Demand Controlled Ventilation System Design

PROVIDING THE RIGHT AMOUNT OF AIR, IN THE RIGHT PLACE, AT THE RIGHT TIME

S SAVING AVING ENERGY ENERGY COSTS COSTS WHILE WHILE OPTIMIZING OPTIMIZING INDOOR INDOOR AIR AIR QUA QUAL LIIT TY Y

TA B L E O F C O NT E N TS

1. IN TRO D U C T I O N
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Why a Handbook on Ventilation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 CO2 as an Important Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

SECTION I
B a c k g r o u n d o n C O 2 a n d Ve n t i l a t i o n C o n t r o l

2. CO2 BASICS
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 The CO2 DCV Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Atmospheric CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Indoor CO2 Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 CO2 Differential and Ventilation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 CO2 Control Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 CO2 as a Contaminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 DCV Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

3 . V E N T I L AT I O N , B U I L D I N G C O D E S A N D C O 2
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 The Evolution of Mechanical Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 CO2 Control ... A New Idea? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Ventilation Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 CO2 and ASHRAE Standard 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 DCV and Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 The Maturation of a Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

SECTION II
DCV Appli ca tio n Fundamentals

4 . D C V A P P L I C AT I O N G U I D E L I N E S
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 CO2 Control and Standard 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 DCV Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Design Steps for DCV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Step 1: Is the Space Appropriate for DCV? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Step 2: Determining Outdoor Air Ventilation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 4.6.1 DCV or Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 4.6.2 Constant Volume Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 4.6.3 Multiple Zone VAV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Step 3: Calculating Base Ventilation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Step 4: Select DCV Control Strateg y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Step 5: Locating CO 2 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 4.9.1 In-Space or Duct Mounted Sensors? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Sensor Location - Constant Volume Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 4.10.1 Sensor Selection - VAV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10

Use of the information contained in this Manual is voluntary, and reliance on it should only be undertaken after independent review of its accuracy, completeness, and timeliness. Carrier, including its employees and agents, assumes no responsibility for consequences resulting from the use of the information herein, or in any respect for the content of such information, including but not limited to errors or omissions. Carrier is not responsible for, and expressly disclaims liability for, damages of any kind arising out of use, reference to, or reliance on such information. No guarantees or warranties, including, but not limited to, any express or implied warranties of merchantabilities or fitness for a particular use or purpose, are made by Carrier with respect to such information.

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5 . D C V C O N T R O L S T R AT E G I E S
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Step 1: Consideration of Outdoor Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 5.2.1 Direct Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 5.2.2 Measurement or Assumption of Outside CO 2 Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Step 2: Establishing the CO2 Equilibrium Anchor Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Step 3: Control Strategy Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 5.4.1 Three Control Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 5.4.2 Consideration of Control Response Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Set Point Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Proportional Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Proportional-Integral Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Two Stage Control for Zone Based VAV Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 5.8.1 Establishing Zone and System Set Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 5.8.2 Sizing of Zone Heating Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

SECTION III
Design Examples

E X A M P L E 1 : S I N G L E Z O N E R E TA I L S PA C E
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Application: Retail Clothing Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Step 1: Is the Space Appropriate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Step 2: Determine Ventilation Requirements for the Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Step 3: Determine Base Ventilation Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Step 4: Determine Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 6.5.1 Considering Outside Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 6.5.2 Determine CO2 Control Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Step 5: Locate Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Installation Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

E X A M P L E 2 : S I N G L E A I R H A N D L E R S E RV I N G M U LT I P L E Z O N E S S C H O O L 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Application: Four Classrooms Served By One Air Handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Step 1: Is the Space Appropriate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Step 2: Determine Ventilation Requirements for the Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Step 3: Determine Base Ventilation Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Step 4: Determine Control Strateg y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 7.5.1 Considering Outside Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 7.5.2 Determine CO2 Control Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 7.5.3 Selecting the Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Step 5: Locate Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Installation Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

7.6 7.7

E X A M P L E 3 : M U LT I P L E Z O N E O F F I C E W I T H VAV 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 A P P E N DI X A P P E N D IX A P P EN D I X A P P EN D I X A P P E N DI X A P P EN D I X A P P EN D I X A: B: C: D: E: F: G: Application: 14 Zone Office with VAV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Step1: Is the Space Appropriate for DCV? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Step 2: Determine Ventilation Requirements for the Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 8.3.1 Maximum Airflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 8.3.2 Minimum Airflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Step 3: Determine Base Minimum Ventilation Rate for DCV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Step 4: Determine CO 2 Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Step 5: Locating CO 2 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Installation Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 ASHRAE 62 Interpretations IC 62-1999-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 CO2 Equilibrium Anchor Points for Alternative Activity Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Sequences of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Guide Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Background on CO 2 Sensor Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 DCV Compatible Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

C A R R I E R D E M A N D C O N T RO L L E D V E N T I L AT I O N S Y S T E M D E S I G N

1 . 1 W H Y A H A N D B O O K O N V E N T I L AT I O N C O N T R O L
This handbook is designed to give the user a strong understanding of a simple but powerful method of active ventilation control with carbon dioxide (CO2) that can ensure good air quality to code requirements, save energy and enhance occupant comfort. Active, zone level ventilation control is both a new and an old concept. Windows were the first effective method of ventilation control. Every building built before the 1920s incorporated operable windows, which provided both light and a method of ventilation control that allowed variable control of fresh air on a room-by-room basis. As central mechanical systems for heating and cooling became more common, active zone/room based control of ventilation was lost and replaced by a centrally delivered, fixed ventilation rate intended for the entire building. The result was better temperature control but a loss in flexibility in ventilation control. This passive, fixed ventilation approach was applied with mechanical systems, because until recently there was not an inexpensive method of measuring and controlling ventilation at the zone level. As described in this handbook, indoor CO2 levels have been used as an indicator of outside air ventilation rates for over 90 years. Carbon dioxide ventilation control or demand controlled ventilation (DCV) allows for the measurement and control of outside air ventilation levels to a target cfm/person ventilation rate in the space (i.e., 15 cfm/person) based on the number of people in the space. It is a direct measure of ventilation effectiveness and is a method whereby buildings can regain active and automatic zone level ventilation control, without having to open windows. Recent technical developments in CO 2 sensor design and advancement in equipment control now provide an opportunity for this active ventilation control within a competitive market environment. Zone level control of ventilation can also avoid the cost often related to over ventilating a building continually to ensure that one critical zone receives adequate fresh air under all operating conditions. CO2 based ventilation control is a dynamic system that responds to how the building is used and occupied. It is a real time control approach that offers a vast improvement over ventilating a building at a fixed rate based on some pre-construction constant occupancy assumptions. The fixed ventilation approach depends on a set-it-and-forget-it methodology that is completely unresponsive to changes in the way spaces are utilized or how equipment is maintained. This handbook was undertaken because there is no single source that designers can rely on to understand and design HVAC systems incorporating CO2 ventilation control. This handbook represents the state of the art in the use of CO2 based ventilation control and has drawn on numerous technical papers, codes and standards as well as a wealth of field applied experience.

1 .2 C O 2 A S A N I M P O RTA N T C O N T RO L S T R AT E G Y
Carrier Corporation believes that ventilation control with CO2 (CO2 DCV) is an important building control technique that can be applied in to most buildings and types of building occupancies. Carrier believes so strongly in this approach that now every piece of Carrier equipment that provides ventilation has an input and built-in control strategy to utilize CO2 control. It is a proven method to control outdoor air based on actual occupancy. DCV meets the code, it saves money, and it doesnt guess. Carrier is particularly excited about the high degree of comfort that can be provided to multi-zone spaces that utilize VAV systems with active ventilation control with CO2. By integrating zone control of both temperature and ventilation it is possible to measure and control ventilation to ensure that adequate fresh air is actually delivered to all spaces. Previous approaches could only ensure adequate fresh air at the air intake but could not quantify if that fresh air was actually being distributed to the spaces that needed it. Zone ventilation control with DCV removes the traditional dependence that ventilation has had on space conditioning load. It is now possible to control fresh air and space conditioning to a zone independently using the same VAV box. The result is that the designer does not have to oversize outside air intake capacity to handle low load conditions. Significant energy can be saved over traditional VAV approaches.

1 .3 OVERVIEW
This Handbook is divided into three sections: Section I which includes Chapters 2 and 3, establishes the background necessary to understand how CO2 DCV works and how it is applied under current codes and standards. Section II which includes Chapters 4 and 5 addresses the application fundamentals necessary to properly design a HVAC system with DCV. Section III addresses three different design examples using the guidelines established in section II. The Appendix to this handbook also provides a valuable point of reference to the reader and provides more details on DCV applications for special circumstances, detailed sequence of operation for various types of equipment, and additional details on the sensors and equipment offered by Carrier for DCV.

1.4 SUMMARY
This handbook is intended to provide a clear engineering rationale for CO 2 based DCV that can be used by the HVAC industry to properly apply this promising technology. Much has been written on the topic of DCV as a good idea. This handbook begins with the conclusion that CO2 DCV is a good idea and then answers the nuts-and-bolts questions of how to apply it.

C A R R I E R D E M A N D C ON T RO L L ED V E N T I L AT I O N S Y S T E M D E S I G N

C A R R I ER D E M A N D C O N T RO L L E D V E N T I L AT I O N S Y S T E M D E S I G N

B AC KG RO U N D O N C O 2 A N D V E N T I L AT I O N C O N T R O L

C A R R I E R D E M A N D C ON T RO L L ED V E N T I L AT I O N S Y S T E M D E S I G N

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2.1 THE C O2 D CV CONCE PT

Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) based demand controlled ventilation (DCV) is an economical means of providing outdoor air to occupied spaces at the rates required by local building codes and ASHRAE Standard 62, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Engineers and building owners both lament the high cost of conditioning outdoor air, and the inexact control methodologies that often result in significant over ventilation of spaces. CO2-based DCV offers designers and building owners an ability to monitor both occupancy and ventilation rates in a space to ensure there is adequate ventilation at all times. Typically, most ventilation systems are set up and adjusted only when they are installed. DCV offers a higher level of control in that it monitors conditions in the space and constantly adjusts the system to respond to real time occupancy variations. The result is that target cfm-per-person rates as established by local codes and standards are maintained based on actual occupancy. Costly over ventilation that typically results from a fixed ventilation strategy (design occupancy X cfm/person) is avoided and energy usage can be reduced. Measurement of CO2 concentrations is an accepted scientific methodology to determine the actual ventilation rate in a building. The use of CO2 to control ventilation rates in buildings is also recognized as a valid control approach in ASHRAE Standard 62 and in model building codes used as reference by most local code bodies.

2 . 2 AT M O S P H E R I C C O 2
CO2 is one of the most common compounds in our atmosphere. It is also cited by many as a general indicator of the buildup of greenhouse gases and global warming. Figure 2.1 summarizes data collected from the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii over the past 40 years. 1 The chart shows the gradual increase of CO2 concentrations by 1 to 2 ppm per year. Given its isolated location in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, these concentrations likely represent the lowest concentrations that will be found worldwide. In urban areas outdoor CO 2 levels typically range from 360 up to as high as 450 to 500 ppm due to the presence of localized sources of CO2 which can include any combustion device or process. Higher outdoor levels can also be measured when in close proximity to a source of CO 2 such as an idling vehicle or a furnace or combustion exhaust. Because of its low molecular weight CO2 will readily diffuse and equalize within an open space.
FIGURE 2.1 C O 2 C O N C E N T R AT I O N S M E A S U R E D I N H AWA I I O V E R 4 0 Y E A R S

As a result, outside CO2 levels tend to be ubiquitous and fairly constant over large geographic regions. Because of this consistency, it is possible to use CO2 as a baseline reference for outside air for the purpose of measuring and controlling ventilation.

2 . 3 I N D O O R C O 2 C O N C E N T R AT I O N S
Indoors in commercial buildings people are the principal source of CO 2. Plants, due to their low level of metabolic activity contribute an insignificant amount of CO 2 to indoor spaces. Unvented combustion sources can also contribute to indoor CO2 concentrations but are generally not present in commercial buildings. In fact highly elevated levels of CO2 (e.g., 3000 to 5000 ppm) can indicate the presence of potentially dangerous combustion fumes. CO2 is one of the most plentiful byproducts of combustion and can account for 8% to 15% by volume of the content of a combustion exhaust. For ventilation control, it is people as a source of CO2 that we are interested in. People exhale predictable quantities of CO2 in proportion to their degree of physical activity. This relationship is shown in Figure 2.2 and is taken from Appendix D of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.2
FIGU RE 2.2 C O 2 P RO D U C T I O N A N D A C T I V I T Y L E V E L
Activity Level
Very Light Light Moderate

1.25

1.00

40

0.75

30

0.50

20

0.25

10

Physical Activity - MET Units

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Because CO2 production is so consistent and predictable, it can be used as a good indicator of general occupancy trends. For example, if the number of people in the space is doubled, the amount of CO2 produced will double. If one or two people leave a space the CO2 production will decrease correspondingly. It is important to note that an indoor CO2 measurement does not provide enough information to actually count people but it can be used in combination with outside

air concentrations to calculate, measure and control ventilation rates. An indoor CO 2 measurement is a dynamic measure of the number of people in a space (exhaling CO2) and the amount of outside air at baseline CO2 concentration that is being introduced for dilution via mechanical ventilation and/or infiltration. The result is that it is possible to determine cfm/person ventilation rates in a space by measuring the CO2 differential.

2.4 CO2 D I F F E R E N T I A L A N D V E N T I L AT I O N R AT E S
Figure 2.3 shows the typical pattern of buildup of CO2 in a space with office type activity (1.2 MET). The chart assumes a steady-state condition where a constant occupancy is present and the ventilation rate is constant. Once people enter a room, CO2 concentrations will begin to increase. These levels will continue to increase until the amount of CO2 produced by the space occupants and the dilution air delivered to the space are in balance. This is called the equilibrium point.
FIGURE 2.3 C O 2 E QU I L I B R I U M L E V E L S A N D P E R P E R S O N V E N T I L AT I O N R AT E S

2,500

2,120

The relationship between indoor/outdoor CO2 differential and ventilation rate is independent of population density. However, population density will affect the time it takes for CO2 to build up to an equilibrium level. This equation only applies when equilibrium conditions exist. This is particularly important when trying to infer space ventilation rates from a spot measurement when non steady-state conditions exist. 4 To make an accurate determination of cfm/person rates one should take CO2 measurements when occupancy has stabilized. Measuring CO2 concentrations that are still in transition to an equilibrium level can result in over estimation of the ventilation rate. Applied properly, spot measurements can be extremely useful in helping to qualify if a space is over or under ventilated. The ANSI/ASHRASE Standard 62 states that: Comfort (odor) criteria with respect to human bioeffluents are likely to be satisfied if the ventilation results in indoor CO2 concentrations less than 700 ppm above the outdoor air concentration. 5
FI GURE 2.4 C A R R I E R 7 0 0 1 H A N D - H E L D C O 2 M O N I TO R

2,000

1,500

1,050 700 500 350

1,000

500 0

Time
Note:Assumes office type activity level (1.2 MET)

As can be seen from Figure 2.3 the equilibrium point corresponds to a specific ventilation rate per person in the space. The equilibrium level for a particular space can be calculated using a simple mass balance equation found in Appendix D of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999. 3 Vo = N/(Cs Co) Where: Vo = outdoor air flow rate per person N = CO 2 generation rate per person Cs = CO2 concentration in the space Co = CO2 concentration outside Note that the activity level for the space is a component of calculating N. This will be discussed in greater detail later in this handbook. The equation can also be restated so that the equilibrium level (Ceq) for a particular ventilation rate can be calculated. Ceq = Cs = Co + N/Vo

Appendix D of Standard 62 provides an example that shows how this 700 ppm level is derived from the 15 cfm per person minimum ventilation rate established in the standard. The calculation below assumes an activity level of 1.2 MET which would be considered equivalent to office type activity. Average CO2 production at this activity level (as provided in Figure 2.2 taken from Appendix D of Standard 62) is 0.30 l/min or 0.0106 cfm. Outside CO2 concentrations are assumed

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to be 400 ppm. If this is the case then the CO 2 level for a 700 ppm differential would be 1100 ppm. Ceq = Co + N/Vo = 0.000400 + (0.0106 / 15) = 0.000400 + 0.000707 = 0.001107 = 1107 parts per million (ppm)

If the above calculation were performed for 20 cfm per person the inside outside differential would be approximately 500 ppm or an absolute level of 900 ppm (assuming 400 ppm outside). Chapter 5 discusses how this equilibrium level is used as part of a control strategy.

2.5 CO2 C O N T R O L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
When using CO2 to control ventilation rates in a building, the use of the equilibrium level is used differently than it would be when using a portable monitor to determine ventilation rates based on a spot measurement. While it is possible to provide a CO2 control strategy where outside air would only be introduced once the equilibrium level is reached, it may not achieve the best results. This is because of the lag time that may result between when people enter a space and when CO2 levels reach the appropriate equilibrium set point (e.g., 700 ppm inside/outside differential). When applying ventilation control with DCV the equilibrium level actually becomes one component or anchor point in a CO2 control algorithm. The actual choice of algorithms will be discussed in Chapter 5 and is based on providing a control strategy that is responsive to changes in occupancy so that the target per person ventilation rate can be provided within a reasonable lag time.

