Graph

...
...\"'-)
...)))
GRAPH
THEORY)
with
Applications
to
Engineering
and
Computer
Science)
NARSINGH
DEO)
Computer
Washington
Science Department
State
University)
PRENTICE-HALL,
INC.)
N.J.)))
ENGLEWOOD CLIFFS,
Library of Congress
NARSINGH
Cataloging
in Publication Data to engineering and
DEO, Graph theory with applications computer science.) Includes bibliographies. 1. Graph theory. I. Title. TA338.G7D46 511'.5 ISBN 0-13-363473-6)
73-7566
cg 1974 by
Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
N. J.)
reserved. No part of this book may be rights reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other without permission in writing from the publisher.)
All
means,
10 9 8
7)
Printed
in the
United
States
of America)
PRENTICE-HALL PRENTICE-HALL PRENTICE-HALL PRENTICE-HALL PRENTICE-HALL
INTERNATIONAL, INC., London OF AUSTRALIA, PTY. LTD., Sydney OF CANADA, LTD., Toronto OF INDIA OF JAPAN, PRIVATE LIMITED, New INC.,
Tokyo)))
Delhi
To
the
who that
memory
did of
of my
not
father,
his eldest
live to
witnessing
realize his greatest ambitionson matriculate.)))
CONTENTS)
PREFACE)
xv)
1)
INTRODUCTION)
1)
1-1
1-2
What
is a and
Application
Finite Incidence
1-3
1-4
1-5
G rap h ? 1 3 of Graphs Infinite Graphs

and
6
and Null
Degree
1-6
Brief
Isolated Vertex, Pendant Vertex, of Graph Theory History

11
10
Graph
Summary
References
11
Problems
12)
2)
PATHS
2-1 2-2
AND
CIRCUITS)
14)
Isonlorphism
14
Subgraphs
A
16
With
2-3
Puzzle
Multicolored Cubes
and Circuits
Disconnected
17
and Components
21)))
2-4
Walks,
Paths, Gtaphs Euler
19
Graphs,
2-6
2-7
2-5 Connected Graphs,

Euler
23
Operations On Graphs
26
28
Circuits Problem
2-8
More on
Graphs
2-9
2-10)
Hamiltonian Paths and The Traveling Salesman 35 Summary

References
30 34
35
36)
Problems
IX)
CONTENTS)
3)
TREES
AND
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS)
39)
3-1
Trees
Some Pendant Distance
39
Properties Vertices
3-2
3-3 3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8 3-9
3-10
Rooted On Counting Trees

Spanning Fundamental Finding
of Trees 41 in a Tree 43 in a Tree and Centers 48 and Trees Binary
45
52
55 57
Trees Circuits All
Spanning
a 64
Spanning Trees in
Summary
Trees of a Graph Weighted Graph
58
61
References
64
Problems
65)
4)
CUT-SETS AND
4- t
CUT-VERTICES)
68)
Cut-Sets
68 69 of a Cut-Set in a Graph 71 Ci rcuits and Cut-Sets 75 and Separability 79

80
4-2 4-3
4-4
SomeProperties
All
Cut-Sets
Fundamental Connectivity
73
4-5
4-6
Network Flows
I-Isomorphism
4-7
4-8
2-Isomorphism
Summary
82
85
References
86
Problems
86)
5)
PLANAR
5-1 5-2
AND
DUAL
GRAPHS)
88) 88
Combinatorial Vs. GeometricGraphs Planar Graphs 90

Kuratowski's
5-3
5-4
5-5
Two
Graphs
90
Planar
Different Representations of a 99 of Planarity Detection
Graph
93
5-6
5-7 5-8 5-9
GeometricDual
102
J 04 Combinatorial Dual More on Criteria of Planarity Thickness and Crossings Summary
107
108
109
References
110
110)))
Problems
CONTENTS
XI)
6)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF
One
A GRAPH)
112)
6-1 6-2 6-3
Sets with Sets with
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7 6-8 6-9
112 Operation 116 Operations Modular Arithmetic and Galois Fields 118 Vectors and Vector Spaces 120 Vector with a Graph 121 Space Associated Basis Vectors of a Graph 123 Circuit and Cut-Set Subspaces 125 ] 29 and Spaces Vectors Orthogonal and Join of Wand Ws Intersection 13]
Two
Summary ]
34
References
135
135)
Problems
7)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
Incidence
OF GRAPHS)
] 37 141
137)
7-]
7-2 7-3
Matrix
Submatrices of A(G) 142 Circuit Matrix

Fundamental
7-4
7-5
Circuit
Matrix
Switching
and Rank of
Network
B
]46
144
An
Application
to a
among ] 56 162
7-6
Cut-Set Matrix
Relationships Path
]51
Af, Bf, and
7-7 7-8
7-9
Cf
]53
Matrix
Adjacency Matrix
Summary
157
References
162
162)
Problems
8)
COLORING,
COVERING,
Number
Partitioning Polynomial
AND PARTITIONING)
165
]
165)))
8-1
8-2 8-3 8-4
Chromatic
Chromatic Chromatic Matchings

Coverings
69
174
177
182
8-5
8-6
The Four
Summary
Color Problem
190
186
References
Problems
190
192)
XII
CONTENTS)
9)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
194)
9-1
9-2
9-3 9-4
9-5
9-6
What Is a Directed Graph? 194 Some of Digraphs 197 Types and Binary Relations 198 Digraphs DirectedPaths and Connectedness 201
Euler
Trees
Matrices
with
Digraphs Directed Circuits A, B,
203
9-7
Fundamental
9-8
9-9 9-10
206 Edges in Digraphs

Digraphs
212
213 220
and C of
9-11
Adjacency Matrix of a Digraph Paired Comparisons and Tournaments Acyclic Digraphs and Decyclization 233 Summary
227 230
References Problems
234
234)
10)
ENUMERATION
OF
GRAPHS) 238 240

241
238)
10-1
] 0-2
Types Counting Counting
of Enumeration Labeled
10-3
] 0-4
Trees Trees Unlabeled
250 P6lya's Counting Theorem 10-5 Graph Enumeration With P6lya's Theorem
Summary
260
264
References
264
265)
Problems
GRAPH
THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
AND
11)
COMPUTER PROGRAMS)
268)
11-1
11-2
Algorithms
269
of a Graph 270 Representation ] 1-3 The Output 273 ] ] -4 274 Some Basic Algorithms 1: Connectedness and Components 274 Algorithm 277 Tree Algorithm 2: A Spanning 280 Algorithm 3: A Set of Fundamental Circuits 284 4: Cut-Vertices and Separability Algorithm 287 Algorithm 5: Directed Circuits 290 11-5 Shortest-Path Algorithms to 6: Shortest Path from a Specified Vertex Algorithnl 292 Another Specified Vertex Path between All Pairs of Vertices 7: Shortest Algorithm 11-6 Depth-First 301 Search on a Graph 304 8: Planarity Algorithm Testing
Input:
Computer
297
11-7
Algorithm
9:
Isomorphism
310)))
CONTENTS
XIII)
1-8
Other
11-9 Performance 11-1 0 Graph-Theoretic

Summary
Graph-Theoretic
Algorithms
312
314
of Graph-Theoretic Computer 317
Algorithms 316 Languages
References
318
Problems
Appendix
321
of Programs
323)
12)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND CODING
THEORY)
328)
12-]
Contact Networks
Analysis Synthesis Sequential Unit Graphs Summary
329 330 334

342
12-2 12-3 12-4

12-5
of Contact of
Networks Contact Networks

Networks
Switching
Cube
and Its
12-6
Graph
Theory
in Coding 354
354)
348 351
References
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK THEORY)
Is an
ANALYSIS
356)
13)
BY
GRAPH
What
13-1
] 3-2
13-3 13-4
13-5
13-6
357 Electrical Network? 358 Current and Voltage Laws 359 LoopCurrents and Node Voltages with Independent Sources: Nodal Analysis RLCNetworks Sources: Loop Analysis RLC Networks with Independent 373 General Linear, Fixed Networks Lumped,
Kirchhoff's Summary
362
371
379
References
381
381)
Problems
14)
GRAPH
THEORY
Transport
IN
OPERATIONS
RESEARCH)
384)
14-1
14-2
Networks
Max-Flow
384
Min-Cut
Extensions of
Theorem 395
390
Cost Flows 14-3 Minimal 14-4 The Multicommodity 14-5 Further Applications
393
Flow
14-6 14-7
14-8
More Activity
on
Flow
Networks
396 397 Problems

in Project Planning Network
400
Analysis of an
Further
14-9
Activity on Comments 414

414)))
402
14-]0Graphs
Summary
in Game
Activity Networks 409 Theory
408
References
xiv
CONTENTS)
15)
SURVEY
OF OTHER APPLICATIONS)
Graphs Markov
416)
15-1 Signal-Flow
15-2 Graphs
in
416 Processes
15-3
Graphs Graphs
15-4
15-5
in Computer in Chemistry
424 Programnling
449
454)
439
Miscellaneous Applications
Appendix
BINET-CAUCHY
THEOREM)
458)
Appendix
NULLITY
SYLVESTER'S
OF A MATRIX
LAW)
AND 460)
INDEX)
463)))
PREFACE)
decades have witnessed an upsurge and activity of interest and mathematicians particularly among applied engineers. Clear evidence of this is to be found in an in the growth unprecedented number of papersand books being published in the field. ]n 1957 there was und exactly one book on the subject (namely, Konig's Theorie der Endlichen Unendlichen are over two dozen there Now, sixteen years later, Graphen). textbooks on graph theory, and almost an equal number of proceedings of
The
last two theory,
in
graph
various
seminars
and
conferences.
strength
Each book
the
has its own
and
points
axe
(or
the pen) the author
has to
of
grind. I have
This
of emphasis,
emphasized
depending on
the
com-
putational
and algorithmic
conviction
aspects
that
graphs.
emphasis
arises from the
graph theory is applied to solving it in electrical network any practical (be layout, problem analysis, in circuit in data structures, in operations or in social sciences), it almost research, leads to large graphs-graphs that to analyze are virtually always impossible without the aid of the computer. An finds that those real-life often engineer that can be modeled on by into graphs small enough to be worked problems hand are also small enough to be solved other than graph theory. by means from (In this respect graph theory is different algebra, elementary college
experienceand
whenever
calculus, or complex variables.) In fact, one of the reasons for the recent growth
the
of
interest
digital computer high-speed in graph theory.
is
student of applied graph theory must learn to enlist I have emphasized large computer for handling graphs, constructive theorems, algorithms and their efficiencies.In proving proofs have been given existence proofs. Chapter over nonconstructive preference of II, the largest in the book, is devoted entirely to computational aspects and samples of several algorithms graph theory, including graph-theoretic this) tested computer for solving problems on graphs. I believe programs
Convinced that
help
the
of a digital
xv)))
XVI
PREFACE)
approach
has not
been used in
any
of the
The material covered is appearing for the to spoil the

book rigor
II and in many in Chapter first time in any textbook.
earlier books on graph theory. sections from other chapters

this
Yet the applied and

and contains
algorithmic aspectof
mathematical
book
has not
graph
elegance of graph
enough
as of
material
much
for a
course in
been allowed theory. Indeed,the

theory.
\"pure\"
The
and
book has been made
self-contained is appropriate
in
as was possible.
The level
first-year
presentation
for advanced undergraduate

requiring
I
graduate
organized
introductory
students
so
all
first
disciplines
half
graph theory.
through
The
as
book is
that
the
material
(Chapters
9) serves
essential and
graph theory. This portion requires some no specialbackground, elementary concepts from set theory except amount of mathematical matuand matrix algebra and, of course, a certain with the theory the illustrations of applications are interwoven rity. Although the examples selected are short and mostly of the nature even in this portion, of puzzles and games.This is done so that a student in almost any field can
on
read and
The
and different second half of the book is more advanced, chapters to nontrivial, require different backgrounds as they deal with applications in in different fields. Keeping this mind, real-world, problems complex ] 5 have been made independent of each other. One 10 through Chapters the earlier couldstudy a later chapter without going through ones, provided have been covered. the first nine chapters Since there is more material here than what can be covered in a onethat the contents be tailored the to suit semester course, it is suggested
grasp the
first
half.
requirements
of the students
Science:
in
different
] I
disciplines,
-9, I I,
for example:
I.
2.
5.
Electrical Engineering: Chapters

Computer
Chapters
-9,
I], 12, and and 12, parts of

and
13.
10and
5.
Research: Chapters 1-9, and II, 14,and 3. Operations 4. Applied Mathematics: ChaptersI-II and parts of
parts
of 15.
15.
Introductory
\"pure\"
graph
theory:
Chapters
1-10.
In fact, the book grew out of a number of such courses and lecture-series the the at Jet author State given Propulsion Laboratory, California by of Technology at Los Angeles, the Indian Institute at Kanpur, University
and the
University
of
Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign.)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS) It is a
individuals
pleasureto acknowledge
and
the
help
I have
received from
different
institutions.
I am
Rubin,
a dear
friend and former

a former
Mr. Mateti
K. particularly indebted to Mr. David at the Jet colleague Propulsion Laboratory;
Prabhaker,
graduate
student
of mine at the
Indian)))
PREFACE
XVII)
Institute University
of
of
Technology, Kanpur; and Professor Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for
Jurg Nievergelt of
having
the
read
the
entire
manuscript
the book.
and made
numerous suggestions for

students
improvements
throughout
Other friends, colleagues, and

and
who
read parts
made
helpful of the
suggestions
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Professor Nandlal Jhunjhunwala State University at Los Angeles, Dr. George of Texas Shuraym Mr. Jean A. DeBeule of Xerox Data Mr. Nicholas Instruments, Systems, Karpov of Bell & Howell, Professor C. L. Liu of the University of Illinois at K. G. Ramakrishnan, Urbana-Champaign, Messrs.M. S. Krishnamoorthy, and S. K. Basu of the Indian and Professors C. R. M uthukrishnan Institute of Technology at Kanpur. I am also grateful to the late Professor of Stanford George E. Forsythe of this project. for his encouragement at the very outset University this book was received from the Jet Propulsion Support in writing at Kanpur, and the Comof Technology Laboratory, the Indian Institute of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. puter ScienceDepartment
Perlman
are: Professor Harry
of the manuscript Lass and Mr. Marvin
of California
Just as one does not

is not a and her
thank
himself,
public band,
Hindu custom. For the coauthorship is tacitly

without
wife
gratitude expressing is considered a

assumed Kiran's
in
any
to one's wife in part of the husbook her husband
writes. There is little doubt that have been possible.)
help
this book would not
NARSINGH
DEO)
Kanpur)))
1)
INTRODUCTION)
1-1.
WHAT
IS
A GRAPH?)
A lineart graph elements are
(or simply
a graph)
==
(V,
E) consists
of a
reI'
V == {VI' V2 ' . . .} called
vertices,
that
called edges, such

of vertices.
The
and another each edge e k
set E ==
is identified
set of objects
whose
e 2 , . . .},
with an
unorder-
V j associated with edge ek are called is by means common representation of a graph the vertices are represented as points and each edge of a diagram, in which to as a line segment joining its end vertices. Often this diagram itselfis referred in Fig. as the graph. The object shown 1-1, for instance, is a graph. a this definition that Observe permits an edge to be associatedwith the same vertex as both its end ververtex pair (Vi' VJ. Such an edge having The word loop, however, has a is called a self-loop (or simply a loop. tices Vj )
ed pair (Vi'
the end
The verticesVi'
vertices of eke
most
different
meaning
in electrical
self-loop
to avoid
confusion). Edge e I
network theory; we shall therefore use the in Fig. 1-1 is a self-loop.Also note
term that)
VI) e))
V2)
V s) es)
Fig.
V)) e6) V4)
1-1
Graph
with
five
vertices
and
seven edges.)
as redundant in our discussions, is no such thing as a nonlinear
1)))
tThe
we
always
adjective
\"'linear\"
is dropped
because
graph.)
by
a graph
mean
a linear
graph. There
2)
INTRODUCTION)
CHAP.
1)
the
vertices,
definition
for
allows
example,
has
more
than
one
edges e 4
neither
and
edge associated e s in Fig. 1-1. Such
with
edgesare referred
a given pair
to
of
as
parallel
graph.
edges. A graph that

