Tutorial

Solid state acoustic wave sensors for real-time in-line measurement of oil viscosity
Kerem Durdag
SenGenuity, a Division of Vectron International, Hudson, New Hampshire, USA
Abstract Purpose This paper aims to determine the important role of acoustic wave devices in sensing applications such as automotive applications, industrial applications and commercial applications. Design/methodology/approach The paper provides a comprehensive overview of acoustic wave technology and highlights an example of one commercial implementation of its technology for sensing application: a commercially available real-time, online threaded bolt viscosity sensor. Findings The commercially available viscosity sensor can be readily applied in eld operations or installed directly on the equipment for continuous monitoring of viscosity to enable technicians/mechanics to test the oil in minutes. Originality/value The paper introduces a new product for the sensing industry. Keywords Acoustic waves, Sensors, Oils, Viscosity measurement Paper type Research paper

Acoustic wave devices have played an important role in consumer and communication systems over the last 50 years due to their high performance, small size and high reproducibility. The telecommunications industry is the largest user of acoustic wave devices including lters in mobile cell phones and base stations. These are typically surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices and function as bandpass lters in both the radio frequency and intermediate frequency sections of the transceiver electronics. Acoustic wave technology also lends itself very well to sensing applications. This emerging market holds the potential of equalling, and even exceeding the demand of the telecommunications market, across multiple application sectors. Applications include automotive applications (tire pressure and oil condition monitoring sensors) and industrial and commercial applications (temperature, chemical/gas sensors). Acoustic wave sensors are competitively priced due to mature manufacturing methodologies, inherently rugged because of the implementation of advanced packaging techniques and very sensitive and intrinsically reliable given the inherent design principles. Further, they are complemented by additional functionalities such as low or no power requirements and the ability to communicate wirelessly through use of RF interrogation (no sensor power source required). This paper provides a comprehensive overview of acoustic wave technology and highlights an example of one
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Sensor Review 28/1 (2008) 68 73 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0260-2288] [DOI 10.1108/02602280810850053]

commercial implementation of this technology for sensing applications; a commercially available real-time, online threaded bolt viscosity sensor. Starting with the Rayleigh SAW delay line (Figure 1), one observes the propagating wave is conned to the top surface of the substrate. For a particle on the surface of the substrate, the propagation of the Rayleigh wave will cause the particle to experience a vertically aligned elliptical motion. Because of this, the SAW is a very sensitive probe for measuring mechanical and electrical properties on its surface. We also note that since there is a vertically polarized displacement, the Rayleigh SAW can only be used for gas sensing or physical sensing applications. Putting the SAW in an aqueous environment will result in the SAW being completely damped out due to energy loss into the liquid. The Rayleigh SAW is sensitive to mechanical and electrical properties occurring on its surface. For mechanical properties, they are sensitive to mass loading and viscoelastic changes like stiffening and softening. For electrical properties, the devices can be sensitive to any property that interacts with the electrical eld that is coupled to the propagating acoustic wave. This effect has been given the term electro-acoustic interactions. The Rayleigh SAW is also sensitive to stress or strain coupled into the SAW substrate through the packaging. Because of this, Rayleigh SAW devices make great platforms for torque and pressure sensing applications. Rayleigh SAW devices can also be tailored with special cuts of piezoelectric substrate to create a very linear SAW frequency versus temperature dependence. The result is a very high-resolution temperature sensor. Application of the Rayleigh SAW as a gas sensor is achieved by placing a gas specic sensing lm on the surface of the device. When the sensing lm gets exposed to the target gas, mechanical and electrical perturbations in the sensing lm will cause a corresponding change in the resonant frequency of a SAW resonator or a change in the delay of a SAW delay line. 68

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Figure 1 Rayleigh SAW delay line