2.6 CO2 A S A C O N TA M I N A N T
Carbon Dioxide is not considered a health threatening contaminant at the levels normally found in buildings (400 3,000 ppm). In fact, in industrial environments OSHA has established an 8-hour exposure level of 5000 ppm and a 15-minute maximum exposure limit of 30,000 ppm. 6 In commercial buildings CO 2 is used as an indicator of the per-person ventilation rate in a space, not as a contaminant. So why is it that many people have observed that as CO2 levels rise above 1000 ppm range, increased drowsiness, lethargy and discomfort can occur? This is because CO 2 is an indicator of ventilation. As CO2 levels rise above 1100 ppm (a 700 ppm differential between inside and outside) ventilation rates begin to drop below 15 cfm/person. While CO2 is building up other space and people related contaminants are also increasing. It is these other contaminants that are creating the physiological effects. The buildup of CO2 is an indicator of low ventilation rates that generally will result in higher levels of all types of contaminants and a greater level of occupant dissatisfaction. An excerpt from an interpretation to ASHRAE Standard 62-99 provides a good summary of how CO2 is used in the standard: 700 ppm above outdoors is the steady-state carbon dioxide concentration differential corresponding to a constant ventilation rate of 15 cfm/person of outdoor air in a space occupied by sedentary adults. Chamber studies have shown that 15 cfm/person and indoor carbon dioxide concentrations that are about 700 ppm above outdoors correspond to 80% satisfaction of visitors to such a space with respect to body odor. 7

2.7 DCV BENEFITS

Compared to a fixed ventilation approach, DCV offers considerable advantages. Carbon Dioxide based DCV does not affect the design ventilation capacity required to serve the space; it just controls the operation of the system to be more in tune with how a building actually operates. Excessive over-ventilation is avoided while still maintaining IAQ and providing the required cfmper-person outside air requirement specified by codes and standards. Operational energy savings of $0.05 to $1.00 per square foot annually can result. This observation has been verified in a recent literature review on CO2 control that sighted numerous studies where energy savings from DCV control approaches ranged from 5% to 80% versus a fixed ventilation strategy.8 System paybacks can range from a few months to two years and are often substantial enough to help pay for other system or building upgrades. The payback from CO 2 DCV will be greatest in higher density spaces that are subject to variable or intermittent occupancy that would have normally used a fixed ventilation strategy (e.g., theaters, schools, retail establishments, meeting and conference areas). In spaces with more static occupancies (e.g., offices) DCV can provide control and verification that adequate ventilation is provided to all spaces. For example a building operator may arbitrarily and accidentally establish a fixed air intake damper position that results in over or under ventilation of all or parts of a space. A CO2 control strategy can ensure the position of the intake air dampers is appropriate for the ventilation needs and occupancy of the space at all times. In some buildings, infiltration air or open windows may be a significant source of outside air.

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A CO2 sensor will consider the contribution of infiltration in a space and only require the mechanical system to make up what is necessary to meet required ventilation levels. These savings are in addition to those quoted above. CO2 monitoring and control is considered an important part of green building design. It is one of the criteria that can now be used to meet the LEED (Leadership In Energy And Environmental Design) criteria for green building design.9 When integrated with the appropriate building control strategy, ventilation can be controlled on a zone-by-zone based on actual occupancy. This allows for the use of transfer air from under-occupied zones to be redistributed to areas where more ventilation is required. A control strategy can be used to maintain any per-person ventilation rate. As a result

this approach is highly adaptable to changing building uses and any changes that may occur in future recommended ventilation rates. DCV can provide the building owner/manager with valuable information about occupancy trends and the status of equipment operation. This information can be documented and recorded by a digital building control system. CO2 demand control ventilation is a real-time, occupancy based ventilation control approach that can offer significant energy savings over traditional fixed ventilation approaches. Properly applied, it allows for the maintenance of target per-person ventilation rates at all times. Even in spaces where occupancy is static, CO2 DCV can be used to ensure that every zone within a space is adequately ventilated for its actual occupancy. Air intake dampers, often subject to maladjustment, or arbitrary adjustments over time can be controlled automatically, avoiding accidental and costly over or under ventilation.

Atmospheric CO2 concentrations (ppm) derived from in situ air samples collected at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii. Source: C.D. Keeling, T.P. Whorf, Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, La Jolla, California USA92093-0244. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, ASHRAE, 1999. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, ASHRAE, 1999. Persily, A, Evaluating Building IAQ And Ventilation With Indoor Carbon Dioxide, ASHRAE Transactions, 1997. Section 6.1.3. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, ASHRAE, 1999. OSHA, Chemical Information Manual, OSHA Instruction CPL2-2.43A, July 1, 1991. Interpretation To ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, Interpretation No: IC 62-1999-05. Emmerich, S and Persily, A. Literature Review On CO2 Based Demand Controlled Ventilation. ASHRAE Transactions 1977, American Society Of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers. US Green Building Council, LEED Green Building Rating System Reference Guide 2.0, June 2001.

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3 . 1 V E N T I L AT I O N
In early part of the last century, in the days before central air-conditioning systems, ventilation was a much more natural subject than it is today. Not that ventilation has become unnatural, but prior to World War II, central air-conditioning was rare. Buildings were cooled using natural ventilation and the modern contaminants that today may lead to Sick Building Syndrome were unknown. In the typical prewar office building, odors, tobacco smoke, and combustion byproducts from heating appliances were the principal contaminants of concern. Ventilation was achieved naturally through windows and doors. Infiltration, by design, was often the only source of fresh air in winter months.

3 . 2 T H E E V O L U T I O N O F M E C H A N I C A L V E N T I L AT I O N
Willis Carriers research and experimentation in building air conditioning began in 1902 with an idea to use evaporative cooling for humidity control in a printing plant. His scientific engineering process helped to establish further study of the need for devising suitable equipment for carrying out air conditioning processes as well as to identify the need of various industries for maintaining atmospheric conditions, independently of external weather variations (Carrier, 1936). By 1920 Carrier s work had advanced into comfort cooling applications and created a need to define thermal comfort and ventilation requirements.10 The important technological advance that made mechanical ventilation possible was the development of the electric power industry. But even then, mechanical ventilation was slow to catch on. If you look at buildings constructed in the early part of the 20th century you will notice that most floor plans are generally variations of narrow rectangular areas with the distance from one exterior wall to the opposite exterior wall not more than about 50 feet. Even the very largest buildings were arranged with H-shaped, T-shaped, or U-shaped floor plans. The reason was to keep all the building occupants within reasonable distance to a window for both ventilation and light. During World War II, ventilation became an important issue. Buildings and factories operating at night during the war had to do so under blackout conditions. Manufacturing facilities for war production were often erected without windows, forcing engineers to consider mechanical ventilation as a source of fresh air and temperature control. Generally, air was provided in sufficient volume to keep the average interior air temperature at about 10F (5.6C) above the outdoor air temperature. Even as late as 1957, F.W. Dodge Corporation in their architectural record book, Buildings For Industry, discussed ventilation requirements in national defense terms stating: If windows are provided in the building most of the ventilation may be taken care of by them. But in the case of blackout buildings some mechanical means must be provided. 11

3 . 3 C O 2 C O N T RO L . .. A N EW I D E A ?
The Mechanical Engineers Handbook (Marks, 1916) which featured Willis Carrier as a contributing editor, was one of the first engineering guides to mention CO2 measurement as a reference for ventilation relative to the number of occupants in a space: Air is rendered unwholesome by perspiration, by respiration, excessive heat, humidity, effluvia from the human body and other impurities directly or indirectly imparted by the occupants of a room. The percentage of carbonic acid may be regarded as a measure of the vitiation from respiration and from combustion, but not from the heat and moisture resulting from the same source. Air may be polluted with dust and other harmful matter of which CO2 gives no indication. CO2 tests should be used only for checking the renewal of air and its distribution within the room.The production of this gas can only be assumed as a basis for calculating the air supply where respiration and combustion (gas lights) are the preponderating factors of vitiation; in such cases the CO2 should not exceed 8 or 10 parts in 10,000 [800 to 1,000 ppm]. 12 The 1929 New York City Building Code echoed Marks Handbook reference to CO2 levels and ventilation: ...ventilation consisting of transoms or other similar devices opening into rooms ventilated directly to the outer air or of other methods capable of maintaining a carbon dioxide content of the air of not more than one part in one thousand [1,000 ppm]...13

3 . 4 V E N T I L AT I O N S TA N D A R D S
Recommendations for minimum quantities of outdoor air date back to the early 19th century when Thomas Tredgold (1836), an English mining engineer, published an estimate of 4 cfm (1.9 L/sec) per person based on metabolic needs. In 1895, the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers (ASHVE) adopted a minimum recommendation of 30 cfm (14.2 L/sec). Later, in 1914, ASHVE proposed a model code requiring 30 cfm (14.2 L/sec) per person as the minimum. By 1925, 22 states had adopted the requirement. The first ASHRAE Standard 62 appeared in 1973 titled Standards for Natural and Mechanical Ventilation. The standard provided minimum and recommended outdoor airflow rates for the preservation

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of the occupants health, safety and well-being in a variety of different spaces. Standard 62-1973 defined a prescriptive approach, meaning that the airflow rates were prescribed (as rules), and became the basis for most state codes. In 1981 the standard was updated and re-titled as ASHRAE Standard 62-1981, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality . The net effect was a general reduction in outdoor air usage. In the 1989 update to ASHRAE Standard 62 the minimum acceptable ventilation rate increased from 5 cfm (2.4 L/sec) to 15 cfm (7.1 L/sec), which has since been widely accepted. Evolution of the minimum ventilation rate is shown graphically in Figure 3.1.

FIGURE 3. 1 E V O LU T I O N O F M I N I M U M V E N T I L AT I O N R AT E S
40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000

Year

Source: Janssen 1999

3.5 C O 2 A N D A S H R A E S TA N D A R D 6 2
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 (Standard 62) took the first step in integrating CO2 into modern day standards by establishing that CO2 concentrations should not exceed 1000 parts per million. Appendix D of the standard was also created as a reference to the standard to explain the fundamental relationship between CO2 and ventilation as described in Chapter 2 of this handbook. In 1999 Standard 62 was updated to become Standard 62-99. In this update the provisions for CO2 were changed slightly. The 1000 ppm level was modified to a 700 ppm differential. The exact wording of the standard is as follows: Comfort (odor) criteria with respect to human bioeffluents are likely to be satisfied if the ventilation results in indoor CO2 concentrations less than 700 ppm above the outdoor air concentration. 13 As discussed in Chapter 2, a 700 ppm differential between inside and outside concentrations is considered equivalent to 15 cfm/person when people are involved in office-like activity (1.2 MET). So where did the original 1000 ppm level come from? Originally the 1000 ppm guideline, which was also used in some of the handbooks and standards in the early 1900s assumed an outside level of around 300 ppm (300 + 700 = 1000). With the rise of global CO2 levels at about 1 to 2 ppm per year the previously assumed 300 ppm outside level was no longer correct (See Chapter 2 for more information on rising global CO2 levels). Currently a value of 400 to 450 is generally used for outside concentrations. When CO2 was first addressed in Standard 62, some confusion resulted because the Standard was somewhat ambiguous as to whether CO2 was to be considered a contaminant, a surrogate for air quality or a ventilation parameter. To many it was unclear whether
FI GURE 3.2 C O 2 R E L AT E D A S H R A E I N T E R P R E TAT I O N S IC-62-1999-03
Ventilation criteria of the Standard is likely to be satisfied if CO2 levels in EACH space do not exceed 700 PPM above outdoor air C02 levels. The 700 ppm differential noted in the standard is not a time weighted value or a ceiling value. CO2 levels should only be considered during times of occupancy.

IC-62-1999-04
The 700 ppm CO2 differential noted in the standard is a guideline based on maintaining adequate ventilation to control perception of human bioeflluents, not a ceiling value for indoor air quality.

IC-62-1999-05
If filtration means are used under the Air Quality Procedure to remove human bioeffluents and odors the 700 ppm differential value for CO2 may not be applicable. It is primarily intended for use with the Ventilation Rate Procedure.

IC-62-1999-15
CO2 control cannot be used to reduce ventilation below Table 2 values (CO 2 DCV is normally used to maintain table 2 values based on real-time occupancy using the ventilation rate procedure). CO 2 cannot be used as the sole means of claiming compliance with the Indoor Air Quality Procedure because there are generally other contaminants of concern that must be measured and controlled using this procedure. CO2 filtration is not an appropriate way of complying with Standard 62.

IC-62-1999-24
It is not necessary to apply equation 6.1 if the required rates of acceptable outdoor air in Table 2 are provided to EACH space.

IC-62-1999-32
Defines the parameters to apply CO2 based demand controlled ventilation. Interpretation 24 above confirms if Table 2 rates are supplied to each space then the multiple space equation is not needed.

CO2 sensing and control was to be applied under the Ventilation Rate Procedure (prescriptive) of the standard or the Air Quality Procedure (performance based). The confusion led to several requests for interpretation to ASHRAE 62 committee. A request for

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interpretation is a procedure where any individual can ask a question to clarify the intent of the Standard. Interpretations are asked as yes or no questions and submitted to the ASHRAE committee responsible for maintaining ASHRAE Standard 62. The use of the CO2 in Standard 62 has been the subject of 6 of the 38 interpretations requested of Standard 62. Figure 3.2 provides a table identifying and briefly describing the various interpretations that have addressed CO 2 related issues.

All interpretations, including those developed as part of the 1989 standard have now been accepted as part of the relatively new ASHRAE Standard 62-99. All current interpretations are provided with every copy of the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62 sold by ASHRAE. All interpretations are also available on ASHRAEs web site (www.ashrae.org).

3.6 D C V A N D B U I L D I N G C O D E S
While ASHRAE Standards identify what is good practice for HVAC design engineers, local codes ultimately dictate how buildings must be designed. In fact, many codes indirectly draw from ASHRAE Standard 62 to establish ventilation requirements in buildings. ASHRAE Standard 62 is not used directly in codes because it is not written in the language necessary for code enforcement. The majority of local and state code making bodies do not usually have the expertise and resources to write their building codes from scratch. As a result, three model codes have been established that develop standardized building code documents that can be adopted in whole or in part by local jurisdictions. These code bodies are known as BOCA (Building Officials and Code Administrators International), ICBO (International Conference of Building Officials) and SBCCI (Southern Building Code Congress International). Recently these three model code bodies have jointly adopted the International Mechanical Code (IMC) which establishes minimum regulations for mechanical systems using prescriptive and performance related provisions. Like the ASHRAE 62 standard, the IMC also provides provisions for modulation of outside air based on occupancy as long at target cfm-per person ventilation rates are maintained. This is addressed in section 403.3.1 of the 2000 International Mechanical Code that states: The minimum flow rate of outdoor air that the ventilation system must be capable of supplying during its operation shall be permitted to be based on the rate per person indicated in Table 403.3 and the actual number of occupants present. [Emphasis added]15 The IMC has also created a commentary document to provide clarification to the intent of the code. In reference to section 403.3.1, the commentary uses CO2 control as an example of a ventilation system that can provide a specific rate per person based on the actual number of people present. An excerpt from the commentary is provided below. The intent of this section is to allow the rate of ventilation to modulate in proportion to the number of occupants. This can result in significant energy savings. Current technology can permit the design of ventilation systems that are capable of detecting the occupant load of the space and automatically adjusting the ventilation rate accordingly. For example, carbon dioxide (CO2) detectors can be used to sense the level of CO2 concentrations, which are indicative of the number of occupants. People emit predictable quantities of CO2 for any given activity, and this knowledge can be used to estimate the occupant load in a space. 16

3.7 T H E M AT U R A T I O N O F A T E C H N O L O G Y
Demand controlled ventilation using CO2 has been a well-understood principle for over 100 years. However its application and the sensor technology price-performance ratio have only evolved over the past few years. DCV is now an attractive alternative to the traditional approach of providing a fixed ventilation rate based on an assumed maximum occupancy. Ventilation control with DCV is a recognized ventilation control approach in ASHRAE Standard 62-99.17 It is a recommended operational approach to control ventilation based on occupancy in the International Mechanical Code and as a result is now being updated into many local building codes.18 Leading states like California have also integrated DCV as part of the state building code as a method of reducing energy use yet ensuring indoor air quality.19 Low cost CO 2 sensors for DCV first appeared on the market approximately 10 years ago. As any new technology, these first products encountered initial market resistance. In the case of CO2 sensors, price, calibration frequency or their size and appearance were issues. There are still products on the market that have these same problems. Carrier has discovered that these issues can be solved with the right technology. Economical sensors are now available that can self calibrate and offer thermostat-like dependability at thermostatlike prices. The CO2 measurement technology is no longer a barrier to utilizing this promising ventilation control approach.