In some
most
self-loops
nor parallel
edges is called a simple
graph-theory
engineering
literature, a graph
graph, but in and self-loops

loops
and/or
parallel
be allowed; this edges.
to be only a simple it is necessary that parallel edges applications selfis why our definition includes graphs with use the term general graph to Some authors
is defined
emphasize that parallel edges and self-loops are allowed. whether It should also be noted that, in drawing a graph, it is immaterial is important is the the lines are drawn or curved, long or short: what straight incidence betweenthe edges and vertices. For example, the two graphs drawn between edges and because incidence in Figs. I-2(a) and (b) are the same, verticesis the same in both cases.)
2) 4) 2) 4)
3)
3)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
1-2
Same graph
drawn
differently.)
In a
diagram of
that
point
] -3. having
Such
no
a crossing to emphasize
a graph, sometimes two edges may seem to intersect at a vertex, for example, edges e and f in Fig. in different of as be should planes and thus being thought edges two of the one break authors common edges at such point. (Some
does
not represent
this
fact.))
a)
d)
h)
Fig.I-3
c) point.)))
Edges e and
have
no common
SEC.
1-2)
APPLICATIONS
OF GRAPHS)
3)
A graph
is also
calleda linear
is also
complex,
a I-complex,
or a
a line,
one-dimensional
O-cell, or an
an element,
terms
complex.A vertex Other O-simplex. I-cell, an are, and

graph,
vertex,
referred to as a node, ajunction, terms used for an edge are a branch, I n this book we shall aI-simplex. and edge.)
a point,
generally use the
1-2.
APPLICATIONS
OF
GRAPHS)
wide of range simplicity, graph theory has a very in physical, social, and biological sciences, in
Because
of
in
its
inherent
applications
linguistics,
almost
engineering,
among
other areas. A graph can be used to represent involving discrete objects and a relationship them. The following are four examples from among hundreds of such
and
any
physical
in numerous situation
applications.
The Konigsberg bridge problem is perhaps in graph theory. It was a long-standing problem until solved by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) in 1736, by means of a graph. Euler wrote the first paper ever in graph and thus became the originatheory tor of graphs as well as of the rest of topology. The problem is of the theory depicted in Fig. 1-4.
Kiinigsberg
Bridge
Problem:
the
best-known
example
Two islands,C and D, formed by the Pregel River in Konigsberg (then the capital of East Prussia but now renamed and in West Soviet Kaliningrad to the banks A and and B with seven Russia) were connected to each other in Fig. 1-4. The problem was to start at any of the four land bridges, as shown areas of the city, A, B, C, or D, walk over each of the seven bridges exactly and return to the starting across the river, once, point (without swimming of course).
this situation Euler by means of a graph, as shown represented 1-5. The vertices represent the land areas and the edges represent the As we shall see in Chapter a solution for this 2, Euler proved that
exist.) in
Fig.
bridges.
problem
does not
A)
B)
Fig.
1-4
Konigsberg bridge problem.)))
4)
INTRODUCTION)
CHAP.
1)
A)
c)
D)
Fig.
B)
1-5
Graph of
Konigsberg
bridge
problem.) as the
and
The
figures
Konigsberg
without
(Problems 2-1 and 2-2).We one time or another.

Utilities
bridge problem is the same lifting the pen from the paper
all
problem of
retracing
such
drawing
without
with
have
been confronted
a line at problems
Problem:
There
are three
the
to be connected to each of
three
utilities-water
houses (Fig. 1-6)H., H2 , and H 3, each (W), gas (G), and elec-)
Fig. 1-6
tricity
without
Three-uti]ities problem.)
possible
(E)-by
any
means
crossovers
of conduits. Is it of the conduits?
to
make
such connections
conduits
how this problem can be represented by a graph-the the and utility centers are are shown as edges while houses supply ] -7 cannot be drawn vertices. As we shall see in Chapter 5, the graph in Fig. in the plane without edges crossing over. Thus the answer to the problem is
Figure 1-7shows
no.
ElectricalNetwork
input
Problems:
Properties
(such
as transfer
of the
function
and
impedance)
of an electrical network
are functions
forming
only
two factors: such
1. The nature and value of the elements resistors, inductors, transistors, and so
2. The
way
network,
as
forth.
these
network.)))
elements
are connected
together,
that
is,
the
topology
of the
SEC.
1-2)
APPLICATIONS
OF GRAPHS)
5)
Fig.
1-7
Graph of
three-utilities
problem.)
Since tions
there are only a few different in networks are chiefly due to the
types of
variations
electrical elements, the variain topology. Thus electrical
network and synthesis are mainly the study of network In analysis topology. the topological study of electrical 1 and factor 2 is separated from networks, is studied will be clearer in independently. The advantage of this approach to electrical 13, a chapter devoted solely to applying Chapter theory graph
networks.
The topology
a graph
of
a network
is studied
the
electrical
by
means
of an
branches work
electrical network (which consist of

nature
junctions
elements)
of its graph. ]n drawing are represented by vertices, and are represented by edges,
regardless of the
and
its
graph
size of the electrical are shown in Fig. 1-8.)

and
elements. An
electrical
net-
b)
b)
a)
a)
c)
e)
e)
Fig.
1-8
Electrical network
and
its graph.)))
6)
INTRODUCTION)
CHAP.
1)
Seating at
Problem:
Nine
a round
table. They
members of a new decide to sit such that
club every
meet
member
each day for lunch has different
last? How arrangement neighbors at each lunch. many days can this This situation can be represented a graph with nine vertices such that by vertices vertex a member, and an edgejoining two each represents represents the relationship of sitting next to each other. Figure] -9 shows two possible)
9) \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ---'\\\"\"\"
--
-----r-\\-I I I I I \\
/
I I
J( \\ J---r\\ / \\\\ I I \\ / ........ I \" I \\ / \\ I f\"....... / \\ \\ I \\ -,........... \\ / / I I \\ ................ Y I....... I ....... / \\ I / \\ ......., II ,/'\" ........ / \\./ ./ ........,( ....... / /./\\ / \037....... \\
--
-----
.J-\\ / \\/
/.//
\037./) 5)
Fig.
table.)
1-9
Arrangements
at a dinner
seating
arrangements-these
are
2 3
4 5
6 7 89
(solid
lines),
and
3 5
27
968 1 (dashedlines).It canbe shown there are only two more arrangements 1 795 and 8 3 624 1. In general it can of such possible arrangements is)
n-
considerations that by graph-theoretic I 2 4 6I 5 7 3 9 8 are possible. They the number be shown that for n people
2
and
if n is
odd,
n-2
2)
if n is
even.
of the
The
reader
has probably
are
noticed
and
stage
that
three
four examples
was
of apdone
plications above
four chapters.)
puzzles
not engineering
follow,
problems. This
to avoid introducing
at
this
theory. More substantive
background will applications
material
not pertinent to graph particularly in the last
1-3.
FINITE
AND
INFINITE definition
in
GRAPHS) of a graph neither the vertex set V nor the edge of the theory and almost all applications these)))
Although in our set E need be finite,
most
SEC. 1-4)
INCIDENCE
AND DEGREE)
7)
sets
are finite.
A graph
called
with
a finite
number
ber of edgesis graphs in Figs. Portions of two
a finite
graph;
of vertices as well as a finite numotherwise, it is an infinite graph. The

all
I-I,
infinite
1-2, 1-5,
graphs
1-7, and 1-8are

are shown
in
examples
of finite
graphs.
Fig.
1-10.)
Fig. 1-10
Portions
of two
infinite graphs.)
the
In
this
book
we shall
confine ourselvesto
term
study
of finite
graphs, and
graph.)
unless otherwisestated the
\"graph\"
will always
mean a
finite
1-4.
INCIDENCE
AND DEGREE)
Vi
is an end vertex of some edge ej' Vi and e j are said to be to) each other. In Fig. I-I, for example, edges e 2, e 6 , and e 7 are incident with vertex v 4 \" Two nonparallel edges are said to be adjacent if they are incident on a common vertex. For e 2 and e 7 in Fig. I-I example, are adjacent. Similarly, if they are the end two vertices are said to be adjacent verticesof the same edge. I n Fig. I-I, V 4 and V 5 are adjacent, but v 1 and v 4 are
When a vertex
with
incident
(on or
not.
The number of edgesincident is called the degree, d(vJ, of
on
a vertex Vi. I n
Vi'
with
self-loops
counted
exam
twice,
=) d( V 1)
vertex
Fig. I-I ,
for
pIe,
e1)
VI) e)) V s) es) V2)
Fig.
V)) e6) V4)
1-1
A graph
with
five vertices
and
seven edges.)))
8)
INTRODUCTION)
CHAP.
1)
d(v 3 )
times
== 4, and d(v s) == 1. The degree of a vertex is some2) as its valency. a graph G with Let us now consider e edges and n vertices VI' V 2 , . . . , Vn ' Since each edge contributes two degrees, the sum of the degrees of all vertices in G is twice the number of edgesin G. That is,)
n
== d(v ) == 3, 4 d(v also referred to
L i= Taking
1)
d(v i )
== 2e.
(1-1))
Fig.
d(v
==
1-1 as an
l)
example, once more,)

+
d(v 4)
+ d(v 2 ) + d(v 3) 4 + 3
+ =
d(v s) twice the
3 +
+ 3 + 1 ==
shall
14
number of edges.)
result.)
we From Eq. (1-1)
derive
the following interesting
THEOREM The
I - I)
number
of vertices
of odd degree
in
a graph
is
always
even.)
Proof: quantity
taken
with odd and even degreesseparately, If we consider the vertices in the left side of Eq. (1-1) can be expressed as the sum of two sums, of even and odd degrees, respectively, as follows:) over vertices
n
the
each
i= I
\037
d(Vi)
==
even
\037
d(vj)
\037 odd)
d(Vk).
(1-2))
the left-hand side in Eq. (1-2) is even, and side is even (being a sum of even numbers), right-hand also be even:)
Since
\037 odd)
the
first
expression
the second
on the expression must

(1-3))
d(Vk)
==
an
even
number.
terms
Because
be
even
in Eq. (1-3) each d(Vk) is odd, the total number to make the sum an even number. Hence the
in
of
in the sum
.) a regular I -7 is a
must
theorem.
A graph
which
(or simply of degree three.)

1-5.
a regular).
all vertices The graph
are of equal degree is of three utilities shown
called
in Fig.
graph regular
ISOLATED
AND
NULL
VERTEX, GRAPH)
PENDANT
VERTEX,
words, Fig.
no A vertex having isolated vertices

I
incident
edge
is called an
vertex
isolated vertex.
Vertices
of degree
V4
In and
other
V 7 in
called)))
-I I,
for
with zero are vertices example, are isolated vertices. A
degree.
one is
SEC.
1-5)
ISOLATED
VERTEX,
PENDANT
VERTEX,
AND NULL GRAPH)
9)
e V4)
VI)
V6)
Fig.
1-11
Graph containing isolated vertices,

vertex.)
and seriesedges,
pendant
v 3 in Fig. I-II is a pendant vertex. if their common vertex is of degree on v 1 are in series. In the definition G = (V, E), it is possible for the edge set E to of a graph In other be Such a graph, without is called a null graph. empty. any edges, words, every vertex in a null graph is an isolated vertex. A null graph of six be empty, 1-12. Although the edge set E may the) in Fig. vertices is shown a pendant vertex or an end vertex . Vertex adjacent edges are said to be in series In Fig. I-II, two. the two edges incident
Two
.V I)
e V2)
eV:J)
e V4)
eus)
eU6)
Fig.
1-12
Null graph of
otherwise,
six
vertices.)
vertex
set
must
not
\037e empty;
there
is no
t)
graph. In other
words,
by definition,
tSome the
a graph must have at
least one vertex.
the case in authors (see, for example, [2-9],p. 1, or [] 5-58], p. 17) do allow vertex set V is also empty. This they call the null graph, and they call a graph E = 0 and V*-0 is of no conwith a vertex graph. For our purposes this distinction For out of different definitions of the a lively discussion on paradoxes arising sequence. null graph, see pp. 40-41 in Theory of Graphs: a Basis for Network by L. M. Theory,
which Maxwell
and
M. B.
Reed (Pergamon
Press,
N. Y.
1971).)))
10)
INTRODUCTION)
CHAP.
1)
1-6.
A BRIEF As
HISTORY OF
GRAPH
THEORY)
in
which
years nothing more was done in the field. In 1847, G. R. Kirchhoff (1824-1887) in electrical networks their applications
discovered trees (1821- 1895) saturated hydrocarbons CnH About the time of Kirchhoff
mentioned before, graph theory was born in 1736 with Euler's paper he solved the Konigsberg bridge problem [1-4].t For the next 100
developed
the theory
years
of trees for
[I -6].
trying
Ten
later,
while
2n+ 2 [I
he was -3].
and
to
enumerate
A. Cayley the isomers of

in
Cayley,
two other
milestones
states
graph
theory
were
laid. One was the

for
four-color conjecture,
any atlas
which
that
that
four
the
colors are sufficient
coloring
(a map on a plane) such
countries with common boundaries have different colors. It is believed that A. F. Mobius the four-color (1790-1868) first presented of his in one in lectures 1840. 10 About A. De Morgan problem years later, discussed this with his in fellow mathematicians Lon(1806- 1871) problem don. De Morgan's letter is the first authenticated to the four-color reference well known after Cayleypublished it in 1879 became problem. The problem in the first volume of the Proceedings of the Royal Society. To this Geographic the four-color is the far most famous unsolved day, conjecture by problem in it has an stimulated enormous in the field alTIount of research theory; graph
[1-1
I].
The other
milestone is due to SirW.

a puzzle
R. for
Hamilton 25 guineas
(1805-1865).
In the
manufacturer
year
1859he invented
in
and sold
it
to a
game
consisted of a wooden,regular dodecahedron (a polyeach a face corners, being regular pentagon and three edges meeting at each were marked corner; see Fig. 2-21).The corners with the names of 20 important cities: NewY London, ork, Delhi, Paris, and so on. The object in the a was to find route along the edges of the puzzle 20 of the each cities once dodecahedron, passing through exactly [1-12]. the solution of is this to obtain (as we Although easy specific problem see in Chapter 2), to date no one has found shall a necessary and sufficient in an condition for the existence of such a route (called Hamiltonian circuit) arbitrary graph. This fertile was followed of relative by half a century period inactivity. Then a resurgenceof interest in graphs started during 1920s. One of the the the work of other mathepioneers in this period was D. Konig. He organized
Dublin.
The puzzle
12 faces
hedron
with
and 20
maticians and
published
his
own
and
wrote the
first
book
on
the subject,
which
was
in 1936
[1-7].
The past 30 years has been a periodof intense activity in graph theoryboth pure and applied. A great deal of research has been done and is being)
tBracketed
numbers
refer
to references
at the end of
chapters.)))
CHAP.
1)
REFERENCES)
11)
done
a
in
dozen
the
have bet;n published in this area. Thousands of papers the books written during past decade. Among the field are Claude Berge, Oystein Ore (recently deceased),
Harary.)
and more than current leaders

Paul
Erdos,
William Tutte, and Frank
SUMMARY)
of graph theory have been introduced, basic concepts An attempt has also been have been obtained. results elementary made to show that graphs can be used to represent almost any problem concern is not with the involving discrete arrangements of objects,where
In this
chapter some
and some
internal
properties
of these
objects
but
with
the
relationships
among them.)
REFERENCES)
Busacker recommended. Reed [1-13] is specially suited for [1-9] are good general texts, but are somewhat of the subject. It is compact book [1-5] contains an excellent treatment advanced. Harary's student of graph and is written for an advanced and clear, but it contains no applications one should read [I -8], a welltheory to the rest of topology graph theory. For relating of topology. The entertaining of written book book on important aspects elementary and games to which Rouse Ball [1-12] contains a variety of puzzles have been applied. graphs 1-1. BERGE, C., The Theory of Graphs and Its Applications, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New des 1962. English translation of the original book in French: Theorie York,
As
and Saaty [1-2]is
text on graph an elementary theory, a good intermediate-level electrical engineers. Berge [I-I] and Ore
Ore's
book [1-10] is
and
book.
Seshu
graphes
1-2.
1-3. 1-4.
1-5.
et ses applications, Dunod Editeur, Paris, 1958. Finite R. G., and T. L. SAATY, Graphs and Networks: An Introduction New York, 1965. with Applications, McGraw-Hill BookCompany, Forms Called Trees,\" Phil. Mag., Vol. CAYLEY, A., \"On the Theory of Analytical 13,1857,172-176. Academimae EULER, L., \"Solutio Problematis ad Geometriam Situs Pertinantis,\" Vol. 8, 1736, 128-140.English translation Petropolitanae (St. Petersburg Academy), in Sci. Am., July 1953, 66-70. HARARY, F., Graph Theory, Addison-Wesley Publishing Inc., Reading, Conlpany,
BUSACKER,
1-6.
Mass., 1969.
KIRCHHOFF, Untersuchungen
G.,
\"Uber
der
Linearen
CT-5,
die Auflosung der Verteilung

March
Gleichungen,
auf
welche
man bei der

wird,\"
Galvanisher
Strome
translation,
gefiihrt
Poggendorf
Ann. Physik, Vol. 72,
1847,497-508. English
IRE
Trans.
1-7.
1-8.
Circuit Theory, Vol.

