Confidence Intervals

The value of P is known as the Probability integral or the ERROR FUNCTION The limits (m n )are called the confidence intervals. From the formula given above, the probability P[(m- ) < z < (m+ )] = 68.26 % ; this means we are 68.34 % confident. P[(m- ) < z < (m+ )] = 95.44 % ; this means we are 95.44 % confident P[(m- ) < z < (m+ )] = 99.72 % ; this means we are 99.72 % confident. This is basically the area under the Normal Curve.

The Concept of Normalized Standard Deviation

The probability that a particular sample lies within specified limits is given by the equation : P=

We define z = (x-m)/ as the Normalized Standard Deviation. The probability P could be obtained from Standard Tables (available in standard books on statistics ). A sample portion of the statistical table is presented in the next slide..

Calculation of Fade Margin

To calculate the fade margin we need to know : Propagation constant >From formulae for the Model chosen >Or from the drive test plots Area probability : >A design objective usually 90 % Standard Deviation >Calculated from the drive test results using statistical formulae or >Assumed for different environments. To use Jakes curves and tables.

Calculation of Edge Probability and Fade Margin

From the values of and we calculate : Find edge probability from Jakes curves for a desired coverage probability, against the value of on the x axis. Use Jakes table to find out the correlation factor required Look for the column that has value closest to the edge probability and read the correlation factor across the corresponding row. Multiply by the correction factor to get the Fade Margin. Add Fade Margin to the RSS calculated from the power budget

Significance Of Area and Edge Probabilities

Required RSS is 85 dBm. Suppose the desired coverage probability is 90 % and the edge probability from the Jakes curves is 0,75 This means that the mobile would receive a signal that is better than 85 dBm in 90 % of the area of the cell At the edges of the cell, 75 % of the calls made would have this minimum signal strength (RSS).

In Building Coverage
Recalculate Fade Margin. >Involves separate propagation tests in buildings. >Calculate and for the desired coverage ( say 75 % or 50% ) >Use Jakes Curves and tables to calculate Fade Margin. >Often adequate data is not available for calculating the fade margin accurately. >Instead use typical values. Typical values for building penetration loss :

Area
Central business area Residential area Industrial area In Car

75 % coverage
< 20 dB < 15 dB < 12 dB

50 % coverage
< 15 dB < 12 dB < 10 dB

6 to 8 dB

Fuzzy Maths and Fuzzy Logic

The models that we studied so far are purely empirical. The formulas we used do not all take care of all the possible environments. Fuzzy logic could be useful for experienced planners in making right guesses. We divide the environment into 5 categories viz., Free space, Rural, Suburban, urban, and dense urban. We divide assign specific attenuation constant values to each categories , say Fuzzy logic helps us to guess the right value for , the attenuation constant for an environment which is neither rural nor suburban nor urban but a mixture, with a strong resemblance to one of the major categories. The following simple rules can be used : Mixture of Free space and Rural : Mixture of Rural and Suburban : Mixture of Suburban and Urban : Mixture of Urban and Dense urban :

Cell Planning and C/I Issues

The 2 major sources of interference are: Co Channel Interference. Adjacent Channel Interference. The levels of these Interference are dependent on The cell radius The distance cells (D) The minimum reuse distance (D) is given by : D = ( 3N ) R Where N= Reuse pattern = i2 + i j + j2 Where I & j are integers.

Cell Planning and C/I Issues

R
D

Cell Planning and C/I Issues

Assuming the cells are of the same size . All cells reansmit the same power. The path loss is not free space and is governed by the attenuation constant . By geometry, for every cell there are 6 interfering cells in the first layer. The reuse distance Dand cell radius R are related to the c/I as given below (D/R) = 6 (C/I) The C/I is in absolute value.

Cell Planning and C/I Issues

Co Channel Interference C/I for Omni Cells D/R = 3N C/I = 10 Log [ 1/m (D/R ) ], where m is the number of interferers. M= 1 to 6 for the first layer of interfering cells. Assuming = 3.5, m = 6 (worst case ), we calculate the theoretical C/I available for various reuse plans as shown below : N D/R = 3N C/I = 10 Log [ 1/6 (D/R) ] 3 3 8.917 dB 4 3.46 13.29 dB 7 4.58 21.80 dB 9 5.19 25.62 dB 12 6 29.99 dB

Cell Planning and C/I Issues

Adjacent Channel Interference : Adjacent Chl Interference = - 10 Log [1/m (D/R) ]+ Where is the isolation offered by post modulation filters

Minimum value of is 26 dB , as per EIA standards. If ( C/I ) for co channel interference is 10 dB, then for adjacent channel interference it is 36 dB.