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10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Jansen, J. E. 1999. The History of Ventilation and Temperature Control,ASHRAE Journal 41, no. 10: 47-52. Buildings for Industry. 1957. F.W. Dodge Corporation. Marks, Lionel S., Mechanical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc. 1916. New York City, 1929 NY Building Code. Section 6.1.3. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, ASHRAE, 1999. International Code Council, 2000 International Mechanical Code, 2000. International Code Council, Commentary to International Mechanical Code, 2000. ANSI/ASHRAE, Standard 62-1999 Interpretation IC-62-1999-33, American Society Of Heating Refrigeration And Air Conditioning Engineers. Section 403.3 of the International Mechanical Code and associated Commentary. California Energy Commission, Title 24 Non Residential Building Standards, Section 121, Ventilation Requirements, 2001.

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4 . 1 O V E RV I E W
This chapter provides the framework necessary for integrating DCV into a HVAC system design including evaluating potential for DCV, sizing systems, establishing a base ventilation rate and locating sensors. Chapter 5 will provide more details on implementing the proper control strategy and Chapters 6-8 will provide examples of DCV designs for three different types of HVAC systems.

4.2 C O 2 C O N T R O L A N D S TA N D A R D 6 2
DCV as a ventilation control strategy was clarified in 1997 in interpretation IC 62-1999-33 (formerly IC 62-1989-27). A copy of this interpretation is provided in Appendix B to this handbook. This interpretation identified the ground rules for using CO2 as a method of controlling ventilation based on real-time occupancy within a space. algorithm should be based on achieving the rates in Table 2. The control strategy should also be developed considering inside/outside CO2 differential.

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3 . The control strategy must provide adequate lag

time response as required in the Standard.

1 . The use of CO 2 is applied using the Ventilation

Rate Procedure of Standard 62, which establishes specific cfm/person ventilation rates for most applications. By definition, ASHRAE Standard 62 says that acceptable indoor air quality is achieved by providing ventilation air of the specified quality and quantity (Table 2 in the Standard) to the space. The standard states: The Ventilation Rate Procedure described in 6.1 is deemed to provide acceptable indoor air quality, ipso facto.

4 . If CO2 control is used, the design ventilation rate

may not be reduced to consider peak occupancies of less than 3 hours (often called diversity). In other words, the variable provision of 6.1.3.4 cannot be applied to lower the estimated maximum occupancy for the purpose of reducing the design ventilation rate while using DCV.

5 . CO2 filtration or bioeffluents removal methods

other than dilution should not be implemented in the space.

2 . CO2 is applied using the provisions of section

6.1.3.4 of the standard that address variable and intermittent occupancy. The CO2 control strategy can be used to modulate ventilation below the design ventilation rate while still maintaining Table 2 ventilation rates (e.g., 15 cfm per person). Sensor location and selection of the control

6 . A base ventilation rate should be provided during

occupied periods to control for non-occupant related sources.

7 . Where applicable the multiple spaces provision of

6.1 should be applied.

4.3 D C V D E S I G N C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
Demand controlled ventilation does not add significant complexity to HVAC design. It is no coincidence that section 403.3.1 of the International Mechanical Code that is relevant to CO2 control is called System Operation. CO 2 DCV is primarily an operational parameter that should not significantly affect the design of the system except in the implementation of the control strategies to regulate ventilation levels. DCV is part of an overall control strategy for a building and should be considered complimentary to other building control functions. Such strategies include: Apre-occupancy purge to clear out contaminants that may have built up overnight during system shut-off. Economizer operation to take advantage of times when outside air can be used for free cooling (will override CO 2 control). High and low temperature limits used to protect equipment from extreme temperatures that may significantly exceed design conditions.

4.4 D E S I G N S T E P S F O R D C V
DCV is an approach that affects how the system is operated, not how it is designed. As a result there are only a few issues to consider when designing a DCV system. There are five simple steps to designing DCV applications:

3 . Determine the appropriate base ventilation rate

for non-occupant related sources. This will be the minimum ventilation rate provided during all occupied hours.

1 . Verify that the application is appropriate for DCV. 2 . Estimate the building occupancy and calculate
the required outdoor airflow for each space based on ASHRAE Standard 62 or other appropriate (local) code requirement.

4 . Determine the appropriate control strategy to use

for the application and equipment used.

5 . Select type of sensor and determine sensor location.

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FIGURE 4.1 DCV DESIGN STE PS

2
Determine Space Ventilation Requirements

3
Determine Base Ventilation Rate for Non-Occupant Related Sources

4
Choose Control Strategy Set Point Proportional ProportionalIntegral

5
Select Sensors and Determine Sensor Location

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Determine if DCV is Appropriate

4.5 S T E P 1 : I S T H E S PA C E A P P RO P R I AT E F O R D C V ?
The intent of demand controlled ventilation is not to blindly or irresponsibly reduce outdoor airflow to an occupied building in the name of energy savings. It is a reasoned, logical application of technology to actually meet the letter of the standard and save energy in the process. DCV is a reliable method of maintaining a target cfm-per-person fresh air dilution rate based on actual occupancy. This is in contrast to providing a fixed dilution rate based on an assumed maximum occupancy. DCV has been regularly applied to most buildings with high occupant densities and frequently variable occupancy. As CO2 sensing and control devices have become more economical, the list of viable applications has grown to include buildings with relatively static total occupancies who want to utilize an active approach to ensure target ventilation rates are maintained at all times in all spaces. It is important that building designers and operators understand the difference between a passive, fixed-ventilation strategy and the active ventilation strategy of using CO 2 to control ventilation on a real time basis. The former approach requires faith that, assuming that the building is properly commissioned, airflows will continue to be delivered at the design ventilation rate for the life of the building. In reality, air intakes can be adjusted by well meaning building operators to tweak the system either for increased comfort or energy savings. In many cases a building can end up significantly over or under ventilated. Occupancy patterns and densities may also change over time and render the originally established fixed rate inappropriate. Given it is an active control system; DCV automatically adjusts ventilation to the appropriate levels for the space based on actual occupancy. The need for operator adjustments of the ventilation system is unnecessary. It is for this reason that CO2 DCV is now being considered in many applications that have more static occupancies like offices and school classrooms. The chart in Figure 4.2 provides recommendations on what type of spaces are most suitable for a DCV control strategy. Most applications indicated as possible may be suitable applications, but should be evaluated by the HVAC system designer. Separate factors may govern system selection, such as, mandatory ventilation requirements other than ASHRAE Standard 62, pressurization between spaces (e.g., between kitchens and dining rooms), regular periodic release of building-related contaminants that are a health hazard to occupants, and extensive requirements for local exhaust.

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FIG URE 4.2 R E C O M M E N D E D A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R D C V

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4.6 S T E P 2 : D E T E R M I N I N G O U T D O O R A I R VENTILATION RE QUIREMENTS

4.6.1 D CV OR DIVE RSI T Y
While CO2 DCV is one method of controlling for intermittent and variable occupancy the ASHRAE standard also provides for another approach for some very specific types of uses. It is important to note that the designer can apply one or the other methods but not both. The other method often called diversity allows for spaces to be ventilated at their average occupancy (though no less than 50% of maximum occupancy) as long as occupancy duration is 3 hours or less. It is important to note that while the ASHRAE Standard 62 makes provisions for diversity, the IMC and most local codes make no provisions for this method. Engineers should be certain local codes allow diversity calculations before incorporating it into their system design. The primary advantage of integrating diversity is that in some limited applications design ventilation rates and related equipment sizing may be reduced. The advantages to using a DCV approach over a diversity assumption include: Can be applied to most types of spaces regardless of occupancy characteristics. Ventilation is controlled based on actual occupancy variation. With diversity, ventilation remains fixed for all operating conditions. If occupancy density or patterns change from initial design assumptions, DCV will automatically adjust the system. If diversity assumptions are used, air quality may be compromised if actual usage is different from design assumptions. A space CO2 measurement provides a measure of outside air delivery ventilation effectiveness to a particular zone, ensuring the ventilation system is responsive to occupancy within the space. Assumptions of diversity cannot account for actual ventilation demand or air distribution effectiveness. The biggest disadvantage of DCV related to a diversity assumption is that use of DCV will only affect the operation of equipment and can not be used to influence equipment sizing.

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4 . 6 . 2 C O N S TA N T V O L U M E S Y S T E M S
With the exception of the use of diversity discussed above, sizing for constant volume systems is identical to normal practice of multiplying the target ventilation rate for the space times the maximum number of occupants in the space. This value becomes the design ventilation rate and typically is a fixed volume of air delivered during all occupied periods. When applying DCV, the design ventilation rate becomes the maximum ventilation position in a modulating ventilation strategy.

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4 . 6 . 3 M U LT I P L E Z O N E VAV S Y S T E M S
When variable-air-volume (VAV) systems for multiple space occupancies were first conceived, outdoor air delivered to each space varied as a function of the supply airflow. Supply air was varied in proportion to the thermostats call for heating or cooling. In this case the designer would have to ensure that the system, under all operating conditions (e.g., part load conditions) continued to maintain the proper design ventilation rate to each zone. This process is described in section 6.1.3.1 of ASHRAE Standard 62. In this type of application, the calculation (e.g., Equation 6.1 in Standard 62) of required outside air capacity involves an iterative series of calculations to ensure that adequate ventilation air is introduced at the central air handler to ensure that even the most critical space (least likely to receive adequate ventilation) is satisfied. This often can result in over-ventilation and resulting wasted energy in other non-critical spaces. It can also negate any ventilation reduction that may have resulted from the consideration of diversity. A recent innovation in VAV system design is the ability to modulate a zone VAV box to consider both temperature control and CO 2 for ventilation control.

In this type of system, ventilation is not limited by the space load requirements but is controlled separately using a CO 2 sensor in each major occupied zone. In this case the signal from the CO2 sensor modulates the local VAV box and the outside air intake to ensure all spaces have adequate ventilation. A common question that arises is, should a designer use the multiple spaces sizing approach described in section 6.1.3.1 for ASHRAE Standard 62 with a zone level DCV control strategy. In traditional VAV approaches the designer must estimate what the critical space will be under various conditions and then design to worst case circumstances to ensure the critical space always receives the appropriate amount of fresh air. With VAV DCV outside air delivery is actually measured in every zone and the VAV box is modulated to control for both space conditioning load and ventilation. Since a VAV system with DCV is actually measuring ventilation and controlling ventilation rates to the space independent of temperature, the multiple spaces equation is not necessary. This was clarified in a recent interpretation to the Standard, IC-62-1999-24, which stated that the 6.1.3.1 sizing is not necessary if the required ventilation rate is delivered to the space. In operational situations where a specific space may have satisfied cooling needs but still requires ventilation, localized reheat can be applied. The energy impact of reheat for a zone is usually far less than over ventilating the entire building to satisfy one zone. As a result, sizing for a multiple space VAV DCV application is similar to current practice for most jurisdictions. The ventilation requirements are calculated for the space based on recommended target cfm per person ventilation rates established by local codes or standards and multiplied times the maximum intended occupancy for the space.

4. 7 S T E P 3 : C A L C U L A T I N G B A S E V E N T I L A T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S
In the ASHRAE interpretation IC-62-1999-33 that clarified the use of CO2 DCV with Standard 62, a comment was provided that the designer should ensure that in cases of low occupancy a non-zero base ventilation rate is provided to handle non-occupant related sources whenever the space is occupied. So, a DCV system must be designed to maintain a minimum ventilation airflow rate to control non-occupant related contaminants that may be given off by furnishings, equipment or other materials within the space. This should not be confused with the minimum outdoor air rate required by ASHRAE Standard 62 or other codes. The base ventilation rate is the lowest point to which CO 2 controls may modulate outdoor airflow during occupied hours. Minimum ventilation airflow must be adequate to achieve several goals: Balance supply, exhaust and building pressurization requirements Establish the lowest outdoor air rate permissible during times when the building is sparsely occupied (i.e., immediately prior to or after business hours, weekends, and holidays) The designer should consider the age, condition, and contents of a building when establishing the minimum ventilation airflow rate. A new or remodeled building with newly installed furnishings and finishes will experience higher concentrations of building-related contaminants than will an older building and may initially require a higher base ventilation rate over the first few months of operation. Retail sales areas, such as furniture and carpet stores, may experience relatively high concentrations of building-related contaminants regardless of the building age. Experience with DCV systems to date suggests that the minimum ventilation flow for older (well aged) buildings should not be less than 20 to 30% of the design ventilation rate. For new buildings this rule of thumb may be higher at about 40 to 50% of the design ventilation rate. The question of base ventilation rates for sources within a space has been a topic of some debate. However, ASHRAE is about to circulate for comment a series of proposed changes to the ventilation section of Standard 62 that include establishment of a base ventilation rates for sources within the space, expressed in terms of cfm/ft2. The chart in Figure 4.3 combines the draft recommended base ventilation

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FIGURE 4.3 B A S E V E N T I L AT I O N R AT E S R E C O M M E N D E D I N A C H A N G E T O S TA N D A R D 6 2 C U R R E N T LY O U T F O R C O M M E N T

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rates from the proposed change with current ventilation requirements in the Standard 62/IMC and calculates what the base ventilation rate should be as a percent of the OA design capacity.20 Looking at the numbers, the 20-30% of design appears to be a good conservative rule of thumb for most applications. It is important to note that these levels represent a draft of a proposed standard and in no way reflects if or when it will be part of an upcoming standard. Setting the base ventilation rate in a constant volume or VAV system has caused some confusion on whether or not to specify a device to monitor airflow in the outside air duct to ensure that the base ventilation rate is being met during all load conditions. Going to this level of expense isnt necessary. This setting can easily be handled during the test-and-balance phase of the project. Setting the base ventilation rate in a constant volume system can be done by calculating the base ventilation rate as a percentage of the total supply airflow and setting the outside air damper to this percentage. For a more accurate value, the outside air duct can be traversed for the base ventilation airflow, and then the outside air damper can be set to match this reading.

The following process will take care of setting the base ventilation rate for a VAV system:

1 . Set all zone dampers to their design base

ventilation rate. (See Chapter 6 on determining base ventilation rates for VAV systems.)

2 . Ensure the VFD or inlet guide vanes have

modulated to maintain the design static pressure set point.

3 . Traverse the Outside Air Duct and set the AHU

controllers Outside Air damper actuator to maintain the system design base ventilation. This will typically be set as a percentage of damper position. Since the lowest volume of air the VAV system can produce at any given time equates to the base ventilation rate, the above setup will ensure that the outside air damper will always deliver the base ventilation rate, even at very light loads.

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4.8 S T E P 4 : S E L E C T D C V C O N T R O L S T R A T E G Y
The control strategy used to modulate ventilation based on CO2 levels is the most critical step in the DCV design process. The control strategy affects the responsiveness of the ventilation system to control ventilation rates based on actual occupancy and will significantly affect the possible energy savings achievable over a fixed ventilation approach. Chapter 5 provides details on selecting the most appropriate control strategy.

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4.9 S T E P 5 : L O C AT I N G C O 2 S E N S O R S
Much of the same logic that goes into selecting a thermostat location can be applied to selecting an appropriate location for a CO2 sensor. The key is to select a location where the sensor can accurately measure the CO 2 concentration and is representative of the area or zone served. The exact criteria will vary between different buildings and system types. In each case, the designer must apply good engineering judgment to assure that both the sensors and the complete ventilation system performs effectively. In general, a CO 2 sensor will be less susceptible to stratification issues than temperature sensors due to the tendency of gases to quickly equalize within a space. A special consideration for CO 2 sensor placement is to ensure it is not located in an area where people might be directly breathing on the sensor (e.g., near water cooler/coffee service areas). A sensor should be installed in each zone that is separately controllable (e.g., multi-zone systems or variable-air-volume systems with multiple zones). Avoid locations near doorways, operable windows or air vents.
FI GURE 4.4 C O2 S E N S O R P L A C E M E N T R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S

4 . 9 . 1 I N - S PA C E O R D U C T MOUNTED SENSORS?
Measurement of CO2 in the space using wallmounted sensors is preferred for the same reason that temperature sensors are mounted within the space. In multiple space applications, duct-mounted sensors may reflect an average of all spaces and will not provide indication of ventilation requirements in individual zones. The result is that ventilation to the individual spaces (i.e., the critical space) may not be maintained and compliance to ASHRAE 62 requirements will be compromised. Space-mounted sensors can also give a good indication of the ventilation effectiveness in the space and will operate the system based on the characteristics of the space. Duct-mounted sensors cannot indicate ventilation effectiveness. The principal driver for use of duct-mounted sensors has been to reduce costs by reducing the number of sensors required for a job. In the past few years, CO2 sensor pricing has dropped dramatically meaning that the cost difference between using duct-mounted and multiple space-mounted sensors is a minimal portion of job cost. Some sensors now even combine temperature and CO2 measurement functionality to further reduce purchased and installed cost. Some general guidelines for placement of wallmounted sensors is provided below. Select a location that is reasonably centered in the zone. When a single sensor serves multiple spaces, the space most sensitive to the ventilation rate should be selected.