KONIG, New
1958, 4-7.
D., York,
LIETZMANN,
New York, R. Oldenbourg K. G., Munich, 1955. 1-9. American Mathematical ORE, 0., Theoryof Graphs, Society, Providence, R. I., 1962. 1-10.ORE, 0., Graphs and Their Uses, Random House, Inc., New York, 1963. 1-11. ORE, 0., The Four Color Problem, Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1967.)))
und unendlichen Theorie der endlichen Graphen, Leipzig, 1936;Chelsea, 1950. Visual Topology, American Elsevier Publishing W., Inc., Company, 1965.English translation of the German book Anschauliche Topologie,
12)
INTRODUCTION)
CHAP. 1)
1-12.
1-13.
and Essays, London and New York, BALL, W., Mathematical Recreations New York, 1962. 1892; and The Macmillan Company, S., and M. B. REED, Linear Graphs and Electrical Networks, Addison-Wesley SESHU, 1961.) Mass., Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, ROUSE
PROBLEMS)
1-1. 1-2.
Draw Draw
all simple
houses
1-3. 1-4.
1-5.
Name sented Draw
graphs of one, two, three, and four vertices. problems of (a) two houses and three utilities; (b) four graphs representing and telephone. and four utilities, say, water, gas, electricity, 10 situations problems, etc.) that can be repre(games, activities, real-life the vertices and the edges denote. by means of graphs. Explain what circuit. the graph of the Wheatstone bridge
the
Draw graphs of
following
(d) N203. (Hint:

edges.)
Represent
chemical compounds: (a) CH4,(b) C2H6, (c) C6H6, them by between atoms by vertices and chemical bonds
1-6.
1-7.
Join these Draw a graph with 64 vertices representing the squares of a chessboard. You will vertices appropriately by edges, each representing a move of the knight. see that in this graph every vertex is of degree two, three, four, six, or eight. How many vertices are of each type? such in Fig. 1-13, represent this maze by means of a graph Given a maze as shown a corridor or a dead end (as numbered). An edge reprethat a vertex denotes either mazes that sents a possible (This is one of numerous path between two vertices. were drawn or built by the Hindus, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, etc.)) Vikings,
4 7 8 13
14
12
1 1
21
22
Destina tion
18 17
19 20
15 ]6
10
9)
Fig.
1-13
maze.)))
CHAP.
1)
PROBLEMS)
13)
1-8.
B, and C of capacities8, 5, C are empty. Divide the liquid in in Let a, b, and c be the amounts of liquid equal quantities. [Hint: We have a -I- b + c = 8 at all times. Since at least one A, B, and C, respectively. of the vessels is always empty or full, at least one of the following equations must be satisfied: will fir:1 that a = 0, a = 8; b = 0, b = 5; c = 0, c You always with these there are 16 possible states in this process. constraints (situations) this problem Each vertex 'Stands for a Represent by means of a 16-vertex graph. state and each edge for a permissible of states between its two end vertices. change Now when you look at this graph it will be clear to you how to go from state (8, 0, 0) to state (4, 4, 0).] This is the classical decanting problem.
Decanting 3
problem.
and
gallons, A into two
respectively.
You are given three A is filled, while
vesselsA,
Band
= 3.
1-9.
1-10.
Convince
yourself
that an
infinite
number of edges and infinite number of isolated vertices.

with a finite
that
graph an
with a finite number of edges(Le., a graph infinite number of vertices) must have an
Show
an
infinite
graph
and
with
finite number of vertices pair 1-11.
of
vertices
(or one vertex number of parallel edges. Convince yourself that the maximum
is n
a finite number an infinite number in case of parallel
of vertices a (Le., a graph with of edges)will have at least one by an infinite self-loops) joined
vertex
n vertices
- ].
degree of
any
in a simple
graph
with
1-12. Show
n(n
that
- 1)/2.)))
the maximum
number of edges in
a simple
graph
with
n vertices
is
2)
PATHS
AND
CIRCUITS)
This
chapter
serves
in
two
graph
mainly
purposes.
The
first
is
to
introduce
additional
concepts and terms

and
Euler
graphs,
the
deal
which
degree
of vertices,
is a
be related to
more
global
is
with examples how illustrate to solve actual The celebrated problems using theory. graph Konigsberg bridge problem, which was in Chapter I, will be solved. The solution of the seating introduced also introduced in Chapter I, will be obtained arrangement problem, by means of Hamiltonian circuits.A third which involves problem, stacking four multicolored cubes,will also be solved. These three unrelated problems
to
will
The secondpurpose
theory. concepts, such as paths, circuits, with the nature of connectivity in graphs. The local property of each vertex, will be shown to of the graph. properties
These
demonstrate
the
problem-solving
convince
power of graph
using
theory. The
the di fficulty
reader of
attempt an approach
to solve
will
these problemswithout
quickly
graphs;
may such
him of the
value of graph
theory.)
2-1.
ISOMORPHISM)
In geometry two
gruent)
figures
are
thought
of as
in
equivalent (and called conof
if
they
have
identical behavior
G and
in
behavior
of
terms
geometric
properties.
Likewise, two graphs are thought

they
have
identical
Two
as equivalent (and terms of graph-theoretic
there is a one-to-onecorrespondence between their vertices and between their edges such that the incidence In is other words, preserved. relationship V in that is e incident on and then the vertices G; edge correspondsuppose VI 2 e' in G' must be incident on the vertices V'I and to) v\037that ing edge correspond
14)))
precisely:
graphs
G' are
said to be isomorphic
called isomorphic) if properties. More

(to
each
other)
if
SEC. 2-1)
ISOMORPHISM)
15)
Vs) a)
V4) e) e2)
V3)
e 6)
b) d) VI) es) (b)) V2)
(a))
Fig. and V 2 , respectively.
2-1
Isomorphic graphs.)
Vt
For example,
G, b,
one can
verify
that
the
Fig.
2-1
are isomorphic.
I,
follows: The vertices The edges respectively. e6 , respectively.

Except
graphs
the as The correspondence between c, d, and e correspond to Vt, V 2 , V 3 , V 4 , and v s' to e t , e 2 , e 3, e 4, e s, and 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 correspond
two graphs is two graphs
in
for the labels

the
are
given
ter I, a
2-2 shows two
of their vertices and edges, isomorphic (i.e., names) in ChapAs indicated same graph, perhaps drawn differently. For can be in different drawn example, Fig. ways. graph many different ways of drawing the same graph.)
Fig.
2-2
Isomorphic graphs.)
whether
are isomorphic. For instance,

isomorphic,
but
It is not always an easy task

just
to determine
the
or not
two given graphs

Fig.
three
graphs
and
shown
in
2-3
are
all
by looking
at them you
redrawing
cannot tell
that.
It is
left as an
exercisefor
the the
reader three
edges,that
It isomorphic
I.
graphs
to show, by in Fig.
by
labeling
the vertices
2-3).
that
and
two
2-3 are isomorphic (seeProblem

the
is immediately apparent graphs must have)

The
definition
of isomorphism
same number
same equal
of vertices.
of edges. of vertices
with
2. The
3.
An
number number
a given
degree.)))
16)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
graphs.
Fig. 2-3
Isomorphic
I
y)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
2-4
Two graphs
that
are
not isomorphic.)
no means sufficient. For instance, the two 2-4 all three are not isomorconditions, they yet graphs satisfy in the and not can be shown That are (b) isomorphic Figs. 2-4(a) phic. graphs as follows: If the graph in Fig. 2-4(a) were to be isomorphicto the one in (b), vertices of degree vertex x must to y, because there are no other correspond in to three. Now in (b) there is only one pendant vertex, a', adjacent y, while to x. there are two u and v, adjacent (a) pendant vertices, is a simple and efficient criterion for detection of isomorphism Finding in unsolved still actively pursued and is an important problem graph theory. I n Chapter II we shall discuss various proposed and their algorithms proof means a for detection of automatic by grams isomorphism computer.
However, these
shown
conditions are by
in Fig.
For
2-2.
now,
we
move
to a
different
topic.)
SUBGRAPHS)
A graph g is said to be a subgraph G if all the vertices and all of a graph the edges of g are in G, and each edge of g has the same end vertices in g as in G. For instance, the graph in Fig. 2-5(b) is a subgraph of the one in Fig. when a subgraph, the original graph must))) 2-5(a). (Obviously, considering
SEC. 2-3)
A PUZZLE WITH
MULTICOLORED
CUBES)
17)
5)
4)
6) 3)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
2-5
Graph (a) and

two
subgraph
thought
one
of its
subgraphs (b).)
not be
theory.
altered by
identifying
of
distinct
vertices.) The
concept
A subgraph
can be
another graph. The a subgraph of G.\"

The
symbol
from
new edges or vertices, or by adding to the concept of subset in set a part of) of as being contained in (or set theory, g c G, is used in stating \"g is is akin
following
observations
can be
subgraph.
made
immediately:)
1.
Every
graph
is
its
own
2. A
subgraph of a subgraph of G is a subgraph of G.

single single
3.
vertex edge
in a in G,
graph G is a subgraph of G. together

with
4. A
G.)
its
end
vertices,
is also
a subgraph of
a graph
Edge-Disjoint
Subgraphs:
Two (or
Figs.
if gl are said to be edgedisjoint For example, the two graphs in

graphs
more) subgraphs gl and

do not have
and
any
g2 of
and g2
edges
in common.
2-7(a)
(b) are
vertices
edge-disjoint subbe vertex dispossibly
of
not have graphs

that
although graph in Fig. 2-6. Note that in common, they may have edge any do not even have vertices in common
the
edge-disjoint graphs do in common. Sub-
are
said to
joint.
(Obviously,
graphs
that
have
no vertices
in
common
cannot
have edges in
common.))
WITH
2-3.
problem
PUZZLE
MULTICOLORED
CUBES)
illustrate,
a problem
Now we shall take

can
brief
pause
to
be solved
by using
graphs. Two stepsare involved

of graph
with an example, how

here:
First,
Second,)))
the physical
problem is converted into
theory.
18)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
the
graph-theory
lem,
solved. problem is then a well-known puzzle available in
Let
toy
us consider the
stores
following
probInstant
(under
every
the name
Insanity).
Problem:
ly
colored
blue,
We are given four green, red, or
cubes. The sixfaces of white. Is it possible to

such
stack
cube are variousthe cubes one on
top
the
factory,
of another four sides

because
to form
a column
have to
that
of
this
column?
(Clearly,
try
no color appears twice on any of a trial-and-error method is unsatis(=
we may
all
41,472
3 x
24 x
24
24)
poss-
ibilities.)
Solution: Step 1 : Draw a graph with for each color (Fig.2-6).Pick a cube
four
vertices
it
and call
cube
B, G, R, and W-one 1; then represent its)
R R
B
R
Cu be
1)
Cu be 2
G
W)
R 2)
R Cub)
R
4)
e3
G
G
B)
B 4
G
R)
W)
Cube
Fig. 2-6 colors.)
Four cubes
unfolded
and
the graph
representing
their
appropriate
three drawn between the vertices with edges, words, if a blue face in cube 1 has a white face opposite to it, draw an edge between vertices Band W in the graph. Do the same for the remaining two pairs of faces in cube l. Put label I on all three cube from I. A self-loop with the edge labeled I at vertex R, edges resulting for instance, would result if cube 1 had a pair of opposite faces both colored)))
three
pairs
of opposite
colors.
faces by
In other
SEC. 2-4)
WALKS,
PATHS,
AND CIRCUITS)
19)
red.
graph
Repeat
until
the procedure
we have
for the other three

with
cubes
one
by one
A
on the same
particular
a graph
four
vertices
and
in
of four
of each vertex is the total number of faces with the corresponding color. For the cubes of Fig. 2-6,we have five blue faces, six green, seven red, and six
w h i te. Consider
colored cubes and their Step 2: Consider the graph
12 edges.
Fig.
set
graph
resulting
are shown
from
2-6.
this
representation.
The degree
the desired column of four cubes, A subgraph (with four will represent these edges) faces-four south and four north. Each of the four edges in this eight facing no color occurs 2, 3, and 4. Moreover, subgraph will have a different label-I, twice on either the north side or south side of the column if and only if every vertex in this subgraph is of degree two.
two opposite
and
vertical sides of
say facing north
south.
Exactly
the
same
argument
applies to the
other two
sides,
east
and west,
of the column.
cubes can be arranged (to form a column such that no color once on any side) if and only if there exist two edge-disjoint subgraphs, each with four edges, each of the edges labeled differently, such that each vertex is of degree and two. For the set of cubes shown in Fig. in Fig. 2-7.) 2-6, this condition is satisfied, and the two subgraphs are shown
Thus
the
four
appearsmore
than
3) B) B) R)
2)
W) W) 2)
G)
(a) North-South Fig.
Subgraph)
(b)
subgraphs
East-West
in
Subgraph)
2-7
Two edge-disjoint
of
the graph
Fig.
2-6.)
2-4.
WALKS, PATHS, AND

