Kate Speakman

Biology 8.5 Evolution of Australian Biota

1. Evidence for the rearrangement of crustal plates and continental drift indicated that Australia was once part of an ancient super continent
Identify and describe evidence that supports the assertion that Australia was once part of a landmass called Gondwana, including: - matching continental plates Evidence comes from the ways the continents fit together and continuity of rocks between their opposite edges - Position of mid-ocean ridges The youngest rocks were found at mid-ocean ridges, age increased with distance from the ridge. As new rock forms at mid-ocean ridges and older rock is subducted at plate edges, so the crust moves and carries Earths continents. - Spreading zones between continental plates Sea floor spreading occurs where two crustal plates move apart, hot molten material rises and cools and becomes rigid. This then forms part of the plates on either side of the spreading zone. - Fossils in common on Gondwanan continents, including Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora, and marsupials Glossopteris and Gangamopteris are two plants which are distinct in all the continents of Gondwana found from the Permian Age. Glossopteris is an important Gondwanan fossil. Its fossils are found in Australia, Antarctica, India, Africa and South America. Mammals, especially marsupials provide evidence for plate tectonics and the past existence of Gondwana. When Australia became isolated from the rest of the world, the marsupials evolved and diverse species flourished. The dasyurids (Native cats and marsupial mice) have several features in common with South American marsupials. - Similarities between present-day organisms on Gondwanan continents The distribution of present-day organisms is consistent with continental drift. Some continents share similar organisms although they are far apart. Eg marsupials are found only in Australia, New Guinea and South America. Discuss current research into the evolutionary relationships between extinct species, including megafauna and extinct Australian species Students: Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to illustrate the changing ideas of scientists in the last 200 years about the platypus as new information and technologies become available

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Kate Speakman

2. The changes in Australian flora and fauna over millions of years have happened through evolution
Discuss examples of variation between members of a species Every individual in a population has some difference. Variability within a population is essential for the process of evolution. When the environment changes, these variations may enable some members of the species to survive and reproduce. Examples of variation of species is - Animals living in cooler areas are larger than those living, of the same species, in warmer areas - Variation is features e.g. beaks, bills - Variation in colour Identify the relationship between variation within a species and the chances of survival of species when environmental change occurs Species with greater variation have a greater chance of survival. If there is no individual that is adapted to the new conditions the species will die out. However, if a number of individuals have features that allow them to survive then they will be the ones to reproduce. The environment has selected these individuals as the fittest through the process of natural selection. Identify and describe evidence of changing environments over millions of years 1. Fossil records: Finding fossils of aquatic organisms in arid areas. Similarly, the fossils of tree-dwelling animals suggest that forest environments were present when the animal was alive. Fossil evidence has shown that Australia was once covered with forests that have been replaced over time by desserts and grasslands. 2. Tree Rings: The tree rings are circular patterns seen when a cut is made across a tree trunk. The rings are annual and arise because the tree stops growing during winter.. Tree rings give information about climatic conditions that were present while the trees were growing. If the rings are far apart it means that the conditions were ideal for growth. By matching rings it is possible to see how the climate has changed over time. 3. Dating Techniques: Radiometric dating and is used to date fossils and rock sediments so that different regions can be compared. Identify areas within Australia that experience significant variations in temperature and water availability Australia is the driest continent on Earth. It shows great variations in annual rainfall, with central Australia receiving the least rain, and Tasmania and the tropics receiving the most. Inland Australia shows the greatest variation in water availability - Some areas in the interior of Australia such as Alice Springs do not have any rain for years and then receive floods. Inland Australia also shows the greatest daily temperature range because

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Kate Speakman the heat of the day heats the land; however the heat is rapidly lost at night due to clear skies and lack of cloud cover. Identify changes in distribution of Australian species, as rainforests contracted and sclerophyll communities and grasslands spread, as indicated by fossil evidence When Australia was part of Gondwana, the land mass was temperate and moist. The fossil evidence shows that plants such as Glossopteris and Gangamopteris were common. Australia, South America, Africa, New Zealand and Antarctica were covered with mixed forests, including tree ferns and Antarctic beech, Nothofagus. In Australia large forests have been replaced with grasslands as the continent has dried. The present-day vegetation is described as sclerophyllous. This is an example of an adaptation to survive arid conditions with unreliable rainfall and fire. Discuss current theories that provide a model to account for these changes Increasing aridity As Australia drifted north into warmer latitudes, combined with times of high aridity, there was a contraction of rainforests and some areas were replaced with dry rainforests or sclerophyll forests containing casuarinas. Fire fire could have been caused by lightening or by Aboriginals after their arrival to Australia. Plants that are fire-tolerant would have had a natural advantage under this new selective pressure. Eucalypts remain whereas casuarinas and mulga are killed by fire Urbanisation and agriculture European settlement established new farming methods, introduced new grazing species such as cattle and introduced new crops such as wheat and rice. This led to a large population of feral animals and the clearing of land for agriculture. Some species have become extinct or are endangered eg bettong. Some species have flourished eg white cockatoo. Discuss Darwins observations of Australian flora and fauna and relate these to his theory of evolution While on his travels, Darwin collected many specimens and fossils. He studied the organisms adaptations to their environments. From his observations of Australias flora and fauna, Darwin commented on the similarity between marsupials and animals living in similar habitats in the northern hemisphere. He described this as convergent evolution. This type of evolution produces organisms that look alike because they live in similar environments and therefore have the same selective pressures acting on them. They are not closely related. This relates to Darwins theory of natural selection, as organisms facing the same selective pressures will evolve to have similar features. Students: Gather, process and analyse info from secondary sources to develop a timeline that identifies key events in the formation of Australia as an island continent from its origins as part of Gondwana Students: Gather information from secondary sources to describe some Australian fossils, where these fossils were found and use available evidence to

