Lecture 28

Operational Amplifiers

Reading: Jaeger 11.1-11.5 and Notes

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Operational Amplifier
•Operational Amplifier or “Op-Amp” is a multistage amplifier that is used for
general electrical signal manipulation.
•The numbers of applications possible with Op-amps are two numerous to list.
•Most everyone agrees: “Op-Amp analysis is significantly easier than transistor
analysis.”
•Though they are often internally complex, their use in circuits most often
simplifies the overall design.
•The circuit is modeled by an ideal voltage amplifier.

Circuit Symbol Model

+
+ +
+
Vin
Vout
Vin Vout
-
- - -

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Ideal Operational Amplifier

•Rin = Infinity,
•Voltage Gain, Av=Infinity at all frequencies
•Rout=0

Model

+ +
Vin Vout
- -

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Ideal Operational Amplifier

•Infinite gain means that the device is useless without adding “Feedback” to
control the overall gain to a finite value.
i+
v+ iout
iin v-
•Consider the circuit to the
right with vin=0 i- vout
vout = Av (− v − ) vin
R1 i2
v − = vout
R1 + R 2
R1
v − = − Av v −
R1 + R 2
If A v → ∞, the above equation is only satisfied for v - = 0

•Feedback forces the two input voltages to be equal! This is known as a “virtual ground”.
•R1 and R2 form a “Feedback Network”
Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
 Inverting Amplifier

•Finite voltage gain results from an infinite voltage gain amplifier with “negative
feedback” (feedback that takes a fraction of the output voltage and mixes it back into the
negative summation node).
i+
1) vin − iin R1 − i2 R2 − vo = 0
v+ iout
2) iin = i− + i2 = i2 due to infinite input resistance
v -v iin
i in = in - v-
R1
i-
but v - = 0 due to the virtual ground vout
vin
v i2
3) i in = in
R1
Combining 1, 2 and 3,
v v
vin − in R1 − in R2 − vo = 0
R1 R1
vo R
Overall circuit gain is finite, negative (for
=− 2 this feedback configuration) and set by the
v in R1
feedback resistor network.

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Inverting Amplifier

•Input Resistance:

vin i+

Rin = = R1 v+ iout
iin iin
v-

i-
vout
vin
i2

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Inverting Amplifier

•Output Resistance:
v+ it
v t = i1 R 3 + i 2 R 1
i1
but,
v-
i1 = 0 since v - = 0
vt
and i2
i1 = i 2
thus,
vt = 0 + 0
vt
Rout = =0
it

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Non-Inverting Amplifier
Virtual
Ground
or
iin “short”

v+

vin v-
i- vout

R1
v − = vout
R1 + R2
The virtual ground requires that v + = v - so,
i2
v in = v -
so,
vout vout R1 + R2 vin vin
= = Rin = = =∞
vin v− R1 iin 0
vout R
Av = = 1+ 2 Rout = 0 (Same circuit as for Non - inverting case)
vin R1

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Unity Gain Buffer or “Voltage Follower”

Same as Non − inverting amplifier except R2 = 0 and R1 = ∞

vout R
Av = = 1 + 2 ⇒ Av = 1
v− R1

vin vin
Rin = = =∞
iin 0

Rout = 0 (Same circuit as for Non - inverting case)

•Can be used to isolate a high impedance circuit from a low impedance circuit
Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
 Summing Amplifier
v+
iin,a v-
i2 = iin ,a + iin ,b + iin ,c
vout
v
− out =
vin ,a vin ,b vin ,c
+ + vin,a i2
R 2 R1a R1b R1c
R2 R2 R2
vout = −vin ,a − vin ,b − vin ,c iin,b
R1a R1b R1c
 R2 R2 R2 
vout = − vin ,a + vin ,b + vin ,c 
 R 1a R 1b R1c 
vin,b

iin,c
•Output is a scaled sum of inputs.
•Scaling can be controlled by
ratios of resistors vin,c