A walk
CIRCUITS)
is defined
and
as a
finite
alternating
that
sequence
each
beginning
ending
with vertices, such

following
of vertices and edges, the edge is incident with
vertices
more
than
preceding once
and
in
it.
No
edge appears
(is coveredor traversed)

appear
a walk. instance,
A vertex,
however,
may
more
than
once.
with)))
In Fig.
2-8(a),for
VI a V2 b V 3 C V 3 d V4 e V 2 [v s is
a walk shown
20)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
VI)
VI)
c)
a)
V2)
V2)
V4)
h)
Vs)
V4)
Vs)
(a) An
Open
Walk)
(b) A Pa th
of
Length
Thre\037)
Fig.
2-8
walk
and
path.)
heavy vertices of
lines. and
A walk is
edges constituting
also referred to as an a given walk
edge
in a
train or a chain. The set of graph G is clearlya subgraph
G. and ends are called its terminal vertices. vertices of the walk shown in Fig. 2-8(a). begin and end at the same vertex. Such a walk is vertices are that is not closed (i.e., the terminal
[Fig.
Vertices with which a walk begins Vertices V t and V s are the terminal
It is possible for
called
a walk
to
walk. A walk distinct) is called an open walk

a closed An open walk
in
2-8(a)].
once
(or a simple
path a
or an
V2 b
whereas VI
a path
appears more than elementary path). In Fig. 2-8, VI V 3 C V 3 d V4 e V 2 f V s is not a

which
no vertex
is called
a path
a V 2 b V 3 dV
4 is
a path,
words,
path.
In
other
does not intersect itself. The number of edges in a path is called the an edge which is not a selfthat length of a path. It immediately follows,then, loop is a path of length one. It should also be noted that a self-loop can be included in a walk but not in a path (Fig. 2-8). The terminal of a path are of degree vertices one,and the rest of the vertices (calledintermediate are of degree two. This degree, of course, vertices) is counted to the edges included in the path and not the only with respect entire graph in which the path may be contained. A closed walk in which no vertex (except the initial and the final vertex) more than once is called a circuit. That is, a circuit is a closed, oon-) appears
\"\"'--)
\037)
o)
Three
Fig.
2-9
different
circuits.)))
SEC. 2-5)
CONNECTED
GRAPHS,
DISCONNECTED GRAPHS, AND
COMPONENTS)
21)
In Fig. 2-8(a), v 2 b v 3 d V 4 e V 2 is, for example, are shown in Fig. 2-9. Clearly, every vertex if the circuit is a subgraph of another is of degree two; again, graph, count degreescontributed by the edges in the circuit only.
intersecting
walk.
a circuit.
in
Three
different
circuits
a circuit
one must
circuit
is also
called a
cycle,elementary
cycle,
circular
In
be
electrical confused
a engineering with self-loop.

in this
circuit is sometimes (Every self-loop is section are
referred to as a loop-not to
circuit,
path,
and polygon.
every circuit The arrows
and
but
not 2-10.
is a
self-loop.)
The
definitions the
summarized in
Fig.
are
in
direction
may
You
cuit are
have simple,
very
of increasing restriction. that although the concepts of observed the formal definition becomes involved.)
a path
a cir-
Subgraph
of
G)
Any
collection
of edges
in
G)
Walk
in
G)
of edges of G)
A non-edge-retracing
sequence
A non-Inter\037ecting open walk In C)
Path
C'i
rcui t
G)
in
G)
in
circuits
closed
A non-intersecting walk in G)
Fig.
2-10
Walks, paths,
and
as
subgraphs.)
2-5.
CONNECTED
GRAPHS,
AND
DISCONNECTED
GRAPHS,
COMPONENTS)
if
we
the Intuitively, can reach any
A graph is connected is obvious. 'dness concept of connect, vertex from any other vertex by traveling along the edges.
More formally:
if there between is at least one path G is said to be connected every in the graph in G is For G. disconnected. vertices of instance, Otherwise, pair A null 2-11 in disconnected. the one is is but connected, Fig. Fig. 2-8(a) is disconnected (Fig. 1-12). vertex of more than one graph conIt is easy to see that a disconnected graph consists of two or more a is called of theseconnected nected Each component. The subgraphs graphs. at a of looking Another 2-11 in of two consists way components. graph Fig. G. in a disconnected vertex follows: Considera is as By graph component Vi to Vi. Vertex Vi and all the not all vertices of G are joinedby paths definition, with all the edges incident on vertices of G that have paths to Vi' together A graph
them,
form
a component.
Obviously, a component itself
is a graph.)))
22)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
Fig.
2-11 A disconnected two components.)
graph
with
THEOREM2-1)
A two
graph nonempty,
G is
disconnected
disjoint
in
if
and
VI
only
and
if its
vertex set
that
in
subsets
subset
V 2 such
V can be partitioned into there exists no edge in G
whose
one end vertex is

Suppose
VI and
partitioning
the other
exists.
subset
V 2 .)
Proof:
that such a
that
Consider
a and
a and
be
h of
G, such
h;
otherwise,
there
the other in let G be a disconnected graph. Considera Conversely, are joined be the set of all vertices that by paths to a. SinceG is disconnected, will form a (nonempty) all vertices of G. The remaining vertices VI does not include set V 2 . No vertex in VI is joined to any in V2 by an edge. Hence the partition. .)
in VI and
VI and h E V 2 . No path can would be at leas\037 one edge whose V 2 . Hence, if a partition exists, G E
two arbitrary vertices vertices exist between one end vertex would is not connected. vertex a in G. Let VI
Two interesting THEOREM 2-2)
and useful results involving
connectedness
are:)
If a
graph
(connected be
or disconnected)
has
vertices.)
exact1Y
two
vertices
of odd
degree,
there
must
a path
joining these two

graph
Proof:.
Let G be a
with
all even
holds no and
From Theorem 1-1,which component of a disconnected graph, vertices. Therefore,in graph G, v I

are odd. and hence
THEOREM must
verticest except vertices v I and V2, which for every for every graph and therefore can have an odd number of odd graph V2 must belong to the same component,
have
a path
between them.
.)
edges or
-1
2-3
A simple
and k
components can have

Let
the
graph (i.e., a graph

number
without at most
(n
- k )(n
in
parallel
- k
self-loops)with
edges.)
n vertices
1 )/2
Proof:. be nI, n2,
of vertices
have)
each
of the
k components of a
graph
. . . , nk.
Thus we
n I -t- n 2 +
...
-1-
nk =
n,
ni >
1.)
called
tFor brevity, degree an even
a vertex
vertex.)))
with odd degree is
an odd
vertex, and
a vertex
with even
SEC. 2-6)
EULER
GRAPHS)
23)
The proof
of the
theorem
depends
k \037 nr i -=-1)
on an algebraic
inequalityt)
< n2
(k
1)(2n
ith
- k).
of G Therefore,
(2-1))
Now
number
the maximum
.is of edges
number
connectedgraph)
-1 \037 2 i-I
k
}n,.(n,.
is)
- 1).
k
of edges
in the
component 1-12.)
(See Problem
-)
(which is a simple the maximum
in G I
(n,.
)n,. =
-l
2
( i-I
2
\037
nr
n 2
1)(2n
(2-2))
-
<
2[n
1
(k
k)]
.)
2'
from (2-1))
(2-3))
--=2.(n-k)(n-k+I).
It may
be noted
that
Theorem
2-3 is
a generalization
of the
where
result
in Problem
The solution to Problem] Now we are equippedto ].) duced in Chapter

] -] 2.
2-6.
-12 is given by (2-3), handle the Konigsberg
1. bridge problem intro-
k =
EULER GRAPHS)
Chapter
As mentioned in famous paper in which

paper,
], graph theory was born he solved the Konigsberg bridge
in
1736
with
Euler's
same
problem.In the
In what
type a closed walk running through every edge of G exactly Such a walk is now called an Euler line, and a graph once? that consists of an Euler line is called an Euler graph. More formally: If some closed walk in a graph contains all the edges of the graph, then the walk is called an Euler line and the graph an Euler graph. its very a walk is always connected. Since the Euler line definition By is always contains all the edges of the graph, an Euler (which is a walk) graph isolated connected, except for any isolated vertices the graph may have. Since do not contribute anything vertices of an Euler graph, to the understanding it is hereafter assumed that Euler graphs do not have any isolated vertices and are therefore connected. we shall state and prove an important Now which will enable us theorem, to tell immediately or not a given is an Euler graph.) whether graph
problem:
Euler
posed (and then

possible
solved) a more general
of graph G is it
to find
t Proof:.
I:7-= 1 (n,.
- 1) =
(
k. Squaring
both
sides,
I - 1)
f (ni
- 1)
n2 + k 2 n 2
2nk - 2nk because(ni - 1) > 0,

n 2
or \0377= 1 (n ,2 - 2ni) + k cross nonnegative < n2 + k 2 for all i. Therefore, \0377-= 1 nr
terms =
2nk
+ k2
2n =
(k
- l)(ln
- k).
.)))
24)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
THEOREM
2-4
graph
A given connected
G is
an Euler
graph
if and
only
if
all
vertices
of G are
of even degree.)
an Euler graph. It therefore an Euler line contains this walk we observe that time the walk every meets a vertex v it goes through two \"new\" edges incident on v-with one we v and with the other \"exited.\" \"entered\" This is true not only of all intermediate vertices of the walk but also of the terminal and because we \"exited\" vertex, \"entered\" the same vertex at the beginning and end of the walk, Thus respectively. if G is an Euler graph, the degree of every vertex is even. To prove the sufficiency of the condition, assume that all vertices of G are of even degree.Now we construct a walk starting at an arbitrary vertex v and going once. We continue through the edges of G such that no edge is traced more than we can exit from tracing as far as possible. Since every vertex is of even degree, vertex we enter; the tracing cannot but v. And since v is every stop at any vertex also of even degree, we shall reach v when the tracing comes to an end. eventually If this closed walk h we just traced includes all the edges of G, G is an Euler graph. If not, we remove from G all the edges in h and obtain a subgraph h' of G formed G and h have all their of even degree, vertices by the remaining edges. Since both the of the vertices of h' are also even. h' must touch h at least degrees Moreover, at one vertex a, becauseG is connected. construct Starting from a, we can again a new walk in graph h'. Since all the vertices of h' are of even degree, this walk in h' must terminate at vertex in h' can be combined with h to form a; but this walk a new walk, which and ends at vertex v and has more edges than starts h. This we obtain a closed walk that traverses all the edges process can be repeateduntil of G. Thus G is an Euler graph. .)
G is (which
that Proof: Suppose
is a closed
walk).
In
tracing
Konigsberg Bridge
Problem: Now
find
looking
its
at the
bridges(Fig.
it
1-5),
we
that
not all
is not to lines
vertices
is not
bridges
an Euler graph. Thus it exactly once and return
the
possible starting
graph of the Konigsberg of even degree. Hence, to walk over each of the seven
are
point.)
One often encounters Euler

to
these
without
puzzles
is to
in
find
line
retracing
pictures are shown
med's scimitars and

2-12(b)
is
puzzles. The problemcommon in one continuous picture can be drawn and without lifting the pencil from the paper. Two such in Fig. 2-12(a) is called MohamFig. 2-12. The drawing believed to have come from the Arabs. The one in Fig.
in various
how
a given
course, the star of David. time!) (Equal In defining an Euler line some authors drop the requirement that the walk be closed.For example,the walk a 1 c 2 d 3 a 4 b 5 d 6 e 7 b in Fig. 2-13, which includes all the edges of the graph and does not retrace any edge, is not closed. The initial vertex is b. We shall call such an open vertex is a and the final of a graph without walk that includes (or traces or covers) all edges retracing Euler line. A (connected) graph that has any edge a unicursalline or an open
is, of
a unicursal
line
will
be
called
a unicursal
graph.)))
SEC. 2-6)
EULER
GRAPHS)
25)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
2-12
Two Euler graphs.)
e)
d)
Fig.
2-13
Unicursal graph.)
I t is clear that a unicursallinewe

if and
by shall
adding exactly
get an
only if
it
has
between the initial and final vertices of Euler line. Thus a connected graph is unicursal This two vertices of odd degree. observation can
an edge
be generalized
THEOREM
as follows:)
2-5
In a connected
subgraphs
such
that
graph G with exactly they together contain
2k odd
all edges
vertices, there exist kedge-disjoint of G and that each is a unicursal
graph.)
Proof: Let
(VI, WI),
(Z'2,
the
odd
vertices
WI, W2, . . . , Wk in any W2),...,
arbitrary
(\"-\"k,
of the given order. Add
graph k edges
G be named to G between
VI, the
'V2, . . . , V k ; vertex
pairs
form a new graph G'. Sinceevery vertex of G' is of even degree, G' consists of an Euler line p. Now if we remove from p the k edges we just added (no two of these edges are incident on the same vertex), p will each of which is a unicursalline: be split into k walks, will leave a single first removal unicursal The line; the second removal will split and each successive removal will split a unicursal that into two unicursal lines; until there are k of them. Thus the theorem. .))) line into two unicursal lines,
Wk) to
26)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
We used
shall
interrupt
our
study
of
Euler
graph-theoretic
operations.
One of
be
graphs to define some commonly these operations is required immedilater.)
ately
in the next
section; others will

GRAPHS)
needed
2-7.
As
OPERATIONS ON
is the
case
as the
with
most
mathematical
entities,
it is
convenient to consider
derive
in
a large graph
from those of
vertices define
a combination small
of small ones. Since graphs

natural
ones and are defined
to
terms
its properties of the sets of
and operations
edges,
it is
between
to
employ =
the set-theoretical
and \302\2431)
terminology to
gra phs. I n
particular:
The
union
graph G J (written edge set EJ =
of two graphs GI as G J = G 1 U
(VI'
G 2 ) whose the
E1
G4
Likewise, \302\2432.
vertex intersection GIn

G 2
G 2 = (V 2, \302\2432) is another set V J = VI U V 2 and the
G2 GI
or
is a and
graph
consisting
only
of those
U
G2 of graphs vertices and edges that are

(written
Gland
in both
G 2 . The
ring sum
of two graphs Gland

V 2 and
their
as G
EB G 2 ) is a
1
graph
G 2, are
shown in Fig. 2-14. t It is obvious from their

are
consisting of.the vertex set VI but not in both. Two graphs and
definitions
is,)
of edges
union,
that are either in G and ring sum intersection,
that
the three
G2 =
operations just
n
men-
tioned
commutative.
G 1 U
That
2
= =
G2 U G 2 ffi
G1,
G 1 0)
G 1 n
G2
G p)
G
If G 1 and
ffi
G2
G 2 are
edge
disjoint,
then G 1
G 2 is
G1
G 2 . If Gland For any graph
G2
G,)
are
vertex
disjoint,
a null then Gin

G,
graph,
and
is empty.
G1
ffi
G2 =
G2
G and)
U G
= G
n G=
null
G ffi
G =
graph.
If g
subgraph of remains after all the

as G
G
ffi
is a
G, then
is written = G g
- g, whenever - g is often called

A graph
g2 if)
edges
G ffi g is, by definition, that subgraph of G which G. G ffi g in g have been removed from Therefore, c G. Because of this complementary nature, g the complement
been
of g
in
G.
Decomposition:
G is said to have = G,
=
decomposed
into two
sub-
graphs gland
and)
gl U g2
gl n
tlf
g2
a null
graph.)
G 1 must
an edge
ei is in
two
graphs
G 1 and G 2 , its end vertices in
have the
same labels
as in G'2.)))
SEC. 2-7)
OPERATIONS
ON GRAPHS)
27)
VI)
VI
Ii)
V6)
VI
Ii)
V6)
V2
('
V1
V2
e
Vs
d
V4
V4
G1
G2
GI UG 2)
VI)
VI
Ii)
V6)
V2
('
V3
V2
.V S
V4 f)
e 1 n
e2
Fig.2-14
f' m e
vlw
2)
Union,
intersection, and
ring
sum
of two
graphs.)
In other in gt or in g2' but in both. not words, every edge of G occurseither in occur both and In Some of the vertices, however, may gt g2. decomposim edges {et' e2 , A tion, isolated vertices are disregarded. containing graph m- t . . . , em} can be decomposed in 2 I different into pairs of subways graphs
gl'
g2 (why?).
union,
Although
intersection,
and
of graphs, these definitions can finite number of graphs. Similarly,

than
lectively
be extended
a
that
for a pair ring sum have been defined in an obvious way to include any G can be decomposed into more graph are
two
subgraphs-subgraphs
include
(pairwise)
edge
disjoint
and colof
every
is a
edge in G. vertex
in
Deletion: If Vi
graph
G, then
Vi
denotes
a subgraph
G obtained by deleting G. Deletion of a vertex always (i.e., removing) Vi from (See Fig. 2-15.) If ej implies the deletion of all edges incident on that vertex. is an edge in G, then G - ej is a subgraph of G obtained by deleting e j from G. Deletion of an edge does not imply deletion of its end vertices. Therefore
G
- ej =
E8 e j .)))
28)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
-\\
e. J)
\037) e
I) G)
(G
Vi))
(G
- e j ))
Fig.
2-15
Vertex deletion
and
edge
deletion.)
or every verbut
a, b in a graph are said to be fused (merged vertices are new vertex such that identified) replaced by a single is incident on the new edge that was incident on either a or b or on both tex. Thus fusion of two vertices does not alter the number of edges, reduces the number of vertices by one. See Fig. 2-16 for an example.)
Fusion:
A pair
of vertices
if the two
it
e)
f)
2)
3) f)
4)
c) 7)
c) 7)
Fig. These
2-16
Fusion of
vertices
a and b.)
of the elementary operations on graphs. More complex been defined and are usedin graph-theory literature. For a operations see the paper by Harary and Wilcox [2-10].) survey of such operations
are
some
have
2-8.
MORE
ON
EULER
GRAPHS)
the
The following graphs.)

