomial in its arguments, and is a merely multiplied by power of k when the variables qr p r s are replaced 2 We need therefore only consider integrals of k~ sk2 k respectively by qr pr
where each of the functions

l
this form.
It
may
further be observed that the functions
of generality, be taken to be free from imaginaries. the real and imaginary parts of an integral
and G2 may, without loss For if P and iQ denote
P + iQ = Constant,
we have
dP
-jat
-~ = 0, + i.dQ
. ctu
.,
..
,,
identically.
Since the differential equations are free from imaginaries, it follows that dP/dt and dQ/dt are free from imaginaries and so dP/dt and dQ/dt must be zero separately. Hence and Q are themselves integrals, and every complex
:
integral can be compounded from real integrals. forth assume that Gi/G z is free from imaginaries.
(vi)
We
shall therefore
hence
Derivation of integrals
from
the
numerator and denominator of the
quotient.
the case that the function GI is resoluble into a product of irresoluble polynomials in (p lt p2 ...,p6 ), the coefficients in these polynomials
It
may be
q, being rational functions of (qlt q 2 suppose that it is repeated A, times in

, . .
.
s).
be such a polynomial, and and let x denote the remaining
Let
factors of
G
is
1}
so that
G^^ X
we
shall of course
When G
irreducible,
have GI
= ty,
and % =
1.
The equation
T^\TT}
at \Cr 2 /
1 d-y \dilr -r -TT H----JT
vr
=
1
dt
dt
TT JT G2 dt
dG 2 =
U,
dG.2
Now
factor in
d^fr/dt is
(p 1} ...,p 6 ),
in polynomial in (p lt ...,p 6 ), and -v/r is also polynomial of order less by unity than the order of d-ty/dt. Also, ty has no or %.
1
common with G2
Hence we
see that
dG
2
dx
dt
\G
dt
164]

in (p
1
,
363
must be a polynomial by co then we have

:
...,
p 6 ),
of order unity
denote this polynomial
It
may
. . .
,
be shewn in the same way that each of the other irreducible factors
of
G
,
satisfies
an equation of this kind.
Denote the various
factors of
G by
i/r",
so that
and
let
the equations they satisfy be
then we have
1
V
dG
l
JL^"
"
dt
<ty
dty
d^r"
where
(ft,
a polynomial in (p lt ..., p e ), of order unity, and rational in Thus G! satisfies the equation ...,q ,s).
&>
is
dG =
l
and therefore
(since
GJGz
is
an
integral),
also satisfies the equation
~dt~
l 2 satisfy the same differential equation, we shall in future use to denote either of them: so 9 is a real polynomial in (p 1} ...,p 6 ft, ...,q G ,s),
,
As
and
which
satisfies
is
<f>
the equation
9=
:
o><.
Now
respectively
merely multiplied by a power of k when

,
ft.,
pr
are replaced
2 2 by qr k p r k~\ sk
since
m=
we
see that
&>
~I
9
is
~TT
ac
3 substitution is made. It follows multiplied that &) cannot contain a term independent of (p lf ...,p 6 ), since such a term would be multiplied by an even power of &; is therefore of the form
&>
9 V^ft- A ^~ when this by

r =i
6
= ^ T
1~
>
opr oqr /
where each of the quantities w r

(ft,
is
homogeneous of degree
be of order
</>
in the quantities
...,?,).
Further,
let
one of the terms in

,
n in
(ft, ...,
&
s),
while another term

<?
is
of order
m in (p m in
lt
..
,p 6 ) and of order (p l} ...,p 6 ) and of
order n
in (ft,
...,
s):
since these terms are multiplied
by the same
power of k
so
when the above

an even number.
substitution
is
made, we have
m + 2n = m + 2ri,
m m
is
Hence
</>
can be arranged in the form
364
where
</>
The Theorems of Brans and Poincare

<.
[CH. xiv
of order
less
denotes the terms of highest order in (p lt ..., p6 ), 2 denotes terms by two units in (p ...,p s ) than these, and so on: and each of
l
,
<f)
the quantities
(pi,"-,
is
a polynomial in (p l} ...,p s q l} ...,q K

, , . .
.
s),
homogeneous
in
Pe)
and
also in (#1
qt
s}.
We
shall
now shew
that when
</>
does not involve
s,
<
can be made into an

...,
<?).
integral by multiplying
it
by an appropriate rational function of(ql9

s:
For suppose that
does not involve

</>
the equation
tty
or
-+ -+
......
wxp!
+wp
2
4- ...
ft
gives,
on equating the terms of highest degree in (p
l>
...,p 6 ),
r=l
I p,.^0=
^r oq r
>
Now
<^>
may
,
<j>o
contain
p
<f>
as a factor
in order to take account of this case,
does not contain p6 as a factor, and where as a where k = 0, $ =$ in the for have k case we Substituting p6 may special differential equation, it becomes
write
<f)
p<f
<
<j>
which do not involve j; 6 equating the Let denote those terms in terms which do not involve p 6 on the two sides of this equation, we have
"
<
^>
It
may be
that
</>
"
is
a mere function of q lt q 2 ...,q K say equal to

, ,
R;
-\
in
this case
we have
1
3R ~^ =
fji r
a) r
D R
(r
= 1,
n
2, ..., o)
/ardjV
or
3
a) r
1 9^2 = -^^XI o
(r
=
=
_.
l, 2, ..., o),
C/g r
and therefore
d^g
(/n.r
a>
r)
=
c;^
(/*&))
(r, s
1, 2, ..., 5).
Supposing next that

it
"
"
<
<f>
may = p^fa
involve
"
as
"
<
a factor:
does involve some of the quantities (p 1} ...,p 5 ), to take account of this case, we write
where
does not involve p 5 as a factor.
The equation now
becomes
r=\
164]
Let
iv
<

"
365
:
which do not involve p 5 equating the denote the terms in $ terms which do not involve p s on the two sides of this equation, we have
r=l
f^r
Oq r
Proceeding in this way, we ultimately arrive at the alternatives, that

either
or else a function ty exists, which geneous in q l} ..., q 6 and also in p l}

l
is
polynomial in q lf ..., q 6 PI, p homo and is free from any factors which are
,
2>
mere powers of p and p2 and which
^
/MI
satisfies
the differential equation
a^
dq-2
l
3^
+1
fr
Now
let
= apj + bp + cp^p.* + ty
2
equating coefficients of p^ we have

l
and p 2
da
"^
l+l
on the two sides of the
last equation,
w =
The
a
quantities a,
b, c, ...
I --
>
W1 =
fra
d^j
7 /A 2 o
db
^
0^2
q.2 , ...,
are polynomials in (q 1}
q 6 ): they
may have
common
polynomial factor Q, so that
a Let
so that
-v//
a Q,
= b Q,
etc.
. . .
= a pj -f
&X + c p^ps +
-^r
Q\Jr
Then
/
^
)
(
ft
Q/AJ 9g 1
Ji
^j
+ 6)
da
2 j5 2
say,
1
where
Pi /*i
=
&>!
so
^ p/- + 2 -g- =
2
-\/
(&>!
3^
y^
9g 2
p +
1
/
a>,p.
i
.
2 } i/r
The
Pi,pz)
)
tut
is
left-hand side of this equation is a polynomial in (c^, q.2 ..., q K if a/ contains 9^ then tw/ contains a or some factor of it, as
,
a denominator.
Hence
ty
must contain a
or
some
factor of
,
it,
as a factor.
But
this
factor.
inconsistent with the supposition that a, b Hence a cannot involve q and therefore
1
;
...
have no
common
Similarly
&>/
is zero.
wz
is zero.
366
rp, Thus

&>,
[CH. xiv
I
-7^
dQ
I
,
^r-
to 2
dQ
and therefore
which
is
^ d
:
the same as the alternative previously noted
so this equation
is
true in any case.

Similarly
we can shew
in general that
^
and hence we may write
<
^-^.OM*X
where
is
some
rational function of (q 1} q 2
...,
q6 ).
Thus we have
a} 1
p +
1
o)^p 2
...
co 6
4 pr p = Z =
-
>
].
pr
1 -p ~
"
dR
^(?r
r = l .R
3gV
d
(/>
dt
and therefore
^ = Constant.
a
,
Thus
<
can 6e transformed into

q.2
constant,
...,
by multiplying
it
appropriate rational function of q lt

required result.
If therefore the terms
</>
q6
namely 1/.R; which
is
by an the
in
G and
l
G.2
do not involve
s,
we can transform
<
and
G
^2.
of (q\,
into integrals, by multiplying them by appropriate rational functions a nd hence, if it can be shewn that the terms in G 1 and G2 9e)
>
have the result that any algebraic integral of the problem of three bodies can be compounded from integrals which are polynomial in (p lt p 2 ...,p 6 ) and rational in q 1} q2 ..., q6 s.
do not involve
s,
we
shall
(vii)
Proof that
<f>
does not involve the irrationality
s.
The
case in which
<
involves s
is
not included in the above investigation.

real function
<
We
shall
however now proceed to shew that no
which
satisfies
an equation
can involve
not involve
s
s,
and hence that the functions

</>
occurring in our problem do
so that the above result
is
quite general.
164]

<
367
For suppose that a function exists, which involves s and satisfies the above differential equation. When the 8 values of s are substituted suc take a number of distinct values let these values be n will cessively in
<
<f>
denoted by
,
<$><>
>
</>
they satisfy equations of the form

"
r - Q p ^ - - d(f) = 2,
to
r=l Pr 3q r
9o
pr 4 2,
o>
d(f>
r=l Pr fyr
-5
= a)
where
<<>
a/,
",
fa",
...
are the values of
when the
it.
values of s corresponding to
,
<f>
respectively are substituted in

4>
Let
>
<>
"....
Then we have
|
<f>o"
fyr
=
where
//i
&)+&>
4- ...
mQ,
a linear function of (pi,p 2 of functions (q 1} q 2 ..., q6 ).
II is
,
...,p6 ), the coefficients being rational
Now
(q lf q z
,
O, from the manner of

:
its
formation,
is
a rational function of
,
So we
...,qK ), not involving s and it is clearly a polynomial in (p lt p 2 ...,p s ). can apply to the results already obtained, which shew that (on
<l>
multiplying therefore that
by some rational function of q lt q 2

<f>
...,
g e)
is
zero,
and
satisfies
the equation
This
is
a partial differential equation for
<&
there are 6 independent
variables,
and 5 independent solutions can at once be found, namely the
quantities
f^ V Pi
-fc&V ., (Ml \ Pi (**/
_^| PK
J
It follows that
3>
is
a function
only of the quantities
,,P,
....p..
Now
are
(<?!,
the factors of

differ
:
used in their formation

q2
,
from each other only in that different roots s so when such a relation exists between
q 6 ) that two of these roots s become equal to each other, then = be regarded will become equal to each other two factors of hence if as an equation in jo 1} at least two roots will become equal to each other.
...,
;
<l>
When
exists
this relation
f(<h,
q-2,
...,
9)
=
have d^/dp^
between
,
...,
3<f>/9p
(q 1 ,q 2 ... q6 ), we shall therefore 6 will each be zero.

, ,
= 0; and similarly
368
Since
<E>

is
[CH.
xiv
homogeneous
Pi
->
in
(p 1} p 2
.,
p 6 ), the equation
H Pi o
I-
+p
is
equivalent to of the equations

so
<&
=
. . .
does not constitute an equation independent

,
94>/8pj
= 0,
d<&/dp 6
0.
<t>
If small variations are given to the variables which satisfy the equation = 0, their increments are connected by the equation
2
r=1
but
if (q lt
?..,
?6 Pi,
,
Pe) satisfy the equations

6
d$>/dp r
0, this
equation
becomes
and
this relation
between the increments 8^ r must therefore be equivalent

6
to
the relation
2 f-Bq r =0. r r=i

oq
df
Hence the equations
are consequences of the equations
d<$/dp r
=
q,
and
so,
since
7) r
3<J)
g~
is zero,
we have
(for sets of values
of q lt q2
...,
lt
...,
p 6 which
satisfy these
equations)
The equations f=
r and 2 ^
~=
are therefore algebraically derivable
r=1
from the equations 94>/3p r = 0. Now the actual values of (g^. ...,g6 ) are of no importance in this algebraical elimination; so we can replace q r by we see that the equations pr) in a11 tne equations: and thus
2
r=1 /^ dty
l+
t.
...,,+,. 8,
are algebraical consequences of the equations

7\
3>
ft)
(q lt ...,q 8 ,p 1 , ...,p 6
)-
^T
164]

result of eliminating
t
369
Hence the
between the equations
AH
must be an algebraic combination of the equations
(r=l,
2, ...,6).
Now
one such algebraic combination of these equations

<(?!,
is
...,q 6 ,p!, ...,#,)
= ();
,
can be derived by multiplying the equations by (p l ..., ps ) in turn, and it is the eliminant which has just been adding them. We shall shew that
for it
mentioned.
For
let
the eliminant in question be denoted by

6
then the equation
1
r =i
/axir U i .
5V3gr
8g r
-
must be a combination
of the equations
r=l o
and
1#a
and
so
+ i
.-
8,,
8^ +
it
S(
= 0.
Since the latter equation involves
Si,
we
see that
cannot enter into the
combination
we have
The
for
is
<J>
shews that the equations
found identity of these equations with those which have already been are equivalent. Hence and
<!>=
^=
<t>=
the eliminant of the equations
and
3*
.
which are the conditions that the equation for s may have equal roots, can easily be written down and this and hence, by result enables us then to find all possible polynomials
the equations
Now
f(q lt
q2
ê)
0,
<1>,
factorisation of
w. D.
<J>,
to find all possible polynomials
</>.
24
370
The eight
,

roots s are the eight values of the expression
[OH. xiv
+r
r^r
r3
where r 1} r2 r3 denote the mutual distances: so we may have two roots equal as a result of any one of the equations
?i
0,
r2
0,
r3
rx
= 0,
rz
r3
r3
r 1}
i\
r.2
1\
r.2
= 0.
The equation
gives
<tf
+ q^ + q:? =
0;
2 3
and the eliminant of
+p
t\
=0
=
so the value of

8-fi
&
fc&Y
arising in this connexion
is
yu-3
7x2
this expression is not resoluble into real factors, can arise from this source. nomials
</>
and therefore no
real poly
A
and r 3
similar result can be deduced in connexion with the equations r 2
0.
Consider next the equation

r,
it
r3

-I
1,
m7T
9* M* M.
in
f/tj
"T~
fit s
\* ^1
or
2 ( 9l gr 4
+ ?2 ^ + ?
5
?6 )
^
//tj ~|
(?! ^T ^2
+^+
q*)
= 0.
Replacing
to
t
5-,.
by
(q r
+ prt/f^r), +
and forming the discriminant with respect
of the equation thus obtained, 2 (q l9t
we
(ft"
find
+ q*q + q
5
q 6)
^^
+? +
3
_,
1
^2^5 P -- --- -^1^4

, 1
m +m~(
l
o~r
-
o"i~
If
\/j, l
^2
pf/)
{p\,P-2,
This expansion cannot be factorised into polynomials can arise from this source. --ipe), so no functions
^>
linear
in
</>
The Theorems of Brims and Poincare

Similarly
it
371
may be shewn
with the equations rs
that no polynomials
l
</>
can arise in connexion
rr r
,
=+
rz
Lastly, the rationalised form of the equations

1\
is
2
r2
r3
=
4 rfa*
(r3
- r? +
r*}*
= 0.
last discussed
it
:
When
i\ is zero,
this case reduces to that

<l>
which was
and
since the polynomial is not resoluble in this special case, resoluble in the general case.
cannot be
Thus
finally,
no real polynomials
involving
s,
can
exist.
Summarising the results obtained hitherto, we have shewn that any algebraic integral of the differential equations, which does not involve t, is an algebraic function of integrals each of which can be written in the
</>,
form
<f>0
+
</>2
+
</>4
where is a homogeneous polynomial in the variables and a homogeneous algebraic function of the variables
<
p, say of
q,
homogeneous polynomial in the variables p, of degree (k - 2), and a homogeneous algebraic function of the variables q, of degree (1); 4 is a homogeneous polynomial in the variables - 4), and a p, of degree (k homogeneous algebraic function of the variables q, of degree (I 2) and
</>
degree say of degree
k,
I
:
is
<
so on.
Proof that of angular momentum.