Frequency Planning Aspects

The primary objective of frequency planning is to ensure that, given the limited RF spectrum, we achieve the required capacity (traffic channels), keeping the interference within specified limits. There are two types of frequency planning : >Frequency planning based on Reuse patterns (manual) >Frequency planning based on heuristic algorithm (automatic) Manual planning is done by dividing the available frequencies in to a number of frequency groups (as per a selected reuse pattern ) and assigning frequencies to various sectors / cells. Suppose we have n frequencies . For a 3 cell repeat pattern with 3 sectors, we have 9 frequency groups, each group having n/9 frequencies. The sectors are labeled A1,A2,A3,B1,B2,B3 and so on.. Assuming that an operator has 32 frequencies, say, from ARFCN 63 to 94, the frequencies could be grouped as shown in the table opposite.

Frequency Planning Aspects

Say, for 32 frequencies (ARFCN 63 94 ), for a 3*3 reuse pattern, the frequencies are grouped as shown below A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 OR A1 63 72 81 90

B1 64 73 82 91

C1 65 74 83 92

A2 66 75 84 93

B2 67 76 85 94

C2 68 77 86

A3 69 78 87

B3 70 79 88

C3 71 80 89

Frequency Planning Aspects

The Frequency reuse could be done in either of 2 ways mentioned in the tables in the previous slide :

Frequency Planning Aspects

Directional reuse : In a sectorised site, a group of channels (ARFCN) is transmitted in the direction of antenna orientation , This is based on tri cellular platform consisting of 3 identical cells as shown in the diagram in the last slide. Every cell is considered as an omni logically. The cells are excited from the corners, separated by 1200 The axes of the diagram represent the 3 directions of reuse. These are designated as { f(00)}, {f(1200)} and {f(2400)} Because we use directional antennas, the worst co channel interference will be from only one interfering station in the same direction

Frequency Planning Aspects

We form a generic combination of the tricell pattern using 7 such pattern, as shown in fig. Down. From this we can see that each of three axes has three parallel layers. This result in a total of six or multiples of six frequency GROUPS. While assigning frequencies to individual calls we have to take the directions of reuse into account.

Antenna Considerations
Uniform coverage in all cells Alignment with hexagonal pattern Space availability Connectivity to BSC/MSC

Urban areas may have the following conditions : Several sites may be needed. Frequency reuse is unavoidable In building penetration is must Building act as RF shield and contain coverage. Buildings reflect signals and provide coverage to areas where LOS would have failed. Such additional paths improve in building penetration. Antenna at a very high point may not meet in building coverage requirements

Tackling Multipath Fading

In general we have the following methods to combat Multipath fading: In time domain In Freq. Domain In spatial domain In the polarization domain Interleaving and coding Frequency hopping Space diversity Polarization diversity

The last two are related to Antenna Systems.

Diversity Antenna Systems

A diversity antenna System essentially has : Two or more antenna A combiner circuitry.

Signals A and B should have minimum correlation between them typically the correlation coefficient <0.7

Diversity Antenna Systems

Antenna Spacings : Separation D/ 900 Mhz 1800Mhz Horizontal 10 3.3 m 1.7 m Vertical 17 5.7 m 2.8 m >Figures in the table are of minimum required separation >If space is not a constraint, larger separation is always recommended. >Horizontal separation is preferred because it provides low correlation values. >However, horizontal separation suffers from angular dependence (demonstrated in the diagram, next page ). >Vertical separation does not suffer much from the angular dependence. >It also requires minimum supporting fixtures and does not occupy a lot of space. >But as the distance increases the correlation between the RF signal at the antenna points increases rapidly, thereby negating the very advantage of space diversity.

Diversity Antenna Systems

Space diversity can be achieved using: 3 antenna system 2 antenna system The 3 antenna system provides very good spatial separation between the two receive antenna and avoids the use of duplexers. This reduces the risk of generating intermodulation products. The 2 antenna system is preferred where the space for the antenna structure is limited or where the operators want to use less number o antenna.

Diversity Antenna Systems

Advantages of dual polarization : Reduced support structure for the antenna Reduced weight Slim towers and hence quicker construction and low cost. Cost of one dual polarized antenna is generally lower than the cost of two space diversity antenna.

Choice of Dual Polarized type H/V type : As most mobile are held at an angle 450, H/V is more likely to cause balanced signals at the two branches. The diversity performance is less dependent on the mobile location Slant type Correlation between the two elements is angular dependent. Unbalanced signals at the two arms of the receive antenna, since one of the signal could be at the same angle as the mobile

General Antenna Specifications

Typical parameters of importance : Polarization Linear polarization :Evector contained in one plain Horizontal polarization :H Vector parallel to the horizontal plane Vertical Polarization : E Vector parallel to the vertical plane Circular / Elleptical Polarization The extremity of the E or H field describes a circle or an ellipse in the direction of propagation Radiation pattern This is a plot of electric field intensity as a function of direction from the antenna, measured at the fixed distance.

General Antenna Specifications

When the main radiation lobe of the antenna is intentionally adjusted above or below its plane of propagation, the result is known as a beam tilt. When tilted downward, we get the Downtilt. Down tilt can be done in two ways : Electrical down tilt Mechanical down tilt