Duct-mounted CO2 sensors are best suited to single zone systems that run continuously. Guidelines for installation of duct-mounted sensors are provided below. Duct-mounted CO2 sensors should be located to serve a single zone, or multiple spaces within a single zone that have similar activity levels. Locate the sensor as near as possible to the space being served. When using duct-mounted sensors for a demand controlled ventilation system, the designer must consider ventilation effectiveness in the occupied space (just the same as is necessary when using the Ventilation Rate Procedure). Locate duct-mounted sensors where they are accessible for inspection and maintenance.

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4.10 S E N S O R L O C AT I O N - C O N S TA N T V O L U M E S Y S T E M S
A single CO2 sensor is suitable for open areas up to about 5,000 square feet. If a building is designed with a large open area as a single zone greater than 5,000 square feet, multiple CO2 sensors should be used. If a large open area is conditioned with multiple units (e.g., multiple rooftop units) each separate unit should be equipped with a CO2 sensor that is located centrally in the area conditioned by that unit. In systems that have multiple zones, but only one location to control the flow of outdoor air (e.g., constant-volume, single-zone rooftop units), multiple CO2 sensors may be required. This is especially true if there are different zones in the space with different occupancy patterns. In this situation a CO2 sensor should be placed in each of the major occupied zones and the outdoor air delivery should be modulated off the sensor with the highest reading. Inexpensive transducers are readily available that are able to take multiple analog signals and pass thorough the signal that is highest to the equipment. Figure 4.4 provides additional guidance.

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4.10.1

S ENS OR SE LEC TION VAV S Y S T E M S

In variable-air-volume systems, CO2 sensors should be located in each major zone of occupancy. In some cases this may mean that one CO2 sensor can be used for multiple VAV boxes if all serve a common area with similar occupancy patterns and densities.

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This proposed change for the standard is called 62n. While not addressed in this handbook, the proposed changes also alter the recommended cfm/person requirements for most applications. The reader can check with ASHRAE or the ASHRAE web site for the latest information on the proposed 62n addendum to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.

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5 . 1 O V E RV I E W
DCV involves more than just measuring CO2. The designer must implement an effective control strategy to ensure that target cfm-per-person ventilation rates are maintained to match occupancy within a reasonable lag time. This chapter specifically addresses the steps involved in selecting an appropriate DCV strategy. These steps include: Chapter 2), the designer must decide how to account for outside concentrations.

2 . Determine the equilibrium anchor point for the

control strategy that corresponds to the cfm-perperson ventilation requirements for the space.

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1 . Since ventilation control using CO2 is based on

an inside/outside differential (discussed in

3 . Select the appropriate control strategy for the

application and type of equipment used.

5. 2 S T E P 1 : C O N S I D E R A T I O N O F O U T D O O R C O N C E N T R AT I O N S
Since DCV is based on determining and controlling ventilation rates based on an inside/outside differential of CO 2, the designer must consider how to integrate outside concentrations into the control strategy. There are two possible options for accounting for outside concentrations. The designer can mount a sensor in the outside air to measure outside concentrations and design the system to consider real-time inside/outside differential measurement. The designer can take a measurement or make a conservative assumption of what outside concentrations will be for that region. should only be considered if the possibility of significant variations in outdoor air concentrations is anticipated.

5.2.2 M EA SUREME NT OR ASS UM PTI ON O F OUTS IDE C O 2 C O N C E N T R AT I O N S

In most areas designers can utilize a strategy where outside ambient concentrations are assumed for the purpose of implementing a control strategy. The key is to pick a level that represents average regional concentrations. This level can be determined by making periodic measurements throughout the day over a number of days with a hand held CO2 sensor. Alternatively, a safe assumption is that outside levels are 400 ppm. It is unlikely that concentrations in any urban area will be lower than 360 ppm (the lowest level measured in the middle of the Pacific ocean see Chapter 2). If a control approach assumes an outside level of 400 and outside levels are actually 50 ppm lower, the net result will be that cfm/person ventilation rates may be lower by about 1 cfm per person. This error is generally well within the tolerances of any HVAC control system and will have a negligible effect on indoor air quality. If CO2 levels tend to be slightly higher, the net effect is that for every 50 ppm the actual outside level is over the assumed outside level, the space will be slightly over ventilated by 1 cfm/person. It is highly unlikely that outside levels will ever be over 500 ppm, unless a localized source of combustion exists. If outside levels are higher by 100 ppm, the result is over ventilation by about 2 cfm per person, again a negligible amount that errors on the side of more ventilation. If a control strategy is based on an assumed baseline of 400 ppm or derived from local measurements, variation in outside levels will never result in a significant impact on cfm per person ventilation rates that might impact indoor air quality.

5.2.1 DI RECT MEAS UREME NT

At first glance, the most obvious approach to control ventilation based on CO2 is to actively measure outdoor levels and active control based on the real time CO2 differential measured. In this type of application a CO 2 sensor must be selected that is capable of withstanding the wide range of conditions found in outside air. This approach is the most expensive of the two approaches examined and for most applications overkill because globally outdoor levels do not vary significantly. Outside air sensors are best considered when outside levels at the air-intake are found to vary significantly due to localized sources of combustion (e.g., loading dock or vehicle idling area). If high variations of CO2 are measured, it is a strong indication that other harmful combustion related contaminants are also present. Excessive levels of CO2 in outdoor air may be used as a trigger to close down air intakes until a localized source is dissipated. As discussed in Appendix F, Carrier does offer an outdoor CO2 sensing option for outdoor air, but it

5.3 S T E P 2 : E S TA B L I S H I N G T H E C O 2 E Q U I L I B R I U M A N C H O R P O I N T
Chapter 2 of this handbook explained the relationship between CO 2 levels and ventilation rates. It described how CO 2 concentrations in a space at a known activity level could be related to the ventilation rate of the space. In this step the CO2 equilibrium anchor point will be established. It is important to note that the equilibrium anchor point is not necessarily a control set point but rather a reference for establishing the control strategy. This anchor point will influence how the control strategy will modulate ventilation. It is not necessarily used as the control point. The anchor point does become the maximum permissible CO 2 level that the DCV control strategy will allow. ASHRAE Standard 62 (Section 6.2.1) states that a differential concentration not greater than 700 ppm

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indicates that comfort (odor) criteria related to human bioeffluents are likely to be satisfied. But, 700 ppm is not intended as a universal rule of thumb and may not be appropriate in all circumstances. As described in Chapter 2, the 700 ppm differential is considered equivalent to 15 cfm per person if the activity level in the space is similar to an office like environment (1.2 MET). If local codes require a different ventilation rate other than 15 cfm/person a different CO2 control point must be selected. Figure 5.1 provides a reference for the equilibrium control rate for a range of cfm/person ventilation rates. The background to how these concentrations are established is discussed in Chapter 2. The values in Figure 5.1 are inside/outside differential values and must be added to the outside level to determine the actual equilibrium anchor point. If activity levels are significantly different than that of an office type activity then CO2 production will also be different and the resulting CO2 equilibrium control point will be different for a given ventilation rate. The volume of CO 2 expelled from a person, male and female, is fairly uniform for adults and children age 18 and older. The rate of CO 2 generation is a proportional function of the metabolic rate, which is directly related to a persons physical activity. The ASHRAE 1997 Fundamental Handbook (Chapter 8) contains a detailed discussion of metabolic heat generation for various activities. 21 If a space is likely to have a higher activity level than that of an office space (1.2 MET) the designer can consider one of two options. The first option is to calculate a new set point for the cfm/person target ventilation rate based on the higher activity level. Appendix C of this handbook provides details on how to do this.

For spaces with a higher activity level than 1.2 MET the second option is to use the equilibrium control point calculated for 1.2 MET. This approach will result in over ventilation above the target ventilation rate but this could be desirable. The 15 cfm/per person ventilation guidelines established in the Standard 62 were based on studies of occupant satisfaction related to perception of body odor for individuals in office type environments.22 CO2 production is one parameter of metabolic activity. If activity increases other gases and bioeffluents will be produced in increasing quantities as well. As a result higher ventilation rates may be necessary to maintain the satisfaction levels of perceived odors within the space.
FIG URE 5.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUI LI BRIUM CONTROL P OINTS F O R VA R I O U S V E N T I L AT I O N R AT E S ( 1 . 2 M E T )

5.4 S T E P 3 : C O N T R O L S T R AT E G Y S E L E C T I O N
5 . 4 . 1 T H R E E C O N T R O L S T R AT E G I E S
There are three recommended control approaches for utilizing DCV that are dependent on the application and type of equipment used in the space. These three approaches are detailed below.
FI GURE 5.2 T H R E E D C V C O N T R O L S T R AT E G I E S

Design Ventilation Rate

1 . Set Point Control 2 . Modulated Proportional Control 3 . Modulated Proportional-Integral Control

Agraphical representation of the three approaches is provided in Figure 5.2. Each is discussed in greater detail in the sections that follow. Detailed sequence of operation for these control strategies are also provided in Appendix D of this handbook.

Base Ventilation Rate

5 . 4 . 2 C O N S I D E R AT I O N O F C O N T RO L R E SP ON S E T I M E
An important consideration in the selection of a control strategy is to ensure it is reasonably responsive to changes in the space so that if occupancy changes the system will react in a reasonable amount of time to ensure the target cfm/person ventilation rate is met. ASHRAE Standard 62-1999 (6.1.3.4) discusses provisions for leading and lagging ventilation as part of the overall discussion of intermittent and variable occupancy. It is important to note that this is a recom-

100

300

500

700

Inside/Outside Differential CO 2 ppm

Outside CO2 Concentration

mendation, not a mandatory requirement of the standard.23 Appendix G of the Standard 62 provides the rationale applied in ASHRAEs recommendations for ventilation lead and lag times. Readers should refer directly to Standard 62 if they require further information on calculating lag times.

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Lagging ventilation is acceptable only if the following conditions are met: Contaminants are dominantly a function of people and their activities. Contaminants do not represent a short-term health hazard. Contaminants are dissipated during unoccupied times so that the indoor air quality is equal to acceptable outdoor air. DCV is a perfect example of where lagging venti-

lation would be appropriate because it is an occupancy based ventilation approach. Designers should note that the base ventilation rate can satisfy part of the lag requirements but the response of the sensor to changes in occupancy is also an important consideration. In the discussion that follows each control strategy is discussed with regard to the best applications to ensure adequate lag time response. For those interested in modeling and evaluating the lag time response of various control strategies for various applications, Carriers Ventulator DCV Energy Analysis Program can provide a graphical indication of how quickly each of the three control strategies discussed below will respond for a given application.

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5.5 S E T P O I N T C O N T R O L
Set point control is the simplest control strategy. When the CO2 concentration in a space reaches the equilibrium anchor point, a damper opens or a fan brings in outside air. Only in set point control will the control point equal the equilibrium anchor point. In its simplest design the outside air delivery increases from the base ventilation rate to the design ventilation rate for the space. The damper remains open or the fan continues to deliver outside air at the design ventilation rate until the CO2 concentration drops to a predetermined concentration lower than the set point. The upper set point is set at the CO2 equilibrium anchor point for the space (corresponding to the target ventilation rate) or slightly below. The difference between the upper set point and the lower set point is the dead-band (see Figure 5.2). CO2 sensors used for set point control should have an adjustable set point and an adjustable dead-band. Adjustment of both the set point and deadband are necessary to assure the system supplies the required ventilation rate a reasonable lag time. If the dead band is too large the ventilation will exceed the required lag time. If the dead-band is too small, the outdoor air damper or fan will cycle too frequently. As a rule of thumb, facilities with high occupant densities that reach peak levels quickly may be the most suitable candidates. Low- and moderate-density occupancies or applications with very high ceilings (greater than 10 feet) will exhibit slower rises in CO2 concentrations and may have excessive lag times. For example, set point control is probably not appropriate for a gym class of 20-30 people in a large gymnasium. Typically set point control would be used only where one air handler serves a single zone.

5.6 P R O P O R T I O N A L C O N T R O L
A proportional control system begins opening the outdoor air damper or starts a variable-air-volume fan when the CO2 concentration rises to a CO2 Control set point, typically 100 to 200 ppm above outdoor levels. Increasing CO2 concentrations in the space will cause the outdoor air damper to increase outside air ventilation to the space. The upper set point is typically selected to be at or slightly below the CO2 equilibrium anchor point. When the indoor CO2 concentration is at this upper set point, the amount of outside air should be equal to the design ventilation rate for the space. Proportional control approaches work well for virtually all applications including offices, schools and meeting rooms, theaters and gymnasiums.

5.7 P R O P O R T I O N A L - I N T E G R A L C O N T R O L
AProportion + Integral (PI) control system differs from a proportional control in that the modulation of the damper is affected by the level of CO2 but also how quickly concentrations change. This type of system can be highly responsive to significant changes in occupancy. Typically when a proportional-integral control is used the control band is decreased so that modulation of the outside air does not occur until the CO2 concentration rises to within 100 ppm of the CO2 control point. PI control has a distinct advantage over proportional control: it shortens the proportional bandwidth by a significant amount and, at the same time, provides a tighter level of control. In a PI control system, there is only one set point since the integral portion of the controller will modulate the damper to respond to the CO2 control point. The closer the control point is to the equilibrium anchor point the more chance there is for lag in the response of the control, particularly in low density applications. This is especially true during morning hours when occupancy starts and outside levels must build up to the set point before ventilation above the base rate is introduced. This can be compensated for by initiating a pre-occupancy purge to ensure a reservoir of fresh air is in the space when occupants arrive. The establishment of a slightly higher base ventilation rate may also provide the same effect. PI control is suitable where energy savings and comfort conditions are a primary concern. The time-based nature of the integral control and its effect on the reaction time of the system under control must be taken into consideration when implementing PI controls. As long as the system under control can maintain the ASHRAE recommended lag times, PI control provides the best performance from both a comfort as well as a total energy savings perspective. As discussed previously, Carriers Ventulator program can simulate various controls in a space and give some idea of lag time response.

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Most digital based control systems such as Carriers ComfortID, PremiereLink and Comfort

Controllers allows the user to select a proportional or proportional-integral DCV control strategy.

5.8 T W O S TA G E C O N T R O L F O R Z O N E B A S E D VAV C O N T R O L
In this type of system the VAV box is modulated both by a temperature sensor and a CO2 sensor. There are two design situations unique to the application of zone level DCV control utilizing a VAV system. air-conditioning unit. The second is the zone set point , which governs terminal unit operation in VAV systems. The two set points are established so that there is a two-stage response with either the central system or zone providing the initial response. Priority of response is controlled by providing a lower control set point for the system component that will lead the response. If the If the VAV boxes incorporate zone heating then the VAV box will respond initially and therefore will have a lower set point than the central system. If the VAV boxes do not incorporate heating then the central system will provide the initial response and will have a lower set point. Some general guidelines for establishing the set points are provided below. First Stage Response: Set point is 150 ppm below Equilibrium anchor point for the target ventilation rate. Second Stage Response: Set point is 75 ppm above first stage response. The sequences of operations provided in Appendix D provide greater detail on setting up this type of system. Your Carrier controls specialist can also assist in the establishment of set points and a control strategy that is best for your application.

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1 . Zone level VAV systems are unique in that the

control strategy must modulate both ventilation to individual zones and the total amount of outside air introduced by the system air handler. Different control points must be established for these two components of the system. The next section discusses how to establish these set points.

2 . Since this type of VAV system utilizes both CO2

and temperature inputs, the designer must also consider how to temper additional ventilation demand to the space if the temperature load is satisfied. This usually involves ensuring that zone heating coils have enough capacity to temper additional amounts of zone ventilation air. For spaces that have no air conditioning load but require ventilation the designer has two choices. Use the central system heating capacity or provide heating at the VAV box to warm air being delivered to the space. Comparing these two options, zone heating is the clear winner. The energy impact is minimized because heating is limited to the zone and not the entire system. Cooling demand from other zones can still be satisfied while heating air to serve a zone requiring ventilation but not requiring space conditioning. It is important to note that ASHRAE Standard 90.1 Energy Standards For Buildings which is often referenced by local codes, restricts the use of zone reheat except in cases where it is necessary to provide the ventilation rates required in ASHRAE Standard 62.24 This application would qualify for this ventilation exception. Section 5.8.2 provides guidance on sizing of zone heating capacity.