Surface Displacement Input IDT Output IDT

Figure 2 STW sensor

Metal Trapping Grating Surface Displacement Output IDT

Input IDT

When the device is combined with an oscillator circuit, the result for both is a change in the oscillation frequency. Mechanical examples for the application of the Rayleigh waves include: . Mass loading as a concentration of gas adsorbs (sticks onto) onto the surface of the sensing lm will result in a decrease in oscillation frequency (e.g. chemical gas detection). . Changes in a sensing lm as a concentration of gas diffuses into the bulk of the sensing lm can result in elastic stiffening or softening. Elastic stiffening will result in an increase in the oscillation frequency, while elastic softening or swelling of the sensing lm will result in a decrease in the oscillation frequency. . Stress or strain coupled into the substrate through the sensor packaging (e.g. torque sensing). . Pressure exerted on a diaphragm on which the SAW transducer is fabricated. Electrical examples for the application of the Rayleigh waves include: conductivity changes in the sensing lm as it gets exposed to a concentration of gas can result in either an increase or decrease in oscillation frequency depending on whether the gas causes the conductivity of the sensing lm to increase or decrease. Note that in some cases where the sensing lm is metal, the device electrodes themselves can become the sensing material. Also note that when you have a metal sensing lm in the delay path, one will not be able to observe any electrical properties because the metal lm will short out any electric eld that is coupled to the propagating acoustic wave. Similar to the Rayleigh SAW, the surface transverse wave (STW) device uses input and output transducers to launch and receive the propagating acoustic surface wave. However, the differences are two-fold (Figure 2). First, the STW device uses a metal grating structure to trap the propagating wave to the surface of the substrate. Without the grating, the wave propagates at a slight angle into the bulk of the substrate resulting in attenuation of the wave. Secondly, the displacement of the propagating STW is in the plane of the substrate with no vertical component of displacement. Since, there is no vertical component of displacement, the STW could theoretically be used for liquid-based applications. In a practical sense, use as a liquid-based sensor is very unlikely. Placing water on the surface of the device will dielectrically short out the IDT electrodes preventing the excitation of the STW. Isolation of the IDTs from the liquid has been tried with various types of packaging (i.e. passivation coatings or o-ring sealed ow cavity), but this usually results in signicant losses in the 69

device characteristics. For this reason, the STW is typically only used for gas sensing. The term Love Mode has been used in the sensor literature because the use of a thin lm layer for energy trapping is analogous to the use of a thick layer in the true Love Mode device. Similar to the SAW and STW, the Love Mode device uses input and output transducers to launch and receive the propagating acoustic surface wave (Figure 3). Also similar to the STW, the displacement of the propagating Love Mode is in the plane of the substrate without any vertical component of displacement. The Love Mode device, however, uses a thin trapping layer to trap the propagating wave to the surface of the substrate instead of a metal grating. For the Love Mode device, the same argument regarding liquid-sensing application applies. Much work has been done to get around the dielectric shorting effect experienced by quartz-based SH-SAW devices by using other substrate materials that have a much higher dielectric constant than quartz (i.e. 368 YX LiTaO3). Unfortunately, the material is pyroelectric and the manufacturing takes on a new level of complexity. The Love Mode device is better suited for gas sensing. For the bulk acoustic wave (BAW) device, or more specically an AT cut thickness shear mode (TSM) device, we can see that the thickness shear vibration is in the plane of the crystal plate with the maximum displacements occurring on the crystal faces (Figure 4). This is ideal for sensing Figure 3 Love Mode SAW device
Thin Film Trapping Layer Surface Displacement Output IDT

Input IDT

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Figure 4 BAW device

Piezoelectric Substrate Bottom Electrode Top Electrode

Mechanical examples for the application of BAW devices for gas sensing include: . Mass loading as a concentration of gas adsorbs (sticks onto) onto the surface of the sensing lm will result in a decrease in resonant frequency. . Changes in a sensing lm as a concentration of gas diffuses into the bulk of the sensing lm can result in elastic stiffening or softening. Elastic stiffening will result in an increase in the resonant frequency, while elastic softening will result in a decrease in resonant frequency. Application as a liquid sensor can be achieved with a sensing lm or by direct contact of the liquid onto the surface of the BAW device (Figure 6). For the sensing lm case, attachment of the chemical or biological stimulus results in mechanical perturbations causing a corresponding change in the resonant frequency. Mechanical examples for BAW devices used for uid sensing are: . Mass loading as a concentration of chemical adsorbs onto the surface of the sensing lm or when a bio-molecule attaches to some selective surface chemistry. Mass loading results in a decrease in resonant frequency. . Visco-elastic changes of the sensing lm as a concentration of chemical diffuses into the bulk of the sensing lm. Elastic stiffening of a sensing lm will result in an increase in the resonant frequency, while elastic softening or swelling of the sensing lm will result in a decrease in the resonant frequency. . Viscous drag caused by the attachment of large biological molecules on the surface of the biologically specic sensing lm. For the direct contacting case, the mechanical properties of the uid causes perturbations on the surface of the BAW device resulting in resonant frequency changes. Figure 6 BAW device used for uid sensing
Fluid Cell