(viii)
is
</>
a function only of
the
momenta and
the integrals
We
shall
is
properties,
now proceed to shew that an integral characterised by these an algebraic function of the classical integrals.
<f>,
The equation
g-o, at
gives on replacing
<f>
or
by
<
4-
<
+$ +
4
and equating terms of equal degree,
_ ^
r
r
,
h 5
~
dq,.
=\oq r Hr
dp,
**
~~
r ~
r=l
_
dqr
242
372
The
first

of these equations
is
[CH. xiv
<
a linear partial differential equation for
which can at once be solved, and gives

<
=/ (P P
2
,
pi, Pz,
p),
<V
where
Let the expression of
be
4>

2 aF dq r + 4
2
^"
-
where g r =
frPr +
,
_
dq
or
^r
l
r~-2
Mi 8
Integrating
we have
so there can
be no logarithmic terms in ^Xdq ly where
X=
=
S ^,
expressed in terms of q lt
...,
,Pi>
>
._
8Pr
If
denotes the expression of

q
U
,
P
>
pi, ...,
we have
-
=
in
^-rj
(r
1)
and
5^5
The terms
now seen
to be
which may give
rise to
logarithmic terms in
Xdq^
are
so the
terms which
may be
logarithmic in
Xdq^
.
are
Vdqt * +
r=2 = 2 9
164]
The Theorems of Brims and Poincare

is
373
l
.
Now V
sum
of three terms, each of the form
(A + Bq + Cq^y-
Taking each of these terms separately, of the last expression
we have
for the
transcendental part
9/0
Pr
!
Vp r ps
*
arcsm
(7
1
.....
85
<ML
Q yvcn n V>Olll
2<7o,
>
8/0 tZ- - p,
dB
arcsm
fl,rr.sin
2Cq,
Thus
for
each of the fractions (A
+ Bq + Cq^^, we must
l
have
r=2
./A,
Now
for
the
first
of these fractions,
namely (q^ + q.* +
q/)~^,
we have
so the first of the three equations will be
r=2
8P2
or (since
/i x
8P
yu. 2
yu, 3 )
and on solving
this equation
-,
we
s
see that
,
/ +
is
a function of
Pi, P*,
Pe, P*,
P (p^
p^qt),
and
(p^qs
psqt).
* (qt + qf + q,*), we can for our present purpose replace them by these three quantities so the second expression (A + Bq^ + Gq^) may be taken to be (q^4 + q 2 q 5 + q3 q K }, or
:
Since the three expressions (A + Bq1 three quantities (q, 2 + q2 2 + qs 2 ), (q.q. +
Gq^) are linear functions of the
q^ + q.q,),
/J,p t
\
?i
I
(/iP PI
fftP2
I
I
P^q\\ ff^Ps
Pi
I \
/^PsQi\
,
1
PP1
\ pi
if^Ps
I
PaQi\ /AtPfi h^
1
Pi
fjfp l
Pi
pi
so for this expression
we have
2
Pi
VPS
Pi*
374

is
[OH. xiv
and the corresponding equation
P.
2
<?
...(B).
~
0-* 5
/*
0*i
/* -f
The
third expression (.4
+ .B^ + Cijj*) may

means
be taken to be
qs
+ q*~
the corresponding equation proves to be the same as equation (A), and may We have therefore only to consider equations consequently be neglected.
(A) and (B)
simplifying (B) by
of (A), they
may be
written
- P,
Pi
+ P-2
;
+P
these equations are obviously algebraically independent and the Jacobian conditions of existence are satisfied identically for them, since the coefficients
r)f
of the derivates
^ do
not involve the quantities P.
These two equations
P P
,
therefore form a complete system, with 5 independent variables 2 = 3 independent solutions, and so there must be 5 5 6
:
P P P
2
,
any other
2
,
solution will be a function of these three solutions
and of
p p
lt
...,p
. ti
It is easily verified that three independent solutions are

2
+P
p6
4
-Pp
6
+P p -P p
6 4
or
where
\
q3 p 2
3
M = q^ - q,p
+qp -qp + q p, - q,p

s
and the three equations
L=
Constant,
M = Constant, N = Constant
We
w
,
have are the three integrals of angular momentum of the system. therefore the result that L, M, N, 2 K ly function of p p ...,p only.
<
(ix)
Proof
<,
that
<
is
a function of T, L, M, N.
q l q2
,
nomial in
L,
when expressed in terms of p p2 ..., ps it is clear that $ We shall write M, N, pi, ..., p6
Since
lt
,
, .
is
..., q 6 p 1} ...,p 6 is a poly a polynomial in its arguments

,
,
,
164]
so

a
37 5
we have
<^.
= | |G r =i r
9p
<fe
= | 8G
W.
atf
r= i 9p r 9gv
and the equation for/2
is
where
F,.
,
p l}
stands for dU/dqr supposed expressed in terms of q lt We have therefore

,
....
P,
Pi r=l &
r
9F
=
â/h
Pi
V+
,-tapr
where the symbol

expression (A
l
2
A
indicates
summation over the three values of the
+ Bq + Cqf).
2)
6
,
Now the term %(P ..., P p ...,p ) cannot give rise to terms involving + (^4 Bq + Cqi ) in the denominator so the quantities multiplying each of the expressions (A + Bq^ + Cq^ must themselves have the same character
1}
6
2
l
:
as
<
i-e.
they must be polynomial in (p lt

$6,
...,
6)
when expressed
R
9^1
in terms of
(<?!>
<?2>
PI,
,pz)-
We
see therefore that the expression
dG
]
g W
/dG
W
in
first
dG\
...,
dB dP r
2gl
95 9P r
2
i
"*
dA
4 Cgl
^gp;
9P;
Pi 9/i
r^2\9p r
HrpidpJ
(p^
B ~ÂC
p \ when expressed
must be a polynomial q lt ..., J6 ). Taking becomes
A+
%+
fi
in terms of
(j9 u
...,p 6
Cqf = q* +
q.2
+q
2 3
,
this
expression
2
or (omitting a factor
/a)
376
1

- dG
[CH. xiv
or
Pi oft
^^
The
so the
>.-
last fraction must therefore represent a polynomial in denominator must be a factor of the numerator.
i r uin L, M, N, so a polynomial
p p
1
,
...,
IS
ow n G
is
(dG U-Vdp2
,
PiP? dG\ S*-= an d

i
f^G --\dp s
topiop!/
are polynomials in Z, -/If, J\r and involve q lt q2 q3 only by means of L, M, in which case the denominator so either they contain no terms in q lt q z q s of a factor the numerator or be else cannot they contain some terms free
, ,
from q lt qz q 3
,
in
which case also the denominator cannot be a
factor of the
numerator.
The condition can

dp 2
therefore only be satisfied by supposing that
8^ _ Pi Pa p2 pi
?
dpj.
dp 3
8^ _ Pip 3 3G = /x 3 ^ dp
1
l
As might be expected from
considerations of symmetry, the conditions
arising from the other sets of values of A, B,
give
(
dG
The function G
a complete
variables,
fi.pr
dG
fc-l&fc~
4,5,6).
therefore satisfies these five equations, which are evidently system of five independent equations with six
this
independent
and consequently possess only one independent solution; solution is easily found to be
6
=i ^, 2/,
l ,
.
or
T.
The function G therefore involves (p and since G is polynomial in (p lt ...,

Since
e)
only by means of the expression
p
,
6 ),
it
must
also
be polynomial in
,
T.
is
homogeneous
the expressions (L, M, involve (q lt ..., q6 ) and
..., q 6 ), and also in (p l} p 2 ...,p 9 ), and are each linear in (q l ..., q 6 ), while does not N) is of degree 2 in (p lt ..., p 6 ), it is clear that if T is
in (q lt q2
involved in
<f>
at
all, it
must be
<f>
as a factor
t
so
= h(L M,
N)T
its
we can m
,
write
where h
(x)
is
a homogeneous polynomial in
arguments.
t.
Deduction of Brims theorem, for integrals which do not involve

is
The equation which determines the function fz
164]
But we have
KWKWW
PJ.
dp,
p dT
1
dp,
and therefore
/ = %(P
2
...,
,p lt ...,p.)-mh(L, M,
N)
T->
U.
Thus
The
namely
1
:
integral
<
can therefore be compounded from two other integrals,
the integral h(L, M, N}(T- U) m which the classical integrals,

,
,
is itself
compounded from
and 2 the integral $ and
where
=
</>
<
<
-f
6
</
+
.
. . .
= x (P
P p
,
lf
p 6 ),
& = fc - m(
0; =
1}
^"
h (L, M,
N) T~* U*,
h
(L>
M>
^+
?^2)
<
<
N) Tm
-3
U3>
But
((>
is
,
term,
,
<f>
<f>
is
an integral of the same character as except that its highest of order two degrees less in (p lt ...,p6 ) than the highest term,
<f>,
of
<j).
Now we
have shewn that
integrals together with the integral
can be compounded from the classical can be compounded Similarly

.
<
from the classical integrals together with an integral character as but is of order less by four units than
<,
<"
which has the same

in the variables p.
<
Proceeding in this way,

>
we
see that
(f>
integrals together with an integral (n is of order unity or zero. If

<
(n)
<
can be compounded of the classical whose order in (p l} ...,_p6 ) is either

...,
unity in (p lt
p 6 ) then
;
in the equation
<l>M=<l>
w=h(L,M, N)T
algebraically Hence we have Bruns theorem, that every algebraic integrals. integral of the differential equations of the problem of three bodies, which does not involve
</>
n is in this case, therefore, compounded of n the classical integrals. If is of order zero in is a function it (p lt ..., p6 ), of (q l but we have G shewn that such integrals do not exist q ) only already and so in any case can be compounded from the classical
>
we must evidently have & = 0;

>
<<
</><
. . .
the time, can be

integrals.
compounded by purely algebraic processes from
the classical
378
(xi)

Extension of Bruns result
to integrals
[CH. xiv
which involve the time.
of proceed to consider those algebraic integrals of the problem three bodies which involve the time explicitly.
We now
For
this
purpose we shall take the equations of motion as a system ( 155) of the 18th order: we have therefore to investigate integrals of the form
where
/ is
an algebraic function of
its
arguments, and a
is
a constant.
Let the last The function is not necessarily rational in its arguments. it may be that equation be rationalised, so far as the variable t is concerned, so
arranged in the form am + a m (q l ..., q

^(f>
p lt
...,p 9
t)
+ a m ~ ^(q^ + m (qi,
2
<t>
.,.,
q^p,, ...,p 9
>#,
<)
t)
...
>
q,pi,
o,
where the functions

their other
<
are rational functions of

(q
lt
. . . ,
and algebraic functions of
may be supposed p p cannot be factorised into other equations which are of lower degree in a and are rational in t for if it is reducible, we can factors which corresponds to suppose it replaced by that one of its irreducible
arguments
t, i.e.
l}
9 ).
This equation
irreducible in
such that
it
the original equation
f= a.
t,
Differentiating with respect to d
we have
d
...
a^
dt
p + a^ ^ +
at
:
^
at
0.
in terms of (g lf q a ..., 9 the quantities r /dt, when expressed the so that of t functions rational are previous equation would p lt ...,p ,t), be reducible in t if this equation did not vanish identically. It follows that
,
Now
<?
d<f>
this equation does vanish identically
that
is,
The expressions
integral
<f)
can be compounded
t
are therefore themselves integrals: and hence the which are rational other integrals
from
<j),
functions of
and algebraic functions of (q lt ..., be resolved into factors Let such an integral
<
q^ypi,
,pa)t
:
linear in
so that
it
may
be written
where (P,^!,^,...,^,*^!,...,^*) are algebraic functions of (q 1} Since this expression is an integral, we have
-ri ~77
...,q 9 ,pi,
,&)
+T Pdt^^Â
m>i
1 d-t
[~
~ ~ d(pi\ "+- +
niîf
{*
I
a<p]f\
dt)^
T"
^t-<}>
k {
dtJ
37"
~4
n^
IT,
-.
~
dt)
dt J
t-^\
\
ni
164]
379
Wh (<>!,
f -f
if
,
* f -1
;
,
.
are re P
acedb y
their ralues
(P
*>
//), ..., (tyi,
H),
this equation
must become an identity: but
this can
happen only
eft
cfa
,,
eft
.....
at
i.e.
if
each of the expressions
P,
is
t
-</>!,
t- $ 2
...,
t-
fa, t-yjr lt
...,
t-î
Hence am/ an integral. problem of three bodies which involves t can be compounded (1) of algebraic integrals which do not involve
algebraic integral of the
t
and
(2) of integrals
of the form
t
(f>
==
Constant,
<>>
ivhere
<f>
is
an algebraic function of (q lt
...,
q9 PI,
,
...,> 9 ).
Now
it is
known
that
i_^gi
is
:
fr!M? = Constant
t,
^1+^4+^7
an integral hence any algebraic integral of the problem, which involves can be compounded of
(1) (2)
algebraic integrals which do not involve

integrals of the form
_ miqi
where
(3)
<
is
an algebraic function of (q 1}
...,
q 9 p^,
,
...,
9)
and
the classical integral
_
But the
?fti9i
integrals in classes (1)

;
not involve the time
and (2) are algebraic integrals which do and hence, by the result already obtained, they are
combinations of the classical integrals.
Thus
finally every algebraic integral

it
of the differential equations of the
problem of three bodies, whether
involves the time or not, can be
compounded
from
the classical integrals.
Bruns theorem has been extended by Painleve*, who has shewn that every integral of the problem of n bodies which involves the velocities algebraically (whether the coordinates are involved algebraically or not) is a combination of the classical integrals.
*
Bull. Astr. xv. (1898), p. 81.
380
165.

Poincare
shall
s
[CH. xiv
theorem.
We
next establish another theorem on the non-existence of a certain
which is in many respects type of integrals in the problem of three bodies, in 1889 was discovered and of Bruns, by Poincare*. analogous to that
(i)
The equations of motion of the
restricted
problem of three
bodies.
In the restricted problem of three bodies, the equations of motion of the planetoid can ( 162) be written in the form
dq r
dt
_ dH
dp
r
dp r
dt
l
_ _ dH
dq r
2
(r=l,
...,
2),
where
H=H
+ p.H + fj?H +
1
2p^~
and
UP 2
27r.
H H
l
,
...
are periodic in q ly q2 with period

,
The Hessian
is
in the proof evidently zero as this circumstance would prove inconvenient of Poincare s theorem, we shall modify the form of the equations so as to obtain
:
a system for which the corresponding Hessian
is
not zero.
;
Write
= K,
and
let
H = h be the integral of energy

1 dK = oi o
then we have
a\ v. ***.*)*
,
dq r
~rr
dt
2h
>
dp,-
1 dK dp r = ~JT ~~o7^~ 2h dt
-\
oq r
and
therefore, taking a new function equal to K/2h, we can write the differential equations of the restricted problem of three bodies in the form
dqr
dt
= dH^
dp r
dpr
dt
/*,
= _dH
dqr
=l
2}
where
for sufficiently
small values of
H can be expanded as a power-series
in the parameter n,
and
the Hessian of
period
2?r.
is
not
now
zero,
and
(H
...)
are periodic in q lt q2 with

,
Acta Math. xm. (1890),
p.
259; Xouv. Meth. de la Mec. Gel.
i.
(1892), p. 233.
165]
(ii)

Statement of Poincare
<3>
381
s theorem.
: ,
is one-valued and which do not exceed p q.,, a certain limit, and for values of p and p 2 which form a domain D, which is periodic with may be as small as we please and suppose that respect to and the 2?r. Under these conditions the function can q qz having period
Let
denote a function of (q
q^,
p 1} p
2,
JJL)
which
regular for all real values of q 1
and
for values of
<J>
<f>
be expanded as a power-series in
/j,,
say
where ^, 2 ... are one-valued analytic functions of (q1} qz ,pi,p^), periodic in ^ and q 2 Poincare s theorem is that no integral of the restricted problem three bodies exists (except the Jacobian integral of energy and integrals of
 
equivalent to
it),
which
is
of the form
4>
= Constant,
to
The proof which follows is applicable whose any dynamical system equations of motion are of the same type as those of the restricted problem of three bodies.
wliere
<J>
is
a function of
this character.
The necessary and

integral
is
sufficient
condition that
Constant
may be an
)
expressed by the vanishing of the Poisson-bracket (H,
so that
and therefore
a
(H

0,
0r ,4g+(jr,,t)-a
(iii)
Proof that
shall first
^>
**
not a function of
4>
We
shew that
cannot be a function of
)
the equation we have on solving for p l an equation of the form p^ = 6 (H be a one-valued function of its arguments unless dHo/dp^
to exist.
relation of the form
O = ty (H
From
H = H (p
,
For suppose a
lt
p2 )
2 ),
and B
will
is
zero in the
q^,p-i,p^),
domain D.
Replacing p by have an equation of the form

l
its
value 6 in the function
^>
(q 1}
we
and as
its arguments ty will be a one-valued but by hypothesis, the function ty depends only on It follows that ^r is a one-valued function of so long as the variables pi,pz remain in the domain D, and is not zero in D provided ^H^fdp^ or more generally provided one of the derivates and dH /dp 2 is not dH^/dp!
4>
is
a one-valued function of
,
function of (q lt q z
H ,p );
2
zero in D, a condition which
is Since t/r is evidently satisfied in general. a one-valued function, the equation -/r (H) = Constant will be a one-valued - -v/r (H) = Constant integral of the differential equations, and therefore will also be a one-valued integral, and will be expansible as a power-series
<
382
in
fj,
:

it will
[CH. xiv
If then
moreover be divisible by
<X>
//,,
since
4>
ty
(#)
is zero.
we
write
- ^ (H) = p
the equation
<!>
= Constant
will
be a one-valued analytic integral
writing
the function
function of

again, thus arriving at a third whose one-valued analytic integral, part independent of /A will not in general and so on. It is evident that in this way we shall be a function of
,
will not in general
be a function of
if
however
it is
we perform the same operation
ultimately obtain an integral which does not reduce to a function of is a function of H, in which case the two integrals is zero, unless IJL
<$>
H when H and

are not distinct.
which is one-valued and analytic an integral is a function of we can and distinct from H, but which is such that from it another integral, of the same character but such that derive always
If,
therefore, there exists
<
<l>
it
does not reduce to a function of

<E>
when p
vanishes.
We
can therefore
always suppose that

(iv)
is
not a function of
Proof that
<
<&
cannot involve the variables q 1}

,
<?,.
If the function
these variables
we
4>
involves the variables q, q 2 then since can write
it is
periodic in
= 2 A
,
,
i,i
where m, and
quantities
m
m^
m
Am
are positive or negative integers, i denotes v 1, the are functions of p 1} p z and represents the exponential
,
.
co-factor of
Am
HI j,
Since
H
o
ill.-)
does not involve q 1} q 2 we have

,
-Q)
dp,
dq,
^
dp 2
%,
oq*
But we have
becomes
d3>
/dq r
= 2 im r A m m
m,
,
so
the equation
(H
4>
m-i
dPl
and
therefore (as this equation is
an identity)
ij
-=-
dp,
= +m dpj
2
0.
Hence we must have
either or
>idHo/dpi
A mi ,mo =
+ m dH
2
(l
fdp 2
but the latter alternative is possible only when m, and m 2 are both zero, or It follows that all is zero, which is not the case. when the Hessian of does not and consequently are zero, except A 0t the coefficients A m

)OTo
involve the variables q, and q z
165]
(v)

Proof
that the existence
383
of a one-valued integral
is inconsistent ivith
the result of
(iii)
in the general case.
Consider
now
the equation
dp r dqr
4>
r !Ti
dpr dqr
,
As
the functions
H
,
be expanded in series
m,
and are periodic with respect to q 1} q2 they can of the form

l
2 B
m.,
ei(m iqi + m , q ,)
= 2 B
say,
! ,
where
and
and
C^,^
are positive or negative integers, and the coefficients have therefore depend only on p lt p 2
2
.
We
Bm
^=i
dqr
mi ,m,
2 Bm m n2 m r
"
d
t,
a
^=i dq
r
2 Cm
Wi>w
,2
"^
n mrS, ^
so the equation
4 2 aâ^ r 5 -=-^
r =i 9jo r
aâ^ =
? ^
becomes
2 B
OT,,m 2
( V=l
is
m,^) Opr/
9^ -
r=l dp r dq r
2 C
m^m.,
( \r-l
2 m,
= ^) Op
r/
0,
or (since this equation
an identity)
This equation
is
valid for all values of
p p
l}
and therefore
for values of
p and p2 which
l
satisfy the equation
<1
dH. --^
opi
f-
W1 2
dH = ^r 0,
3jp 2
we must have
either
B m,
m2
>
or
m
z
9ô/3î
^
m>t
9^0/3^2
= 0.
when pj,p2 have
In the general
We
As
shall say that a coefficient

l
1
values such that
Bm ^ m becomes m dH /dp + m dH fdp = 0.