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Difference Amplifier

v+ v+

vin,a v- vth v-
vout vout

vin,b vin,b

R2
vth = vin ,a and Rth = R1 || R2
R1 + R2
Using Superposition we can combine the results of the Inverting and Non-inverting solutions:
vin,b=0 vin,a=0
 R  R2 R2 R
v out = vth 1 + 2  vout = − v in,b vout = v in,a − v in,b 2
 R1  R1 R1 R1
R2
v out = vin ,a
R2  R2 
1 +  vout = (v in,a − v in,b )
R1 + R2  R1 
R1
R2 This circuit amplifies the
v out = vin ,a difference of two signals
R1
Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
 Non-Ideal (Real World) Operational Amplifiers
Finite Open-Loop Gain

•Real op-amps do not have “infinite” “open loop (without feedback)” gain.
•Voltage gains are typically large but finite: ~104-106 V/V
•Finite gain causes a deviation from ideal amplifier behavior

R1
v − = v out = βv out
R1 + R 2 v+
R1
where β = is known as the feedback factor
R1 + R 2 v-
v out = A openloop (v + − v − ) = A openloop (v + − βv out ) vin vout
so,
v out A openloop
A v, closed loop = = , where β A openloop is the loop gain
v in 1 + β A openloop
If β A openloop >> 1
1 R2
A v, closed loop = = 1+ ⇒ approaches the infinite gain result
β R1

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Non-Ideal (Real World) Operational Amplifiers
Finite Open-Loop Gain

•Finite open-loop gain means the Virtual Ground is not perfect!

 A openloop  v+ Small but finite
v + − v − = v + − β vout = v+ −  v + = offset between +
1+ β A  1 + β A openloop
 openloop  and - terminals

v+

v-
vin vout

•The Gain Error (GE) that results from the Non-infinite open-loop gain can be quantified as:

 1   A openloop  v+
GE =   −  v+ =
 β   1 + β A openloop  β (1 + β A openloop )

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Non-Ideal (Real World) Operational Amplifiers
Finite Output Impedance

•Real Op-Amps have a small but finite output impedance, Ro .

•We want to find the Output impedance of the various circuits we have examined .
•All the configurations have a common circuit for calculating the output impedance .

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Non-Ideal (Real World) Operational Amplifiers
Finite Output Impedance

vx
Rout =
ix
i x = io + i 2
v x − Av ,openloop (v + − v − )
io =
Ro
vx
v x = i2 (R1 + R2 ) ⇒ i2 =
(R1 + R2 )
R1
v− = v = β vx
(R1 + R2 ) x
i x 1 + Av ,openloop β 1
(Rout ) −1
= = +
vx Ro (R1 + R2 )
 Ro 
Rout = 
1+ A


(R1 + R2 )
 v ,openloop β 

Ro is very small so this term is EXTREMELY small!

Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle

 Non-Ideal (Real World) Operational Amplifiers
Finite Input Impedance: Non-Inverting Case

•Real Op-Amps have a large but finite

input resistance, RID

v x − v−
ix =
R ID
Neglecting the current i x compared to i1 and i 2 (due to R ID >> R 1 or R 2 )
v − = i1 R1 ≈ i2 R1
R1
v− = vout = β vout = Av ,openloop β (v x − v − )
R1 + R2
Av ,openloop β
v− = vx
1 + Av ,openloop β
 Av ,openloop β 
vx −  vx 
1+ A 
 v ,openloop β = vx
ix =
R ID (1 + Av,openloop β )RID
Rin = (1 + Av ,openloop β )R ID

Georgia Tech
RID is very large so Rin is EXTREMELY large!
ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
 Non-Ideal (Real World) Operational Amplifiers
Finite Input Impedance: Inverting Case

•Real Op-Amps have a large but finite Rin R’in

input resistance, RID
•Rin=R1 +R’in
•Find R’in by forming a new test circuit
v1 v −v v v1 + Av ,openloop v1
i1 = i− + i2 = + 1 out = 1 +
R ID R2 R ID R2
i1 1 1 + Av ,openloop
(R'in )−1 = = +
v1 R ID R2
 R2 
R 'in = (RID )  
 1+ A  R’in
 v , openloop 
Thus,
 R2 
Rin = R1 + (RID )  
 1+ A 
 v , openloop 
Since RID>>R2/(1+Av,openloop) and
Av,openloop is very large,

 R2   R2 
Rin = R1 + (R ID )   ⇒ Rin = R1 +   ≈ R1
 1+ A   1+ A 
 v ,openloop   v , openloop 
Georgia Tech ECE 3040 - Dr. Alan Doolittle