Reward or reinforcement is an objective way to describe the positive value that an individual ascribes to an object, behavioral act or an internal

physical state. Primary rewards include those that are necessary for the survival of species, such as food, sexual contact, or successful aggression. [2] Secondary rewards derive their value from primary rewards. Money is a good example. They can be produced experimentally by pairing a neutral stimulus with a known reward. Things such as pleasurable touch and beautiful music are often said to be secondary rewards, but such claims are questionable. For example, there is a good deal of evidence that physical contact, as in cuddling and grooming, is an unlearned or primary reward.[3] Rewards are generally considered more desirable than punishment in modifying behavior.[4]

Functions Sera
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter and is found in all bilateral animals[citation needed], where it mediates gut movements and the animals' perceptions of resource availability. In less complex animals, such as invertebrates, resources simply mean food availability. In more complex animals, such as arthropods and vertebrates, resources also can mean social dominance. In response to the perceived abundance or scarcity of resources, an animal's growth, reproduction or mood may be elevated or lowered. This may somewhat depend on how much serotonin the organism has at its disposal.[10]
------------- -----------------------Unjust laws exist: shall we be content to obey them, or shall we endeavor to amend them, and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at once?
DOPA

A substantial body of evidence suggests that dopamine encodes not reward itself, but rather reward prediction error, that is, the degree to which reward is surprising. According to this hypothesis, which derives initially from recordings made by Wolfram Schultz, rewards that are expected do not produce any activation of dopamine cells, but rewards that are greater than expected produce a short-lasting increase in dopamine, whereas the omission of an expected reward actually causes dopamine release to drop below its ordinary background level. The "prediction error" hypothesis has drawn particular interest from computational neuroscientists, because an influential computationallearning method known as temporal difference learning makes heavy use of a signal that encodes prediction error. This confluence of theory and

data has led to a fertile interaction between theoretical and empirical neuroscientists.[23]

"Seeking" versus "liking"

Kent Berridge and other researchers have argued for a distinction between reward, which is defined in terms of motivation, and pleasure, which is defined in terms of emotional expression. A simpler way of describing this is as a distinction between "seeking" and "liking". "Seeking" occurs when an animal, given access to some stimulus such as food, executes some type of active behavior in order to acquire it. "Liking" occurs when an animal shows expressions of happiness or satisfaction while consuming something. There is considerable evidence that the dopamine system is part of the brain system that mediates seeking but not part of the system that mediates liking. Drugs that increase the effects of dopamine (most notably stimulants such as methamphetamine or cocaine) produce corresponding increases in seeking behaviors, but do not greatly alter expressions of pleasure. Conversely, opiate drugs such as heroin or morphine produce increases in expressions of pleasure but do not greatly alter seeking behaviors. Animals in which the VTA dopamine system has been rendered inactive do not seek food, and will starve to death if left to themselves, but if food is placed in their mouths they will consume it and show facial expressions indicative of pleasure.[21]

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