5.8.2 SIZIN G OF ZON E H E AT I N G C O I L S

For applications that integrate zone heating the designer must take into account 2 scenarios when sizing zone heating: Heating during base ventilation model Base ventilation mode heating will have a CFM set point that is sufficient to maintain the airflow across an electric duct heater (if so equipped) and maintain the heating set point in the space, while minimizing air distribution noise and drafts. This is identical to how engineers currently size zone level heating. Heating during design ventilation model Design ventilation mode heating has the added criteria of ensuring the BTU capacity of the heating coil is sufficient to overcome the additional CFM requirements when the zone is providing design ventilation. This can be done by calculating the maximum CFM set point at design ventilation, then selecting the heating coil to match this level of airflow.

5. 8.1

E S TA B L I S H I N G ZO N E A N D SYSTEM SET P OINTS

The DCV system set points are established after the outdoor air CO 2 concentration and CO 2 control point are known; all control functions occur between these two points. Two or more set points may be necessary to control a DCV system. The first is the system set point , which governs operation of central equipment such as the air-handling unit outdoor air damper, or the outdoor air damper on a rooftop
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ASHRAE, Fundamentals Handbook, Chapter 8, American Society Of Heating And Refrigeration Engineers, 2000. Berg-Munch B, GH Clausen and P.O. Fanger 1983 Ventilation And Body Odor, Proceedings of an Engineering Foundation Conference On Management Of Atmospheres In Tightly Enclosed Spaces, pp 45-50, ASHRAE and Cain, W.S. et al 1983, Ventilation Requirements In Buildings I. Control if occupancy odor and tobacco smoke odor, Atmos. Env 17(6) 1183-1197. Interpretation To ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, Interpretation No: IC 62-1999-24 ASHRAE/ANSI Standard 90.1, Energy Standard For Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, Section 6.3.2.1(a)(1). American Society of Heating Refrigeration And Air Conditioning Engineers.

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DE SIGN E XAMPLE S

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SINGLE ZONE RETAIL SPAC E

6.1 A P P L I C A T I O N : R E TA I L C L OT H I N G S T O R E
FI GURE 6.1 R E TA I L S T O R E F L O O R P L A N

This example looks at the application of a large single zone space utilized for a retail-clothing store. The store includes a 4100 ft2 retail floor, 12 dressing rooms covering 600 ft 2 and a 400 ft 2 storage area. Each area is partitioned off but left open to the 16 ft high ceilings. The space has a design density of 30 people/1000 ft2 resulting in a total design occupancy of 158 people. The procedure used in this example would be similar for other applications where one or more air handlers condition a large single zone. These types of spaces would include: Theaters Other Retail Applications Large Ballrooms or Conference Areas

Retail Floor CO2 Sensor

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Storage

Cafeterias
Dressing Rooms

Multi-Purpose Gymnasiums

6.2

STEP 1:

I S T H E S PA C E A P P RO P R I AT E ?
Many types of retail space also tend to have their front doors open to encourage customer traffic. Fresh air entering through the doors can be measured by the CO2 sensor and eliminate the need for a portion of mechanical ventilation that would have to be provided if the doors were closed.

Like many retail spaces, this clothing store is subject to highly variable occupancy, which can occur at various times throughout the day. The combination of variable occupancy with design density of 30 people per 1000 ft2 makes this a good application for DCV. Figure 4.2 in Chapter 4, confirms this conclusion.

6.3

S T E P 2 : D ET E R M I N E V E N T I L AT I O N R E QU I R E M E N T S F O R T H E S PA C E
According to Table 2 in Standard 62, this type of space typically has a design occupancy of 30 people/ 1000 ft2 or 126 people (30 X 4.2 thousand ft2 = 126). As a result the target per-person ventilation rate for the space would be 1260 cfm divided by 126, which would equal 10 cfm/person. While strictly speaking a ventilation rate of 1260 cfm could be used, the store owner is very concerned about occupant comfort in the space and in order to ensure a good shopping environment has asked for a design that will provide the Standard 62 minimum of 15 cfm per person, which would result in a design ventilation rate of 1890 (30 people/ft2 X 15 cfm = 1890).

Given all but 400 ft2 of the 4,200 ft2 space is used for public access for design considerations we will assume that the entire area is retail space. Table 2 from Standard 62 suggests that retail space should be ventilated at 0.3 cfm/ft2. As a result total outdoor ventilation requirements for the space would be 1260 cfm. The reason the ventilation rate is stated in the standard and some codes as a cfm/ft2 value is that this ventilation rate was intended to take care of contaminants created by both people and materials within the space when a fixed ventilation rate is provided. With DCV, a portion of the design ventilation rate will be provided continuously for materials and a portion will be variable for people.

6.4

STEP 3:

D E T E R M I N E B A S E V E N T I L AT I O N R AT E
is the recommended base ventilation rate for retail spaces. As a result, the base ventilation rate to control non-occupant related sources would be approximately 500 cfm.

In retail store applications, due to the high density of retail goods, the resultant off gassing of contaminants may require a higher base ventilation rate than would typically be applied to other applications. Figure 4.3 shows that a ventilation rate for the space of 0.12 cfm/ft2

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6.5

STEP 4:

D E T E R M IN E C O N T RO L S T R AT E G Y
Given the activity level in a retail space is not generally strenuous and very similar to the activity in an office type environment, we will assume an activity level of 1.2 MET. Using Figure 5.1 the equilibrium anchor point expressed, as an inside/outside differential would be 1060 ppm for a ventilation rate of 10 cfm/ person and 700 ppm for 15 cfm/person. Assuming an outside level of 400 ppm this would make the equilibrium control points as follows: 10 cfm/person = 1060 + 400 = 1460 ppm 15 cfm/person = 700 + 400 = 1100 ppm

6.5.1 CONS IDERIN G OUTS IDE C O N C E N T R AT I O N S

After periodically measuring outside concentrations at lunchtime in the area of the site over a week, outside CO2 concentrations appear to range from 400 to 420 ppm. Since the levels appear fairly consistent the designer has assumed outside levels will be 400 ppm. The designer will also be using Carriers CO2 sensor that utilizes the ABCLogic self-calibration feature. To ensure the most accurate operation of this feature a pre-occupancy purge of the system that will automatically occur every morning to ensure inside CO2 levels are equivalent to outside levels. This will also ensure that any contaminants that have built up over closing hours are ventilated out of the space before occupancy begins.

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C O N T R O L S T R AT E G Y S E L E C T I O N
Set point control would not be a recommended approach because of the high variability of occupancy and large space volume, which would slow the rate of CO2 buildup in the space. In this particular installation the signal is being provided directly to a Carrier 48/50 series rooftop unit. This unit has a direct input for the proportional signal from the Carrier CO2 sensor. As a result a proportional control strategy will be used.

6.5.2

D ETE RMIN E C O 2 C O N T RO L P O I N T S

As discussed in Chapter 5 the equilibrium anchor point is determined based on the target cfm/person ventilation rate of the space and the activity level of the space.

6.6

STEP 5:

LO C AT E S E N S O R S
area that will be open to the space but is located so that an occupant cannot directly breathe on the sensor. Atemperature sensor will be located in the same area. One option for this application is to use Carriers combined CO2 and space temperature wall mount sensor.

Asingle CO2 sensor should be able to handle an open area of about 5,000 ft2. As a result one sensor is recommended for this application. The location of the sensor will be on a centrally located support post. The sensor will be mounted approximately 6 feet from the floor in an

6.7

I N S TA L L AT IO N S U M MA RY
The air handler would be set up as follows: The DCV strategy would be timed to operate during all occupied hours. The economizer would be programmed to override DCV control if outside air could be used for free cooling. A pre-occupancy purge would be included in the sequence of operation of the air handler. The maximum position of the air handlers outdoor air damper for delivery of ventilation under the DCV strategy would be 1890 cfm (based on 15 cfm/person and a design density of 30 people/ 1000 ft2). (Step 2) The base ventilation rate would be set to 500 cfm (Step 3). The air handler would be set up to begin modulation of outside air when inside concentrations were 100 ppm over outside concentrations (500 ppm). The damper position on the air handler would be proportionally modulated so that when levels reached the equilibrium anchor point of 1100 ppm the design ventilation rate of 1890 cfm would be provided. The CO2 sensors would be placed as shown in Figure 6.1.

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SINGLE AIR HANDLER S E RVING MULTIPLE ZO N E S S C H O O L

7.1 A P P L I C AT I O N: F O U R CL A S S RO O M S SERVED B Y ON E AIR HAND LE R
FIGURE 7.1 DC V FOR A FOUR CLASSROOM SCHOOL ADDITION

This example looks at an addition to a school where four classrooms are being added onto the end of an existing building. One rooftop air handler will supply air to all the zones. In this example, the amount of outside air delivered to the space can only be controlled at the air handler air intake. Each of the classrooms are 900 square feet in size and are designed to hold 35 students apiece. All of the classrooms are general-purpose classrooms and are not intended for special applications such as art or science labs. This example is representative of the process that would be involved for any space that has multiple occupancy zones served by one air handler where the only control of outside air is at the air handler. Similar applications to this might include: Non VAV multi-zone spaces with different occupancies in each zone such as a doctors office. Multiple tenants served by a common air handler such as a strip mall. Control of ventilation to a multi-floor building where air delivery can only be modulated for each individual floor, such as a small office building.

Classroom 1
CO2 Sensor

Classroom 2
CO2 Sensor

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CO2 Sensor

CO2 Sensor

Classroom 3

Classroom 4

7.2

STEP 1:

I S T H E S PA C E A P P RO P R I AT E ?
will be outfitted with the latest in multimedia equipment and will be in high demand for after-hours use. Given the high variability of likely occupancies and demands on the space it is unlikely that all four rooms will likely have identical occupancy patterns. As a result, this is an excellent application for DCV.

In this high school application, class size can vary by period and schedules change every semester, meaning that occupancy is variable and unpredictable. The school also holds night classes and makes some rooms available for local clubs and organizations on a periodic basis. These new rooms

7.3

S T E P 2: D E T E R M I N E V E N T I L AT I O N R E QU I R E M E N T S FO R T H E S PAC E
4 classrooms). As a result the design outside air ventilation requirement for the space will be 2100 cfm.

The ventilation requirements for classrooms are 15 cfm/person according to local codes and Standard 62. Design occupancy is 140 people (35 people X

7.4

STEP 3:

D E T E R M I N E B A S E V E N T I L AT I O N R AT E
represents about 20 % of the total design ventilation rate for outdoor air. The base ventilation rate for the air handler will be rounded off to a requirement of 450 cfm.

Figure 4.3 suggests a base ventilation rate of 0.12 cfm/ft2 for classroom applications where students are 9 years of age or older. This represents a base ventilation rate for the 4 classrooms of 432 cfm, which

7.5

STEP 4:

D E T E R M I N E C O N T RO L S T R AT E G Y
between 415 ppm and 455 ppm with the average being 432 ppm. Because CO2 concentrations appear fairly stable in the area the control strategy will assume a conservative value for outside concentrations of 400 ppm.

7.5.1 CO NS IDERIN G OUTS IDE C O N C E N T R AT I O N S

Outside concentrations were measured with a hand held sensor in the morning and afternoon periodically over 2 weeks by one of the classes as part of a science project. Outside levels were found to range

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If outside concentrations are actually 432 ppm the selection of this as an assumed outside level will result in a slight over ventilation of the space of less than 1 cfm per person. A short pre-occupancy purge cycle will also be initiated in the morning to ensure inside levels have dropped down to background concentrations. This will ensure that the ABCLogic feature in the sensor maintains its calibration automatically.

activity. As a result we can use the ASHRAE recommended differential of 700 ppm. The equilibrium control point becomes 1100 ppm (400 + 700 = 1100).

7.5.3 SE LEC TING THE C O N T R O L S T R AT E G Y

Set Point control would probably work very well for a single school classroom given the relatively high density of the space and small volume of air. This strategy could become much more complicated when trying to control ventilation for four spaces simultaneously and may result in excessive damper movement and wear as the damper continually opens and closes. For this application proportional modulated control was chosen because the rooftop system selected has proportional modulation capability (Carrier model 48/50 series). More details on how the sensors are configured to the air handler are provided below.

7.5.2 D ETERMINI NG CO2 C O N T RO L PO I N T S

In this application all the zones have a target ventilation rate of 15 cfm/person. As a result the equilibrium anchor control point would be calculated by adding the assumed outside concentration to the CO2 differential value for 15 cfm per person. We will assume an office type activity resulting in 1.2 MET of

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7.6

STEP 5:

L O C AT E S E N S O R S
each space just above where the thermostat is placed on the wall. The four room sensors will be connected to an inexpensive 4 into 1 transducer that will compare the signal coming from the four CO2 sensors and pass through the signal that has the highest concentration. In this way the designer can be sure that each individual space will always be adequately ventilated.

In this instance sensors could be mounted in the space or in the duct. As discussed in Chapter 5 the problem with duct-mounted sensors is that they reflect an average of concentrations within all spaces. If only one classroom is occupied and the others are vacant the average may indicate acceptable levels of ventilation while the actual conditions in the occupied classroom may indicate severe under ventilation. To avoid the problems associated with averaging duct concentrations one sensor will be installed in

7.7

I N S TA L L AT I O N S U M M A RY
The air handler would be set up as follows: The DCV strategy would be timed to operate during all occupied hours. The economizer would be programmed to override DCV control if outside air could be used for free cooling. A morning pre-occupancy purge would be included in the sequence of operation of the air handler. The maximum position of the air handler for delivery of ventilation under the DCV strategy would be would be 2100 cfm. (Step 2) The base ventilation rate would be set to 450 cfm (Step 3). The air handler would be set up to begin modulation of outside air when inside concentrations were 100 ppm over outside concentrations (500 ppm). The damper position on the air handler would be proportionally modulated so that when levels reached the equilibrium anchor point the design ventilation rate of 2100 cfm would be provided. CO2 Sensors would be placed as shown in Figure 7.1.

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M U LTIPLE ZONE OFFICE WITH VAV

FIGURE 8.1 E X A M P L E O F F I C E L AY O U T
Combined CO2 and Temp Sensor

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8.1

A P P L I C AT IO N : 1 4 ZO NE O FF I C E W I T H VAV
building that is served by a single, VAV central-station air-handling unit, and has been subdivided into fourteen zones. The design occupancy for the space is 56 people.

This section works through a design example of a VAV system incorporating zone level CO2 control utilizing Carriers ComfortID System. Figure 8.1 shows the first floor plan of the example office

8.2

S T E P 1 : I S T H E S PA C E A P P R O P R I AT E F O R D C V ?
work on the weekend on a periodic basis. While the individual office spaces may experience somewhat predictable occupancies, the common areas such as the reception area and the conference rooms are subject to a high degree of variable occupancy. As a result this represents a good application for DCV.

In this office space application, actual room occupancy can vary from design and during the day based upon meetings, luncheons, and other typical office activities, meaning that occupancy is variable and unpredictable. The office also has a lower level of occupancy on weekends as some employees may

8.3

S T E P 2 : D E T E R M I N E V E N T I L AT I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R T H E S PA C E
primary supply air requirement for each zone. VAV terminal units must be sized to satisfy heating, cooling, and ventilation requirements, keeping in mind their relationship to the complete system. Figure 8.2 provides a breakdown of sizing for each zone for maximum and minimum loads as well as outdoor air ventilation requirements. The required outdoor airflow is 1,263 cfm and the maximum primary supply air determined by the HVAC load calculations is 14,235 cfm.

This step will cover both sizing of the VAV boxes and determination of the ventilation requirements for the space. Determining the design outdoor airflow and sizing VAV terminal units is a relatively simple iterative process. The outdoor air handling unit design outdoor airflow is derived starting with adding the required outdoor airflow for each space and then considering distribution system limitations. The VAV terminal sizes are developed from the design outdoor airflow and the

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8 . 3 . 1 M A X I M U M A I R F L OW
Traditionally, terminal units are selected to supply the maximum of either the cooling or the heating airflow requirement for temperature control. When sizing for temperature and ventilation control it is important to maintain similar percentages of fresh air delivery at each box. This means that boxes with a significantly higher ratio of outside air to total airflow should be oversized to reduce the percent outside air closer to that represented by a majority of the boxes. Steps to calculate the maximum terminal unit airflow capacity:

FIGURE 8.2 T E R M I N A L B OX S I Z I N G C A L C U L AT I O N S

1 . Calculate the ventilation requirements for each

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zone by multiplying the required ventilation rate per person times the design occupancy. Column B in Figure 8.2 shows this calculation.

2 . Calculate airflows necessary to satisfy heating

and cooling requirements (e.g., using Carriers E20-IITM software). Sum the revised supply airflows for each space to determine the maximum supply to each zone. This is shown in Column C in Figure 8.2.

3 . For each zone determine if the outside air or

supply air requirements are greater and size the maximum flow to meet the largest of the two. This value is shown in Column D. These are the maximum airflow rates that should be specified for each terminal unit.