2
secular
is
a given function, the coefficients
Bm
>m
are given.
case of dynamical systems expressed by differential equations of the kind we are considering, no one of these coefficients will vanish when it becomes
secular,
and we
shall take this case first:
so that the equation
is
= x dô/dp, + m^ d /dp2 a consequence of the equation l dffo/dp, + m 2 dH /dp
= 0.
p
2
Now
let
k-i,
k.2
be two integers
suppose that we give to p^ and
values
such that the equation
384
is satisfied.
[CH.
xiv
We
z z
1
that
1 k
+m k
can find an infinite number of pairs of integers m lt m., such and for each of these systems of integers the is zero:
l
expression
m dH /dp + m dH /dp
2
is zero,
and consequently
d$>
m-!
BOo/a^j
+ m2
/dp2
is zero.
Comparing these two equations,
we have
so the Jacobian
d(H
z
<
0>
)/3
(p 1} p2 )
is
zero for all values of
p p2
lt
for
which
dH fdp
and
dH jdp
are commensurable with each other.
Thus
in
any domain,
however small, there are an infinite number of systems of values of p lt p 2 for which this Jacobian is zero as the Jacobian is a continuous function, it must must be a function of therefore vanish identically, and consequently in what was But this is contrary to (iii), and therefore the funda proved
:
<J>
must be erroneous mental assumption as to the existence of the integral that is, the Harniltonian equations possess no one-valued analytic integral
<&
other than
H=
h,
provided no one of the coefficients
Bm
B
m vanishes when
it
becomes
(vi)
secular.
Removal of
have now
vanishes
(raj
,
the restrictions
on the
coefficients
.
mi>
We
B
indices
relation
to consider the case in
which at
least
one of the coefficients
when
it
becomes
secular.
We
shall say that
two pairs of
2)
and (m/,
2 2
,
mj/m/ = ra /m
shall first
?n/) belong to the same class when they satisfy the and that in this case the coefficients Bm ^ m and
class.
R
wij
,m<2
<
belong to the same
We
shew that the

is
result obtained in (v) as to the non-existence
of one- valued integrals
true provided that in each of the classes there is at coefficient least one m m which does not vanish on becoming secular. For is zero, but the coefficient that the coefficient m m is not
suppose
zero.
B^^
B ^
If pi,
i
W 3H
have values such that

/dp2
m-i dH ftpi + m dH /dp

2 Q
is zero,
we have
0,
and consequently
and although the
relation n^
3<&
/9.Pi
the former of these equations, it in other respects the same as in (v).
= cannot be inferred from /dp 2 can be inferred from the latter the proof is +
2
d3>
Now
X be any
mj/w 2
domain,
a class
let lt ra 2 completely defined by the ratio of the indices which for indices of C the class be commensurable number, and let
is
;
= X-
shall say for brevity that this class or is in this domain, if a set of values of p l}
We
G p
2
belongs to a given can be found in this
domain such that

A, ^r
dH --
9//o
1-
_n V.
165]

shall
385
We
small,
shew that the theorem

is
which
all
which not
is still true if in every domain B, however contained in D, there are an infinite number of classes for the coefficients of the class vanish when they become secular.
For take any
set of values of
p ,p 2 such that
l
,
for these values
we have
dH
A.
3/f
T
_ U.
for the class
9pi
op*
Suppose that
:
A, is
commensurable, and that
which corresponds
to this value of X, all the coefficients of the class do not vanish
when they
z
become secular the preceding reasoning then applies to this set of values, and so for these values of p and p2 the Jacobian d(H )/3(p 1} p. } is zero. But, by hypothesis, there exists in every domain 8, however small, which is
l ,
4>
contained in D, an infinite number of such sets of values of p lt p 2 The Jacobian consequently vanishes at all points of D, and therefore O is a func tion of so, as before, there exists no one- valued integral distinct from
.
(vii)
Deduction of Poincare" s theorem. In the four preceding sections, we have considered equations of the type
dqr_dH
dt
in
dpr ~ _
dt
dH
dq r
dp r
which
H can be expanded in the form

l
,
where the Hessian of Q with respect to p^ and p 2 is not zero, does not involve q and q2 and ... are functions of and lt 2 we have periodic q lt q2 shewn that no integral of these equations exists which is distinct from the equation of energy and is one-valued and regular for all real values of q and q2 for values of /* which do not exceed a certain limit, and for values of p and p z which form a domain D; provided that in every domain, however small,
, :
H H H
contained in D, there are an infinite number of ratios m^m^ for which not the corresponding coefficients Bm m vanish when they become secular.
^
^
all
This result can be applied at once to the restricted problem of three bodies for we have seen in (i) that the of motion in this problem equations are of the character specified, and on the function H^ by actual determining
:
expansion we find that the last condition

thus established.
is satisfied.
Poincare s theorem
is
Poincare s theorem establishes the non-existence of integrals uniform with respect to Keplerian variables, which implies uniformity in the neighbourhood of all the tra This however does not exclude the jectories which have the same osculating ellipse.
the
existence of integrals which are uniform in

Civita, Acta Math. xxx. (1905), p. 305.
domains of a
different character.
Cf. Levi-
cf.
The theorem has been extended by Nouv. Meth. de la Mec. Cel. i. p. 253
w.
D.
Poincare"
to the general problem of three bodies

,
it
has also been extended by Painleve C.R. cxxx.

25
(1900), p. 1699.
CHAPTER XV
THE GENERAL THEORY OF ORBITS
166.
Introduction.
shall
We
now
orbits of dynamical systems.

chiefly consider the
and disposition of the pass to the study of the general form For simplicity we shall in the present chapter
motion of a particle which is free to move in a plane under the action of conservative forces, but many of the results obtained can be readily extended to more general dynamical systems.
been observed ( 104) that the determination of the motion two degrees of freedom under the action of conservative with of a particle to the problem of finding the geodesies on a surface with forces is reducible
It has already
a given line-element; an account of the properties of geodesies might therefore be regarded as falling within the scope of the discussion. Many of these properties are however of no importance for our present purpose and as the theory of geodesies is fully treated in many works on Differential
:
which are of general Geometry, we shall only consider those theorems

dynamical
interest.
The
orbits
orbit)
(
have been obtained hitherto relate to periodic principal results which of a given orbit (especially of a periodic to the stability 167-171),
with respect to small displacements from it ( 172-176), and to the i.e. the question to the with of orbits time, a of respect given group stability the lapse of a after character their orbits the how far as to general
preserve
very great time

167.
177-179).
Periodic solutions.
Great interest has attached in recent years to the investigation of those motion of dynamical systems in which the same con particular modes of
figuration of the system
is
so that the repeated at regular intervals of time,
motion is purely periodic. Such modes of motion are called periodic solutions. The term periodic solution is also used in cases where a relative rather than
an absolute configuration
three bodies, a solution
is
is
periodically repeated: said to be periodic if the
thus in the problem of mutual distances of the
166-168]
bodies are
The General Theory of Orbits
387
periodic functions of the time, although the bodies may not have the same orientation at the end of a period as at its necessarily
beginning.
Considering specially the motion of a particle in a plane or on a fixed smooth surface under the action of conservative forces, it is evident that a
family of periodic orbits will exist in the neighbourhood of each position of stable equilibrium of the particle, namely the orbits corresponding to the normal vibrations of the particle about this equilibrium position. If the
position of equilibrium is unstable, it may happen that the periods of both the modes of normal vibration are imaginary, in which case no periodic orbits
exist in the
vicinity,
vibration
is real,
:
in
which case these
or_that the period of one of the modes of normal real normal vibrations give a family of
periodic orbits
orbits in the
these orbits will evidently however be unstable, whereas the neighbourhood of the position of stable equilibrium are stable.
s
168.
Poincare
normal variables for a known periodic

define a periodic orbit are
*.
orbit.
The equations which

pressed in a
most conveniently ex
form due to Poincare
Let the motion of the dynamical system considered be defined by the

equations
dq, dt
= dH
dpr
dpr__dH =
dt
dqr
t
where the function

fc
H does not involve the time

0l(0>
?2=<k(0>
explicitly
P*
and
let
Pl
=
^l(t)>
= fa(i)
,
be the equations which define a known There periodic orbit of this system. is clearly no loss of if we generality suppose the coordinates (q l} q2 p^ p 2 ) to be such that after the lapse of a period the variables q lt qz p resume their
,
initial values,
while
p.2
increases
t
by
2?r.
From these equations be written in the form
can be eliminated
let
the result of the elimination
so that the functions 6 1}
0.2
6S have the period
2-rr.
Perform on the system the contact-transformation defined by the equations
where
(
8*
(,)-
Nouvelles Methodes de la Mec. Cel. n. p. 369.
252
388
The equations

of this transformation can be written
[en.
xv
Q,
- 9, - *. (ft) +
{*
ft (ft))
fft
- *3 (ft)}
The equations
variables, are
of motion of the dynamical system, in terms of the
new
dt
dPr
dt
0&
it is
and from the above equations of transformation

solution is
evident that the periodic
now
Q = 0,
1
Q,
= 0,
P=
1
0,"
P =f
2
(0-
This form of the equations of the orbit will be called Poincare s

169.
normal form.
orbits. for the discovery of periodic We shall now shew that the existence and position of periodic orbits can the be determined by a theorem* analogous to those theorems which furnish roots of an algebraic equation by considerations depending on position of the We shall for simplicity the sign of expressions connected with the equation. considered to be that of the motion of a suppose the dynamical problem mass in a plane under the action of conservative forces: the particle of unit result can be extended to more general systems without difficulty!-
criterion
of the particle at time t, referred to any fixed y} be the coordinates and let V(x, y) be its potential energy function, rectangular axes in the plane, of the so that energy is equation
Let
(as,
l(#+f)+V(a>,y)=K,
where h
is
the constant of energy.
The
differential equations of
motion of the particle form a system of the
fourth order, and their general solution consequently involves four arbitrary One of these constants is, however, merely the constant additive constants.
to
which determines the epoch in the orbit, so there are only This triple infinity of orbits can be arranged in distinct orbits.
t,
:
oo
really
sets,
each
those orbits for containing a double infinity of orbits, by associating together of oo 2 orbits set a h such which the constant of energy has the same value
*
xxi. (1912), p. 36;
Cf. A. Signorini, Rend. d. Lincei, 186. Whittaker, Monthly Notices R.A.S. LXII. (1902), p. xxi. Rend. d. Palermo, xxxin. (1912), p. 187; L. Tonelli, Rend. d. Lincei,
(1912), pp. 251, 332.

of three bodies, f For the extension to the restricted problem LXII. (1902), p. 346.
cf.
Monthly Notices R.A.S.
168, 169]

(
389
100),
may
be defined analytically by the principle of least action

,
namely
that the orbit between two given points (x the value of the expression
and (xly
y^) is
such as to
make
stationary as compared with other curves joining the given terminal points
Oo,
?/ )
and
(>,,
2/ a )*.
Consider any simple closed curve C in the plane of xy and let another simple closed curve G be drawn, enclosing C and differing only slightly from it. We may regard as defined by an equation of the form
;
C"
where 8p is the normal distance between the curves C and C (measured out wards from C, and consequently always positive) and 7 is the inclination of this normal distance to the axis of x. Then if / be the value of the integral
when the
integration is taken round the curve C, and if / + 81 denote the value of the same integral when the integration is taken round the curve
(so that the
C"
symbol 8 denotes an increment obtained in passing from
to
),
we have
81=
{(dxf
+ (dy)^
8 [h
V(x, y)}?
{h
V(x, y)}? 8 {(dx?
But we have
- i a rr/ {A- V(x,

i
y}\
8F M-*/ I cos
^j{(dx?
9F
ysin
V,, ) 8p,
and
where p
is
8 {(dxf
(dy}
= 8p.dy =
the radius of curvature of the curve
at the point (x, y).
Thus we have
S/=f{(<fe)+(dy)}*{A-r^^ J
This equation shews that
if
ox
oy }
the quantity
-7=r-
dV dV h-V(x,y} -- A cos 7 -- * sin 7 l ^ T

P
dx
dy
is
Following Painleve, Liouville
which have the same constant
s Journal, x. (1894), it of energy a natural family.
customary
to call a family of orbits
390
is
[OH.
xv
81 is negative, and so the integral I has negative at all points of C, then curve when its value diminished surrounding C and adjacent to C is any of taken instead of C as the path integration.
Now
C,
and such that at
curve suppose that another simple closed all points of D the quantity
can be drawn enclosing
h-V
P
is positive.
* 2
3F
cos 7
-,.--
V
it
+ sin 7 ^r
dV\
dy/
.
Then, in the same way,
can be shewn that the integral /
is
diminished when any simple
closed curve
enclosed by
and adjacent
to
D,
is
taken instead of
therefore,
D
we
as the path of integration.
When,
consider the aggregate of
all
simple closed curves
which is assumed to situated in the ring-shaped space bounded by C and that the curve is clear it function of the no contain V(x, y) singularity coincide cannot or be C and cannot of I value D, which furnishes the least There exist, therefore, among the for which the one or more curves simple closed curves of this aggregate, does value of / is less than for all other curves of the aggregate. Since
with
or
for
any part of
its
length.
not coincide with
it follows, that the C or along any part of its length, are all members of the aggregate in question, and hence curves adjacent to furnishes a stationary value of / as compared with all the that the curve is therefore an orbit in the dynamical The curve to it. curves adjacent theorem: // one dosed curve be at the arrived We have thus system. the enclosed by another closed curve, and if quantity
h-V(x,y) v ?p
i cos
dV
-~ 7 * dx
* sin 7 -rdy
8F
be negative at all points of the inner curve and positive at all points of the outer the two curves there exists a periodic curve, then in the ring-shaped space between
orbit of the
dynamical system, for which the constant of energy
is h.
As
the
quantity
h-V(x,y) ^ - i cos
.
"
dV
7 ^ ox
dV
-5-
\ sin 7
dy
can be calculated immediately for every point on the curves C and D, de function and the curves pending as it does only on the potential-energy
themselves, this result furnishes a means of detecting the presence of periodic
orbits.
170.
Lagranges
shall
three particles.
We
A
1912,
now
consider specially certain periodic solutions of the problem

of theorems relating to families of periodic orbits in the restricted K. Moulton, Proc. Inter. Cong, of Math. Cambridge, is given by
.
of three bodies.
useful
summary

II.
p. 182.
169, 170]
The
Proc. L.

and
collision, in
is
391
which two of
relation of periodic orbits to orbits of ejection
the bodies occupy in the same position at the
same
time,
studied by Moulton,
M.
S. (2), xi. (1912), p. 367.

is
category of non-plane periodic orbits in the problem of three bodies Pavanini, Annali di Mat. (3), xin. (1906), p. 179.
discussed by
Let the equations of motion of the problem be taken in the reduced form obtained in 160, and let us first enquire whether these equations admit of a particular solution in which the mutual distances of the bodies are invariable
throughout the motion.
The mutual distances

f
<7i
are
2 s
. .
11
-\Q
(*~
,
k -p --pf 2m 2 ftft/ -sin q cos q cos q, --^ m +m \ 2p p,

s
l
sin o 4
*/
1
and
it
k -p --pf 2m o go/ \ -sm ft sin a cos cos ft ---gW* ft + * + m + m,\ ft ) 2,

2 (
1 1
follows that, in the particular solution considered, the quantities

,
ft,
ft,
and cos
ft
cos ft
k -p-sin sin --ft ^ ^

2 2
p<?
must be constant, and hence the functions U, dU/dq^ dU/dq 2 must be constant, ~ where U= ^m m 2 r12
l 1
.
The equations
= ft = dH =p 5
.
1
,
9î
p. = 03 = dH ^=^,
.
/*
3^2
A*
shew that p and

l
p.2
must be permanently
zero
while the equations
shew that p3 and p 4 must be constant.