application and because there is no vertical component of displacement, the BAW device can be used for liquid-based applications without experiencing excessive damping. TSM devices are sensitive to mechanical and electrical properties occurring on their surfaces. For mechanical properties, they are sensitive to mass loading and visco-elastic changes like stiffening and softening. For electrical properties, the devices can be sensitive to any property that interacts with the electrical eld that is coupled to the acoustic wave. This effect has been given the term electro-acoustic interactions. For TSM devices with solid circular conductive electrodes, the effects due to electrical properties of the uid are minimal. Because of this fact, TSM devices are not typically used for measuring electrical properties unless a modied electrode is implemented. The sensing mechanisms for BAW devices include mass loading, lm/liquid visco-elastic changes, lm/liquid conductivity changes, stress or strain, and resonant frequency changes due to pressure. Applications for BAW devices range from biomedical to conductivity to viscosity to pressure sensing. Application of the BAW device as a gas sensor is achieved by placing a gas specic sensing lm on the surface of the device (Figure 5). When the sensing lm gets exposed to the target gas, mechanical perturbations in the sensing lm will cause a corresponding change in the resonant frequency of the acoustic wave device. Figure 5 BAW device for gas sensing
Sensing Film

Liquid Sensing Film AT Quartz

o-ring

o-ring

Fluid Cell

Liquid under test

o-ring

AT Quartz

o-ring

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Viscous loading of the BAW: the density and viscosity of the uid will strongly affect the BAW equivalent circuit parameters and resonant frequency. When a TSM resonator is placed in contact with a liquid, the resonant frequency and series resistance is dependent on the density and viscosity of the contacting liquid. Figure 7 shows the cross-sectional displacement prole for a TSM AT-cut resonator contacted by a viscous liquid. As shown, the oscillating surface generates plane-parallel laminar ow in the contacting liquid. The viscously-entrained liquid undergoes a phase lag that increases from the distance from the surface of the TSM device. Plotting the series resonant frequency (Figure 8) as a function of the percent weight of glycerol generates the plot above. And nally, plotting (Figure 9) the shift in frequency as a function of the square root of the density-viscosity product for the various concentrations of glycerol creates the plot shown above. You can see that the shift in frequency is directly proportional to the square root of the density-viscosity product. Note that for a sensing lm placed on top of a metal electrode, the TSM device will not detect any electrical properties because the metal lm will short out the electric eld that is coupled to the propagating acoustic wave. A TSM device can be used to measure the conductivity of non-viscous solutions. For a TSM device with equivalent electrodes Figure 7 Cross-sectional displacement prole for a TSM AT-cut resonator contacted by a viscous liquid

Figure 9 Change in resonant frequency due to glycerol in water

Change in Series Resonant Frequency vs. (r*)1/2 5MHz AT Cut Quartz %wt Solutions of Glycerol in Water 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 0 1 2

y = 224.73x R2 = 0.9984

f (ppm)

3 4 5 6 ( r*)1/2 (g cm2 s1/2)

Liquid ,

Viscously-Entrained Liquid

x Top Electrode AT Quartz q,q Displacement ux(y)

Figure 8 Change in resonant frequency due to glycerol in water

Change in Series Resonant Frequency 5MHz Fundamental AT Cut Quartz %wt Solutions of Glycerol in Water 0 500

1,000 1,500 2,000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Glycerol (% Weight)