THEOREM
are some more results on
important
topic
of Euler
2-6
A connected
into
graph G is
an
Euler
graph
if and only
if
it can
be decomposed
circuits.)
into that is, G is a union Suppose graph G can be decomposed circuits; circuits. Since the degree of every vertex in a circuit is two, the edge-disjoint of every vertex in G is even. Hence G is an Euler degree graph.)))
Proof.
of
SEC.
2-8)
MORE ON EULER GRAPHS)
29)
two V2
let G Conversely, incident at edges

is also
be
v
an
Euler
graph. have
Consider
a vertex
VI.
There
are
1. Let
one of
must we
these edgesbe between
v 1 and
V2. Since
at least vertex
V3. Proceeding
of even degree, it in this fashion,
been traversed, thus the remaining graph
the remaining graph r from G. Continue

Arbitrarily
at least another edge, say between V2 and arrive at a vertex that has previously r from G. All vertices a circuit r. Let us remove in forming connected) must also be of even degree. From (not necessarily remove another circuit in exactly the same way as we removed this until no edges are left. Hence the theorem. process .)
eventually Graphs:
that
Traceable
an Euler graph.
Suppose
we
start
Consider the graph in from vertex a and

b)
Fig.
2-17,
which
path
is
c.)
trace the
a b
a)
d)
Fig. from
2-17
c.)
Arbitrarily
traceable
graph
Now
at c
would
we have the
only
choice of
going
to a, Euler
d, or
e. If we
took
the
first choice,
along
we
ing
trace
the circuit
a b c a, which
entire
is not
an Euler
by
line. Thus, startany

interesting Euler to
from
that
a, we
has
cannot trace the

already
must
edge
not
been traversed.
a vertex one
This raisesthe
line simply
moving
following
question:
What property
v in an
follows
line is always obtained when the single rule that whenever
one
arrives
Euler graph have such that an any walk from vertex v according at a vertex one shall select any
edge
(which has not been previously traversed)? Such a graph is called an arbitrarily traceable graph .from vertex v. For the Euler graph in Fig. 2-17 is an arbitrarily traceable from instance, graph vertex c, but not from any other vertex. The Euler graph in Fig. 2-18 is not traceable from arbitrarily any vertex; the graph in Fig. 2-19 is arbitrarily)
Fig. 2-18 traceable.)
Euler
graph;
not arbitrarily
Fig. from
2-19 all
Arbitrarily
vertices.)))
traceable
graph
30)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
traceable
from
all its
vertices. The following

just
interesting
theorem,
due to
Ore
[2-5],answers the
THEOREM2-7)
An
question
raised.)
Euler
circuit
F or
graph G is in G contains v.)
arbitrarily
traceable
from
vertex
in G if
and only
if
every
a proof
of the theorem the

PATHS
reader
is referred
to [2-5].)
2-9.
HAMILTONIAN
AND
CIRCUITS)
was
An Euler line
of a connected graph
that
characterized
being a closedwalk
Hamiltonian
traverses
traverses at which
connected graph is defined as a closedwalk that of G exactly of course the starting once, vertex, except the walk also terminates. For example, in the graph of Fig. 2-20(a))
circuit
every edge
by the property of of the graph (exactly once).A
in a
every vertex
..--)
.)
(a)
(b))
Fig. 2-20
starting
Hamiltonian circuits.)
edges
at
vertex
v, if one
each
traverses along the

exactly
shown
in heavy
shown
linescircuit.
passing
lines.
A
through
vertex
once-one
Fig.
gets a
Hamiltonian
A Hamiltonian
a Hamiltonian every vertex of G.Hence

of exactly example,
tonian condition
n
circuit for the graph in More formally: in a connected graph G is circuit

edges.
2-20(b)
be
is also
Hamiltonian
by
heavy
said to
if it
vertices
includes
consists
circuit
in a
graph of n
Obviously,
not every connected graph has a Hamiltonian circuit. For in Figs. 2-17 and 2-18 has a Hamilneither of the graphs shown This raises the question: What is a necessary and sufficient circuit. for a connected graph G to have a Hamiltonian circuit?)))
SEC. 2-9)
HAMILTONIAN
PATHS
AND
CIRCUITS)
31)
Dodecahedron)
(a)
Fig.
circuit.)
(b))
2-21
Dodecahedron
and its graph shown
with
a Hanliltonian
This Rowan
mentioned in Chapter I, Hamilton made a regular dodecahedron of wood [see Fig. 2-21 (a)], each of whose 20 corners was marked with the name of a city. The puzzle was to start from any city and find a route along the edge of the dodecahedron that passes through every city exactly once and returns to the city of origin. The of the is given in Fig. 2-21 (b), and one of many such dodecahedron graph routes Hamiltonian (a circuit) is shown by heavy lines. The resemblance between the problem of an Euler line and that of a Hamiltonian circuit is deceptive. The latter is infinitely more complex. Alone can find Hamiltonian circuits in many specific graphs, such as though in Figs. 2-20 and 2-21, there is no known those shown we can apply criterion to determine the existence of a Hamiltonian circuit in general. There are, contain Hamiltonian however, certain types of graphs that always circuits,still
problem, Hamilton
first posed in 1859, is
by
the
famous
Irish mathematician
As was
Sir
William
unsolved.
as
we
will
be
presently
shown.
anyone edge from a Hamiltonian circuit, is called a Hamiltonian path. Clearly,
Hamiltonian Path: If we remove are left with a path. This path

path path of
Hamiltonian tonian graph a
is a
vertex of graph G traverses every a of Hamiltonian circuit (which subgraph
in a
G. Since a Hamilin turn is a sub-
circuit (or path) only consider simple graphs. This is becausea Hamiltonian traverses every vertex exactly once.Henceit cannot include a self-loop or a set of parallel edges. Thus a general graph may be made simple by removing before parallel edges and self-loops looking for a Hamiltonian circuit in it. I t is left as an exercise for the reader to show that neither of the two graphs)))
has a Hamiltonian circuit also has graph), every graph that There with Hamiltonian are, however, path. many graphs have no Hamiltonian circuits (Problem 2-23). The length of a paths that in a connected graph of n vertices Hamiltonian path (if it exists) is n - I. In considering the existence of a Hamiltonian circuit (or path), we need
another
Hamiltonian
32)
PATHS AND
CIRCmTS)
CHAP.
2)
(a))
(b))
Fig. 2-22
Graphs
Hamiltonian
without
Hamiltonian circuit
circuits.) (or
shown
What
Problem 2-24.
general
in Fig.
2-22 has a
class
Hamiltonian
a Hamiltonian
path). See
circuit?
of graphs is
or
guaranteed to have
vertices
in
Complete graphs of three

Complete every
more
constitute
there
one such class.

exists
A
Graph:
A simple
graph
which graph.
an edge
graphs
complete
between
of two,
graph
is)
pair
of vertices
five
is called
vertices
complete
Complete
three, four, and
are
shown
in Fig.
2-23.
.)
.)
6)
Complete
Fig.
2-23
graphs of
two,
three,
four, or a Also
and
five
vertices.)
sometimes
also referred
every
to as a universal
vertex Problem
a
graph
is joined with
is
in n
other
a complete G is n(n - 1 )/2. See

1
through one edge, the
in
graph G
of n
vertices.
clique. Since every vertex of every vertex degree the total number of edges
1-12.
circuit
v p v 2,
It is easy
vertices.
to
two
construct
Hamiltonian
n
in a
Let
the vertices
vertices, and
of one
be
umbered
. . . , V n.
and
complete graph of n Since an edge exists

to v 2, and v 3 , and
betweenany
so on
we can start
Vn
from
v I
traverse
to
than
v n'
finally from
Hamiltonian Hamiltonian
in
to
VI. This is
a Hamiltonian circuit.
Number
more
Hamiltonian
edge-disjoint
circuits
Hamiltonian
A given graph may contain Circuits in a Graph: circuit. Of interest are all the edge-disjoint The determination of the exact number of graph. circuits (or paths) in a graph in general is also an
the
unsolved problem.However,
number
of edge-disjoint
Hamiltonian
cir-)))
SEC. 2-9)
HAMILTONIAN
PATHS
AND
CIRCmTS)
33)
cuits in a
2-8.)
complete graph
with
odd
number
of vertices is given
by
Theorem
THEOREM 2-8
In
a complete
tonian
Proof.
circuits,
if
n is
graph with an odd
n vertices
number
there are (n
>
3.)
- 1)/2edge-disjoint - 1)/2 edges, and

a
Hamil-
of edge-disjoint edges. Therefore, the number in G cannot exceed (n - 1)/2. That there are (n - 1)/2 edgeHamiltonian as follows: when n is odd, can be shown disjoint circuits, The subgraph (of a complete of n vertices) in Fig. 2-24 is a Hamiltonian graph circuit. the vertices fixed on a circle, rotate the polygonal clockwise) Keeping pattern
5)
tonian
circuit in Hamiltonian circuits
A complete graph G of G consists of n
vertices
has
n(n
Hamil-
- 2)
2)
n)
4)
n -- 3)
Fig.
2-24
Hamiltonian
circuit;
IS
odd.)
by
360/(n
- 1),2.360/(n
with
1), 3. 360/(n -
Observe common
that
all
each rotation any of

the
produces a
ones.
1),. . . ,
(n
previous
circuits,
themselves.
This
edge
disjoint
Hence the
theorem
from the one theorem. .) us to
Thus we have (n - 3)/2 new Hamiltonian in Fig. 2-24 and also edge disjoint among
Hamiltonian
circuit
3)/2. 360/(n - 1) degrees. that has no edge
in
solve the problem of the seating arrangement table, I, as follows: Chapter x a the possibility of his sitting next member vertex and a Representing by G. member y by an edge between x and y, we construct a graph to another G to any other is a comSince every member is allowed to sit next member, of nine vertices-nine being the number of peopleto be seated plete graph the is clearly a table the table. Every seating arrangement around around Hamiltonian circuit. The can sit in any order, and it will be a first day of their meeting they if Hamiltonian circuit HI. The second they are to sit such that every memday, we have Hamiltonian cirto find another ber must have different neighbors, that is,))) different set of edges from those in HI; cuit H 2 in G, with an entirely
enables
at a round
introduced
in
34)
PATHS AND
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
Theorem 2-8 the edge-disjoint Hamiltonian circuits. From in G is four; therefore, only of edge-disjoint Hamiltonian circuits exist among nine people. four such arrangements result Another on the question of existence of Hamiltonian interesting in a graph, obtained by G. A. Dirac, is:) circuits HI
and
H 2 are
number
THEOREM
2-9
A sufficient
(but
number
by
no
means is that
in
have a
Hamiltonian the
circuit
necessary) condition for the degree of every vertex

G.)
a simple
graph
at
G to
n/2,
in G
be
least
where n is
Proof:
of vertices
the
For proof
reader
is referred
to
the
original
paper
by Dirac
[2-3].)
2-10.
TRAVELING-SALESMAN
PROBLEM)
to the question stated as follows: traveling-salesman problem,

A problem
closely related
during
of Hamiltonian
A
circuits is the
salesman
is required
to
visit
number
of cities
what
order should
he travel
in trip. Given the distances between the cities, and once return so as to visit every city precisely
home, with the minimum mileage traveled? the and the roads between them cities vertices by edges, Representing by is associated a real we get a graph. In this graph, with every edge ej there number (the distance in miles, say), wee;). Such a graph is called a weighted
graph; w(eJ being In our problem,
of the cities has a road to every other city, we have a complete Hamiltonian circuits, weighted graph. This graph has numerous and we are to pickthe one that has the smallest sum of distances (or weights). of course) Hamiltonian The total number of different (not edge disjoint, circuits in a complete graph of n vertices can be shown to be (n - I) !j2. This
follows
the weight if each
of
edge
ej .
from
the
fact that
first
starting
from
choose
from the
vertex,
- 2
any
the
vertex
second,
we have
n
from
edges
to
and so
of
tonian
on. Thesebeing
circuit
independent
choices,
choices.
This number is, however, has been counted twice.

problem
we get (n possible divided by 2, because each
from
the
third,
I)!
number
Hamilsolved
Theoretically,the
by enumerating
all (n
and labor
- I)!j2Hamiltonian
of the
traveling salesman
circuits,
can always
for
be
calculating
the distance
a large
(try
traveled value of
solving
in n,
each, the
then picking the shortest involved is too great even

the
one.
for
However,
a digital
computer
it for
of arbitrary size has yet been No efficient algorithm for problems has found, although many attempts have been made. Sincethis problem have in operations research, some specific large-scale examples applications There are also available several heuristic methods))) been worked out (see [2-1]). est route.
The problem is to prescribe
the 50 state capitals in
United
States; algorithm
n =
50).
finding
a manageable
for
the
short-
CHAP.
2)
REFERENCES)
35)
of solution
that
give
a route
very close
to the
shortest
one,
but do not
guar-
antee the
SUMMARY)
shortest
(see
[2-4] for
such a
method).)
In this
chapter we discussed the

paths,
subgraph-a graph that

lines, Hamiltonian
is part
of another
graph.
tonian
Walks,
circuits,
Euler
paths, and Hamil-
in a graph G are its subgraphs with special properties. A given circuits in terms of the presence or absence and studied graph G can be characterized these of by graphs Many physical problems can be represented subgraphs. and solved by observing the relevant properties of the corresponding graphs. of walks discussed in this chapter are summarized in Fig. Various types 2-25. The arrows point in the direction of increasing restriction.)
Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian
Arbi trarily
traceable)
path)
circui t)
Fig.
2-25
Different types of
walks.)
REFERENCES)
Textbooks mended are
listed
in
Chapter
1 are
to be
read
for
this chapter
also.
Specially
recom-
1. Berge [1-1], Chapters
1, 7,
2. Busacker
3. Harary 4.
and
Saaty [1-2],
7. 2 and
11, and 17. Chapters 1,3, and 3.
6.
[1-5],Chapter Ore [1-9],Chapters
5. Ore [1-10], Chapters
1 and 2.)))
36)
PATHS AND Seshu and
CIRCmTS)
CHAP.
2)
6.
For arbitrarily
Reed [1-13], Chapter traceable graphs,

of Hamiltonian
2. one
mation on
Smith [2-6], also devoted
properties
should read Ore's graphs can be found
4 and 5 of Tutte's book [2-9] are Dirac [2-3].Chapters and Euler paths. On the traveling-salesman to paths problem there are and Nemhauser [2-1] summarize and list Bellmore many papers. In an excellent survey the Hamiltonian-path most of these papers. Deo and Hakimi [2-2] generalized problem and applied it to a wiring problem in computers. 2-1. \"The Salesnlan Problem: A BELLMORE, M., and G. L. NEMHAUSER, Traveling 538-558. Survey,\" Operations Res., Vol. 16, 1968, \"The Shortest Generalized Hamiltonian 2-2. Tree,\" Proc. DEO, N., and S. L. HAKIMI, Third Annual Allerton 1965, 879-888. Conf, University of Illinois, for Graphs,\" Quart J. Math. Theorems 2-3. Oxford, DIRAC, G. A., \"Connectivity Sere (2), Vol. 3,1952,171-174. 2-4. LIN, S., \"Computer Solution of the Traveling Salesman Problem,\" BSTJ, Vol. 44, and
infor[2-5]. Additional paper in papers by Tutte [2-8],
Ore
Tutte
[2-7], and
2-5.
2-6.
2-7.
2-8.
2-9.
Rev. Elementary Math., Regarding the Tracing of Graphs,\" Vol. 6, 1961,49-53. Vol. 67, 1960,55. Am. Math. Monthly, ORE, 0., \"Note on Hamilton Circuits,\" Paths in a Network of Degree \"On Unicursal C. A. B., and W. T. TUITE, SMITH, Am. Math. Monthly, Vol. 48,1941,233-237. Four,\" Math. W. T., \"On Hamiltonian Soc., Vol. 21, 1946, TUITE, Circuits,\" J. London
ORE,
1965, 2245-2269. 0., \"A Problem
98-101.
TUITE,
HARARY,
2-10.
W. T., Connectivity F., and G. 'N.
WILCOX,
in Graphs, University of Toronto on \"Boolean Operations
Press,
Toronto,
1966.
Scand.,
Graphs,\" Math.
Vol. 20,
1967,41-51.)
PROBLEMS)
2-1.
2-2.
2-3.
Verify
that
vertices
Show
the two graphs and edges.
in
Fig.
2-2 are
isomorphic. Label (b) and