Moreover, the equations
A=
shew that the expressions
3
.
/>
aff = -^-,
3ft
0=^4 = -^
a#
3ft
C S ?4
9ft
fj
and
are zero, so
cos ft cos o4 ^ 3ft \
-- __
W*2
yj^
2 ^.^ 2 ^J
^4
sin o, sin
2jo 3 p 4
we have
tan ^ 3 cot
ft
-& Pi + ^ = cot ft tan ft = ^

2
2
,
*ppt
and therefore
or
2 p* + ^ 4
-^ =+
2
,3
2p 3 p 4
2
^ = (/
p4 )
392
[en.
xv
an equation which shews that the instantaneous planes of motion of the bodies and // coincide with the plane through these bodies and the origin
fj,
in other words, the motion of

the
//,
and
//
takes place in a plane
and therefore
motion of
m m m
1
,
takes place in a plane.
It follows that, the centre of gravity of the system being supposed at ra we shall denote by P, Q, R) must move the 2 3 rest, (which particles
m^ m
in circular orbits
round 0.
We
have now to see
if
such a motion
is
possible.
condition which must obviously be satisfied is that the resultant attraction of any two of the particles on the third must act in the line joining
One
the third particle to the centre of gravity. This condition is satisfied if the If they are not in a three particles are in the same straight line. straight
line, it
gives
sin
PRO = ^~-
*ffl
sin
QRO, and two
similar equations.
But
since
is
the centre of gravity of the particles,
we have
m
and
this
sin
ra 2 sin
PRO _ ~ sin QPR _ ~ QR QRO sin PQR P
combined with the preceding equation gives
PR = QR
we
find
PR = PQ.
either the bodies
similarly
Hence
must
be collinear, or else the triangle
formed by
them must be equilateral.

Considering
first
their centre of gravity
the collinear case, let the distances of the bodies from (measured positively in the same direction) be a l} a.,,
<a
as respectively: we
which does not lessen 2 s suppose that a l Since the force acting on P must be that corresponding to circular motion round 0, we have
shall
<a
,
the generality of the discussion.
n?a
(a2
i)~
ni 3 (a s
;
aj)~
where n
n
2
is
the angular velocity of the line
a2
(a s
a 2 )~
+ n^ (a
we
a^"
2
,
PQR na =m
2 3
and similarly
(a s
2
o^)"
+m
(a 3
a 2 )~2
From
these equations
readily find
2
rn^fc {(1
+ k)
- 1] + ma (1 + k) (& a2 )/(a 2
k,
a-^.
1)
+ m,
[k
- (1 + k) = 0,
3
}
where & denotes the

This
is
ratio (as
a quintic equation in
with real
coefficients.
Since the left-hand

,
side of the equation is negative when k is zero, and positive when k = + oo there is at least one positive real root; such a root determines uniquely real
values for the ratios a 1 :a 2 :a3
and
if
is
given, the distances a lt a z a3 can

,
be completely determined.
It follows that there are
an
infinite
number of
solutions of the problem of three bodies, in which the bodies remain always in a straight line at constant distances from each other ; the straight line rotates
170]

its
393
uniformly, and when
angular velocity has been (arbitrarily) assigned, the
mutual distances of
the bodies are determinate.
of Considering next the equilateral case, let a be the length of one side Since the triangle formed by the bodies, and let n be its angular velocity. to a circular orbit round 0, the force acting on 3 is that which corresponds
we have
a?
cos
PRO + ~ a
2
cos
QRO = n*
OR,
a condition which reduces to
relating to the motion of Q and of R reduce to the same and hence a motion of the kind indicated is possible, provided n equation: and a are connected by this relation. Hence there are an infinite number of
The conditions
solutions of the problem of three bodies, in which the triangle formed by the bodies remains equilateral and of constant size, and rotates uniformly in the plane of the motion: the angular velocity of its rotation can be arbitrarily
assigned,
and
the size
of the triangle
is
then determinate.
The two
called
particular types of motion which have now been found will be Lagrange s collinear particles and Lagrange s equidistant particles
respectively*.
after Lagrange s discovery, its interest was sup to be But in 1906 a new minor planet, 588 Achilles, theoretical. posed purely was found to have a mean distance equal to that of Jupiter and it was soon
For more than a century
realised that the Sun, Jupiter, and Achilles constitute, approximately at any rate, an example of the Lagrangian equilateral- triangular configuration.
Shortly afterwards came the discovery of three other Asteroids, 617 Patroclus, 624 Hector, and 659 Nestor, which are in the same caset- Of this "Trojan Patroclus is in longitude Jupiter 60, and the other three in longi group," tude Jupiter + 60.
Example. Shew that particular solutions of the problem of three bodies exist, in which the bodies are always collinear or always equidistant, although the mutual distances are not constant but are periodic functions of the time.
These are evidently periodic solutions of the problem, as a limiting case.

*
and include Lagrange s
particles
They were discovered by Lagrange
in
1772
Oeuvres de Lagrange,
vi.
p.
229.
For
references to extensions of these results to the problem of n bodies, cf. my article iu the Encyklopadie d. math. Wiss. vi. 2, 12, p. 529; to the papers there mentioned may be added
E. 0. Lovett, Annali di Mat. (3), xi. (1904), p. 1 W. R. Longley, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (1907), p. 324, and F. R. Moulton, Annals of Math. xn. (1910), p. 1.
;
xm.
t Cf. F. J. Linders, Arkiv for Mat.
iv.
(1908), No. 20.
394
171.

Stability of
[CH.
xv
Lagrange s
particles
periodic orbits in the vicinity.
It has been observed ( 167) that in the neighbourhood of any configuration of stable equilibrium or steady motion there exists in general a family of periodic solutions, namely the normal vibrations about the position of equilibrium or steady motion. We shall now
apply this idea to the case of the Lagrange s-particle solution of the restricted problem of three bodies, and thereby obtain certain families of periodic orbits of the planetoid.
Let
is
gravity,
be the bodies of finite mass, m 1 and m 2 their masses, their centre of n the angular velocity of SJ, x and y the coordinates of the planetoid P when taken as origin and OJ as axis of x. The equations of motion of the planetoid
S and J
are
162)
d^_ dJK
~di~du
where
Let
(a,
dy_dK
~di~~dv
du_ _dK
~di~~dx
vx)
dv__
dt~
_%&
8y
K=\(u z + v*) + n (uy

b)
-mi/SP m 2 /JP.
denote the values of

l/(m l +
(x,
sidered, so that for the collinea,r case
we have
I
y) in the position of relative equilibrium con 6 = 0, and for the equidistant case we have
a = ^(m l
m2
2 ),
=\
*J%1,
where
denotes the distance SJ, so that
46)
The values
na
Write
of u, v in the position of relative equilibrium are easily seen to be
nb and
respectively.
# = a+,
6,
,
where
77,
are supposed to be small quantities
neglecting a constant term,
we have
we
On expanding and retaining only terms of the second order in the small quantities, obtain an expression for with which the equations for the vibrations about relative equilibrium can be formed we shall for definiteness consider vibrations about the equi
distant configuration
in this case the expression for
K becomes
The equations
of motion are
~W
of a normal vibration
dK
~W
dK
dK
~3|~
dK
we
find that the period
*--frj-
Solving these equations in the manner described in Chapter VII, is 27T/X, where X is a root of the equation
X 4 - n*\* + (*i - #) n* = 0, where k =
mi + m 2
The two values
~ ^2 (f i
of X 2 given
:
s positive
is
a relation which
by this equation will be positive provided they are real, since 2 and they will be real provided 4 (f J & 2 ) 27 mj ra 2 1, or (wij + ?n 2 ) satisfied provided one of the masses S, J is sufficiently large compared
<
>
with the other.

of
periods are, to a 2 equation in X ,
When
first
the planetoid in the vicinity
two families of periodic orbits equidistant configuration of relative equilibrium : the 2 approximation, STT/XJ and 27r/X 2 where X^ and X 2 are the roots of the
this condition is satisfied, there exist
of
its
171, 172]
395
similar discussion leads to the result that the collinearLagrange s-particle configurations are unstable; but the equation for the periods of normal modes of vibration has always one real root, and consequently in the neighbourhood of a position of relative equilibrium of the planetoid on the line SJ there exists a family of unstable periodic orbits*.
Example. Shew that, for one of the modes of normal vibration of the planetoid in the in vicinity of the equidistant configuration, the constant of relative energy is greater than the configuration of relative equilibrium, while for the other mode the constant is less than
in the configuration of relative equilibrium.
(Charlier.)
172.
The differential equation of the normal displacement from an

shall
orbit.
We
now proceed
to consider the stability of orbits in general.
Suppose that some particular solution of the motion of a particle of unit mass in a plane, under the action of forces derived from a given potential energy function V, is known and consider a solution which is immediately adjacent to this known solution, and for which the constant of energy has
;
the same value.
Let
P and
Q be
,
the positions of the particle in the

t.
orbits respectively at time
Draw
a-
and
arc
let
PN = NQ = u;
a, arc
s,
let
known and adjacent QN perpendicular to the known orbit, be a fixed origin on the known orbit let
: ;
OP =
the orbit at P.
= ON = so s We shall regard the

by the quantities
p be the radius of curvature of position of any point on the adjacent

let
and
orbit as specified
(u, s).
The
when
describing the adjacent orbit
is
T=i^+i(l +
and
its
W /p)2 * 2
Lagrangian equations of motion are therefore

,
p/ p
1
ou
1
2 u\+- s+.. )
/,
\
p)
these equations possess a
)us p/
.
u\
/.,
z u\us dp = -f as
3F
-JT-
p/ p-
os
known
(
integral,
namely the integral of energy
M \2
1 H
)
s2
+ V = h,
where h
is
a constant.
The
first
Lagrangian equation and the integral become

dp
\\dujp
+
\dudajp
\du
For further work on the subject of orbits in the neighbourhood of the Lagrange s-particle cf. the memoirs referred to on page 530 of my article in the Encyjtlopadle, and also Lovett, Astr. Nach. CLIX. (1902), p. 281 Stromgren, Astr. Nach. CLXVIII. (1905), p. 105; Moulton, Math. Ann. LXXIII. (1912), p. 441.
solutions,
;
396
Since
[CH.
xv
du
and
the two preceding equations become
Eliminating
(<T
fir),
we obtain the equation

2
f/9
F\
So-
2
)
or (taking s instead of
as the independent variable,

1
and writing
v for
cr)
du
ds2
dv du
fl id
(
v ds ds
v2
du2
and
this is the differential equation
of the adjacent orbit
From this equation we can at once deduce consequences relating to For by Sturm s theorem*, if we have any the stability of the known orbit. differential equation of the form
d2u
where
for a certain
positive real quantities
a value
range of values of t the quantity / (t) lies between two a- and b-, then any solution u which is zero for within the range will be zero again for some value t within the
(t
t )
range, where
lies
between
ir/a
and
irjb,
provided the range
is
It follows that if the quantity comprehend 2 2 2 2 known orbit, this orbit will of the all is at 3v points /p positive (3 F/9w )p it once will not diverge which intersects orbit be stable^, i.e. any adjacent from it, but will intersect it again infinitely often. This expression
sufficiently large to
this interval.
greatly can therefore be called the coefficient of stability for the orbit.
Cf. Darboux, Th. gen. des Surfaces, Vol. in. 172-176, all f In the discussion of stability in
powers of the displacement above the
first
are
neglected in forming the differential equations of the adjacent orbits. The effect of the neglected terms on the stability has been studied by Levi-Civita, Annali di Mat. v. (1901), p. 221, who has found that the neglected terms give rise to instability in certain cases which appear to be stable
when only
first-order
is
terms are considered
this
(
number, where a
the characteristic exponent
175)
happens when aT/2iri is a commensurable and T is the period of the solution. Cf.
also A. E. Cigala, Annali di Mat. xi. (1904), p. 67.
172, 173]
173.

s
397
Korteweg
theorem.
orbit, with respect to which the normal a measured, is displacement u periodic orbit whose perimeter is S then if = (s + nS), u= (s) is the equation of an adjacent orbit, it is evident that u
Suppose now
that the
known
is
<f>
<f>
any integer, is also the equation of an adjacent orbit the orbits represented by these two equations are in fact congruent, but the corresponding tracing points are separated by one or more periods. In any orbit adjacent to the known orbit let u n u n+1 u n+2 (where n is an integer) denote respectively the normal displacements in the nth, (n+ l)th, and (n + 2)th period, at the same place in the orbit, so that we can write
is
:
where n
un =
where
<f>(s
+ (n(s) is
1) S),
u n+l
<
(s
+ nS),
3
u n+2
=
(f>(s
(n
1) S),
u=
<f>
a solution of the equation
d 2 u,
ds 2
, ,
dv du
v ds ds
(1 /9-F\ 2 \v*\ du /,
Since u n u n+l u n+2 are three solutions of this linear differential equation, they must satisfy a relation of the form
where k and
k^
are independent of
s.
We
um=
shall first
choice of the adjacent orbit and of the for any other set
ty (s
shew that these constants k and & are independent of the number n, so that they will be the same
x
+ (m
1) S),
u m+l
ty (s
+ mS),
u m+2
= ty (s + (m + 1) $).
,
For um
is
a linear function of the two solutions un and u n+1 say
and therefore on adding periods
to the
argument
s,
we have
But from the equations

Un+2
==
"
Un+i
"
Un
1
^n+3
fo
Un+2
"
"a
^n+i
2
>
we have
cûn ^ + c u n+s = k (c
2
u n+l
c 2 w n+2 )
k t (du n
+ c u n+l \
and therefore
u m+2 = ku m+1 + kû m)

u
,
which shews that the constants occurring in the linear relation between
u m+z, u m+l
,
are the
,
same
as
those occurring in the linear relation
between u n+2 u n+l

Next, we
un
shall find the value of the constant k^.
From
n
the equations
d2 un
ds-
dv du n vds ds
1
[1 /S
F\
2
31
p*)
l*\8tt*/
/t-f-l
j
I
ds
1
"
dv du ~ -- n+l n -L
~J~~
1 /9 If ~
f
1
F\
n
ds
ds
~^\
398
we have
un
tt

//S?/
.
"1
[CH.
xv
/"/".I/
-til
I//
tv 7)4-1
t-t t/
/-/î
/
/
/Y J/ W/
tlfr
/7 II
IX/ I* *]
and hence, on integrating,

au n
as
7
un
au n+ i
as
j-
where
c is
a constant.
Changing
s to s
+ S, we
have
ds
/ 7
ds
fi i/
ds
7
cu n+l
+ k lUn )a Wn+j
^ ^71-t-l
di
-
u n+1
rit i wW/Tj.-^!
riii
IX/M/TJ,
^
,
^/c-^- .^-jg-J
dtO
1
~dT
so that &i has the value
ds
, ,
1. thus have the theorem* that if u n u n+l un+ denote the normal displacements in an orbit adjacent to a known periodic orbit in three consecutive revolutions, the ratio k = (u n+2 + u n )/u n+1 has a constant
We
value, which is the
same for
all
adjacent orbits.
174.
The index of stability.

ratio
The constant
k= (u n +z+ u n )/un+1
where un u n+1 u n+2 are the normal

,
displacements from a periodic orbit in three consecutive revolutions, is called the index of stability of the periodic orbit, for reasons which will now appear.
The nature
of the integral of the difference-equation ^n+2

rCUn+i
~^~
Un
"
depends, as
is
well known, on the reality or non-reality of the roots of the
quadratic equation
\*-k\ + I= 0,
i.e. it
2 or k 2. depends on whether k = 2 cosh a Supposing first that k is positive and greater than 2, write k a a then the roots of the quadratic are e and e~ and we know that two inde pendent solutions of the difference-equation are of the form
>
<
j j
as
u = e^
where
<
<f>
(s)
and
_as
"
tt (s),
:
are functions of s which have the period S these functions so as to make the solutions u satisfy the equation
(s)
and
-v|r
(s)
choosing
+ TT as
*
d*u
3 Idvdu (1/8 2 F\ ~ 4 j- -3-+ 11 T^ v as as [& \ou* J
Korteweg, Wiener Sltzungsber. xcm. (1886).
173, 174]
399
(which gives linear differential equations of the second order for the functions and -vjr), we have two independent particular solutions of the latter equation
:
(f>
the general solution is a linear combination of these particular solutions, and consequently the general equation of the orbits adjacent to the known orbit, when k 2, is of the form
>
a*
u-K
where
*4>(*y
+ K e~~s + 0),
t
<j>(s)
a*
and
K
if
are arbitrary constants, and

<
and ^(s) have the period
S.
Similarly
2,
writing k
orbit
as
<f>
=
is
orbits adjacent to the
known
u
the general equation of the of the same form

2 cosh
a,
K^
(s)
K e~^^r (s\
z
_os
where which
2 are arbitrary constants, and where the satisfy equations

l
and
and
<f>
$*
are functions of s
Next suppose that k 2 k 2 let k = 2 cos a. In the 2, so that same way we now find that the general equation of orbits adjacent to the
<
<
<
known
orbit is
where
K and A
are arbitrary constants and where
and
<f>
^r are functions of s
with the period S.
the
From these results important consequences relative known periodic orbit can be deduced. For if k 2,
>
<
to the stability of it follows from the
character of the expressions obtained for u that the divergence from the and ^r have real zeros, the oscillation about it) becomes periodic orbit (or if
continually greater as s increases while if k 2, the normal displacement is represented by circular functions of real will arguments, and
;
<
consequently obtain the theorem that a periodic orbit is stable or not, according as the associated index of stability is less or greater (in absolute value) than two.
remain within fixed
limits.
We thus
The results of the present article agree with, and may be deduced from, the theorem that the general solution of a differential equation of the type
(Pu p
is
+( (n +
,
2?rs
i
cos
-- +
.
cos
_+
47T
\
. 1
of the form
a, b are
u = ae $
arbitrary constants, c
(s}
+ be~ ^ (s),
C8
where
period S.
Of.
is a definite constant, and $ and Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis, Chapter xix.
^ are
periodic with
400

:
[CH.
xv
values
Example. Discuss the transitional case in which the index of stability has one of the 2 shewing that the equation of the adjacent orbits is of one of the forms
u = KI
where
{//
either have the period
or satisfy the equations
and that the known orbit may be either stable or unstable.