(shown right), the interaction with the conductive solution is not electro-acoustic in nature, but is mainly a function of the fringing electric elds. Because the top electrode is metal, it will short out any electric eld that is coupled to the propagating BAW. For this reason, the acoustic wave device does not interact with the solution via the propagating BAW. Instead, the fringing elds interacting with the conductive solution directly inuences the C0 of the resonator causing the anti-resonant frequency (parallel frequency) of the device to be dependent on conductivity of the solution. For a modied electrode structure (Figure 10(a)), the mode shape plot (Figure 10(b)) illustrates the strength of the acoustic mode as a function of position across the surface of the resonator. As can be seen, the acoustic activity in the center of the resonator is not very strong, but is still somewhat present. The acoustic wave in the center (no metal) does have an electric eld that is coupled to the propagating acoustic wave that can interact with a conductive solution or a sensing lm placed on the surface. Additionally, the liquid or sensing lm in the center non-electrode region will behave as a lossy electrode coupling more acoustic energy into the TSM device as a function of conductivity of the solution or sensing lm on its surface. So as the conductivity increases, the series resonant frequency, series resistance, and overall Q of the resonator will dramatically change and can be easily measured using a standard oscillator circuit. The shear horizontal acoustic plate mode (SH-APM) device combines the best properties of both the BAW and SAW devices (Figure 11). It employs separate input and output transducers in order to allow differential signal measurements like the SAW structures but also allows the sensor crystal to be employed as a physical barrier between the electronics and the sensing medium. The wave is a waveguide mode with energy throughout the bulk of the crystal and is dependent on the thickness of the substrate. Like all the previous surface launched acoustic wave devices, the SH-APM device uses input and output IDTs to launch and receive the acoustic wave. Similar to the BAW TSM device, the maximum displacements occur on the top and bottom surfaces of the plate. Similar to the STW and Love Mode devices, the surface displacement is shear and in the plane of the plate so it can be used for liquid-based applications. The waveguide modes have energy distributed between the two surfaces as a standing wave as in the BAW 71

f (ppm)

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Figure 10 (a) Modied TSM electrode structure; (b) mode plot for modied TSM device
Conductive Ionic Solution , AT Quartz q,q Ring Electrode

Lossy Electrode

C0

(a) Mode Shape

x (b)

Figure 11 SH-APM device

Output IDT

Figure 12 Vectron threaded bolt solid-state ViSmarte sensor

Input IDT

Surface Displacement

CrossSectional Displacement

sensor but traveling along the surface as in a SAW. The continuous exchange of energy between the two surfaces allows the signal between the IDTs to be inuenced by changes on the opposite surface. Since, the wave interacts with both surfaces of the plate, either surface can be used as the sensing surface. For liquid sensing applications and for corrosive or explosive gases, this is a great advantage over the STW and Love Mode device because you can isolate the sensing medium from the electrodes by making the bottom surface of the SH-APM device the sensing surface. Below is shown the subject sensor that is packaged as an inline real-time screw-on threaded bolt solution (Figure 12) using SH-APM technology that is targeted at embedded integration to locomotive diesel assets. The sensor has no moving parts (other than the atomic scale vibration of the surface) and, due to the high frequency of the vibration (several millions of vibrations per second) it is not affected by ow conditions of the liquid and is immune to vibration effects of the environment. High-temperature 72

electronics are employed to allow for a very wide operating temperature range for the sensor. A customer who has a global presence in the automotive and trucking industry tested the ViSmart viscosity sensor in order to continuously monitor the condition of the oil as a function of the fuel dilution in order to ensure and extend the warranty period on the engines by providing current, accurate and reliable viscosity data. An extended test on an engine test stand was carried out. Commercially available oil was monitored for a baseline viscosity performance. Then, as the equipment was operated specic percentage levels of fuel was introduced and viscosity of oil was measured once again as a function of temperature. Figure 13 shows the difference in viscosity of the oil as a function of percentage levels of fuel dilution across the temperature range. The nal goal of the customer to enables the end-user to make a series of decisions to ensure the continued functioning of the equipment was achieved on the test stand. The commercially available viscosity sensor can be readily applied in eld operations or installed directly on the equipment for continuous monitoring of viscosity to enable technicians/mechanics to test the oil in minutes. It would be

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Figure 13 Viscosity changes as a function of fuel dilution across a temperature range using the ViSmart
Fuel Dilution in Oil 50 40 30 20 10 0 15
Brand X Oil (cSt) Oil + 3% Fuel (cSt) Oil + 6% Fuel (cSt) Oil + 9% Fuel (cSt)

complementary to lab oil analysis test burden by providing real-time viscosity data and would enable streamlining of logistic costs. And given no calibration is required for the rugged vibration and shock proof sensor, once it is installed in a harsh industrial environments, maintenance costs are extremely low. Contact for Press: Input International, Sylvia Tutenel, Tel.: 32 (0) 12 67 20 02, Fax: 32 (0) 12 67 20 03, E-mail: sylvia@inputint.com, Web site: www. inputinternational.com Please send all sales leads to: Vectron SAP, Colin Field, Business Development Manager, UK, Tel.: 44 1959 570263, E-mail: celd@vectron.com, Web site: www.visensor.com

Viscosity (cSt)

35

55 Temp (C)

75

95

Corresponding author
Kerem Durdag can be contacted at: kdurdag@sengenuity.com

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