(c) in
the
corresponding
by redrawing,
step
by
step,
that graphs 2-26(a)
Fig. 2-3 are
isomorphic
to (a).
Show that
the
two graphs
in
Figs.
and (b) are
isomorphic.)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
2-26)))
CHAP.
2)
PROBLEMS)
37)
2-4.
2-5.
2-6.
Construct three more examples to for isomorphism are not sufficient Prove that any two simple connected
isomorphic.
show
that conditions 1, 2, and 3 in Sec1ion 2-1 between graphs. with n vertices, all of degree two, are graphs
Why?)
Are the two
graphs
in
Fig.
2-27 isomorphic?
Fig.
2-27)
2-7.
Given the set of cubes

all four cubes into a
represented
column such
graph
with
by the graph in Fig. 2-6, is one that each side shows only
n vertices must be connected Use Theorem 2-3.) into two subgraphs gi and g2, 2-9. Prove that if a connected graph G is decomposed there must be at least one vertex common between gi and g2. 2-10. Prove that a connected graph G remains connected after removing an edge ei from G, if and only if ei is in some circuit in G.
2-8.
Prove that a - 1)(n [en
simple
it possible to stack color? Explain. if it has more than
2)]/2
edges.
(Hint:
2-11.
2-12.
Draw
a connected
graph
that
becomes
disconnected
when
any
edge
is removed
from it.
n vertices satisfying the condition of Problem 2-11 is (a) Prove that a graph with simple, and (b) has exactly n - 1 edges. from the entrance to the center of the maze in is the length of the path What Problem
2-13.
2-14.
1-7?
5 and 6 in Fig. 2-5(a). Give the length List all the different paths between vertices of each of these paths. Demon2-15. paths. Group the paths listed in Problem 2- 14 into sets of edge-disjoint a pair of vertices forms strate that the union of two edge-disjoint paths between a circuit. 2-16. In a graph G let P I and P2 be two different between two given vertices. Prove paths in G. that PI EB P2 is a circuit or a set of circuits 2-17. Let a, b, and c be three distinct vertices in a graph. There is a path between a and b and also there is a path between band c. Prove that there is a path between a and c. 2-18. If the intersection of two paths is a disconnected graph, show that the union of the two paths has at least one circuit. 2-19. You are given a IO-piece domino set whose titles have the following set of dots: (1,2); (1,3); (1,4); (1,5); (3,4); (3,5); (4,5). Discuss the (2,4); (2,5); of arranging the tiles in a connected series such that one number on a possibility title touches the same number on its neighbor. (Hint: Use a five-vertex always complete graph and see if it is an Euler graph.) 2-20. Is it possible to move a knight on a chessboard such that it completes every per-)))
(2,3);
38)
PATHS AND missible
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
2)
less of
cursal
the
move exactly once? A in which direction
move
it
between
is made.
two squares is counted as one regard(Hint: Is the graph of Problem 1-6 uni-
?)
tournament against every other) among (when every player plays can be represented by a complete graph of n (n being an even number) to finish in the shortest Discuss how you would schedule the tournaments there
2-21.
A
n
round-robin
players vertices.
possible time.
2-22. Observethat
a graph.
can be no path
longer than
a Hamiltonian
path (if
it
exists)
in
2-23. 2-24.
that has a Hamiltonian a Hamiltonian circuit. path but does not have of the graphs in Fig. 2-22 has a Hamiltonian path (and therefore no Hamiltonian circuit). [Hint: For Fig. 2-22(a), of all the edges incident at a vertex two can be included in a Hamiltonian circuit. Count the number of edges only be excluded from Fig. that have to be excluded. You will find that 13 edges must of remaining to form a Hamiltonian circuit. 2-22(a). The number edges is insufficient For Fig. 2-22(b), first consider all vertices of degree two.] 2-25. Show that the graph of a rhombic dodecahedron (with eight vertices of degree three no and six vertices of degree four) has no Hamiltonian path (and therefore Hamiltonian circuit). 2-26. Draw a graph in which an Euler line is also a Hamiltonian circuit. What can you say about such graphs in general? 2-27. Is it possible, starting from of the chessboard, to move a any of the 64 squares such that it occupies every knight square exactly once and returns to the initial circuit in the position? If so, give one such tour. (Hint: Look for a Hamiltonian graph of Problem 1-6.) 2-28. Prove that a graph G with n vertices always has a Hamiltonian path if the sum of the of every pair of vertices degrees' Vi, V j in G satisfies the condition
Draw
a graph that
Show
neither
2-29.
d(vj) > n - 1. (Hint: First show that G is connected. Then use induction on path length in G.) Using the result of Problem 2-28, show that in a dancing ring of n children it is the children so that everyone has a friend at each side if always possible to arrange
d(v;) +
every
child enjoys friendship
with
at least
half the
children.)))
3)
TREES
AND
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS)
The of a tree is probably the most important in graph concept theory, of graphs. In the first half of this especially for those interestedin applications As usual, we shall point chapter we shall define a tree and study its properties. out some of its applications to simple situations and games, and puzzles scientific till deferring the applications to more complex problems Chapter 12. Other graph-theoretic terms related to trees will also be introduced and
discussed.
important
introduces the spanning tree-another chapter circuits, theory of graphs. The relationships among 1 trees, and so on, in a graph are explored. Unavoidably, as with Chapters and 2, this chapter also has a large number of definitions. In studying any new branch of mathematics, there is no way to avoid new terms and definitions.)
of
The secondpart
notion
the
in the
3-1.
TREES)
A tree is a connected graph without any circuits. for instance, is a tree. Treeswith one, two, three, and in Fig. 3-2. As pointed out in Chapter], a graph must so must a tree. Someauthors and therefore allow the We vertices. have an excluded such from any entity
as
The graph in Fig. 3-1, four vertices are shown
have at least one vertex, null tree, a tree without being a tree. Similarly,
we are
It
considering
is,
follows
that
graph,
our trees are also finite. graphs, the from definition that a tree has to immediately neither a nor having edges (because self-loop parallel
only
finite
be a simple
they both
is
form circuits).
Trees appearin
numerous
instances.
39)))
The genealogy
of a
family
often)
40)
TREES AND FUNDAMENTAL CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
3)))
u)
Fig.
3-1
Tree.)
.)
I)
Fig.
3-2
Trees
with
one,
two, three, and four
vertices.)
IV
Fig.
3-3
Decision tree.)
SEC. 3-2)
SOME
PROPERTIES
OF TREES)
41)
represented by means of a A river with its tributaries
tree (in
The sorting of
mail
according
are done
local office,
fact the term tree comes fromfamity tree). and subtributaries can be represented by a tree. to zip code and the sorting of punched cards
according
might
to a
tree (called
the
decisiontree
mail.
digit
or
All
sorting
the
at some zip code is read at N, N 2 , . . . , N 9 , and and the mail is divided into 10 pilesNt, No, depending on 10 the most significant is further divided into Each piles according digit. pile to the second most significant digit, and so on, till the mail is subdivided into
represent
Figure 3-3
flow of
mail
tree). arrives
vertex
N. The
most
significant
in the
105
in
possible piles, each representing a unique five-digit zip code. In many sorting problems we have only two alternatives (instead
of 10 as
a dicho-
the
preceding
example)
at each
with tree or small, tomy, such as large good in computer and two choices at each vertex occurs frequently programming We shall deal with such trees and their applications in Secswitching theory. a few simple but tion 3-5. Let us first obtain theorems on the geneimportant
intermediate vertex, representing or bad, 0 or ]. Sucha decision
ral properties of
3-2.
trees.)
SOME
3-1)
PROPERTIES OF
TREES)
THEOREM
There is
one and
only
one path
between every pair of vertices in

there
a tree,
T.
every
Since T is a connected graph, Proof: pair of vertices in T. Now suppose there are two distinct paths. The union be a tree. and T cannot .)
must exist at least one path between a and b of T that between two vertices a circuit of these two paths will contain
Conversely:)
THEOREM
3-2)
If in a
graph G
there
is one
and only one
path
between
every
pair of
vertices,
G is a
tree.)
G is of a path between Existence every pair of vertices assures that Proof. that there is in a graph (with two or more vertices) implies connected. A circuit at least one pair of vertices G, b such that there are two distinct paths between a and b. Since G has one and only between every pair of vertices, G can one path no circuit. have Therefore, G is a tree. .)
THEOREM
3-3)
with
A tree
n vertices
theorem
has
will
1 edges.)
by
Proof: The
be proved
induction
on
the number
of
vertices.)))
42)
CHAP.
3)
T)
Fig.
3-4
Tree T with
n vertices.)
is true for n = 1, 2, and 3 (see Fig. 3-2).Assume with fewer than n vertices. Let us now consider a tree T with n vertices. In T let ek be an edge with end V j. According vertices to Theorem 3-1, there is no other path between Vi and Vi and the graph, as deletion of ek from T will disconnect eke Therefore, Vj except in Fig. 3-4. Furthermore, shown T - ek consists of exactly two components, and since there were no circuits in T to begin with, each of these components is a tree. Both these than n vertices each, and trees, (1 and (2, have fewer therefore, by the induction hypothesis, each one less edge than the number of vertices in it. contains Thus T - ek consists of n - 2 edges n - 1 (and n vertices). Hence T has exactly
the
It is
easy to see that

the theorem
theorem
all
that
holds for
trees
edges. .)
THEOREM
3-4)
Any Proof:
connected
graph
with
n vertices theorem
and n
is left
- 1 edgesis a
the
tree.)
The proof
of the
to
reader
as an
exercise (Problem
3-5).)
have noticed another may important feature of a tree: its vertices connected the minimum with number of edges. A connected together be is said to if connected removal of graph minimally anyone edge from it the graph. A minimally connected graph cannot disconnects have a circuit; we could remove one of the in the circuit and still leave the otherwise, edges connected. a is Thus connected a tree. graph minimally graph Conversely,if
You
are
a connected
graph
G is not minimally
ei
in
G such
that
that G
G is
- e,. is
connected, there
Therefore,
following
must
exist
an
connected.
e; is
in
some
circuit,
edge which
implies
not a
tree. Hence the
theorem:)
THEOREM 3-5)
A
graph
is a
tree
if
and
only
if it
is
minimally
connected.)
The
significance is n
of Theorem
distinct
3-5 is obvious. Intuitively,

the
one
can
see that
segments
to interconnect n
needed
- 1.It requires
points,
no
background
minimum number of line in electrical engineering
to realize)))
SEC. 3-3)
PENDANT
VERTICES
IN A
TREE)
43)
e)
g.)
g2)
Fig.3-5
Edge e added
to
G =
gl U g2.)
n pins together, one needsat least n - 1 pieces of wire. The resulting to Theorem 3-5, is a structure, according We n vertices snowed that a connected graph with and without any cirWe cuits has n - 1 edges. can also show that a graph with n vertices which connected has no circuit and has n - 1 edges is always (i.e., it is a tree), in the following theorem.)
that
to
short
(electrically)
tree.
THEOREM 3-6)
A
graph
G with n
vertices,
1 edges,
and no
circuits
is connected.)
Proof:
which
Suppose
there
is disconnected.
exists a circuitless In that case G will
graph G with
consist
n vertices
and n
of two
or more
- 1 edges circuitless com-
ponents.
Add path cuitless,
an
Without loss of generality, let G consist of two gl and g2. components, V2 in g2 (Fig. 3-5). Since there was no edge e between a vertex v 1 in gland v 1 and V2 in G, adding e did not create a circuit. Thus G U e is a cirbetween and n edges, which is not possible, connected graph (i.e., a tree) of n vertices
because of
The
Theorem3-3. .)
of the
results
preceding
different
six theorems
but
can be summarized
by
saying
is,
that the following are five n vertices a graph G with

].
equivalent
definitions of a tree.That
is called
a tree if)
G is
G
connected and is circuitless,

and has
n
or
or
2.
4.
is connected
edges,
3. G is
There
circuitless and has n

is exactly
minimally
1 edges,
or
of
one path
connected
between every pair

graph.)
vertices
in G,
or
5. G is a
3-3.
PENDANT VERTICES
You
IN
TREE)
each
observed that several pendant vertices (a pendant

must have
of the was
vertex
trees shown in the figures has defined as a vertex of degree)))
44)
CHAP.
3)
Start)
1 1)
I I)
I I)
I I)
Fig.
3-6 Tree of 13,7,0,2,8,11,3.)
the
monotonically
increasing
sequences
in
4,
1,
we have n - 1 edges, and hence one). The reason is that in a tree of n vertices to be divided Since no vertex can be of 2(n 1)degrees among n vertices. zero we must have at least two vertices of degree one in a tree. This degree, of course makes senseonly if n > 2. More formally:)
THEOREM
3-7)
tree
In
any
(with
two or
more vertices), there
are
at least
two
pendant
vertices.)
The following problem is used in teaching Application: computer a sequence of integers, Given no two of which are the same, programming. in it. Suppose find the largest monotonicallyincreasing subsequence that the be us is it to can 4, 1, 13,7, 0, 2, 8, 11, represented sequence given by a tree in the which start the vertices individual numbers (except vertex) represent in the sequence, and the path from the start vertex to a particular v vertex the monotonically increasing subsequence in describes v. As terminating shown in Fig. 3-6, this sequence contains four longest monotonically increasAn
3;
ing
subsequences, 11). Each is of

data
that is,
length
and 11), (1,2,8, (4,7,8, 11),(1,7,8, 11),
(0,2,8,
four.
Such
a tree
used
in
representing
data
is referred
to as a
tree
by computer
programmers.)))
SEC.
3-4)
DISTANCE AND
CENTERS
IN A TREE)
45)
3-4.
DISTANCE The tree

in
AND CENTERS
3-7 has
IN
TREE)
it seems
Fig.
located more \"centrally\"
than
four vertices. Intuitively, any of the other
that
vertex b is
shaH
three vertices. We
ex-)
a)
d)
h)
Fig. 3-7
Tree.)
\"center\"
plore
this
idea
further
and see If
In
a tree
there
exists a
(or
centers).
Inherent
in the
distance before In a connected graph

Vi
concept of a center is the idea we can talk of a center.