175.
(Korteweg.)
Characteristic exponents.
The stability of types of motion of more general dynamical systems may be discussed by the aid of certain constants to which Poincare has given the
name
characteristic exponents*.
Consider any set of differential equations
where (X^,
is
2,
...,
Xn
;
having a period
T in t
are functions of (a^, a?2 ..., xn } and possibly also of t, and suppose that a periodic solution of these equations
,
known, defined by the equations
where
fa
(t
+ T) = fa (t)
this,
(i
1, 2,
n).
In order to investigate solutions adjacent to
we
write
where (1,
equations
(
n) are
supposed to be small, and are given by the variational
112)
fit \Juv
7
,
^ ^
K= 1
,
cjfc
"^
rtf, ^
^ ( ^
==
J-
.
>
n).
As these are linear differential equations, with coefficients periodic in the independent variable t, it is known from the general theory of linear differential equations that each of the variables & will be of the form
where the quantities S{k denote periodic functions of t with the period T, and the n quantities ak are constants, which are called the characteristic exponents
of the periodic solution.
If
(fi,
*
all
&,
>
the characteristic exponents are purely imaginary, the functions fn) can evidently be expressed as sums and products of purely
Math. xin. (1890), p. 1 ; Nouv. Meth. de la Mec. Gel. i. (1892). On the general problem of stability the reader should consult the extensive memoir of A. Liapounoff , originally published
in 1892 by the
Ada
Math. Soc. of Kharkow, and translated into French by E. Davaux, Annales de

203.
Toulouse
(2), ix. (1907), p.
174-176]
401
periodic terms; while this is evidently not the case if the characteristic exponents are not all purely imaginary. Hence the condition for stability
of the periodic orbit

imaginary.
is
that all the characteristic exponents
must
be purely
We shall now find the equation which determines the characteristic exponents of a given solution.
denote the
In one of the orbits adjacent to the given periodic orbit, let ({31} /32 ... @n ) initial values of (, %%, ..., n ) and let /3j + fa be the value of
, ,
,-
after the lapse of a period.
quantities (fa^faz, ...,fa n ) are one- valued functions of (&, $,, ...,&), which are zero when (&, /3 2 ..., /3 n ) are all zero, we
,
As the
have by Taylor s theorem (neglecting squares and products of
&, j82
@n )
If a k is one of the characteristic exponents, one of the adjacent orbits will be defined by equations of the form
and consequently a
set of values of
&
/3 2
@n exists for which the equations
(i=l,
are satisfied
:
2,
...,n)
the quantity a k must therefore be a root of the equation in a

vfai
O.T a ^- + l-e OPi
-i
9^1 r
aT
9"^
^-
Op 2
dfa 2
.
f)ft
dfa2
9-^
T/ie characteristic exponents are therefore the roots
of
this
determinantal
equation.
176.
Properties of the characteristic exponents.

t is
When
not contained explicitly in the functions

Xi
(X lt
X.,, ...,
Xn\
it is
evident that
if
fa
(t)
is
a solution of the equations, then

e)
W. D.
26
402
is

where
e is
[OH.
xv
also a solution,
The equations
(t-1,2,...,*)
&-*(*+)
therefore define a particular solution of the variational equations; but as a periodic function of t, it follows that the coeffi d(j)i(t + e)/de is evidently
cient e akt reduces in this case to unity: and hence when t is not contained characteristic explicitly in the original differential equations, one of the
exponents of every periodic solution
is zero.
Suppose next that the system possesses an integral of the form
F (#!
where
x2
...,
x^ = Constant
(oc^,
is
a one-valued function of
last article,
x2
...,
x n ) and does not involve
t.
In the notation of the
we have
t
F
{</>>
(0)
+ }=F
i
(</>;
(0)
,
+ &},
x.2 ,
.
where
for brevity
F (#;) is
written in place of
/3 fj
F (i
xn ).
Differentiating
this equation
with respect to
,
we have
2
dFty + dFd+ Wi* ^m

tez
W^
,
_
xn ) are to be replaced
teW<
where in dF/dx 1} dF/dx2
etc.,
by
fa (0),
<j)
(0),
,
(j>
n (0).
From
8
1
,
the quantities (x1} cc2 these equations
...,
it
follows that either the
Jacobian
8(<f lf
i/r 2
..., A/r, l )/a( /
&,
zero
...,
is
zero, or else the quantities
dF/dx,, dF/dx2
is
dF/dxn are correct, we see that (since the origin of time

,
...,
all
when
= 0.
is
If the latter alternative
arbitrary) the equations
=
must be
0,
dF/dx,
0,
dFldaen
satisfied at all points
a very exceptional case, and true one but when the Jacobian
:
of the periodic solution: this is evidently the former alternative must be in general the
is zero,
characteristic exponents is = so that one of the characteristic exponents

:
the determinantal equation for the aT evidently satisfied by the value e =l, i.e. by
is
zero.
Thus if
the
differential equations possess a one-valued integral, one of the characteristic
exponents
is zero.
A comparison of 173, 174 with the theory of characteristic shews that in the motion of a particle in a plane under the conservative forces, the characteristic exponents of any periodic a is connected with a), where the characteristic exponent (0, 0, a, of stability k and the period T by the equation
k
the orbit
is
exponents
action
of
orbit are
the index
2 cosh
aT
stable or unstable according as a
is
purely imaginary or not.
176, 177]
Example
1.

If the differential equations
403
explicitly,
do not involve the time
and
possess p one-valued integrals /\, ..., p which do not involve t, shew that either (p+l) characteristic exponents are zero, or that all the determinants contained in the matrix
dF
9âre zero at all points of the periodic solution considered.
2.
(i
= l,
2,...,^;
= 1,2,
...,),
(Poincare.)
If the differential equations form a Hamiltonian system, shew that the Example characteristic exponents of any periodic solution can be arranged in pairs, the exponents of each pair being equal in
magnitude but opposite

repellent regions of
in sign.
(Poincare.)
177.
Attractive
and
a field of force.
The general character of the motion of a conservative holonomic system by a theorem which was given by Hadamard* in 1897. For we shall suppose that the system consists of a simplicity, particle of unit which is free move on a to smooth surface under forces derivable mass, given
is
illustrated
from a potential energy function V; a similar result will readily be seen to hold for more complex systems.
Let (u, v) be two parameters which specify the position of the particle on the surface, and let the line-element on the surface be given by the equation
ds*
= Edu* + 2Fdudv +
Gdv*
where (E, F, G) are given functions of n and

particle
is
v.
The
kinetic energy of the
T = \ (Eu? +
_
dt\du
which can be written
du
dv
2Fui>
Gtf},
and the Lagrangian equations of motion are