4 . Add appropriate contingencies. The values

shown in Column D do not include any contingencies. It is common to add small contingencies to the maximum terminal unit supply capacity (e.g., 10%). Column E takes into account nominal box sizes.

5 . Calculate the percent of outside air as fraction

of the total airflow to the zone for each box. This calculation is shown in Column G of Figure 8.2. In this example zones 7, 8 and 13 have a significantly higher airflow than the rest of the boxes. The designer should oversize these boxes to reduce the percent outside air to levels closer to the average of all boxes.

controlling airflow down to about 160 cfm. The unit may actually be capable of closing the airflow to zero, but between 125 cfm and zero, the control capability is lost. If the unit had a 10:1 turndown, its control range would be between 800 and 80 cfm. After determining the maximum supply airflow to each zone as described above, calculate the minimum airflow as follows:

8 . 3 . 2 M I N I M U M A I R F L OW
The minimum terminal unit airflow must be selected to provide adequate airflow for heating coils (especially electric coils. The lower limit must also be within the terminal unit control range. Most common terminal units are capable of 5:1 turndown; however, newer, more efficient units are capable of 10:1 turndown. Turndown is the ratio of the maximum controllable flow to the minimum controllable flow. For example, a VAV terminal unit rated at 800 cfm with a 5:1 turndown is capable of

1 . Assume a desired minimum airflow for the airhandling unit and calculate initial estimates of the minimum supply airflow to each space.

2 . The HVAC load calculations will determine the

supply airflow necessary for the building peak load. Typically the minimum is about 25 to 50 percent of the maximum. The values shown in Column E are based on an assumed minimum flow of 25% of the adjusted maximum supply.

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8.4

ST E P 3 : D E T ER M I NE B AS E M I NI M U M V E N T I L AT I O N R AT E F O R D C V
Before we can settle on this as the base ventilation rate we have to make sure that adequate outside air is also provided to provide make-up air to bathroom exhausts and general building pressurization. This is calculated as follows: Since the base ventilation rate of 360 cfm is greater than the requirements for bathroom exhaust of 200 cfm and building pressurization, the base minimum ventilation rate at the air handler will be 360 cfm. Should the base ventilation rate equal to a lower value than the building exhaust plus pressurization, the base ventilation rate would be set to be equal to this higher value.

The concept of base ventilation rate is discussed in detail in Chapter 4, Section 4.7. The base ventilation rate is a minimum continuous ventilation rate provided during all occupied hours to control nonoccupant related contaminants that may be given off by equipment, furnishings or other building components. For this application we will follow the rule of thumb recommended in Chapter 4 and design the base ventilation rate so that 30% of the total design ventilation rate will be used for base ventilation. As shown in Figure 6.4, the design ventilation rate for the space is 1,263 cfm so the base ventilation rate would be about 360 cfm.

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8.5

STEP 4:

D ET E R M I N E CO 2 C O N T RO L S T R AT E G Y
The Zone set point is 150 ppm below the average of all zone equilibrium anchor points, which in this case is 780 ppm for zones 1-4 and 7-14. Zone 6 is 957 ppm. The System set point should is set 75 ppm higher than the average of the zone set points for all zones in the system, which in this case is 869 ppm.
FI GURE 8.3 C O 2 E QU I L I B R I U M P O I N T C A L C U L AT I O N F O R E A C H ZO N E

The fact that this is a variable air volume system serving an office space makes this an ideal candidate for PI control. PI control will provide the highest degree of comfort conditioning and energy savings. The Carrier ComfortID VAV/Terminal controllers provide PI control at each terminal box. Carrier Air Handler controllers such as the Comfort Controller 6400 provide PI control for the outside air dampers at the air handler.

C O N S I D E R AT I O N O F O U T S I D E A I R
As in the previous examples, periodic outside measurements showed that the outside air CO2 concentration levels hover around 400 ppm, making the use of an outside air CO2 sensor unnecessary. The control strategy will assume outside levels of 400 ppm.

DE TER MINE C O2 CONTROL P OINTS

The office building shown in this example has fourteen zones and design occupancy of 56 people. To set up the control system, the CO2 control point must be determined for each space, and the average CO2 control point for each zone. Figure 8.3 summarizes the ventilation rates and CO2 equilibrium set points required for each zone assuming an activity level of 1.2 MET (office type activity) and a 400 ppm outside CO2 concentration. The DCV system in this example uses only two control points one for spaces with a 15 cfm per person and one for spaces with a 20 cfm per person requirement. The system will be designed with a Zone Level Heating System where the VAV box will be designed to provide the first stage of response to a demand for more ventilation. As discussed in Chapter 4 this type of system has the following characteristics.

Z O N E H E AT S I Z I N G R E Q U I R E M E N T S
As previously stated, the additional airflow required when each terminal box is providing design ventilation must be taken into consideration when sizing zone heating coils.

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8.6

ST E P 5: LO C AT I N G C O 2 S E N S O R S
rate for the zone should be adjusted to meet the design occupancy ventilation requirements. In instances where a single zone serves two rooms that may have very different occupancies such as Zone 8 (see Figure 8.1), a CO2 sensor is placed in each room. A simple transducer is used to take the signals from the two sensors and pass through the highest signal to the VAV box that is serving both rooms. If only one temperature sensor is designated, in most cases loads and occupancies will be similar and one CO 2/temperature sensor will suffice.
FIGURE 8.4 C O2 S E N S O R S I N E AC H S U B Z O N E FIGURE 8.5 C O2 S E N S O R S I N COM MON RET URN DUCT

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To ensure each space receives adequate ventilation in a multiple space application it is important that CO2 sensors are located within each occupied zone. The rationale for this was discussed in Chapter 5. This will typically equate to one sensor for every terminal box. Sometimes, in a conference room being fed with 2 terminal boxes, for example, there may be occasions where one CO2 sensor can be located with more than one terminal box. This would also be true of a large common area served by a number of VAV boxes. In instances where separate offices are served by one terminal box as is the case with Zones 2 and 11 in Figure 8.1, there are a few options. Ideally one sensor should be placed in every office or zone (Figure 8.4). However, in most instances occupancies in these offices will be at similar times. More practically the placement of the CO2 sensor should be governed by the same criteria as temperature sensor placement. The most common approach would be to install the CO2 sensor in one of the offices that would be considered most representative location (Figure 8.1). If the offices within the zone had a common ducted return, a third alternative may be to locate the CO2 sensor in this common return. However, due to issues discussed in Chapter 4 regarding duct measurement this should be considered the last alternative (as shown in Figure 8.5). If the zones share a common plenum return for the space, duct-mounted sensors are not recommended. In both the single sensor and the return air sensor scenarios mentioned above, the base ventilation

8.7

I N S TA L L AT I O N S U M M A RY
The VAV system would be set up as follows: The DCV strategy would be timed to operate during all occupied hours. The economizer would be programmed to override DCV control if outside air could be used for free cooling. Amorning pre-occupancy purge would be included in the sequence of operation for the system. The maximum position of the air handler for delivery of ventilation under the DCV strategy would be would be 1263 cfm. (Step 2) The base ventilation rate would be set to 360 cfm (Step 3). CO2 / Temperature Sensors would be placed as shown in Figure 8.1. Since each of the VAV boxes will be designed with heating capacity, a control strategy was selected that would initiate control from the VAV box initially. If CO2 levels continued to rise after response from the VAV box additional air would be introduced at the air handler. The control response will be the Proportional-Integral algorithm provided by Carriers ComfortID system with the zone and central setpoints shown in Figure 8.3.

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G LO S S A RY
CO2 set point: the CO2 concentration measured in a space that initiates an action by the control system. base ventilation rate: a base level of ventilation provided during all occupied hours to control non-occupant related contaminants that may be released by building materials, furnishings or equipment in a space. demand controlled ventilation: modulation of the outdoor air volume mechanically supplied to a space based on the actual occupancy of the space so as to provide ventilation at a per capita rate prescribed by code or standard. design occupancy: the maximum number of occupants of a given space, the quantity of which is used for ventilation system design purposes. design ventilation rate: the volume of outdoor air used in HVAC calculations to size HVAC equipment and components. differential equilibrium anchor point: the equilibrium anchor point expressed as an inside/outside differential CO 2 value. equilibrium anchor point: the equilibrium CO 2 concentration in a space that develops as a function of the physical activity of the occupants when providing outdoor air ventilation at a prescribed rate. minimum ventilation airflow: the minimum volume of outdoor air that should be admitted to a space during either occupied or unoccupied times. Sometimes referred to as the base ventilation rate. pre-occupancy purge: a control sequence where outdoor air is admitted to a building at the design outdoor air rate (or some other defined rate) prior to arrival of the building occupants. The pre-occupancy purge is intended to dilute building-related contaminants that may have accumulated in the building during unoccupied hours when the HVAC system has been off. primary air, primary supply air: the total volume of conditioned air delivered to a space from a central source such as an air-handling unit. Primary air does not include recirculated air such as plenum air induced by a fan-powered terminal unit in a VAV system. required outdoor airflow: the volume of outdoor air required by code or standard to be supplied to a space based on the number of occupants in the space. It is the product of the outdoor air rate and the design occupancy. system set point: the CO2 control set point that a VAV system controller maintains by modulation of the outdoor air damper. target ventilation rate: the volume of outdoor air admitted to a space expressed on a volume per person or volume per floor area basis (i.e., cfm/person, L/s-person, cfm/ft2, and L/s-m 2). zone set point: the CO2 control set point that a VAV zone controller maintains by modulation of the primary air damper and/or the terminal unit fan.

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ASHRAE 62 INTERPRETATIONS IC 62-1999-33

INTERPRETATION IC 62-1999-33 OF ASHRAE STANDARD 62-1999 VENTILATION FOR ACCEPTABLE INDOOR AIR QUALITY TRANSFER TO 62-1999 APPROVED: August 14, 2000 Originally issued as interpretation of Standard 62-1989 (IC 62-1989-27) on January 26, 1997, but transferred to Standard 62-1999. Since no changes were made to the relevant sections of Standard 62-1999, no revisions were made to the interpretation as part of this transfer. Request from: Mike Schell, Engelhard Sensor Technology, 6489 Calle Real, Goleta, CA93117. References: This request refers to ANSI/ASHRAE 62-1989 subclauses 6.1.3 Ventilation Requirements, 6.1.3.4 Intermittent or Variable Occupancies, and Figure 4 Maximum Permissible Ventilation Lag Time. Mr. Schell's letter provides the following background in two parts: Engelhard Background No. 1: In Interpretation IC 62-1989-23 of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, the comment in support of Answer 5h states that the use of demand control with the Ventilation Rate Procedure where the variable provision of 6.1.3.4 is applied is improper. "Comment. If the total outdoor air supply based on the occupied space is reduced during periods of less occupancy by demand control, it is improper to also apply the variable provision of 6.1.3.4." Answer 5h supports the use of demand control with the Ventilation Rate Procedure as long as demand control is properly applied, the variable provision of 6.1.3.4 is not applied, and other requirements are met. This request seeks to clarify the requirements for proper use and implementation of demand control with the Ventilation Rate Procedure. Engelhard Interpretation No. 1: It is consistent with the Ventilation Rate Procedure that demand control be permitted for use to reduce the total outdoor air supply during periods of less occupancy, providing the following conditions are met: a) The variable provision of 6.1.3.4 is not applied to lower the estimated maximum occupancy for the purpose of reducing the design ventilation rate. b) CO2 is not being removed by methods other than dilution ventilation, such as gas phase sorption filtration (interpretation IC 62-1989-7). c) The designer has not routinely presumed that lag ventilation will result in acceptable indoor air quality, but has considered the potential for "appreciable buildup of contaminants during the unoccupied hours," for instance "from materials of machines in building, microbial contaminated areas, or activities of maintenance personnel" (Interpretation IC 62-1989-7). d) Where required, the multiple spaces requirements of 6.1.3.1 are used to determine the system outdoor air quantity using the corrected fraction of outdoor air. e) Sensor location and set points are selected on the basis of achieving the rates in Table 2. f) Method of demand control of outdoor air intake is properly implemented (See Engelhard Interpretations No. 2 and 3 below). Question 1: Is Engelhard Interpretation No. 1 correct? Answer: Yes. Comment: However, good practice and the rationale on which the ventilation rates in Table 2 are based, indicates the need for a non-zero base ventilation rate to handle non-occupant sources whenever the space is occupied. Engelhard Background No. 2: The considerations presented in the first sentences of Section 6.1.3.4, Intermittent or Variable Occupancy, must always be taken into account when considering the use of demand control based on CO 2 levels. Designs must take into account the need to ensure increased outdoor air intake within the maximum permissible ventilation lag time as shown in Figure 4 of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1989. Engelhard Interpretation No. 2: It is consistent with the Ventilation Rate Procedure that demand control be permitted for use to reduce the total outdoor air supply during periods of less occupancy if it is properly implemented using a make or break CO2 controller to call for the design ventilation rate in accordance with the requirements of the Ventilation Rate Procedure and Table 2. Question 2: Is Engelhard Interpretation No. 2 correct? Answer: Yes. Engelhard Interpretation No. 3: It is consistent with the Ventilation Rate Procedure that demand control be permitted for use to reduce the total outdoor air supply during periods of less occupancy, if it is properly implemented using a Proportional, Proportional-Integral, or Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller to control outdoor air intake, using the difference between indoor and outdoor CO 2 levels to meet the requirements of the Ventilation Rate Procedure and Table 2. Question 3: Is Engelhard Interpretation No. 3 correct? Answer: Yes.
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CO 2 E QUILIBRIUM ANCHOR POINTS FOR A LT E R N ATIVE AC T I V I TY LEV E L S

ASHRAE Standard 62 1999 (and 1989) Appendix D provides a mass balance equation that defines the outdoor airflow rate necessary to maintain a steady-state CO2 concentration: Vo = N / (C s Co) (ASHRAE Standard 62 Equation D-1) where Vo = outdoor air flow rate per person (liters/min.) N = CO2 generation rate per person (liters/min.) Cs = CO2 concentration in the space (liters CO2/ liter air) Co = CO2 concentration outdoors (liters CO2/liter air) Rearranged, the steady-state differential concentration is a simple relationship between the desired ventilation rate and the CO 2 generation rate per person: (Cs Co) = N / Vo Example: An activity level of 1.2 met units equates to a breathing rate of .30 L/min. A typical ventilation rate for an office or classroom is 15 cfm or 7.08 L/s per person. (Cs Co) = N / Vo = 0.30 L/min / (7.08L/s x 60 s/min) = 0.000706 L of CO2 per L of air = 706 parts per million (ppm) = 706/1,000,000 Figure C-1 shows the typical metabolic heat generation for various activities. The usefulness of this table depends upon how reliably an activity can be defined. For well-defined activities having a metabolic rate less than 1.5 MET, the data is sufficiently accurate for most engineering purposes. When the metabolic rate is greater than 3.0 MET and the activities are uncertainly defined or can be accomplished by a variety of methods, the values may be in error (50%) and must be applied with a degree of engineering judgment. Based on this equation the Equilibrium Anchor Points for various levels can be calculated based on activity level as provided in Figure C-1, which is taken from the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook. Figure C-2 provides calculated differential equilibrium anchor points for a wide range of activity levels and ventilation rates.
FIGURE C-1 M E T L E V E L S C O R R E S P O N D I N G T O VA R I O U S ACTIVIT Y LEVELS

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FIGU RE C-2 C A LC U L AT I O N O F D I F F E R E N T I A L E Q U I L I B R I U M ANCHOR POINTS

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S E QUENCES OF OPE R AT I O N
O V E RV I E W
The HVAC system sequence of operation steps for normal thermal control is unchanged by incorporation of DCV. The CO2 sensors represent a third function that may override the normal thermal controls in some situations. The sequences included below discuss the ventilation functions only and must be added to the designers description of thermal controls to create complete sequences of operation.

VA R I A B L E - A I R - VO L U M E D CV SYSTEMS 1 . Each variable-air-volume zone controller shall

monitor primary air flow, space temperature, air handler status and mode, supply air temperature (as applicable) and shall position its terminal damper based on its proportional-integral-derivative (PID) temperature control algorithm to maintain the desired zone temperature set point. Each zone controller shall include the inherent ability to override the temperature control loop and modulate the terminals damper with a proportional-integral (PI) loop, based on a CO2 sensor with its associated set point schedule, in conjunction with the normal temperature control loop. The zone controller shall be capable of maintaining a ventilation set point through a demand controlled ventilation (DCV) algorithm in conjunction with the air-handling unit to fulfill the requirements of ASHRAE standard, 62-1989 Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (including Addendum 62a-1990).

C O N S TA N T- VO L U M E S TA R T- U P P U RG E C YC L E 1 . When the AHU starts, the outdoor air damper

shall open, initiating a timed purge cycle. The out door air damper shall modulate to maintain the mixed airflow at ______ percent outdoor air. The outdoor air percentage shall be calculated as the following ratio: %OA = (MAT - RAT) / (OAT RAT). The purge period shall be adjustable and shall initially be set for ______ minutes.