G, of
of \"distance,\"
so we must
define
the
and
v j is
the
length
the
distance d( Vi' V j) between two of its vertices shortest path (i.e., the number of edgesin the between any two
shortest
path)
between them.
of
The definition
nected graph (not
distance
vertices is
valid
for
any
con-
necessarilya tree).In a graph that is not a tree, there are all between a pair of vertices. We have to enumerate several paths generaHy these paths and find the length of the shortest one. (There may pe several
shortest
paths.)
the
For instance, some of
paths
between
h),
(a, e),(a, c,f), (b,

paths,
c, e),
(b,f),
(b, g,
length
and
(b, g,
(a, e) and (b,f), In a tree, sincethere 3-1), the determination
each of
is exactly
two.
vertices VI and V 2 in Fig. 3-8 are i, k). There are two shortest Hence d( VI' V 2 ) = 2.
two
one path
between any
vertices
(Theorem
of distanceis much easier. For instance, in the tree of Fig.3-7,dCa, b) = I, dCa, c) = 2, d(c,b) = 1,and so on. A Metric: Before we can legitimately varicall a function f(x, y) of two
ables
a \"distance\"
between them,
this
function
must
satisfy
certain require-
ments.These are)
d)
VI)
g)
Fig.
3-8
Distance between v
and
V2 is two.)))
46)
CHAP.
3)
].
Nonnegativity:
f(x,
y) >
==
0, andf(x, y)
x).
0 if and
only
if x
= y.
2. Symmetry:
3. Triangle
A
f(x, y)
fey,
inequality: f(x, y) <

v j ) between
f(x,
z)
+ fez,
y) for
any
z.)
satisfies these three conditions is called a metric. That the two vertices of a connected graph satisfies condi2 is immediately evident. Sinced( and of the shortVi' V j) is the length v between est path vertices Vi and j ' this path cannot be longer than another a specified vertex v k . Hence d(v i , path between Vi and v j ' which goes through v j ) < d(vi , v k ) + d(v k , v j ). Therefore,)
function
that
distance tions 1
d(v i ,
THEOREM
3-8)
The
distance
between vertices of a
topic
term
connected
graph
is a metric.)
different
in a
Coming back to our original tree, let us define another

or
of relative
called
location of
a graph.
vertices
eccentricity
in
(also referred to
as
number associated
separation)
of a
vertex
The eccentricity the
V in E(v) of a vertex vertex farthest from V in G; that is,)
a graph
G is the distance from
V to
E(v)
==
max
VjEG)
d(v,
vJ.
G is called a center of G. The A vertex with minimum eccentricity in graph == of the four vertices in Fig. 3-7 are E(a) = 2, E(b) eccentricities 2, E(c) and E( d) = 2. Hencevertex tree. On the other hand, b is the center of that consider the tree in Fig. 3-9. The eccentricity of each of its six vertices is shown the same minimum next vertices to the vertex. This tree has two having this tree authors refer to such cenHence has two centers. Some eccentricity. will be no ters as bicenters,. we shall call them just centers, because there
= 1,
occasion for confusion.
The readercan easily

For example,in a is a center. In the
theorem:) THEOREM 3-9)
Every
graph
case
has many centers. that a graph, in general, verify that consists of just a circuit (a polygon), every vertex the of a tree, however, Konig [1-7] proved following
tree
has either
one or
two
centers.)
3) 3)
3)))
Fig
3-9
Eccentricities of the
vertices
of
a tree.)
6
6)
6)
4
5
4 6
(a))
.
4)
r)
3)
.
2)
.)
3)
.
4)
T')
(b))
.
2)
.
I)
.
2)
T\
(c))
.
o)
Cen
ter
(d))
Fig.
3-10
Finding a center of a
d(v,
tree.)
Proof:
The
Vi
maximum
occurs
distance, max
when
Vi
Vi),
from
a given
With
other vertex
only
is a
us start with more pendant

resulting
a tree
vertices
having
more
pendant vertex. than two vertices.

all
this
Tree T
of
V to any let observation, must have two or
vertex
(Theorem
3-7). Delete
What
the
pendant
vertices from
the
T. The
in T'?
graph deliberation
T' is still a
tree.
about
the eccentricities
vertices
removal of all pendant vertices from Tuniformly in T') by one. reduced the eccentricities of the remaining vertices (i.e., vertices centers in T'. From that T had as centers will still remain Therefore, all vertices tree T\". We continue T' we can again all pendant vertices and get another remove a vertex this is illustrated in Fig. 3-10) until there is left either process (which the two of T). is center are the centers of or an end vertices edge (whose (which T) A little
will reveal that
Thus
the
theorem.
.)
47)))
48)
TREES AND
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
3)
COROLLARY)
From
centers,
the argument used

the two
in
proving be
Theorem
3-9, we see
that
if a
tree T has
two
centers
must
adjacent.)
Application: Suppose that the communication among a is in a the in Fig. 3- I O(a), society represented by group of graph where the vertices represent the persons and an edge represents the communiis connected, we its two end vertices. Since the cation link between graph be members can reached either the know that all member, directly by any members. But it is also important to note that the other some or through afford to lose any cannot is a tree-minimally connected. The group graph
A Sociological
]
4 persons
of
the
communication
the
links.
each
The eccentricityof
est memberof group. were the criterion for leadership. group, if closenessof communication If a tree has a center (or two centers), does it have and Diameter: Radius of a is the from the center distance The Yes. a radius also? (which eccentricity in is defined the of the a tree as radius farthest to the the tree center of vertex) I in 3is The the tree three. diameter of the radius For instance, tree. O{ a) Fig. as the length of the longest path in of a tree T, on the other hand, is defined for the reader exercise is left as an T. It 3-6) to show that a radius (Problem in a tree is not necessarily half its diameter.)
be
vertex, In Fig.
E(v), represents how
close v
the
is to
3-10{a), vertex c should
the farthleader of the
3-5.
ROOTED
AND
BINARY one
TREES
A tree in which others is called a
vertex
(called the root) is

in
distinguished
from
all the
rooted tree.For instance,
Fig.
3-3 vertex N,
from where
all the mail goes out, is distinguished from the rest of the vertices. Hence N in the root of the tree, and so the tree is rooted.Similarly, can be considered In root the the of tree shown. be as considered vertex the start 3-6 may Fig. . We will a diagram of a rooted tree, the root is generally marked distinctly show the root enclosed in a small triangle. All rooted trees with four vertices the term tree meanstrees without are shown in Fig. 3- I ] . Generally, any root. called free trees (or nonrooted are sometimes for emphasis they However, them from the rooted kind.) to differentiate trees)
\037)
Fig. 3-11
Rooted trees with
four
vertices.)))
SEC. 3-5)
ROOTED
AND
BINARY
TREES)
49)
Binary
of
Trees:
A special
class of
rooted
trees,
particular
interest,
since they
are extensively used in

problems,
search methods, binary

codes.
identification
tree is defined as a tree in which and each of the remaining verticesis of degree oneor three (Fig. two, degree we are talking trees with three or more vertices.) about 3-12). (Obviously, Since the vertex of degree two is distinct from all other vertices, this vertex serves as a root. Thus tree is a rooted tree. Two of every binary properties binary trees follow directly from the definition: I. The number of vertices n in a binary tree is always odd. This is because is exactly there one vertex of even degree, and the n - I vertices remaining I-I the number of vertices of odd are of odd degrees. Since from Theorem is even, n - I is even. Hence n is odd. degrees 2. Let p be the number of pendant vertices in a binary tree T. Then n the number p - I is the number of vertices of degreethree.Therefore,
A binary
binary rooted trees, is study of computer and variable-length binary there is exactly one vertex of
called
the
of edges
in
T equals)
2[P
hence)
+ 3(n
- p
- I) +
2]
I;)
n+1 p = 2)
A nonpendant
.
vertex.
(3-1))
vertex
number
in
Eq. (3-1)
the
that
the
a tree is called an of internal vertices
internal in
It follows
from
a binary
tree is
one less than
number
level Ii
I3-vertex,
at
if Vi is
of pendant vertices. In at a distance of Ii from
binary
tree
the
root.
binary tree is shown in Fig. 4 are 2, 2, 4, and 4, respectively. and I, 2, 3, One of the most straightforward of binary applications a a test Each vertex of tree binary procedures. represents
four-level
levels
a vertex Vi is said to be at Thus the root is at level O. A 3-12. The number of vertices
trees is
with
in
search
two
possible)
Level 0)
Level
I)
Level
2)
Level
3)
Level
4)
Fig. 3-12
A 13-vertex,4-level binary
tree.)))
50)
TREES AND
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
3)
farthest from the root is as close to the root as possible. Clearly, there can be two vertices at levell, at most one vertex (the root) at level 0, at most only four verticesat level 2, and so on. Therefore,the maximum number of vertices possible in a k-Ievel binary tree is)
20
start at the root, and the outcome of the test at the root sends two vertices at the next level, where further tests are made, a specified pendant vertex (the goal of the search) termiit is often important to connates the search. For such a searchprocedure a binary number struct tree in which, for a given of vertices n, the vertex
outcomes.
We
us to one of the and so on. Reaching
2 1 + 22 +
of
... + 2k
in a
binary
>
n.)
The of
maximum the
level,
is)
lmax,
any
vertex
the
tree
is called
the
height
tree.
tree
It is easy to
see
that
minimum
possible
height of an n-vertex
binary
min
Imax == fIOg2 (n
+ 1) than
11,)
(3-2))
where
r n 1 denotes
the
smallest
integer greater
a binary
or
equal
to n.
n such have
On the other hand, to construct farthest vertex is as far as possible vertices at each level, except at the
max
tree for
given
from the root, we must 0 level. Therefore,)

==
that the two exactly
n-l
2
lmax
.)
(3-3))
For
==
11,
binary
trees
realizing both
these extremes are
shown
in
Fig.
3-13.)
Level) o)
Leve I)
o)
2)
3) 2) 4)
3)
5)
mi n I ma x = r (log2 I :2) -
11)
max
I max = I\037J
2)
(a))
(b))
Fig.3-13
Two II-vertex
binary
trees.)))
SEC. 3-5)
ROOTED
AND BINARY
TREES)
51)
of algorithms we are generally interested pendant vertices. This quantity, external (or path length) of a tree, can be defined from the root to all pendant vertices. The lengths in Fig. 3-12, for example, is) tree
In analysis
levels
of the
of all
known as path
in computing the sum as the path length the
sum
of the path
of the
binary
length
3 + 3
in
+ 4+
4 +
4=
23.)
The The
path
lengths
of trees
Figs.
length
importance is often directly
of the path
that
and (b) are 3-13(a) of a tree lies in the

of
16and 20, respectively.

fact
that this
quantity
related to the
at level
lrnax
execution time
an algorithm.
It can
21 max
n.)
be shown
- t
the type
vertices
of binary in Fig. 3-13(a) (i.e., a tree with tree for a given I) yields the minimum path length
pendant
number t-v
Weighted
Path
tree
binary
has
Length: In some applications, every with it a positive real associated
vertex
j . Given
v j of
Wt ,
W2,
. . . , W m the
problem
is to
construct a
L:
W
binary
tree
(with
m pendant
ver-
tices) that
where vertices.
minimizes) jlj,)
lj is the level of pendant Let us illustrate the
vertex
v j'
significance
and the sum is taken of this problem with
over all
a simple
pendant
exam-
ple.
machineis to identify, of tests, the coin that is put by a sequence machine. Only pennies, nickels, and can go through dimes, quarters the slot. Let us assume that the probabilities a nickel, of a coin being a penny, a dime, and a quarter are .05,.15,.5,and .30, respectively. Each test has the effectof partitioning the four types of coins into two sets and complementary coin to be in one of the two sets. Thus for four coins asserting the unknown we have 23 - I such tests. If the time taken for each test is the same, what the expected time taken by the Coke machine sequence of tests will minimize
A Coke
into the
to
identify
the
coin?
The solution
requires the construction of

three =
a binary
V t
tree with four

V4 and .3,
pendant
corre-
vertices (and
sponding
quantity
therefore
W t
internal
w 2
vertices)
W 3
weights
.05,
.15,
==
.5,
, V 2 , V 3 , and and W ==
4
such
The solution is given in L: ljw j is minimized. the expected time is 1.7 t, where t is the time taken for with Fig. 3-14(b), for which the time is 2t. expected with minimum tree structing a binary weighted path [3-6]. In this problem of a Coke machine, many interesting
Fig.
3-14(a),
that the for which

this
each test. Contrast

An length
algorithm can
conbe found in
for
variations
may
sible. For example,not all consume the same time.

Binary
possible
tests may
be available, or they
length
are posnot all

in)))
trees
with
minimum
weighted path
have
also
been used
52)
CHAP.
3)
Nickel)
Dime or
penny)
0.5)
0.15)
0.05)
0.5 0.15)
0.3)
\037 wi
I,
= 1.7
\302\267 = 2 \037 w, Ii (b))
(a))
Fig.3-14
Two binary
trees with
codes,
by
weighted
pendant
vertices.)
constructing
(A, different
B, C, . . . , Z) frequencies
variable-length binary are represented

of
where digits.
binary
the letters of the alphabet Since different letters have
occurrence
tree
(frequencies
minimum
are interpreted as
weighted path
length
weights
WI'
W 2 , . . . , W 26 ),
binary
with
corre-
sponds
to a
binary
code
of minimum
cost; see [3-6].For more

reader
on
minimum-
path
binary trees and their

.)
applications the
is referred
to [3-5] and
[3-7]
3-6.
ON
COUNTING
TREES)
Cayley isomers
In 1857, Arthur number of structural

series)
discovered of
trees while he was the
trying
to
count
the
C k H 2k + 2 . He
used a
cule.
Corresponding
sented by a vertex of one (pendant vertices).The
hydrocarbons (or paraffin connected graph to representthe C k H 2k + 2 molea carbon to their chemical valencies, atom was reprefour and a atom a vertex of degree degree hydrogen by
total
saturated
number
n
of vertices
2,)
in
such
a graph
is)
3k +
and
the
total
number of
e =
1
edges is)
of degrees) =
1.)
2(sum
1 2(4k +
2k
2)
= 3k
Since
the
number
graph is connected and the of vertices, it is a tree. Thus
number
of
edges
is one
counting
less
than
the
the problem
of
structural)))
SEC. 3-6)
ON
COUNTING
TREES)
53)
isomers
certain
The
of a
first
given
hydrocarbon
becomes
the problem
is the
of counting trees (with

of
different
qualifying
properties, Cayley question
to be sure). asked was: what
number
trees
construct with n distinct (or labeled) vertices? If n = 4, for in Fig. 3-15. The reader can satisfy himinstance, we have 16 trees, as shown trees of four vertices. (Of course, some of these self that there are no more be discussedlater.) trees are isomorphic-to A graph in which each vertex is assigned a unique name or label (i.e., no two have the same label), as in Fig. vertices 3-15, is called a labeled graph. a labeled and an unlabeled graph is very The between distinction important For instance, the four when we are counting the number of different graphs. as four different trees (even graphs in the first row in Fig. 3-15 are counted are isomorphic) though only because the vertices are labeled.If there) they
that
one can
A)
B)
A)
B)
A)
B)
A)
B)
c)
D)
c)
D)
c)
D)
c)
D)
A)
B)
A)
B)
A)
B)
A)
B)
c)
D)
c)
D)
c)
D)
c)
D)
A)
B)
A)
B)
A)
B)
A)
B)
c)
D)
c)
D)
c)
D)
c)
D)
A)
B)
A)
B)
A)
B)
A)
B)
c)
D)
c) Fig.
D)
c)
four
D)
c)
D)
3-15
All 16 trees of
labeled
vertices.)))
54)
CHAP.)
were counted
no distinction made between A, as one. A careful inspection of
B, the
C, or
D, these four
trees would
be
the number of unlabeledtrees with four two. But first we shall A, B, C, and D) is only trees.
in Fig. 3-15 will reveal that graphs vertices (no distinction made between
continue
with
counting
labeled
proved by
THEOREM
The following well-known theorem for and is therefore called Cayley,