du
du
dt\dv
.__
dv
z
dv
-^
du
du
-^
dv
du
dv
1
"
"\
"
ff
~^
if)uj
dv
" ff *
^ dv
~~~
1 * ~7 -
duj
We
have, by differentiation,
T>
V=
37.
-~-
ou
+
2
dV
dv
_
v,
dV.. w -^ du
+ -^+ dv
-y
dV..
-u +2 du
.,
dudv
^- uv + .
v.
dv*
Journ. de Math.
(5),
in. p. 331.
262
404

u and
v
[CH.
xv
Substituting for
their values from
the preceding equations,
we have
where
8F/ .,9^ + -=^^ 3^ dv

V
^
z.
dG dG dr F G + *F
(*
du
dv
dv
dv
( \
ZF
dv
2
ZG
dv
ZG
9tt
quantities occurring in this equation can be expressed in terms of The principal deformation-co variants connected deformation-covariants*.
The
with the surface whose line-element

ds*
is

Gdv"
= Edu- + ZFdudv +
are the differential parameters
f ) = (EG - F*r
\B%&-F&& + % f}
A,
W = (EG - F*r
Bj
dv dv
\du dv
dv du/
du
2F
du dv
+ G
where
<
and
-fy
are arbitrary functions of the variables u
and
v.
With
this notation, the preceding equation
becomes
Utilising the equation of energy
Eu + 2Fuv + Gv*=2(h2
V),
and observing that the expression

3>
(u, v)
Eu>
+ 2Fuv +
Gv*
- d V/du) (d V/dv, E(d V/dvf 2F(d V/dv) (d V/du) + G(d V/du)

<
The
definition of a deformation -covariant is given in the footnote
on page
111.
177]
405
contains the quantity (udV/du
vdV/dv) as a factor, we can write
r=-A
where \ and
yu,
8(-V)/_
1 (F>+
Al (F)
+(XU + ^)F;
contain in their denominators only the quantity
and where I v denotes the expression

3>
(d V/dv,
- dV/du)/(EG - F*)
in the form
we
readily find that
I v can be expressed
Consider, on the orbit of the particle, a point at which has a minimum value at such a point is zero and is positive as A, ( F) is essentially positive (since the line-element of the surface is a positive definite form), it
;
follows that
zero,
i.e.
at
/FÔ, the inequality becoming an equality only when A, (F) an equilibrium-position of the particle.
is
As
an
the general case) or (in exceptional cases) the function will, after passing some point of the orbit, vary continually in the same sense. Suppose first that the former of
is
infinite
the particle describes any trajectory, the function number of successive maxima and minima (this
F will
either have
regions contains in general an infinite number of distinct of the each of finite orbit, parts length whereas in the other region, for which I v is negative, the particle cannot remain per
points of the orbit at which
is the true one then if we divide the given surface into two regions, in which 7 r is positive and negative respectively, it follows from what has been proved above that the former of these contains all the
:
these alternatives
Fhas
minimum
value,
i.e. it
manently.
attractive
it is
These two parts of the surface are on this account called the and repellent regions. Each of these regions exists in general, for
any isolated point of the surface at which F is a mini any point where stable equilibrium is possible) is in an attractive region, and any point at which Fis a maximum is in a repellent region.
easily found that

(i.e.
mum
It is interesting to compare this result with that which corresponds to it in the motion of a particle with one degree of freedom, e.g. a particle which is free to move on a curve under the action of a force which depends only on the position of the particle. In this case the particle either ultimately travels an indefinite distance in one direction or oscillates about a position of stable equilibrium. The attractive region, in motion with two degrees of freedom, corresponds to the position of stable equilibrium in motion with one degree of
freedom.
Consider next the alternative supposition, namely that after some definite F is always in the same sense. We shall suppose that the surface has no infinite sheets and is at all and that
instant the variation of
regular
points,
;
Fis
an everywhere regular function of position on the surface
so that, since the
406
variation of
finite limit,
[CH.
xv
V is always in the same sense, V must tend toward some definite V and V tending to the limit zero. Considering the equation
x
region length But greater than any assignable quantity) or else Aj(F) tends to zero. Aj ( F) can be zero only when d V/du and d V/dv are zero if therefore (as is in general the case) the surface possesses only a finite number of equilibrium
;
see that if A ( F) is not very small, X and /j, are finite and the last term on the right-hand side of the equation is infinitesimal; and consequently either there exist values of t as large as we please for which I v is positive (in which case the part of the orbit described in the attractive is of
we
positions, the particle will tend to one of these positions, with a velocity which tends to zero. position of equilibrium thus
approached asymptotically
equilibrium
must be a
versed
is
for the asymptotic motion re position of unstable equilibrium a motion in which the particle, being initially near the
:
position with a small velocity, does not remain in the neighbourhood of the equilibrium position and this is inconsistent with the definition of stability.
;
Thus
follows
:
finally
we obtain Hadamard s theorem, which may be

move on a surface which
is
stated as
If a
particle is free to
everywhere regular
infinite sheets, the potential energy function being regular at all points of the surface arid having only a finite number of maxima and minima on it, either the part of the orbit described in the attractive region is of length
and has no
greater than any assignable quantity, or else the orbit tends asymptotically one of the positions of unstable equilibrium.
for part of its course
to
Example. If all values of t from - x to + oo are considered, shew that the particle must be in the attractive region.
178.
problem of stability. simple criterion for determining the character of a given form of motion of a dynamical system is often furnished by the equation of energy of the
Application of the energy integral
to the
system.
in a plane
Considering the case of a single particle of unit mass which moves under the influence of forces derived from a potential energy
y),
function V(x,
the equation of energy can be written

^(x-
+ y ) = h2
V(x,y).
Now
for
is
the branches of the curve V(x, y)

h] is
=h
separate the plane into regions
respectively positive and negative; but as (&-+y*) an orbit for which the total energy is h can essentially positive, only exist in the regions for which V(x, y)<h. If then the particle is at any time in the interior of a closed branch of the curve V(x,y} = h, it must always remain
which [V(x, y)
within this region.
The word
moving
stability is often applied to characterise types
of motion in which the
particle
is
confined to certain limited regions,

is
and in
stable.
this sense
we may say
that the motion of the particle in question
177-179]
407
in
The above method has been used by Hill*, Bohlinf, and Darwin J, chiefly connexion with the restricted problem of three bodies.
179.
Application of integral-invariants
stability
to investigations
of
stability.
to a system which, in the lapse of time, returns infinitely often to positions indefinitely near to its original It has been shewn by position, the intervening oscillations being of any magnitude. Poincare that the theory of integral-invariants may be applied to the discussion of Poisson
in a different sense
The term
was applied
by Poisson
stability.
Considering a system of .differential equations
for
is
which
I ... I
fta?&B
...
8x
an integral-invariant, we regard these equations as denning the trajectory in n dimen sions of a point whose coordinates are (xv #2 -., %) If the trajectories have no
branches receding to an infinite distance from the origin, it may be shewn that if any small region R is taken in the space, there exist trajectories which traverse II infinitely often
:
and, in fact, the probability that a trajectory issuing from a point of R does not traverse this region infinitely often is zero, however small may be. Poincare has given several extensions of this method, and has shewn that under certain conditions it is applicable in
the restricted problem of three bodies.
that the motion of a particle in an ellipse under the influence of two fixed Newtonian centres offeree is stable. (Novikoff.)
1.
Shew
2.
particle of unit
centres of force which attract
the distance
the integral
is free to move in a plane under the action of several according to the Newtonian law of the inverse square of denoting the resulting potential energy of the particle by V(x, y\ shew that
mass
it
1-
log {h
V (a-%
where the integration is taken over the interior of any periodic orbit for which the constant of energy has the value h (the centres of force being excluded from the field of integration
by small
3.
circles of arbitrary infinitesimal radius), enclosed by the orbit, diminished by two.
equal to the number of centres of force (Monthly Notices R.A.S. LXII. p. 186.) Let a family of orbits in a plane be defined by a differential equation
is
where (#, y) are the current rectangular coordinates of a point on an orbit of the family and let 8n denote the normal distance from the point (,v, y) to some definite orbit
;
adjacent
of the family.
Shew that 8n
satisfies
the equation
Amer. J. Math.
i.
(1878), p. 75.
f Acta Math.
+ Acta Math. xxi. (1897), p. 99. Poincare, Acta Math. xin. (1890), p. 67
x. (1887), p. 109.
Nouv. Meth. in. Ch. xxvu.
408
where

r fdy\ 4 1 + /= -/
I-,
[CH.
M( - 3$ ^ + dy S0\ ^-) + {(b(x,

-f-
y)}
and
is
a variable defined by the gquation

dt *:l
\dx
(Sheepshanks Astron. Exam.)
A particle moves under the influence of a repulsive force from a fixed centre shew 4. that the path is always of a hyperbolic character, and never surrounds the centre of force that the asymptotes do not pass through the centre in the cases when the work, which has
:
to be done against the force in order to bring the particle to its position from an infinite distance, has a finite value but that when this work is infinitely great, the asymptotes
;
pass through the centre, and the duration of the whole motion
may
be
finite.
(Schouten.)
5. Shew that in the motion of a particle on a fixed smooth surface under the influence of gravity, the curve of separation between the attractive and repellent regions of the surface is formed by the apparent horizontal contour of the surface, together with the locus
of points at which an asymptotic direction

6.
is
horizontal.
moves freely in space under the influence of two Newtonian centres of shew that when its constant of energy is negative, it describes a spiral curve round the line joining the centres, remaining within a tubular region bounded by two ellipsoids of rotation and two hyperboloids of rotation, whose foci are the centres of force and that when the constant of energy is zero or positive, the particle describes a spiral path within a region which is bounded by an ellipsoid and two infinite sheets of hyper boloids of the same confocal system. (Bonacini.)
particle
;
attraction
The necessary and sufficient condition in order that a two-parameter family of 7. curves defined by a differential equation
y"=(x,y,
/)
is
may
be a system of orbits with the same constant of energy
that
shall
be a linear homogeneous perfect differential.
The
potential energy
is
then a
constant multiple of
.-*f(8-&)*
(P. Frank.)
In the motion of a particle in a plane under forces which depend only on its position, 8. a one-parameter family of trajectories is obtained by starting particles at a given point in a given direction with all possible velocities. Shew that the locus of the foci of the osculating
parabolas is a circle passing through the point. If the initial direction is now varied, shew that the locus of the centres of the oo 1 circles obtained is a conic having the given point as focus and if the forces are conservative, this degenerates into a straight line counted
:
twice.
9.
in every direction,
In order that a system of oc 5 space-curves, of which x 1 pass through every point may be identifiable with the system of trajectories of a particle in an
is
arbitrary positional field of force, it should have the following properties

:
necessary (but not sufficient) that the system
(a)
The
:
a pencil
that
is, all
2 curves passing through a given point form osculating planes of the oo the planes pass through a fixed direction.
xv]
(/3)

The osculating spheres
:
409
of the
oc
curves passing through a given point in a given
direction form a pencil
their centres thus lie on a straight line.
10. Shew that the on 2 curves of a natural family which meet any surface orthogonally are orthogonal to oc 1 surfaces, that is, form a normal congruence. (The surfaces in question are the surfaces of equal Action.) (Hamilton.) 11.
Shew
that the property referred to in Ex.
10 belongs exclusively to natural
families.
12.
In order that a family of
oc 4
curves in space
sufficient, viz.
:
may
constitute a natural family of
orbits,
two properties are necessary and
(a)
point
If the osculating circles of those curves of the family which pass through a given are constructed at that point, they have a second point in common, and thus
form a bundle.
Consequently, three of the circles in such a bundle have four-point contact with the corresponding curves.
(/3)
These three hyperosculating
circles will
be mutually orthogonal.
13. The only point-transformations which convert every natural family into a natural family are those belonging to the conformal group.
[Examples
8, 9, 11, 12,
13 above are taken from memoirs by E. Kasner in the Trans
actions of the Amer. Math. Soc., 1906-1909. For further work in this direction the reader is referred to Professor Kasner s Princeton Colloquium lectures on Differential Geometric
Aspects of Dynamics.]
14.
Two
sets of oo
a certain conservative
particle considered as
field of force.
curves in a plane, which form an orthogonal system, are orbits in If U denote the Action at any point (x, y~] of a
of the first set of orbits, and denote the Action at moving on one of the second set of orbits, shew of x-
moving on one
y) that
(x,
when the
particle is considered as
U and V are conjugate functions U= constant, V constant, are identical
and y
and that the families of curves

(P. G. Tait
with the orbits.
and K. Ogura.)
CHAPTER XVI
180.
The need for

series.
series
which converge for
all
values of the
time;
Poincares
We
have already observed
32) that the differential equations of motion
of a dynamical system can be solved in terms of series of ascending powers of the time measured from some fixed epoch these series converge in
;
within some definite circle of convergence in the -plane, and consequently will not furnish the values of the coordinates except for a limited interval of time. By means of the process of analytic
general for values of
t
continuation* it would be possible to derive from these series successive sets of other power-series, which would converge for values of the time outside this interval but the process of continuation is too cumbrous to be of much use
;
in practice, and the series thus derived give no insight into the general character of the motion, or indication of the remote future of the system. The efforts of investigators have therefore been directed to the problem of
expressing the coordinates of a dynamical system by means of expansions which converge for all values of the time. One method of achieving this
is to apply a transformation to the -plane. Assuming that the motion of the system is always regular (i.e. that there are no collisions or other discontinuities, and that the coordinates are always finite), there will be no singularities of the system at points on the real axis in the -plane, and
result j-
the divergence of the power-series in t 1 after a certain interval of time must therefore be due to the existence of singularities of the solution in the finite part of the -plane but not on the real axis. Suppose that the singu
larity
and
let
which is nearest to the real axis is at a distance h from the T be a new variable defined by the equation
t
real axis
~t =
2h
7T
I+T
log 1
.
T
in the
band which extends

*
to a distance h
on either side of the real axis

JT
-plane evidently corresponds

Of.
to the interior of the circle

5.
=1
in
the
Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis, 5 t Due to Poincare, Acta Math. iv. (1884), p. 211.
180, 181]
;
Integration by Trigonometric Series
411
the coordinates of the dynamical system are therefore regular r-plane functions of T at all points in the interior of this circle, and consequently within they can be expressed as power-series in the variable T, convergent for all real values of T this circle. These series will therefore
converge
t
between
and
1, i.e.
for all real values of
between
oc
and
oc
Thus
these series are valid for
all values of the time.
181.
The regularisation of
last article
the
Problem of Three Bodies.
In the
we made the
reservation that there are to be no collisions

t.
or other discontinuities for real values of
The importance
of collisions in
the mathematical theory of the Problem of Three Bodies was first indicated by Painleve *, who shewed that the motion of the bodies is regular (i.e. their
coordinates are holomorphic functions of t) for all time, provided the initial conditions are not such that after a finite interval of time two of the bodies
collide.
The
relations -which
must subsist between the
initial values of
the
may ultimately happen between two of the three bodies have been discussed by Levi-Civitaf for the restricted problem of three bodies (when there is one such relation) and by Bisconcini \ for the general problem, when there are two relations these relations are analytic, but they are expressed by somewhat complicated infinite series, and are not
variables in order that a collision
:
directly applicable except
when the
interval of time
between the
initial instant
and the
collision is sufficiently short.
considerable advance was
made when K.
F.
Sundman shewed
that the
a collision of two singularity of the differential equations which corresponds to of the bodies is not of an essential character, and that it may in fact be removed altogether by making a suitable change of the independent variable that is to say, it is possible to choose the variables which specify the motion,
and the independent variable, in such a way that the differential equations of motion are regular even when two -of the three bodies occupy coincident It is thus possible to obtain a real prolongation of the motion positions
||.
after the collision IF: the coordinates can be specified for all values of the time t oo to + oo from whether collisions take place or not and a positive lower
,
:
bound
*
can be assigned to the two greater of the mutual distances.
There
Lemons sur la theorie anal, des eq. diff ., Paris, 1897, p. 583. f Annali di Mat. (3) ix. (1903), p. 1 ; Comptes Rendus, cxxxvi. (1903), pp. 82, 221. * Acta Math. xxx. Cf. also H. Block, Medd. fran Lunds Obs., Series n., No. 6 (1905), p. 49. (1909); Arkivf. Mat. Astr. och Fys. v. (1909), No. 9.
Acta Math, xxxvi. (1912),
p.
105.
The
essential
features of the
work were
originally
published in Acta Societatis Sclent. Fennicae in 1906 and 1909. Levi-Civita regularised the differential equations of the restricted problem of three bodies by an elementary transformation in Acta Math. xxx. (1906), p. 306; and in a later paper, Rend, d. Lincei, xxiv. (1915), p. 61, he extended this to the problem of three bodies in a plane.
||
If
The
instant of collision
variables can be expanded in ascending powers of (ti - 1)&, where the orbits hare cusps at the point of impact.
:
ti
represents the
412
is
[CH.
xvi
only one case of exception, namely when all three bodies collide simul taneously but this can happen only in a very special type of motion, in which all the constants of angular momentum are zero together*.
:
Disregarding this case of triple
collision,
Sundman
introduced a
new
independent variable
defined by the equation
where r
already mentioned.
r 1} rz denote the three mutual distances, and I is the lower bound The coordinates of the bodies, and the time, are then
holomorphic functions of
within a band of finite breadth
2O
in the w-plane,
bounded by two
exists
and on either side of it. There a continuous one-to-one correspondence between the real values of t and
lines parallel to the real axis
the real values of w, so that varies from oo to + ac

.
when
varies from
oo
to
oo
likewise
Lastly,
Sundman
applied Poincare
,
transformation
iv
I+T = 2H,log8
7T
1-T
in order to transform the
band
r.
the plane of a
time, are