2 . The AHU shall modulate its preheat control to

maintain the discharge air temperature set point if the mixed air temperature falls below the AHU discharge air temperature set point. At the conclusion of the timed cycle, the outdoor air damper shall modulate closed to maintain the base ventilation rate of ______ percent outdoor air, and the demand controlled ventilation control algorithm shall be enabled.

2 . The DCV control function shall determine the

zone ventilation airflow based on the CO2 zone sensor input signal. When the DCV function is enabled, the zone controller shall override (increase) the primary airflow in order to provide additional ventilation if the airflow is insufficient to meet the zone CO2 set point. The control algorithm shall use a proportional-integral (PI) algorithm to determine the required airflow in order to prevent the CO2 sensor reading from exceeding the desired zone set point.

C O N S TA N T- VO L U M E SINGLE-ZONE AND M U LT I - Z O N E A P P L I C AT I O N S 1 . All zones served by a given air-handling unit

(AHU) shall be polled and the highest CO2 sensor reading shall be sent to the unit (outside air damper) controller. This CO2 reading shall be compared to the CO2 set point at the system controller. If the reading is below the CO2 set point, the AHU shall maintain the base ventilation rate at ______ percent outdoor air. If the reading is above the set point, the outdoor air damper controller shall modulate the dampers open utilizing a proportional-integral (PI) loop to reduce the CO2 concentration in the space.

3 . Whenever the system air-handling unit (AHU) is

operating, the system controller shall maintain the base ventilation rate (minimum ventilation rate) unless overridden by a pre-occupancy purge sequence or the DCV function.

4 . All zone controllers working with a given AHU

shall be polled and the highest CO2 sensor reading shall be sent to the system controller. This CO2 reading shall be compared to the system CO2 set point. If the reading is below the system CO2 set point, the AHU shall maintain the base ventilation rate. If the reading is above the set point, the AHU damper controller shall modulate the outside air dampers open using a proportional-integral (PI) loop to maintain the zone CO2 at the zone set point.

2 . The AHU shall modulate its preheat control to

maintain the discharge air temperature set point if the mixed air temperature falls below the AHU discharge air temperature set point. Once the space CO2 level drops below the CO2 set point, the outside air dampers shall modulate to maintain the base ventilation rate.

5 . The system controller shall modulate the AHU

preheat control to maintain the discharge air temperature set point if the mixed air temperature falls below the discharge air temperature set point. The outside air damper position shall close with a decreasing CO 2 sensor signal down to the base ventilation rate. The zone controller shall contain a provision to operate modulating type heat to maintain the space temperature at the midpoint between the heating and cooling set

3 . If the AHU is equipped with economizer control

and the economizer determines that it is beneficial to use outside air for cooling, the economizer shall override the demand controlled ventilation algorithm to modulate the dampers open to their maximum position.

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points during DCV operation. The zone controller shall have the capability to define a maximum primary airflow limit (ventilation) to protect the zone from overcooling for those units that do not include local heating. DCV control shall be automatically suspended if the space temperature falls below the heating set point and the outdoor air damper shall return to the base ventilation position.

P R O D U C T I N T E G R AT E D C O N T RO L L E R S
The unit controller shall have the capability to provide demand controlled Ventilation (DCV) function using the input signal from a CO2 sensor located in the conditioned space. Control functions shall include outdoor air damper modulation, monitoring, and alarm generation. The unit controller shall maintain an adjustable CO2 set point by overriding the mixed-air damper position and modulating the damper further open to provide the required ventilation. The DCV algorithm shall automatically limit the amount of outdoor air to prevent the mixed-air temperature from falling below 50F. The unit controller shall also have the ability to limit the maximum amount of outdoor air during DCV operation. If heating is available during DCV operation, the heating valve [face and bypass damper] shall modulate to maintain a minimum supply air temperature of 65F, if neither heating nor cooling is required by the space. If the space temperature exceeds an adjustable high limit value or falls below an adjustable low limit value, or if the space humidity exceeds the humidity set point, the algorithm shall disable any DCV damper override and maintain the normal minimum ventilation set point or to the configured mixed-air temperature set point until the space temperature and/or space relative humidity returns to normal.

6 . If the AHU is equipped with economizer control

and the economizer determines that it is beneficial to use outside air for cooling, the economizer shall override the DCV algorithm to modulate the dampers open to their maximum position.

7 . Operation shall be dependent upon the equipment

mode of operation, so that the DCV function will only operate during occupied periods when the outdoor air damper is actively providing ventilation. DCV control shall be disabled if the CO2 sensor fails.

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GUIDE SPE C I F I C AT I O N S
The following guide specifications should be included with the project HVAC controls specifications. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. CO2 sensor output: 4 to 20 mA or 0 to 10 volt signal. CO2 measurement range: 0-10,000 ppm. Set point: adjustable. Sensitivity: 10 ppm. Accuracy: 50 ppm (0-2000 ppm), 5% of reading (2000-10,000 ppm). CO2 sensor calibration: single point calibration via push button and LED Relay contacts: normally open or normally closed, 2 amps at 24 vac.

SENSORS
Wall-Mounted Combination Sensors:

1 . Wall-mounted combination sensors shall contain

a space temperature sensor and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) sensors in a single, decorative housing. The CO2 sensor shall use single-beam absorption infrared diffusion technology (non-dispersive infrared), and shall have integral programming to perform automatic baseline calibration without user interface. The recommended manual recalibration period shall not be less than five years. Other features of wall-mounted combination sensors shall include: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Operating conditions: 60 to 90F (15 to 32C), and 0 to 95% RH, non-condensing. Power supply: 18-30 VAC, 50/60 Hz [18-42 VDC polarity protected]. CO2 sampling method: diffusion. CO2 sensor output: 4 to 20 mA or 0 to 10 volt signal. CO2 measurement range: 0-2,000 ppm. Sensitivity: 20 ppm. Accuracy: 100 ppm at 60 to 90F (15 to 32C); and 760 mmHg. CO2 sensor calibration: single point calibration via push button and LED. Space temperature sensor: 10K ohm 2% at 77F (25C) thermistor with pushbutton override [and a temperature set point adjustment potentiometer].

2 . Carbon Dioxide sensors shall be provided with

the manufacturers recommended calibration kit. The quantity shall be suitable to initially calibrate each sensor provided for the project. Duct-Mounted Carbon Dioxide Sensors:

1 . Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) sensors for duct-mounted

applications shall be identical to the wall-mounted sensors specified above except as described below.

2 . The CO2 sensor shall be mounted in an enclosed

aspirator box that mounts directly to the duct. The aspirator box shall be equipped with an induction tube to direct a side-stream of air from the duct through the CO 2 sensor. A hinged, clear access door shall be installed on the front of the aspirator box to permit access to the sensor and to permit viewing the sensor without opening the door.

3 . CO2 sensors for duct-mounted applications shall

be designed for flow-through sampling.

2 . Combination sensors shall be provided with the

manufacturers recommended Carbon Dioxide calibration kit. The quantity shall be suitable to initially calibrate each sensor provided for the project. Wall-Mounted Carbon Dioxide Sensors:

C O N T RO L L E R S
The following paragraphs describing DCV requirements for solid-state, microprocessor (direct digital) controllers, and should be inserted as supplements to the project controller specifications. They are not intended to describe the complete requirements for controllers. Zone Controllers:

1 . Carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors shall be manufactured in a decorative, wall-mounted housing. The CO2 sensor shall use single- or dual-beam absorption infrared diffusion technology (nondispersive infrared), and shall have integral programming to perform automatic baseline calibration without user interface. The recommended manual recalibration period shall not be less than five years. Sensors shall be equipped with an LED display. Other features of wallmounted Carbon Dioxide sensors shall include: a. b. c. Operating conditions: 60 to 90F (15 to 32C), and 0 to 95% RH, non-condensing Power supply: 18-30 VAC, 50/60 Hz halfwave rectified [18-42 VDC polarity protected] CO2 sampling method: diffusion or flowthrough.

1 . Each single-duct [fan-powered] zone controller

shall be specifically designed to provide demand controlled ventilation (DCV) operation using a proportional-integral (PI) control loop. All DCV application software shall be resident in the zone controllers memory and shall be factory-tested and factory-configured. The zone controller shall be capable of stand-alone operation and shall execute the DCV control functions without being dependent on a network system, additional hardware, or intermediate controllers.

2 . Zone controllers shall be capable of being added

to a system network without additional hardware. They shall be designed for connection to other zone controllers and to a common system controller

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to perform DCV control functions as part of an integral ventilation system.

3 . The system controller shall be designed to interface directly with the specified CO2 sensors.

3 . Zone controllers shall be designed to interface

directly with the specified CO2 sensors.

4 . The system controller shall be capable of maintaining a ventilation set point through a DCV algorithm in conjunction with zone controllers to fulfill the requirements of ASHRAE standard, 62-1989 Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (including Addendum 62a-1990).

4 . Zone controllers shall be capable of maintaining

a ventilation set point through a DCV algorithm in conjunction with system controller to fulfill the requirements of ASHRAE standard, 62-1989 Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (including Addendum 62a-1990). The algorithm shall also be capable of modulating the terminal unit heating to maintain the space temperature between the heating and cooling set points. For terminal units without supplementary heating, the zone controller DCV algorithm shall have a primary airflow limit to protect the zone from overcooling.

5 . DCV control sequences shall be as specified

herein [or as indicated on the drawings]. Unit (Product Integrated) Controllers:

1 . The unit controller shall be a solid-state microprocessor controller using direct digital control and software specifically designed to provide demand controlled ventilation (DCV) functions. The controller shall be factory-installed and wired within the unit, and shall be furnished complete with all application software to perform DCV functions. The unit controller shall be pre-configured and pre-tested for DCV operation.

5 . DCV control sequences shall be as specified

herein [or as indicated on the drawings]. System Controllers:

1 . System controllers shall be specifically designed

to provide demand controlled ventilation (DCV) operation using a proportional-integral (PI) control loop. All DCV application software shall be resident in the system controller s memory and shall be factory-tested and factory-configured. The system controller shall be capable of stand-alone operation and shall execute the DCV control functions with out being dependent on a network system, additional hardware, or intermediate controllers.

2 . The controller shall maintain an adjustable CO2

set point by control of the mixed-air damper position. The unit controller shall also have the ability to limit the maximum amount of outdoor air during DCV operation, and modulate heating to maintain a minimum supply air temperature.

3 . The unit controller shall be designed to interface

directly with the specified CO2 sensors.

2 . The system controller shall be designed for

connection to zone controllers to perform DCV control functions as part of an integral ventilation system.

4 . DCV control sequences shall be as specified

herein [or as indicated on the drawings].

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B AC KG ROUND ON CO 2 SENSOR T E C H N O LO G Y
T E C H N O LO G Y
Improvements in CO2 sensing technology and inexpensive sensors are integral to implementation of modern demand controlled ventilation. The first inexpensive sensors intended for HVAC ventilation control became commercially available after 1990. Previously only scientific and technical instruments, costing up to ten times as much, were the only devices available. Early commercial sensors required frequent calibration that tended to discourage their use. Modern sensors use a self-calibration algorithm that extends the manual calibration schedule to about once every five years. pulse. A small piezo-resistor senses the pulse and provides an input to a microprocessor, which then calculates the CO 2 concentration.
FIGURE F-2 P H OT O - A C O U S T I C C O 2 S E N S O R

NON-DISPE RSI VE IN FRARED DE TECTION

Non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) detection is the most widely used technology for indoor air quality applications. NDIR sensors detect changes in CO2 concentrations by examining the increase or decrease in light at the wavelength where CO2 absorption takes place. Air is allowed to diffuse in a chamber that is equipped with a light source at one end and a detector at the other end. The detector is covered with a selective optical filter that permits light at only the specific wavelength absorbed by CO2 to pass through. NDIR sensors are sensitive to the buildup of dust particles in the sensing chamber and aging of the infrared light source. Particle buildup is minimized by use of a gas permeable membrane that permits gas diffusion but blocks larger particulate matter. In the Carrier CO2 Sensor, the effects of light source degradation is eliminated by a feature called ABCLogic that recalibrates the sensor during the night when the space is unoccupied and CO2 levels drop to baseline outdoor levels. This feature eliminates the need for manual calibration in most applications.
FIG URE F-1 NDIR CO2 SENSOR

Photo-acoustic sensors are not affected by dust or dirt, but are subject to light source degradation similar to NDIR sensors. They are also very sensitive to vibration, ambient acoustical noise, atmospheric pressure changes, and temperature effects.

MIXE D GAS SENSORS (VOC)

Mixed gas sensors are also often called VOC sensors or air quality sensors though mixed gas is the most appropriate description. These sensors provide a reaction to various gases in the air. Depending on what gases and the mixture the reaction will be different, but unfortunately not quantifiable. These sensors may give off a large signal for a relatively benign gas yet hardly reacts to other more toxic gases like CO. Typically they provide a 0-10 volt output but there is no way to relate a magnitude change in the sensor to a definable measure of gas concentrations or air quality. The sensors also are highly sensitive to humidity and temperature and have significant drift problems. Their best use is to detect significant short-term changes in gas mixture concentrations but not the actual concentration. A good example of where these sensors could be used is to turn on fans in a printing press area. When the printing press starts operating the level of general gases will dramatically increase because of the inks used. This increase will be detected by the mixed gas sensor and if a certain increase over baseline levels is detected a fan can be activated. Mixed gas sensors have been tried with DCV systems and shown to be relatively ineffective. They are not CO 2 specific and cannot be related to ventilation rates like a CO2 sensor can and as a result cannot be used to assure target cfm/person ventilation rates are maintained.

PHOTO-ACOU STIC DET ECTI ON

Photo-acoustic sensors expose air in an open chamber to flashes of light at the wavelength absorbed by CO2. CO2 molecules absorb light energy, which heats the sample chamber and causes a pressure

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OT H E R S E N S O R S T Y PE S
Some sensors using electrochemical technology have recently appeared on the market. There is very little experience with using this type of sensor to measure CO2. When used to measure other gases, electrochemical sensors tend to have a limited life and require periodic calibration.

H OW I T WO R K S
Outside levels of CO 2 are generally very low at around 400 to 500 ppm. Inside buildings people are the major source of CO2. When a building is unoccupied for 4 to 8 hours CO2 levels will tend to drop to outside background levels. This is especially the case if the building operational schedule includes a preoccupancy purge of fresh air into the building prior to the start of the day. ABCLogic which stands for Automatic Background Calibration utilizes the computing power in the sensors on-board microprocessor to remember the lowest CO2 concentration that takes place every 24 hours. The sensor assumes this low point is at outside levels. The sensor is also smart enough to discount periodic elevated readings that might occur if for example a space was used 24 hours per day over a few days. Once the sensor has collected 14 days worth of low concentration points it performs a statistical analysis to see if there has been any small changes in the sensor reading over background levels that could be attributable to sensor drift. If the analysis concludes there is drift, a small correction factor is made to the sensor calibration to adjust for this change. Figure F-3 shows CO2 concentrations as they might occur over 14 days in an office space with peak concentrations occurring in the morning and afternoon of each day. The dotted line is drawn through all the low points for each day as compared to an assumed background of 400 ppm. If a statistically relevant change in the data shows a shift above or below background, a slight adjustment is made to sensor calibration as shown by the solid level line. Every day the sensor looks at the past 14 days worth of data and determines if a calibration adjustment is necessary. A similar type of approach of nightly calibrations is often used for other HVAC equipment such as VAV boxes.
FIG URE F-3 A B C LO G I C P R I N C I P L E
TM

C ARR IER SE NSO RS WI TH A B C LO G I C T M

Use of CO 2 to control ventilation is one of the fastest growing areas in building control. A primary reason for this growth is that the technology has now matured to the point where it is inexpensive, easy to use and reliable. Telaire leads this trend with a number of unique innovations in its sensor design. A key patented feature of Carrier s CO2 Sensors is called ABCLogic. It enables CO 2 sensors to automatically calibrate themselves once installed in the field. This feature eliminates one of the biggest concerns surrounding CO2 sensing sensor drift and maintenance. ABCLogic is a standard feature on all permanently mounted sensors (duct and wall mount). Virtually all gas sensors are subject to some sort of drift. The degree of drift is partially dependent on the use of quality components and good design. But even with good components and excellent design a small amount of drift can still occur in the sensor that may ultimately result in the need for a sensor to be recalibrated. Generally, recalibration involves a maintenance person visiting each sensor in a building and performing a 5-minute to 20-minute re-calibration routine using gas bottles and plastic tubing. The calibration process is simple but it can turn into a significant expense if recalibration is required frequently. If the wrong choice of sensors is made, the expense of sensor maintenance may wipe out any potential energy savings that could come from CO2 based demand controlled ventilation. Approximately 7 years ago, Telaire developed and patented the concept of a self-calibrating sensor. The first products manufactured with this feature (originally called TEMA) are still working in the field today and accurately measuring CO 2. Most of these sensors have never been field calibrated.