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Kate Speakman explain how they contribute to the development of understanding about the evolution of species in Australia Students: Perform a first-hand investigation, gather information of named Australian fossil samples and use available evidence to identify similarities and differences between current and extinct Australian life forms Students: present info from secondary sources to discuss the Huxley Wilberforce debate on Darwins theory of evolution Students: perform a first-hand investigation to gather info of examples of variety in at least two species of living organism

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Kate Speakman

3. Continuation of species has resulted, in part, from the reproductive adaptations that have evolved in Australian plants and animals
Distinguish between the processes of meiosis and mitosis in terms of daughter cells produced Mitosis Meiosis Single division results in the formation of Two divisions result in four haploid two genetically identical diploid daughter daughter cells, each of which is genetically cells. different. Occurs in body cells Occurs in sex organs - Process to repair damaged tissue, Division to produce sex cells replacement of dead cells - a form of asexual reproduction Compare and contrast external and internal fertilisation External Fertilisation Internal Fertilisation External fertilisation takes place outside Internal fertilisation occurs inside the the body, characteristic of most aquatic body of a female organism organisms. Many aquatic organisms release gametes Gametes are directly transferred to the simultaneously into the surrounding female ovum to increase chance of water, in hope that they can meet and be successful fertilisation fertilised (spawning). In External fertilisation millions of small gametes are released and the chances of fertilisation are low. Discuss the relative success of these forms of fertilisation in relation to the colonisation of terrestrial and aquatic environments Colonisation in aquatic environments is very successful, because the millions of gametes secreted enable the young produced to spread and colonise, which the millions secreted gives a better chance. Colonisation in terrestrial environments has only been possible by the developed mechanisms that ensure successful transfer of gametes to the ovum without the need of external water. Describe some mechanisms found in Australian plants for - pollination Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma in flowering plants. Each species has specific adaptations to assist pollination. Some species have mechanisms such as colourful, scented flowers to attract bees and insects for insect pollination, or have large feathery anthers and stigmas with light pollen so wind pollination can occur

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Kate Speakman - Seed dispersal Seed dispersal is where the plant disperses seeds in fruits, to the ground, by wind or water. Each new embryo starts to divide and becomes a seed, and the ovary turns into a fruit. The fruit protects the seed. Peas and Wattles have outgrowths which are eaten by animals which have been carried away from the plant, and Banksia seeds get caught by the wind and carried away. - Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction is the reproduction whereby the organism reproduces by itself, by mitosis. The offspring produced is genetically identical to its parent, but this form of reproduction limits the variation in the species. Plants use a variety of methods asexual reproduction. Some plants produce extensions which are capable of taking root and starting a new plant, Runners asexually reproduce, Wattles have suckers which is a shoot that grows from the underground root.

Describe some mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure - fertilisation - survival of the embryo and of the young after birth In placental mammals, the embryo has a long period of development inside the body, and is provided with nutrients by the placenta.

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Kate Speakman In marsupial mammals, the embryo has a short period of time in the body, but spends a long time in the pouch where it develops and is protected. Nutrients are supplied in milk from a nipple. Fertilisation is ensured by internal fertilisation, which has a much higher success rate than external fertilisation. Also, animals use caressing, smells, colours and calls to attract the opposite sex. Explain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptations has increased the chances of continuity of the species in the Australian environment

Describe the conditions under which asexual reproduction is advantageous, with reference to specific Australian examples The conditions in which asexual reproduction is advantageous is when large numbers are required to recolonise an area. Students: Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to gather and present info about flowers of native species of angiosperms to identify features that may be adaptations for wind and bird/insect/mammal pollination

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