new
variable
in the w-plane into a circle of radius unity in The coordinates of the three bodies, and the
now holomorphic
:
functions of T everywhere within the unit circle in
the r-plane and therefore they can be expanded as convergent series of powers of T for all real values of the time, whether there are collisions or not the case of triple collision alone being excepted.
:
182.
Trigonometric
series.
series discussed in the preceding articles are all open to the objection that they give no evident indication of the nature of the motion of the
The
system after the lapse of a great interval of time

the
they also throw no light on
number and character

:
in the
problem with great difficulties. Under these circumstances we are led to investigate expansions of an altogether different type.
If in the solution of the problem of the simple pendulum ( 44) we consider the oscillatory type of motion, and replace the elliptic function by its ex we have pansion as a trigonometric series
,
of the distinct types of motion which are possible and the actual execution of the processes described is attended
27T
-
g4.-
(2s-l)^(t-t )
Q
:
~~
This
last fact
had been known
to Weierstrass
cf.
Acta Math. xxxv.
p. 55.
The motion
is
then in one plane.

t
G-.
A simpler equation available in the restricted problem Armellini, Comptes Rendus, CLVIII. (1914), p. 253.
22
6.
of three bodies
was given by
J Cf. Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis,
181-183]
413
;
where 6 denotes the inclination of the pendulum to the vertical at time t and t may be regarded as the two arbitrary constants of the solution, and is a definite constant, while q denotes e~ vK IK where is the complete to K. This each term of which elliptic integral complementary expansion,
/j,
a trigonometric function of t, is valid for all time. Moreover, when the constant q is not large, the first few terms of the series give a close approxi mation to the motion for all values of t. The circulatory type of motion
is
of the
pendulum may be
similarly expressed
by a trigonometric
series of the
same
general character.
Turning now to Celestial Mechanics, we find that series of trigonometric terms have long been recognised as the most convenient method of expressing
the coordinates of the
members
,
of the solar system
these series are of the

k ),
type
2tfn,,n 2
...,n fc
cos (nl 6l
n.2
62
-\-
...
+nk
where the summation is taken over positive and negative integer values of % 1} nz ..., n k and 6 r is of the form \ r t + e r the quantities a, X, and e being constants. Delaunay* shewed in 1860 that the coordinates of the moon can be expressed in this way; Newcombf in 1874 obtained a similar result for the coordinates of the planets, and several later writers J have
, , ;
designed
processes for the solution of the general Problem of Three Bodies in this form these processes are also applicable to other dynamical systems whose equations of motion are of a certain type resembling those of the Problem of Three Bodies. In the following articles we shall give a method which is applicable to all dynamical systems and leads to solutions in the form of
;
trigonometric series the method consists essentially, as will be seen, in the repeated application of contact-transformations, which ultimately reduce the problem to the equilibrium -problem.
:
Removal of terms of the first degree from the energy function Consider then a dynamical system, whose equations of motion are
183.
dqr_dH dt~dp r
where the energy function
dp r
__ dff
dfr
t
dt~~
1,2, ...,w),
explicitly.
H does not involve the time

8
The
algebraic solution of the 2n simultaneous equations
/=
dp r
0,
^=
oqr
(a,,
(r-1,
az
,
*.,,)
,
will furnish in general for the variables (q,, q.

*
one or more sets of values

...,
...,
a n b l} 62
,
..., 6 n )
2>
q n ,p lt ...,p n );
and each of these
sets of values
Theorie du mouvement de la lune. Paris, 1860. J e.g. Lindstedt, Tisserand, and Poincare. Whittaker, Proc. Land. Math. Soc. xxxiv. (1902),
f Smithsonian Contributions, 1874.

p. 206.
414
[OH.
xvi
will correspond to a form of equilibrium or (if the above equations are those of a reduced system) steady motion of the system.
b n ) be selected Let any one of these sets of values (a a2 ..., a n b 1} b 2 shall shew how to find expansions which represent the solution of the problem when the motion is of a type terminated by this form of equilibrium
l
, ,
,
. .
we
Thus if the system considered were the simple pendulum, or steady motion. and the form of equilibrium chosen were that in which the pendulum hangs
which would the motion is of the represent the solution of the pendulum problem when
vertically
downwards
at rest, our
aim would be
to find series
oscillatory type.
Take then new

equations
f
,
variables
(q,
q2
...,
qn
pS,
...,p n \ defined
by the
n)
;
qr
ar
qr
p r = b r +pr
(r
1,2,
...,
the equations of motion become
dq ar
7.
dH _
"i
dpr
*
)
dH
O
/
dt
dp,
dt
7i
I
*>
/
">
ni
"/>
dq r
variables the function
and
for sufficiently small values of
the
new
H can be
expanded as a multiple power
series in the
l
form
...,
H=H + H + H. + H,+
2
where
denotes terms homogeneous of the kih degree in the variables

(qi, q*,
>
q n ,pi,
-,pn)it
Since
does not contain any of the variables,
may be omitted and the

:
fact that the differential equations are satisfied when q z ..., q n p, ..., p n ) vanish should are permanently zero requires that l identically. The expansion which with the terms therefore of 2 (suppressing the accents of
(<//,
begins
the
new
variables)
may
-
H.2
= ^2
(a rr g r
2orS q r q s )
tt r s
where
but b n
is
+ 2b n qrp + = asr, c rs = c sr
8
.
^
,
(c rr
pS
4-
2c n p r p,\
If the terms not necessarily equal to b sr 4 ,... were neglected s those of a vibrational become would the with in comparison 2 equations
,
H H
problem (Chapter VII).

184.
Determination of the normal coordinates by a contact-transformation.

shall
a contact-transformation to the system in order to in fact, to obtain variables which correspond 2 in a simpler form *, express to normal coordinates for small vibrations of the system.
We
now apply
* In obtaining the transformation of this article a method is used which was suggested to the author by Dr Bromwich, and which furnishes the transformation more directly than the method
originally devised.
183, 184]
415
Consider the set of 2n equations
(r
= l,2,...,w)
~ 8aSr
^dy r
or
z^
a rz x.2
x
. .
*>
>
Xn
>
y^>
y^). .
.
syr = a
sx.r
rl
x +
1
+ cn y + ) we obtain for s the determinantal equation which in 84 was denoted by f(s) = we shall suppose that 2 is a positive definite form, and (as in 84) we shall denote the roots of the equation is 2 is n the quantities s lt s. ... sn are all real, and for isi, ..., by simplicity we shall suppose no two of them to be equal.
...
J U.A x o 2r z lr x l + o.
+ +
+ a rn xn + n y^ +
\)
j.7 o nr x n
+ brn yn\ = + crn yn l(r l,2,...,n).
On
solving these equations,
root there will correspond a set of values for the ratios of the .., xn y lt ..., y n }; let the set which correspond to the root quantities (xl xz
,
To each
is r
be denoted by (y^, r x2 ..., fXn ry^, is r be denoted by spond to the root

,
,
..., r y n ),
and
,
let
the set which corre

,
(_,.#!,
_,^2
...,
-rXn - ryi,
...,
-r
so
yn)>
that
we have
Multiply these equations by kxp and k yp respectively, add them, and respect to p we thus obtain the equation
;
sum
with
n
is,.
2,
\ jcp k yp
t
ifKp r
yp )
= -H
(?% k),
where
1
\ i
/t/ )
-,
ll ^*** i
Ic^l
<~
^**3
jx-
Jb"^2
*~
K^\ T^^f
"
""
^H
vQb]
jfc
Vi
r* Jt^- i t 1/i /
~T~
so that
(r,
k)
is
symmetrically related to r and

k,
k.
Interchanging r and
is k
we have
(kXp
r
2
P=I
yp
rXp kyp )
H
k
(r,
k\
0.
and therefore
So, unless s r
(s r
is zero,
+ sk ) ^
P=I
(^
r yp
^xp
yp ) =
+ sk
we have
n
-^
^~
\.^^p kyj)
p
sr
jPs
is
and consequently H (r, k) = and therefore k yp

-,-!/]>,
is
zero
if
+ sk
zero,
we have
^p = -rXp
n
1S r
p=l
\rXp
ryp
r Xp
ryp)
"
\f>
**/

If
[CH.
xvi
now we
1
define
V~T*1 6
i
i
new
-
variables
i
((?/,
q2
A
...,
q n PI,
,
Pn) by the equations

I
n ~fr
v
7"
{
;2 1
>
74
/ *2
n
i
.
I"*//-
/*
_-
lit
Pr = tfr
vr
1
J.
.
"i
n).
and
if 8
and
denote any two independent modes of variation,
it is
evident
f yi),
thai the coefficient of tar Ac* in
2 (Sqi&p t
bqiSpi)
n
is
2 (M - kyi - -&i
1=1
which
is
zero
when
is
not equal to
k.
Thus 2 (Sqi&pi
AqiSpi) contains no
is
terms except such as (Sq r &p,.
- Agv &p/), and
the coefficient of this term

rXi, r yi
(i-ici
- ryi
-ri
ryi)-
Now
hitherto the actual values of
have not been

;
fixed, as only their ratios are
determined from their equations of definition
we may
therefore choose their values so that
2 O* - ryi - -M ryi) = 1
1=1
(r
i, 2,
n),
and then we
shall n
have
n
2
1=1
(8qi&pi
&qi$pi)=
2
r=l
(Sq r
&p r
Agv Sp/),
,
,
.
Pn) 128) the transformation from the variables (ql} q 2 ...,qn PI, to the variables (g/, q%, .... q n pi, ..., p n ) is a contact-transformation. substitute for (q lt q 2 ..., q n plt ...,p n ) in terms of 2 we Moreover, if in
so that
(
,
(q\>
q*>
->
qn, Pi,
Pn),
we obtain
2
H = r=l 2 H
or
(r,
- r) qr pr
.
H=
2
n
i
2
r=l
sr q r
pr
,
q2 apply to the variables transformation defined by the equations

(<?/,
Now
...,
qn
PI,
...,
pn
the contact-
dW
^r
where
which gives
Pr
<n
Ir
~dqr
2
W=
"
(p r
2
"q
+ i ip
iis r q,
H
will
=i 2
r=l
"
(p r
+ sr
"
2
).
qr
As
all
4
,
the transformations concerned
have been
linear,
we
see that
H H
3
,
...
:
variables
be homogeneous polynomials of degrees 3, 4, ... in the new and thus, omitting the accents, we have the result that the
to
equations of motion of the dynamical system have been brought
the
form
dq
_m
~
dp r
dp_r__dH ~
dt
dt
dq r
184, 185]
where
in which
417
H= H + H + H
2 3
...,
r is
a homogeneous polynomial of degree r in the variables, and in
particular
we neglect ... in and S) 4 2 comparison with the integrate equations, the solution obtained will be identical with that
It is clear that if
, ,
H H
found in
185.
84.
Transformation
will
to the
trigonometric
form of H.
by applying
,
The system
(<?/,
now be
further transformed
,
to
it
a contactvariables
transformation from the variables (q lt q 2 ..., q n p^, q*, q n Pi, p n ), defined by the equations
, , ,
...,
pn )
to
new
dW
dW
where
so that
W=
S
r=l
|
q r arcsm
p r = (2sr q r ^ sin p r
The
qr
=
(<2q
r )?
sr
~$
cos
pr
(r
1, 2,
).
become
"
dt
dp r
2
~dt
...
where
H = s^ + s
q,
+
,
sn q n
+H + H
3
+...
an aggregate of terms which are r denotes homogeneous of degree \r in the quantities qr and homogeneous of degree r in the
quantities cos_p/, ainp r
.
and now
sines
Since a product of powers of cos p r sin p r can be expressed as a sum of and cosines of angles of the form (n^pi + n 2 p.J + ... + n n n ), where p
, ,
n n have integer or zero values, it follows that as the sum of a finite number of terms, each of the form
n 1} n 2
...,
1
"
can be expressed
tf^ft
where
m,
...
qn
2
mn
si
n
(n lPl
L-Ub
+n p +
2 2
...
+ n n pn
2m r
,
),
+m +
|
mn =
|
r,
[
nr
r.
^.
and therefore
n x + nz
. .
+
olll
The
function
,
H
)H
is
thus expressed in the form

/*
.....
nin
/*
..
where
for
each term we have
% +
w. D.
na
. . .
+ nn ^
|
2 (m,
-t-
m +
2
+ mn
),
418
and
[CH.
xvi
,
clearly the series is absolutely convergent for all values of p^, q2 ..., q n do not exceed certain limits of magnitude. provided
<?/,
p2 ..., pn From the

,
absolute convergence
in
it
:
follows that the order of the terms can be rearranged
any arbitrary way we shall suppose them so ordered that all the terms + ... + n n p n f are collected together, so involving the same argument
that
n^
takes the form
where the coefficients a and b are functions of q2 q n and the expansion i n of contains no terms of order or b niy n ,...,n n of a n ,n ,...,nn qi,q2 ..., ^n powers extend n and where the summations lower than ^ + 2 + ... +\nn \\; over all positive and negative integer and zero values of n 1} n 2 ..., nn except
<//,
the combination
?i x
= nz =
= n n = 0.
Moreover, the expansion of a 0j0 ,...,o (which will be called the non-periodic part of H, the rest of the expansion being called the periodic part) begins with the terms
MI + Ma +
when
,
+s
n<ln
these are the most important terms in H, and, g/, q2 ...,q n are small, since they contribute terms independent of q2 q n to the differential
<?/,
equations.
For convenience we shall often speak of g/, q2 ..., q n as "small," in order to have a definite idea of the relative importance of the terms which occur. It will be understood that q^, q^ ..., q n are not, however, infinitesimal, and
,
,
magnitude except so far as ensure the convergence of the various series which are used.
in fact are not restricted at all in
is
required to
To avoid unnecessary complexity, we

...,
shall ignore the terms
sin (n^pi + ... + n n pn} S^.n,, in the same way as the terms in H. as they are to be treated
Sof n ,,n 2 ,...,,,
cos(n
p +
1
...
+ n n pn),
any important respect modify,
and their presence complicates, but does not

the later developments.
in
which the problem has now been brought may therefore be stated as follows (suppressing the accents in the variables) The equations of
The form
to
motion are
aqrdH
dt
dpr
dt
=
l l
m
dqr
(r=1;2)
..,.),
dp r
,
where
H=u
is
0(0 .....
+ 2a n
,...,
cos (n
l
,
p +
n2 p2
...
+ n n pn \
part of H
a are functions of q ,q2 ...,q n only ; moreover, the periodic a term which small compared with the non-periodic part a ...,o / at least has for argument (n p 1 + n 2 p 2 + ... +n n p n ) has its coefficient a ^, ...,
and
the coefficients
0)0>
ni>
185, 186]
of order ^
,

{
\
419
,
% +
of a
n2
+ nn
j
in the small quantities q lt q2

(s l q i
...,
qn
and
the expansion
,o, ...,o
begins with the terms
+s
q2
...
+ sn q n \
It follows
from this that when the variables q lt q2
..,,
qn are small they
vary very slowly, while the variables p 1} to the time.

186.
...,
p n vary almost proportionally

same form.
Other types of motion which lead
to
equations of the
The equations which have now been obtained have been shewn to be applicable when the motion is of a type not far removed from a steady motion
or an equilibrium -configuration, e.g. the oscillatory motion of the simple pendulum, or those types of motion of the Problem of Three Bodies which have been studied in 171. But these equations may be shewn to be
applicable also to motion which is not of this character, and in particular to motion such as that of the planets round the sun, or the moon round the
earth *.
For
let
in the form obtained in
the equations of motion of the Problem of Three Bodies be taken 160; and let the contact-transformation which is
Pr
= dW ~,
oqr
r-~
dq r
(r
= l,2,3,4)
be applied
or
to this system,
where
-*
+
1
--
77,
--
I-
^r
2
dq.
The new
Suppose that at the forces acting on the particle //, cease, except a force of magnitude m^m^q^ directed to the origin and let a be the semi-major axis and e the eccentricity of the ellipse described after this instant then
the instant
t
variables can be interpreted in the following way.

all
q,
= it^mâ
-e
?
,
q3
Further, if the lower limits of the integrals are suitably chosen, /?/+ q 3 is the true anomaly of /* in its ellipse, and - 3 is the mean p anomaly. The
variables qj, q t
p 2 p^ stand in a corresponding relation The equations of motion now take the form
,
,
to the particle
///.
dqr
_dH
W-fa"
W
dp;
I
dH
(^
"9ff
= 1,2,3,4);
when the particles w 2 and ra3 are supposed to be of small mass compared with Wj, and are describing orbits of a planetary character about l} it is readily found that can be expanded in terms of the new variables in the form
H H=
ao,o,o,o
2a, li)W2i , l3Fn4 cos (n^pf

;
+ n p2 + n p + n^
2
3 3
),
Delaunay, Theorie de la Lune
Tisserand, Annales de
Obs. de Paris, Memoires,
xvm.
(1885).
272
420
where the

coefficients
[cu. xvi
q a q4 ) only, the summation zero values of n lt w 2 n s ?i 4 and extends over positive and negative integer and the coefficient a 0)0)0)0 is much the most important part of the series. As 185, it is of the same character as that obtained in this expansion of
a are functions of
(qi, q,
follows that the

either to
method of solution given in

to
motion of the planetary type or
the following articles is applicable motion of the type studied in 171.
187.
Removal of a periodic term from H.

shall
We
effect of
now apply
will
which
is
system another contact-transformation, this be the removal of one of the periodic terms from
to the
the
will further accentuate the feature already noted,
namely that the non-periodic
part of
much more important than

cos ( n i.Pi
,,
the periodic part*.
Let one of the periodic terms in

n,,n 2 ,...,nn
H be selected, say
+ n ?P2 +
<XPi
n n p n )-
Write
so that
H=a
...,<>
...,.
cos
+ n *P* +
terms of
is
+n
^P^>
+R
>
R denotes the
rest of the periodic
in evidence the
arguments of which
<*,,...,
a function,
when we wish to put we shall write it
Apply
to the
defined by the equations system the contact-transformation
,_dW
where
= dW
/
,
W = qfa + q
suppose that
p2 +
...
+ q n p n + f (?i
?2
?n 0)
,
we
shall
is
indicated.
The problem
a function, as yet undetermined, of the arguments is now expressed by the equations
"
dt
dp r
dt
dq r
where
8/
)
-f-
Hi
~Q
...
qn
+ w-n o/j
cos ^
)
"T"
>
and 6 and
are supposed to be expressed in terms of the
new
variables
by
means
of the equations of transformation
df
*
"tf
of
Readers familiar with Celestial Mechanics will notice the analogy of this method with that the idea is essentially Delaunay s lunar theory: the analysis is different from Delaunay s, but
the same.
186, 187]
The function/ is, as yet, undetermined and at our disposal. It will be chosen so as to satisfy the condition that 6 shall identically disappear from
the expression
D, o, .... o i
+ HI -
qn
+ +
nn
,
~\f
"r\f\
n,,
...,
( qi
+ MI
,
g0
qn
+ nn
cos
j
so that this quantity
is
a function of
<?/,
a>
9a
...
,q n alone, say
)
o,
,...,o(qi,qs,
></
Then the equation

9/
9
(*,
(
.....
nn
qi
+
<?
h
>
3/
fig
In
-
+ n n 9A
cos B
8.
=a
determines 9/730 in terms of
<//,
>
^n
o,
.....
o>
and cos
Suppose that the solution of this equation for f)f/d& is expressed in the form of a series of cosines of multiples of 6 (which can be done, for instance,
by successive approximation),
df ov
so that
c
^=
where
c
,
+ 2
k=i
c k cos kO,
Cj,
c2
...
are
known
functions of q^, q^,
...,
qn
a
0>0
.....
Now
qi,
q-2,
0,0,.,.,0
is
condition that c
>
is
as yet undetermined, and is at our disposal. to be zero; this determines a ,o,...,o as a
Impose the
function of
qn
and, on substituting its value in the series for df/dO,
we have
dffi8= I
where now
c 1} C 2
, ,
ck
cosk0,
, , .
k=i
c 3 ... are known functions of q^ q2 ..., qn Integrating with this equation respect to 6, and for our purpose taking the constant of integration to be zero, we have
1 ^sin&tf. /= t-i*
The equations denning the transformation now become
Pr
% 1 dc k =p-r+ 2 75-7 k - lkd ^

^
qr
Sin fvd
ia \
(
-\i,
2 &,..., n) ii).
qr =
nr
2
k=--\
ck
cos
kd
Multiply the
first set
of these equations
by n lt n z
...,
nn
respectively,
and
add them
writing
WiK +
we have
1
n 2 p2
...
+ nn p n =
,
/V
=6+ 2
/I
-V*
*-
/
I
"vie
,-
?h
5^5
+ w2
OClf
422

series,
[OH. xvi
Reversing this
we have
6
=&+ S
functions
dk
sin
ke\
,
.
of Substituting this q 2 ..., qn of become value of d in the equations transformation, they
where d 1} d 2
...
are
known
<//,
sn
COS
where
all
the coefficients
Vk>
9k are
known
functions of
<?/,
g./,
#>/
Now,
before the transformation, the function
R
.
.
consisted of an aggregate
of terms of the type
R = 2a Wi
when the
)OT2>
...
>TOB
cos (w^ PJ
+ mn p n )
2>
found for (q 1} q ..., q n p\, ,pn) are reduced is series and the in this substituted by replacing powers expression, and products of trigonometric functions of p n by cosines of sums p.?,
values which have been
, . . .
/>/,
of multiples of p, p, of terms of the type

,
...,
pn
it is
clear that
will consist of
an aggregate
R = 2a mi)Ml2)
where the
coefficients
...
>Mn
cos (m^pi
+m p +
2 2
...
+ mn p n
...,
),
a are
known
functions of (#/, q^,
qn
}-
We thus have the result (omitting the accents of the new variables) that has been effected, the system is still expressed by a set after the transformation
of equations of the
form
dq r
dt
_dH
dp r
,,,...
>Wn
dp r
-
_
l
~~
dH
i
x,
**
dt
cos
l
dq r
where
H = aô.-.o + Sa
the coefficients
m,,
(m p +
p2 +
,
...
+ m n pn),
.
and where
a are known functions of q 1} q2 ..., qn Let us now review the whole effect of the transformation. The differential as before; but from the equations of motion have the same general form
Oo,o,...,o
equation
+
:
a ni ,n
,...,n n
COS
(n^ +
?? 2
>
...
+ nn pn) =
,o,...,o