1000 900 800 700

W H AT C AU S E S S E N S O R D R I F T
As discussed before, sensor design and components have a lot to do with drift. At Telaire, our experience with building five generations of sensors for over ten years has allowed us to select the components and refine the design so that the primary contributor to sensor drift is the normal and unavoidable aging of the infrared light source within the sensor. In the Telaire sensor, the natural drift of the sensor is very gradual at a few ppm per month with the greatest drift occurring in the first few months of operation. This drift can be up or down. Telaires self-calibration feature called ABCLogic is designed to correct all sensor drift including aging of the light source.

600 500 400 300

Days Slight Long Term Sensor Drift Calculated Over Number of Days TM ABCLogic Corrected Baseline

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MEAS URIN G INS IDE-OUTSIDE DIFFERENTIAL

When using CO 2 to measure and control for ventilation it is most important to consider not the absolute ppm levels but the differential concentration between inside and outside concentrations. In general terms the higher the differential the lower the ventilation rate. One of the additional benefits of ABCLogic is that the sensor is calibrates itself to outside levels without having the expense and trouble of placing a sensor in the outside air. The sensor assumes that the lowest level is the outside CO2 level and assigns a 400 ppm value to it. Any indoor CO 2 readings above this level are proportional to the inside/outside CO2 differential.

ppm apart. However, by the 10th day all sensors agreed very closely in their readings. This graph is typical of the behavior of all Telaire sensors that utilize ABCLogic.
FIGU RE F-4 RE ADINGS OF THREE SENSORS W I T H A B C L O G I C OV E R 1 4 D AY S O F I N I T I A L O P E R AT I O N I N A N O F F I C E

A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R A B C L O G I C
It is important to note that ABCLogic is designed for use in applications where spaces are periodically unoccupied for 4 hours per day or more so that indoor concentrations can drop down to typical outside levels. Use of a pre or post occupancy ventilation purge is recommended as a good engineering practice to deliver proper air quality and can help ensure that the space regularly reaches background conditions. If a purge is not used it is recommended that the occupancy schedule for the building operate the HVAC system for an hour or so after normal occupancy ends to allow CO 2 levels to be reduced to background. Some building operators may also want to use CO 2 as the control parameter for activating the HVAC system into an occupied mode.
Day

COMMISSI ON ING SENS OR S W I TH A B C LO G I C

When first installing CO2 sensors with ABCLogic, the sensors will use the first 14 days of operation to calibrate themselves to local background levels. Installers or building operators should not be concerned if readings on the sensors appear unusually high or low or if a lack of agreement between sensors is found. The sensor you receive from Telaire has gone through a complete quality check and has received a factory calibration that has verified the sensor is working properly. Each sensor will calibrate itself to its environment over the first 14 days of operation. Reasons that sensors in the same building may read differently immediately after installation include: Concentrations in each space may be different. The installer may be blowing into the sensor while working with it. If a sensor is dropped or jarred in shipment a slight shift in the original factory calibration may occur. ABCLogic will correct this shift in 14 days. Figure F-4 shows the behavior of three Telaire CO2 sensors with ABCLogic installed in the same space over their first 14 days of operation. As can be seen in the initial few days the sensor readings were at times quite different and in some cases over 100

The graph below shows almost three years of testing where a gas of a known concentration (980 ppm) was flowed to sensors operating in the ambient air of Telaires test lab. This test was performed every 7 to 15 days. As can be seen from the data, all sensors have maintained calibration relative to a reference gas to well within the 75 ppm specification of the sensor throughout the duration of the test period. This long term testing provides fundamental proof that ABCLogic can eliminate the need for calibration over extended periods of time. Two years ago Telaire introduced a first in CO 2 sensing, a 5-year calibration guarantee. Further testing has now confirmed that ABCLogic should be able to maintain sensor calibration over the lifetime of the sensor (typically 15 years).
FIGURE F-5 L O N G T E R M C A L I B R AT I O N V E R I F I C AT I O N O F 3 SENSORS WIT H ABCLOGIC

TIME (Days)

CARR IER HAND H ELD SE NSORS

Hand held sensor are important tools that can be used by contractors or engineers to better understand or assess the potential for DCV in and existing space or to check on the operation of existing sensors. It is also an excellent aid in helping customers better understand the relationship between CO2, ventilation and how people in a space feel about air quality. Carrier offers the 7001 hand held monitor as a rugged and inexpensive portable tool that can give a fast indication of CO2 concentrations. If also has the ability to calculate and display the actual cfmper-person ventilation rate in the space based on measured indoor/outdoor CO 2 concentrations.

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FIGURE F-6 C A R R I E R H A N D H E L D C O 2 M O N I TO R

FIG URE F- 7 C O M B I N E D C O 2 A N D T E M PE R AT U R E S E N S O R F O R ZO N E V E N T I L AT I O N C O N T RO L

Also available as an option for the hand held sensor is software to log the sensor to a PC, and a portable data logger with additional temperature and humidity measurement capability that can be attached to the back of the monitor.

FIGURE F- 8 WA L L M O U N T C O 2 S E N S O R W I T H D I S P L AY

WA L L - M O U N T E D C O 2 + T E M P
Carrier offers two models of a combination CO2 sensor and space temperature sensor (Part No. 33ZCT55CO2 and 33ZCT56CO2). Both models contain the temperature and CO 2 sensors in a single, wallmounted housing. The CO2 sensor uses Single Beam Absorption InfraredTM diffusion technology (NDIR), and patented ABCLogicTM (automatic baseline calibration) for self-calibration. CO2 sensor output can be either a 4 to 20 mA, or 0 to 10 volt signal. The space temperature sensor is a 10K ohm thermistor. One model (Part No. 33ZCT56CO2) is equipped with a temperature set point adjustment potentiometer. Both models have a pushbutton override. Output signals from Carrier combination sensors are sued as input to the Carrier Comfort Network (CCN) controller to modulate outdoor airflow and maintain temperature control.

WA L L M O U N T C O 2 W I T H D I S P L AY
CO2 sensors (Part No. 33ZCSENCO2) are similar to the combination sensors, but do not have the room temperature sensing capability. These sensors also have a digital display that can either be hidden or visible by using one of the two display covers provided with each unit. They are designed to monitor the CO2 concentration in the air and interface with the CCN controller.

The sensors may also be used for simple monitoring and alarm functions. The sensor uses Dual Beam Absorption InfraredTM diffusion technology (NDIR), and patented TEMA (time extended measurement algorithm) software. The CO2 sensor output can be either a 4 to 20 mA, or 0 to 10 volt signal. A relay is also available with the choice of normally open or normally closed operation. The measurement range, output scaling and relay settings can all be adjusted by using the on-board keypad and display. The factory setting is 0-2000 = 0-10VDC.

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D U C T M O U N T AC C E S S O RY
For duct-mounted applications, the CO2 sensor is installed in an aspirator box (Part No. 33ZCASPCO2) that mounts on the duct exterior. An insertion tube directs airflow though the CO2 sensing element.
FIGURE F- 9 D UC T M O UN T ACCESSORY E N CLOSURE

FIGUR E F-10 V E N T U L ATO R S U M M A R Y R E P O RT

V E N T U L AT O R T M E N E R G Y A N A LY S I S P R O G R A M
An additional valuable tool that Carrier offers to support DCV is the Ventulator DCV Energy Analysis Program that can use local climatic and energy data to estimate the energy savings possible utilizing a DCV ventilation control strategy versus a fixed ventilation strategy. The program specifically calculates and compares the energy cost involved in heating and cooling outside air based on local climatic data (hourly dew-point and dry-bulb temperatures). In most cases climatic data is derived from averages of a number of years reporting. The program does not consider any other factors associated with the heating and cooling of the building except that when conditions permit, an economizer control will be used for free heating or cooling. No savings will be calculated when climatic conditions are such that the economizer is operating. The program is capable of simulating a single zone space with the user inputting space volume, design occupancy and occupancy pattern. Contact Carrier for more information on the Ventulator energy analysis program. Once the space and its occupancy is fully defined the user can activate the analysis part of the program that creates the energy analysis results. A variety of reports are created and the user has the option of selecting the specific reports to be collated into a final report printout. There are three major components in a Ventulator report. The first component is a summary of results including major assumptions and energy usage and savings for the fixed ventilation and Demand Controlled Ventilation scenarios as shown in Figure F-10.

The second component generated by the Ventulator program shown in figure F-11 provides a graphed output of CO2 levels for fixed ventilation strategy, CO2 levels for DCV strategy, chart of mechanical ventilation capacity utilized versus a fixed ventilation strategy and charting of cfm per person delivered minute by minute over the course of 24 hours. This last graph can be used to better understand the lag time provided by the control strategy selected.
FIGU RE F-11 G R A P H E D V E N T I L AT I O N A N A LY S I S O F D C V A N D F I X E D V E N T I L AT I O N S T R AT E G I E S

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The final component provides monthly bar graphs of energy usage and savings in energy units and dollar savings. The Ventulator is available free to designers from Carrier. Contact your Carrier representative to obtain a copy.
FIGURE F-12 GRAPHED OUTPUT OF ENERGY COST A N D S AV I N G S

FIGU RE F-13 C O2 S E N S O R S E L E C T I O N G U I D E

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DCV CO M PATIBLE EQU I P M E N T

C A R R I E R E Q U I P M E N T T H AT I S D C V R E A DY
All Carrier Rooftop Air Handlers, Central Station Air Handlers, and Unit Ventilators come from the factory with pre-programmed DCV control algorithms. This includes the following models: 48/50 E series Rooftop AHU 48/50 F series Rooftop AHU 48/50 HG series Centurion Rooftop AHU Carrier Rooftops offer high energy-efficiency and lower utility costs through part load operation. Part load efficiencies become extremely important when implementing DCV, since the outside air load is dramatically reduced during normal operation. 39L Central Station AHU 39T Central Station AHU 39M Central Station AHU Carrier Central station air handlers come equipped with factory-mounted controllers specifically designed to handle both VAV and constant volume DCV applications. 40UV/UH Unit Ventilators Product Integrated controls on Carrier Unit Ventilators have DCV control routines that maintain base and design ventilation rates for the area they serve as well as control algorithms to maintain temperature and humidity levels. There are three primary types of ComfortID VAV controls: 1) VAV single duct terminals, 2) VAV parallel fan powered terminals, and 3) VAV series fan powered terminals. ComfortID controllers can also be configured for constant-volume (dual duct) applications. Typical inputs to and outputs from the ComfortID zone controller are listed in Figure G-2.
FIGURE G-2 T Y PI C A L C O M F O RT I D T M INPUTS AND O UTPUT S Inputs
Space temperature Primary air damper position Airflow Supply air temperature Primary air temperature CO 2 concentration Secondary airflow (zone pressure or dual duct)

operation (in fan powered terminals), damper control (dual-duct terminals), zone pressure control, and control system communication. ComfortID controllers are a designed with stand-alone capability, meaning that all application software is resident in the controllers memory. In this manner they are not reliant upon a central building automation system to maintain control in each of the zones.
FIGURE G-1 C O M F O RT I D Z O N E C O N T R O L L E R

VAV C O N T R O L L E R S
Two controller types are involved in most DCV VAV systems: the terminal controller and the AHU controller. The zone (terminal) controller provides dedicated control functions for a single terminal unit (i.e., VAV and fan terminal units) including airflow modulation, heating control, and ventilation control. The AHU controller manages operation of the central air-handling unit and dampers. In a DCV VAV system the zone controller responds to the local CO2 sensor and is the first line of response to a call for additional ventilation. The AHU controller also monitors the CO2 sensor signals in each of the zones and modulates the outdoor air damper as the second stage of ventilation control. The AHU controller as well as the zone controller can also be product-integrated controllers. These devices are factory mounted on the piece of equipment they control.

Outputs
Primary air damper actuator Heating (modulating or staged) Fan start/stop Secondary damper actuator Alarms

Z O N E C O N T RO L L E R S
Carrier ComfortIDTM zone controllers are microprocessor-based devices that control the operation of a single associated terminal unit. Their function is to satisfy environmental requirements in a single zone by regulating temperature, humidity, ventilation, fan

Interface hardware in the zone controller processes analog and digital input signals, producing digitized equivalents to calculate the required position or state of controlled devices (i.e., dampers, control valves, etc.). The controller scans the input signals, executes control algorithm calculations, and produces output signals for each loop. Output interface hardware processes the digital signals, converting them to analog voltage or current signals as necessary to reposition the controlled device.

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A H U / RT U CO N T RO L L E R S
Carrier AHU/RTU controllers, like zone controllers, are microprocessor-based devices that use digital technology to implement control algorithms to multiple control loops. Their function is to provide control and monitoring to central HVAC systems and related equipment. They control cooling, heating, ventilation, filtration, and ventilation for both constantvolume and variable-air-volume systems. AHU/RTU controllers also communicate with the building automation system for very large installations, and with zone controllers to coordinate system-wide operations.
FIGURE G-3 C A R R I E R A H U / RT U C O N T R O L L E R .

FIGURE G-4 SYSTEM CONTROLLE R FUNCTIONS

P R O D U C T I N T E G R AT E D C O N T RO L L E R S
Product integrated controllers are designed for dedicated service to a specific piece of equipment. Carrier provides Product Integrated Controllers on most equipment. Product Integrated Controllers have some advantages over field-installed controls: Reduced cost: Installation of sensors and actuators at the factory removes the cost of field installation. Better performance: Factory-mounted controls are tuned to their specific products. Easier start up: Factory-mounted controllers are ready to go once power is applied.

AHU/RTU controllers are stand-alone devices with control algorithms and software contained integrally in the controller memory. The controller scans the input signals, converts the signals to digitized equivalents, executes control algorithms, and produces output signals for each control loop. Digital output signals are converted to analog voltage or current signals as necessary to reposition the controlled device. Monitoring information is communicated digitally to the building automation system. The term direct digital controller (DDC) refers to the ability of a controller to communicate digitally with other controllers or to higher-level control systems such as building automation systems. Although DDC controllers are sometimes designed to be adjusted through integral interface displays, they are typically adjusted by way of a hand-held device, a portable terminal, or the operators fixed control station (computer). Preprogrammed control routines (firmware) are stored in the controllers permanent memory and cannot be changed except to adjust set points, operating limits, or time-of-day parameters. User-programmable routines (software) permit the operator to change the control algorithm itself in addition to adjusting set points, limits, and parameters. Typical control functions performed by system controllers are detailed in Figure G-4.

Available functions are usually fewer than those of a universal controller, because the product integrated controller is tailored to the capability of a particular piece of HVAC equipment.
FIGURE G-5 C A R R I E R C O M F O RT L I N K P R O D U C T I N T E G R AT E D C O N T R O L S

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T H E P E R F E C T V E N T I L AT I O N S O LU T I O N F O R M A N Y B U I L D I N G A P P L I C AT I O N S

E D U C AT I O N - Demand Controlled Ventilation provides the peace of mind to students and educators that their classrooms are properly ventilated, creating a productive learning environment.

O F F I C E - Demand Controlled R E TA I L - Whether its time

Ventilation helps contain energy costs by taking full advantage of the HVAC system. Ventilation air is provided where its needed, when its needed. to start a new day, have a storewide sale, or stock the shelves, Demand Controlled Ventilation is up to the task of providing the right amount of fresh air to the retail store.

As the world leader in Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning, Carrier is committed to continually improving the quality of comfort we provide to our customers. But our level of responsibility extends well beyond Carrier Corporation has identified six specific areas which directly impact how we, as a world manufacturer, balance our customers needs for comfort with the environments needs for responsible consumption.

R E S TAU R A N T- Fresh
air and good food go handin-hand.Demand Controlled Ventilation does its part by providing the fresh air, where and when its needed.

T H E AT E R S - The highly variable occupancy of theaters is perfectly suited to Demand Controlled Ventilation. DCV saves energy while maintaining total comfort conditions.

S P O RT S A R E N A Gymnasiums and arenas benefit from Demand Controlled Ventilation with reductions in energy costs as well as increased comfort conditions.

Your Satisfaction is Assured with Carrier Controls

From controlling a single piece of equipment to managing an entire building complex, for greater energy-efficiency and comfort, Carrier offers the industry's broadest spectrum of HVAC control solutions. We will continue to set the standard for control system technology as we strive to create the most comfortable, energy-efficient indoor environments possible. For more information on the products and systems described in this handbook, contact your local Carrier representative or call 1-800-CARRIER or visit www.carrier.com.

These symbols graphically represent our six areas of concentration and will serve as visual reminders of the importance of managing our finite resources. Each one of us at Carrier Corporation believes that, for generations to come, success will not only be measured by the quality of our products and systems, but also by how we have improved the quality life.

2001 Carrier Corporation, Syracuse, NY

Printed in U.S.A. 1001 811-10088