to its we see that one term has been transferred from the periodic part of is less important, in comparison of the periodic part non-periodic part
with the non-periodic part, than

188.
it
was before the transformation was made.
Removal of further periodic terms from H.
into the nonHaving now completed the absorption of this periodic term of the new terms of the one absorb to we of H, periodic proceed periodic part of the same a the into repetition non-periodic part, by expansion of the enrich can In this way we non-periodic part of continually process.
187-189]
423
at the expense of the periodic part, and ultimately, after a number of will become so applications of the transformation, the periodic part of an /3 1; /32 o Let that it may be neglected. l 2 ..., /3 n ) be (a insignificant the variables at which we arrive as a result of the final transformation then
H
,
>
the equations of motion are

doi r
_ dH =
d@r
of
its
dp r
__
~di
dT~~
dH ~^r
part,
_
a
function
of
where H, consisting
(
1} a. 2,
only
non-periodic
is
...,
a n ) only.
We
have therefore
-0,
*~/g*
er
,
(~1,
*,...,>.
which shews that the quantities a are constants, and the quantities the form
ft,.
ft
are of
fji r
where a r
dH
-^
oar
(r
1, 2, ...
n);
the quantities
(d,
cr
e,.
are arbitrary constants, and the part of
fi r
independent of
...,
an)
is
-ST.
to the original coordinates.
189.
Reversion
Having now solved the equations of motion in their final form, it remains only to express the original coordinates of the dynamical system in terms of the ultimate coordinates (a 1 a2 ..., an /3 l5 ..., (3 n ). Remembering that the
, ,
result of performing
any number
of contact-transformations in succession
,
is
,
a contact-transformation, it is easily seen that the variables (q 1} q.2 p lt ...,pn ) used at the end of 185 can be expressed in terms of ( 1( 2
/3]
,
. .
.
..., q n
,
...
/8 n )
by equations of the form
mn
sn
6 are functions of (a 1} a 2
,
where the
coefficients
a and
....
a n ).
From this it follows that the variables (q^, q 2 ..., q n ,pi, --^Pn) of 183, in terms of which the configuration of the dynamical system was originally expressed, are obtained in the form of trigonometric series, proceeding in
sines
and cosines of sums of multiples of the n angles
@i, /3 2
..., {3 n .
;
These
angles are linear functions of the time, of the form
t fj, r
er
the quantities
424
er
/j, r
[CH. xvi
are n of the 2n arbitrary constants of the solution, while the quantities are of the form
Pr
= -*.- +
S
*1, K 2
,
c kl ,*..., k n
...
i*
a*
n*
n
,
the coefficients
being independent of the constants of integration.
The
coefficients in the trigonometric series are functions of the arbitrary constants
(i,
-,
n) only.
The expansions thus obtained represent a family of solutions of the dynamical system, the limiting member of the family being the position of equilibrium or steady motion which was our starting-point.
equations of motion found in
187 189 to the by applying the integration-process of 186, we obtain a solution of the Problem of Three Bodies, when the motion is of the planetary type, in terms of trigono
Evidently
also,
metric series of the kind above specified.

For the further development of the theory of the present chapter, in connexion with the Problem of Three Bodies, reference may be made to treatises on Celestial Mechanics in particular, the second volume of Poincare s Nouvelles Methodes de la Mecanique Celeste
:
contains an account of several methods of deriving expansions, with a discussion of the convergence of the series obtained. The most recent discussion of the subject will be found
in a paper
Dynamics
(Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
by the present writer On the Adelphic Integral of Nov. 1916).
the Differential
Equations of
denote any function of the variables system which possesses an integral of energy
1.
Let
<f>
q^,
g2
...,
qn
p
;
1 ,
...,
pn
of a dynamical
H (qi, ?
let
2,
>
?n>
Pi,
>
p) = Constant
,
%, a 2
t
...,
;
instant
=t
<?
tities qi,
bi, ..., b n
a n 6 1} ..., b n be the values of q lt q 2 ..., qn ,pi, iPn respectively at the and let {/, g} denote the value of the Poisson-bracket (/, g] when the quan a occurring in it are replaced respectively by 1? 2 P\i
,
<lni
>Pn
>
>
Shew that
2.
Shew that the dynamical system whose equations
of motion are
dq_dH ~
dt
^ = ~
J
_^
dq
dp
where
H=
W
^
^t
IW ,
%p<+
possesses a family of solutions represented by the expansion (retaining only terms of order
less
than a 7 )
,
3a
/2a\4
3a
where
p=-k+ ~
and
e
+ f,
and
INDEX OF AUTHORS QUOTED

(The numbers refer
to the
pages.}
Abdank-Abakanowicz, B. 214 Albeggiani, M. L. 337 Amontons, G. 227 Appell, P. 73, 258, 279
Armellini, G. 81, 412
Clebsch, A. 311
Conway, A. W. 26
Cotes, R. 83 Culverwell, E. P. 251
Curtis, A.
H.
97, 113
Bennett, T. L. 356 Bernoulli, Daniel 62, 177, 186 John 62, 229
Dainelli, V. 96, 112, 114

J. le R. 177, 230 Acqua, F. A. 316 Darboux, G. 80, 109, 261, 333, 396 Darwin, Sir G. H. 407 Dautheville, S. 320 Davaux, E. 400 Delaunay, C. 413, 419, 420 Derriman, W. H. 118 Donkin, W. F. 264
D Alembert,
Dall
338,
Bertrand,
J.
88,
260, 320, 331, 332,
349
Bessel, F.
W.
91
Bisconcini, G. 411
Block, H. 411
B6cher, M. 183 Bohlin, K. 340, 358, 407
Boltzmann, L. 41, 278 Bonacini, C. 408

Bonnet, 0. 94 Bour, E. 356 Brell, H. 259
Dumas, G. 166
Elliott,
am
E. B. 210 Ende, H. 112
Euler, L.
Bromwich, T. J. 414 de Brun, F. 166 Brims, H. 357, 358

Burgatti, P. 69, 166, 325 Burnside, W. 3, 5
Cailler, C.
2, 8, 9, 41, 72, 93, 97, 100, 117, 124, 127, 144, 177, 248
Ferrers, X.
M. 215
Flye Sainte-Marie, C. 174 Forster, W. 262

Ford, L. R. 12 Forsyth, A. R. 358
Fouret, G. 130
89
W. R. 118 Cauchy, A. L. 4, 124, 264, 316 Cayley, A. 9, 12, 115 Cerruti, V. 330, 331 Charlier, C. V. L. 395
Cassie,
Frank, P. 408
Galilei, G.
62, 72, 99, 177
Chasles, M. 4
Christoflfel, E.
Chretien, H. 90 B. 39
de Gasparis, A. 356 Gauss, C. F. 9, 255 Gautier, A. 339 Gebbia, M. 174

Glaisher, J. W. L. 80 Gorjatscheff, D. 166
Cigala, A. R. 396 Clairaut, A. C. 78
426
Goursat, E. 262, 336 Grant, R. 339 Green, G. 38
Grinwis, C. H. 89
Grossi, P.
Legendre, A. M. 81 Lehmann-Filhes, R. 316 Leibnitz, G. W. von 35 Leitinger, R, 256

Levi-Civita, T. 90, 325, 343, 385, 396, 411
330
J.
Hadamard,
69,
403
Levy, M. 330, 331 Liapounoff, A. M. 400

Lie, S. 275, 290, 295, 301, 322, Linders, F. J. 393
Halphen, G. 5, 106 Hamel, G. 41

Hamilton, Sir W. R.
Hazzidakis,
3, 9, 55, 79, 246, 264,
343
Lindstedt, A. 413
Liouville, J. 67, 281, 323
288, 290, 315, 316, 323, 409

J. N. 102 Helmholtz, H. von 45, 55, 247, 305 Hertz, H. 255
R. 167
Lipschitz, R. 256
Heun, K. 37
Hill, G.
Longley, W. R. 393 Lovett, E. 0. 339, 393, 395
W.
407
Hiltebeitel, A.
M. 99
Hirsch, A. 45, 287 Holder, 0. 249
Hoppe, R. 130 Husson, E. 166 Huygens, C. 62,
MacMillan, W. D. 85 Marcolongo, R. 166 Mathieu, E. 301 Maupertuis, P. L. N. de 248 Mayer, A. 45
72, 99, 117
Mehmke,
R. 77
Monge, G. 264, 316

Jacobi, C. G. J. 104, 144, 174, 251, 276, 281,
287, 295, 307, 316, 341, 342, 349, 354 Jordan, C. 179
Moulton, F. R. 106, 390, 391, 393, 395 Muth, P. 183
Joukovsky, N. Ill
Kasner, E. 409
Kelvin, Lord (W. Thomson) 261
Kepler, J. 60, 90
Nanson, E.
J.
183 413
Neumann, Newcomb,
Newton,
C. 116, 215, 239

S.
I.
Sir
27, 29, 30, 47, 48, 59, 62, 77,
78, 82, 83, 86, 90, 103,
229
Kerkhoven-Wythoff, A. G. 222 Klein, F. 12, 193, 207 Kobb, G. 109

Koenigs, G.
1,
Nicomedi, R. 112 Nobile, V. 82 Novikoff, P. M. 407
88,
275 Oekinghaus, E. 91 Ogura, K. 409 Olsson, 0. 166

Ostrogradsky, M. 264, 265
Painleve,
P.
70,
Kolosoff, G. 167
Korkine, A. 337 Korteweg, D. 398, 400

Kotter, F. 166 Kowalevski, N. 166 S. 164
227, 262, 379, 385, 389,
411
Lagrange,
J.
L. 34, 38, 41, 50, 62, 91, 94,
Pascal, E. 214
97, 104, 156, 177, 183, 248, 264, 298, 316,
322, 340, 393 Laisant, C. A. 113
Pavanini, G. 391 Pennacchietti, G. 338

Pfaff, J. F. 264, 296, 307, 316 di Pirro, G. 335
Lamb,
II.
203, 305
Lambert, J. H. 91 Lame, G. 104 Larmor, Sir J. 278 Laurent, H. 337 P. A. 198 Lazzarino, 0. 166
Poincare, H. 203, 267, 286, 343, 354, 380,

385, 387, 400, 403, 407, 410, 413, 424 Poinsot, L. 2, 152
Poisson, S. D. 163, 230, 264, 281, 299, 320,
407 Puiseux, V. 106
Index of Authors Quoted

Quanjel, J. 316
427
Sundman, K.
F. 411, 412 Sylvester, J. J. 184
Radau, R. 348
Rayleigh, Lord 230, 261 Resal, H. 115
Tait, P. G. 409
Rodrigues, O.
3,
Taylor, Brook 177 Tchapligine, S. A. 166, 167
Routh, E. J. 55 Rueb, A. S. 144

Salkowski, E. 109 Scheffler, H. 255
Schenkl, E. 256 Schoute, P. H. 85 Schouten, G. 408
Segner,
J.
Thomson, W.,
see
Kelvin, Lord
Tisserand, F. 419 Tissot, A. 104

Tonelli, L.
388
Vierkandt, A. 215 J. 23 Voss, A. 249
von Vieth,
A. 124
Siacci, F. 21, 24, 154, 174, 230,
325
Wallis, J. 48, 234
Signorini, A. 388
Wassmuth, A. 256
Weber, W. 45 Weierstrass, K. 183, 197, 412 Whewell, W. 78
Whittaker, E. T. 64, 339, 343, 388, 393, 407, 413, 424
Sommerfeld, A. 193
Stackel, P. 109, 166, 335 Stader, J. F. 81
Stekloff, V. 166
Stokes, Sir G. G. 271 Stromgren, E. 395
Sturm,
Suchar,
J.
I.
C. F.
396
Woronetz, P. 221, 343 Wren, Sir C. 48, 234
80
INDEX OF TERMS EMPLOYED

(The numbers refer
to
the pages,
where the term occurs for the

is
first
time
in the book or
defined.}
Absolute integral-invariants, 271

Acceleration, 14 Actio Agentis, 30
Chasles theorem, 4
ChristofFel s symbol, 39 Classical integrals, 358
Action, Least, 248 Action and Reaction, Adjoint systems, 287
Law
of,
29
Coefficient of friction, 227 of stability, 396
Admit, to
(a transformation),
319
Collinear Lagrange s particles, 392 Collision, orbits of, 391

Collisions,
Angles, Eulerian, 9
234
Angular Momentum, Integral of, 59 Anomaly, true, eccentric, and mean, 89

Aphelion, 86 Apocentre, 85
Components of momentum, 48
of a vector, 14 Conjugate point, 252 Conservation of angular momentum, 59 of energy, 62 of momentum, 59 Conservative forces, 38 Constraint, 255
Appell s equations, 258 Apse, 86 Attractive regions of a
field
of force, 403
of inertia, principal, 124 Axis of rotation, instantaneous, 2
Axes
Contact-transformation, 290, 293
Azimuth, 19
Bernoulli s principle, 186
homogeneous, 301
infinitesimal,
292,
302
determination
forces, 331
Bertrand
theorem on
of
impulses, 260
Bilinear covariant, 297
Continuation, analytic, 410 Coordinates of a dynamical system, 32 elliptic, 97

ignorable or cyclic, 54 normal or principal, 181
quasi-, 42 Cotes spirals, 83 Covariant, bilinear, 297
,, deformation-, 111 Curvature, Least, 255 Cyclic coordinates, 54
Boltzmann-Larmor representation of the

Last Multiplier, 278
Bonnet s theorem, 94 Bracket-expressions, Lagrange s, 298

Poisson
s,
299
Brims theorem, 358

Canonical form of equations of motion, 264
Cayley-Klein parameters, 12 Central forces, 77 Centre of rotation, instantaneous, 3

Centrifugal forces, 41 Characteristic exponents, 400
function, 289
Definite quadratic form, 36
Deformation-covariant, 111, 404 Degrees of freedom, 34

Density, 117
Differential form, 296
parameters, 111
Index of Terms Employed

Displacement,
1
429
Frictional systems, 227
possible, 33
Function, dissipation-, 231
Dissipation-function, 231
Hamilton
s characteristic,
289
Dissipative systems, 226 Distance, mean, 87

Divisors, elementary, 183
principal, 317
Hamiltonian, 265 Jacobi s, 342

Function-group, 322
Eccentric anomaly, 89 Ejection, orbits of, 391
Gauss
principle, 255
Elementary
divisors, 183
Elimination of the nodes, 341 Ellipsoid of gyration, 124 of inertia, 124 momenta!, 124
Elliptic coordinates, 97
Geodesies, 254 Gravity, 27
Group, function-, 322 Group-property, 293

Gyration, ellipsoid of, 124 radius of, 118
Energy, integral
of.
62
Gyroscopic terms, 195
Kinetic, 35
Potential, 38
Hadamard s theorem, 406

Halphen s theorem, Hamilton s partial
315
,,
Equations, Appell
first
s,
258
5
differential
Pfaffs system of, 307 Hamilton s, of motion, 263

partial
differential,
equation,
principle, 246
315
Jacobi
s,
342
in
Lagrangian, 37
quasi
-
coordi
theorem, 79 Hamiltonian form of equations of motion, 264 function, 265
nates, 43
with undetermined multipliers, 213

variational, 268 Equidistant Lagrange s particles, 393 Equilibrium-configuration, 177
Herpolhode, 154 Hertz s principle, 255 Holonomic, 33
Homogeneous contact-transformations, 301 Homography, 12

Ignorable coordinates, 54
Ignoration of coordinates, 56
Equilibrium-problem, 315 Equimomental bodies, 117

Eulerian angles, 9
Exponents, characteristic, 400
Extended point-transformations, 293

External forces, 32, 37
Field of force, 30
conservative, 38
parallel,
Impact, 234 Impulse, 49 Impulsive motion. 48 Index of stability, 398 Inelastic bodies, 234 Inertia, ellipsoid of, 124
moment
arid
product
of,
117
93
First PfaflPs system, 307

Fixity, 26
principal axes of, 124 Infinitesimal contact-transformations, 292,
302
Initial motions,
Fixtures, sudden, 169 Flux of a vector, 14
45
Focus, kinetic, 252 Force, 29

Forces, central, 77
centrifugal, 41
Instability, 186, 193, 203, 396 Instantaneous axis of rotation, 2
centre of rotation, 3
Integral of a dynamical system, 53
of angular
classical,
momentum, 59
external and molecular, 32, 37
Form, differential, 296 Freedom, degrees of, 34
358 of energy, 62 Jacobian, 354

Integral of momentum, 58 of a system of equations, 53
Integral-invariants, 268
Mean
,,
distance, 87
absolute
and
relative,
271
Invariable line and plane, 144, 346
motion, 88 Meridian plane, 18 Molecular forces, 32 Moment of a force, 30

,,
of inertia, 117
ellipsoid,
Invariant relations, 326 Invariants, integral, 268
Moinental
124
Momentum, 48
angular, 59
Inverse of a transformation, 293

Involution, 322
Isoperimetrical systems, 267
corresponding to a coordinate, 54
integral
of,
58
Jacobi s equation, 342 function, 342
Motion, impulsive, 48 initial, 45
Jacobian integral, 354 Joukovsky s theorem, 107

Kinematics, 1 Kinetic energy, 35
focus, 252
,, potential, 38 Kineto-statics, 37
mean, 88
steady, 193 Multiplier, Last, 277
Natural family of
orbits,
389
83
systems, 57
Newton
s theorem on revolving Newtonian law, 86
orbits,
Koenigs and Lie s theorem, 275 Korteweg s theorem, 397 Kowalevski s top, 164
Node, 349 Nodes, elimination of the, 341 Non-holonomic, 33
Normal
Lagrange s bracket-expressions, 298 equations, 34 with undetermined multipliers, 213
of impulsive motion,
coordinates, 181 vibrations, 186, 195
Orbit, 78
periodic, 386 Order of an integral-invariant, 268
,,
50
forquasi-coordinates,
of a system, 52
Oscillation, centre of, 132
43
three particles, 393
Parallel fields of force, 93
Lagrangian function, 39 Lambert s theorem, 91
Parameters, Cayley-Klein, 11
differential,
111
Larmor-Boltzmann
representation
of
the
Particle, 27
Euler
s,
Last Multiplier, 278 Last Multiplier, 277 Law of Action and Reaction, 29 Newtonian, 86 Least Action, 248 Curvature or Constraint, 255 Levi-Civita s theorem, 325 Levy s theorem, 330 Lie and Koenigs theorem, 275
Liouville s type, systems of, 67 Localised vectors, 15
Particles, Lagrange s, 393 Pendulum, simple, 72
spherical, 104
Perfect roughness, 31
Pericentre, 85 Perihelion, 86
Perihelion-constant, 87
Period, 73 Periodic solutions or orbits, 386
Mass, 28
time, 87 Pfaff s expression, 296 ,, system of equations, 307
Mathieu transformations, 301 Mean anomaly, 89
Pitch of a screw, 5
Plane, invariable, 346

Planetoid, 353
431
s
Poincare
Poinsot
normal variables, 387 theorem, 380

152
Rodrigues and Hamilton Rotation about a line, 1
theorem, 3
point, 1
s representation,
instantaneous axis
of,
2 3
Point-transformation, 293 Poisson s bracket-expressions, 299 stability, 407 theorem, 320
centre
of,
Rough, 31
Polhode, 154
Possible displacement, 33 Potential energy, 38
Kinetic, 38
,, involving the velocities, 44 Principal axes of inertia, 124 coordinates, 181
Screw displacement, 5 Similarity in dynamical systems, 47 Sleeping top, 206
Smooth, 31 Spherical pendulum, 104

top, 159 Spirals, Cotes , 83
,,
function, 317 moments of inertia, 124
Stability of equilibrium, 186 of orbits, 396, 407 of steady motion, 193
Principle,
,,
Hamilton s, 246
of Least Action, 248 of Least Curvature or Constraint,
255
of Relativity, 26 of Superposition of Vibrations,
,,
396 398 secular, 203 Steady motion, 163, 193 Sub-group, 301 Sudden fixture, 169
coefficient of,
index
of,
186
Problem of Three Bodies, 339

in a plane, 351
restricted,
Superposition of vibrations, 186 Surface-density, 118
353
Product of inertia, 116 Prolongation of motion after a collision, 411

Quadratures, problems soluble by, 54 Quantitas Motus, 48
Quasi-coordinates, 41
Suspension, centre of, 132 Sylvester s theorem, 183 Symbol, Christoffel s, 39

of
an infinitesimal transformation,
303
System, adjoint, 287 Systems, dissipative, 226 frictional, 227 involution-, 322
isoperimetrical, 267 Pfaff s, 307
Quaternions, 9
Radius of gyration, 118 Rayleigh s dissipation-function, 230 Reaction, law of Action and, 29 Reciprocal theorem, Helmholtz s, 304
Reciprocation, 291
Regularisatiori, 411
Thomson s theorem, 261

Three Bodies, Problem
of,
339
in a plane, 351
restricted,
353
Relations, invariant, 326 Relative velocity, 14

integral-invariants, 271
Relativity, principle of, 26 Repellent regions of field of force, 403 Resistance of air, 229
Time, 27
periodic, 87
Top, 155
Kowalevski
s,
164
sleeping, 206
spherical, 159
Restricted problem of three bodies, 353 Resultant of vectors, 14
Trajectory, 78, 245
Reversed
forces, 47
motion, 305 Revolving orbits, 83 Rigid, 1, 32
Transformation, contact-, 290, 293 Mathieu s, 301 Poincare s, 410 point-, 293
Translation,
1
432

Velocity, corresponding to a coordinate, 33
Trojan group of asteroids, 393 True anomaly, 89
Two
centres of gravitation, 97 Type, Liouville s, 67
Vibrations about equilibrium, 177 steady motion, 193 normal, 186, 195
of dissipative systems, 232 of non-holonomic systems, 221
Unstable, 186, 193, 203, 396

Variational equations, 268 Vector, localised, 15
Vectors, 13 Velocity, 14, 33
angular, 15 relative, 14
Virtual work, 264

Vis Matrix, 29 Vis Viva, 35
Wave-fronts, 289
Weber s law
Work, 30
of attraction, 45
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A TREATISE

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

FETTER LANE, E.G. 100 PRINCES STREET

PUTNAM S SONS MACMILLAN AND CO., DENT AND SONS, LTD.

All rights reserved

the University of Edinburgh

Second Edition 1917

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

and in some cases accounts

matter, and rewritten

opinion that the Jacobian functions are preferable to the Weierstrassian

should have liked

181), but thought

only such an account as might impel the reader to consult

and readable memoir.

obligations to the staff of the

Analytic representation of a displacement The composition of small rotations

Velocity and acceleration

their vectorial character

THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

Lagrange s form of the equations of motion of a holonomic system

the kinetic potential

32. 33. 34.

Similarity in dynamical systems Motion with reversed forces

The Lagrangian equations MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

PRINCIPLES AVAILABLE FOR THE INTEGRATION.

Special cases of ignoration

The general theorem The energy equation

momentum and momentum

THE SOLUBLE PROBLEMS OF PARTICLE DYNAMICS.

integrable cases of central forces and elliptic functions

problems soluble in terms of circular

two centres of gravitation

Motion on a surface Motion on a surface of revolution

Joukovsky s theorem MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

cases soluble in terms of circular and

THE DYNAMICAL SPECIFICATION OF BODIES.

some simple bodies the moment of inertia about any

when the moment

through the same origin

THE SOLUBLE PROBLEMS OF RIGID DYNAMICS.

of systems with one degree of freedom of systems with

motion round a fixed

66. 67. 68.

two degrees of freedom

Motion of a top on a perfectly rough plane

............ ............. ......... ............

determination of the Eulerian

Examples of vibrations about equilibrium

integration of the equations Examples of vibrations about steady motion

Vibrations of systems involving moving constraints

NON-HOLONOMIC SYSTEMS. DISSIPATIVE SYSTEMS.

Rayleigh s dissipation-function Vibrations of dissipative systems

95. 96. 97.

Examples of impact MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

THE PRINCIPLES OF LEAST ACTION AND LEAST CURVATURE.

245 245 247

Are the stationary

254 256 258 260

Expression of the curvature of a path in terms of generalised coordinates

Appell s equations Bertrand s theorem

HAMILTONIAN SYSTEMS AND THEIR INTEGRAL-INVARIANTS.

Integral-invariants The variational equations

Integral-invariants of order one Relative integral-invariants