3-10)
counting
trees
was first
stated and
Cayley's theorem.)
(n > 2) is nn-2.)
The number
Proof:
with
of labeledtrees
result was
with
n vertices
The
various
approaches
] O.)
excellent proof
in
summary of
Chapter
first stated and proved by Cayley. Many different proofs An since. (all somewhat involved) have been published ] 0 such proofs is given by Moon [3-9]. We will give one
Unlabeled
Trees:
In the
addition
3-10
two
is not enough. I n
observations
actual counting of isomersof C k H 2k + 2 , to the constraints on the degree of the
Theorem
vertices,
should be
made:)
they
carbon
are pendant, vertices hydrogen representing atoms only one way, and hence make no contribution we need not show any hydrogen vertices. Therefore,
2. Thus
1. Sincethe
go
with
to
isomerism.
the tree
each
between
representing
vertices,
a carbon atom. In
and therefore
it
representing Ck H
2k + 2 reduces this
tree
k vertices, to one with no distinction can be made
is unlabeled.)
every
two distinct 10' there are only knows, there are indeed exactly It may be noted in butanes: n-butane and isobutane. trees in the first row of Fig. 3-15are isomorphic to the
Thus
for butane,
C4 H
trees (Fig.
two
3-16). As
types of the four
organic
chemist
different that in Fig.
passing one
and the other
12are isomorphic
3-16( a);
to
Fig.
3-16(b).)
.)
(a))
.)
(b))
.)
.)
Fig.
3-16
All trees of
four
unlabeled
vertices.)))
SEC. 3-7)
SPANNING
TREES)
55)
The problem
and
of counting trees of
thoroughly
different
types
will be
taken up again
discussed
more
in Chapter
10.)
3-7.
SPANNING
TREES)
So far
we have
itself.
discussedthe
we shall
study
tree the
and tree
graph
by
Now
A given
combinasubgraphs-from e edges,2e distinct will be trees. Out of tions are possible. Obviously,someof these subgraphs in certain types of trees, called interested these trees we are particularly
its properties when as a subgraph of
it
occurs
as a
graph.
another
graph has numerous
spanning
trees-as
defined
next.
spanning
T is said to be a subgraph of G and T contains

A tree
tree
of a
connected
shown.
graph G if
the
T is
all vertices
of G. For instance,
subgraph
a in
heavy lines in Fig. 3-17 is a spanning tree of the graph Since the vertices of G are barely hanging together G. This is why a sort of skeleton of the original graph
a spanning
in a spanning tree, it is tree is some-
of G. Since spanning trees are the times referredto as a skeletonor scaffolding number of edges)trees among all trees in G, it is also (with maximum largest tree a maximal tree subgraph or maximal quite appropriate to call a spanning tree of G. It is to be noted that a spanning tree is defined only for a connected graph, because a tree is always connected, and in a disconnected graph of n vertices we cannot find a connected subgraph with n vertices. Each component (which definition is connected) of a disconnected graph, however, have a does by with k components has a spanning spanning tree. Thus a disconnected graph of k spanning trees. (A collection of trees is called a forest.) forest consisting G is simple. a spanning If G has no cirtree of a connected graph Finding it is its own spanning tree. If G has a circuit, delete an edge from the cuit, circuit. This will still leave the graph connected (Problem 2-10).If there are more circuits, repeat the operation till an edge from the last circuit is deleta circuit-free that contains all the vertices of G. ed-leaving connected, graph
Thus
we
have)
C6)
Fig.3-17
Spanning
tree.)))
56)
CHAP.
3)
THEOREM
3-11)
graph
Every connected
has
at least
one
spanning
tree.)
An edge in a spanning tree T iscalleda branch of T. An edge of in a given spanning tree Tis calleda chord.In electrical engineering
G that
is not
a chord
is
b 1 , b 2 , b 3, b 4 , b s , sometimes referredto as a lie or a link. For instance, edges and b 6 are branches of the spanning tree shown in Fig. 3-17, while edges c 1 , c 2 , c 3, c 4' CS , c 6 , c 7 , and C 8 are chords. It must be kept in mind that branches and chords are defined with respect to a given tree. An only spanning is that a branch T a be of one tree a chord 1 (in edge graph G) may spanning with to tree T . another 2 respect spanning It is sometimes convenient to consider a connected G as a union of graph T and T; that is,) two subgraphs, T U
where
graph
T =
G,)
chord
T is a spanning tree, and T is the complement of Tin G. Since the subt is the collection of chords,it is quite appropriately referred to as the set (or lie set or cOlree) of T. From the definition, and from Theorem
evident.)
3-3, the following theorem is

THEOREM
3-12)
With respect to any of its spanning edgeshas n - 1 tree branches and e

For
trees, a connected graph

n
of
n vertices
and
chords.)
the graph in Fig. 3-17 (with n -= 7, e = 14),has six tree to the spanning tree [bl' b2 , b 3, b 4 , b s , branches and eight chords with respect b 6 }. Any other spanning tree will the same numbers. yield If we have an electric nelwork with e elements (edges) and n nodes (veris minimum elements we what the number of must remove to eliminate tices), all circuits in the network? The answer is e - n -f- I. Similarly, if we have a in Fig. 3-18, and these of six walled plots of land, as shown farm consisting of how will be are full walls have to broken so that all the water, many plots water can be drained out? Here n = 10 and e =-\03715. We shall have to select)
example,
Fig. land.)))
3-18
Farn1
with
walled
plots
of
SEC. 3-8)
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS)
57)
] = 6) walls such that a spanning tree. Breaking these six walls will
a set
of six (15
and to
- 10+
the
remaining
nine constitute
drain
graph
the water
G,
out.
first thing
Rank
most
ing
likely
Nullity: mention
When someone specifies a is n, the number of vertices
the
he is
in
G. Immediately
follow-
comes
e, the
has.If k = 1, ed? Sinceevery

ber of
in a component can be no lessthan of edges the numMoreoever, the number vertices in that component minus one. Therefore, e > n - k. Apart from the constraints n - k > 0 and e - n + k > 0, these three numbers numbers in graphs. are fundamental n, e, and k are independent, and they to mention, these numbers alone are not enough to specify a graph, (Needless
number of edges in G. Then k, the number of components G G is connected. How are these three numbers of a graph relatn > k. of a graph must have at least one vertex, component
except for
From
trivial
cases.)
these three numbers

and
are
as)
derived
two
other
important
numbers
called
rank
nullity,
defined
rank
nullity)
r==n-k
== e J.l
,)
k.)
The
rank
of a
connected graph is n
of
the real
significance observedhere that)

rank
these
numbers
1, and the nullity, will be clear
e
in
Chapter
1. Although 7, it may be
of G
==
number
of branches
of
in any spanning
G,
tree (or forest)

nullity
of G
nullity
==
number
of chords
in G,
in
rank +
The
Betti
== number
of edges
to
G.)
nullity
number.)
of a graph is
also referred
as
its cyclomatic
number, or
first
3-8.
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS)
You may have noticed that if we add an edge betweenany two vertices of exists there a tree (say, in Fig. 3-1) a circuit is created. This is because already them of a tree; adding an edge between one path between any two vertices line of reasoning, this creates an additional path, and hence a circuit. Along it is not difficult to prove)
THEOREM
3-1 3
A connected graph G is a tree if and vertices in G creates exactly one circuit.)))
only
if adding
an edge
between
any
two
58)
CHAP.
3)
a connected graph G. Adding a one circuit. Such formed circuit, by exactly anyone a a to is called chord circuit. tree, afundamental adding spanning circuits does a graph have? Exactly as many as How many fundamental the number of chords, J.l (= e - n + k). How many circuits does a graph is created by adding in all? We know that one circuit chord to a have anyone tree. Supposethat we add one more chord. Will it create exactly one more if we add all the chords simultaneously to the tree? circuit? What happens Let
us now chord
consider a spanning
will
tree T in
to T
create
C 1 to it, Let us look at the tree {b1 , b 2 , b 3, b 4 , b s , b 6 } in Fig. 3-17. Adding we get a subgraph{bp b2 , b 3 , b 4 , b s , b 6 , c I}' which has one circuit (fundamenC 2 (instead of c 1)to the tal circuit), {b I' b 2 , b 3, b s , c I}. Had we addedthe chord fundamental we would have obtained a different circuit, tree, {b 2 , b 3, b s , c 2}. Now suppose that we add both chords c 1 and C 2 to the tree. The subgraph circuits we just {b1 , b 2 , b 3, b 4 , b s , b 6 , C p c 2} has not only the fundamental mentioned, but it has also a third ci.rcuit, {b p c I' c2 }, which is not a funda3-17 (enumerated there are 75 circuits in Fig. mental circuit. Although by
computer),
(together
Two
only
eight
are
fundamental
circuits, each
formed by
is a
one
chord
with the
comments
only
tree branches).
may
circuit
damental spanning
with
with tree
circuits (as well
may be funrespect to one spanning tree, but not with respect to a different of fundamental the number of the same graph. Although number of circuits) in a graph is fixed, the ciras the total
respect
given
be appropriate here. First, to a given spanning tree. A
a circuit
fundamental
circuit
fundamental cuits that become change with the spanning trees. we are not interested in all the circuits of Second, in most applications which are a graph, but only in a set of fundamental circuits, fortuitously a lot easier to track. The concept of a fundamental circuit, introduced by
Kirchhoff,
is of
enormous
which
significance
now
in
electrical
Kirchhoff showed,
every
sophomore
knows, is that
no
matter
sider only fundamental of the circuits (as we

some
circuits
shall
how many circuits a network with respect to any in Chapter rigorously prove
network analysis. What in electrical engineering we need concontains tree. The rest spanning
7) are combinations
of
fundamental
circuits.)
3-9.
FINDING
ALL
SPANNING
TREES
OF A GRAPH)
of spanning Usually, in a given connected graph there are a large number trees. One reasonable trees. In many applications we require all spanning is to start with a given spanning trees of a graph to generate way spanning tree, say tree TI (a b c d in Fig. 3-19). Add a chord, say h, to the tree T I . This forms a fundamental circuit (b c h d in Fig. 3-19). Removal of any branch, a new))) will create say c, from the fundamental circuit b c h d just formed
SEC. 3-9)
FINDING
ALL SPANNING
TREES OF A GRAPH)
59)
c)
d)
c)
d)
h) 7})
h
T))
T2)
Fig.3-19
Graph
and three of
its
spanning
trees.)
spanning addition
interchange
standard
tion
tree T2 . This generation of one spanning tree from another, through of a chord and deletion of an appropriate branch, is called a cyclic or elementary tree transformation. (Such a transformation is in the iteration for certain operation sequence solving transporta-
problems.)
In the
leted
or
above procedure, instead of deleting b and thus would have obtained
branch
two
c, we could
spanning (e,f,
have detrees or g) and

a branch
additional
a b chand
chord
a ch
d.
Moreover,
after
Tl
generating these three trees,each with

and
h in
it, we can
restart with
trees for
add a
different
chord
repeat the process of obtaining is deleted from the fundamental

for
a different
circuit
any
spanning tree each time formed. Thus we have a

graph.
procedure
generating
spanning
given
trical
ing
] 3, the topological As we shall see in Chapter elecanalysis of a linear network essentially reduces to the generation of trees in the correspondgraph.
all trees finding an efficient procedure for generating a very important problem. practical The procedure outlined above raisesmany Can we start from questions. a desired a number tree tree of cyclic and by any get spanning spanning a in we all trees of this fashion? Can given exchanges? get spanning graph How long will we have to continue exchanging edges? Out of all possible for starting? one spanning trees that we can start with, is there a preferred Let us try to answer some of these questions; others will have to wait until Chapters 7, 10, and ] 1. trees T,. and The distance between two spanning Tj of a graph G is defined This as the number of edges of G present in one tree but not in the other. in Fig. 3-19 d(T2 , T 3) = 3. as d( T,., Tj). For instance, distance may be written trees Let T,.EB Tj be the ring sum of two spanning T,. and Tj of G (as G all of is the of defined in Chapter 2, T,. EB Tj edges containing subgraph G that are either in T,. or in Tj but not in both). Let N(g) denote the number of edges in a graph g. Then, from definition,)
Therefore,
of a graph is
d(T,., T j )
2: N
(T,. EB
T j ).)))
60)
CHAP.
3)
It
is not difficult
to see that
the
in
number
going
cyclic interchanges
involved
two
from
d( T;, Tj ) is the minimum T; to Tj\" The reader
number
of
is encouraged
to prove the
following
theorems.)
THEOREM3-14)
Thedistance
between
the spanning
trees of a graph
T. 1)
is a
metric. That is, it

==
satisfies)
d ( T.\" T. 1) d(T;,
d(T;,
> - 0 and T j ) = d(Tj, T;),

Tj) <
d ( T.I'
= 0 if
T j ).)
and
onl y if T.I
T.l'
d(T;, Tk )
-t
d(Tk,
THEOREM3-15)
Starting
from
by
any
spanning
cyclic
tree of a
exchanges.)
graph
G,
we can
obtain every
spanning
tree
of G
successive
r (i.e., of r + I vertices) Since in a connected graph G of rank tree has r edges, we have the following results: The maximum between distance any two spanning trees in
a spanning
G is)
max
d(T;,
Tj)
max
N(T; of
EB T j )
G.)
< r, the
Also,
ning
rank
tree
if Jl is the nullity of G, we know that can be T; replaced to get another
no
more
than
f.-l
edges
of a
span-
tree
Tj\
Hence)
combining
max d( T;, Tj) <

the
f.-l;)
two,)
max d(T;,
where
Tj ) <
two tree To
min(f.-l,
r),) and
min(f.-l, r) is the
smaller of the
numbers To of and
f.-l
r of
the graph G.
Central Tree: For a spanning denote the maximal distance between Then To is called a central tree of
max ;
The graph.
a graph G, let max d(To, TJ i any other spanning tree of G.
G if)
d(To, T;)
<
max j)
d(T,
Tj )
for
every
tree T
of
G.)
of concept A central trees the
a central tree in a
tree is
graph
useful
in
enumerating
all trees
tral
reader should see [3-]] and

The tree graph
is, in general, not unique.

[3-4]. graph
of a For more on
given
cen-
Tree
Graph:
of a
given
G is
defined as
graph
in)))
SEC. 3-10)
SPANNING
TREES IN A WEIGHTED GRAPH)
61)
tree of G, and each edge corcorresponds to a spanning between the interchange spanning trees of G represented that startby the two end verticesof the edge. From Theorem 3-15 we know tree we can obtain all other spanning trees ing from any spanning through the tree cyclic interchanges (or elementary tree transformations). Therefore, of is connected. For additional (finite, any given graph connected) graph of tree graphs, the reader should see [3-3].) properties
which
each vertex
to
responds
a cyclic
3-10.
SPANNING
TREES
IN
WEIGHTED
GRAPH)
As discussed
minimal
earlier in
connecting
real
this
chapter,
a spanning
tree
in
graph
subgraph
all the
number
vertices of
associated
G.If graph
sum
G is
G is a a weighted
graph (i.e., if
the
there is a
spanning
with
each edge
of the
of G), then
weights of
will
weight
of a weights.
tree T.
T of
all the branches in

different
In
general,
G is defined as the different spanning
trees of G
the
have
Among all the spanning trees
of G, one with
smallest
(There may be several spanning trees with in for a of n vertices in which instance, weight; every edge graph has unit weight, all spanning trees have a weight 1 units.) A spanning of n tree with the smallest weight in a weighted spanning graph is called a shortest tree or shortest-distance spanning or minimal spanning tree. tree One possible of the shortest application Supspanning tree is as follows: that we are V to n . . . a network of roads. connect cities , V n through pose 2, vI' The cost Vi and v j is given for all pairs of cij of building a direct road between cities where roads can be built. (There may be pairs of cities between which no direct road can be built.) The problem is then to find the least expensive network that connects all n cities together. It is immediately evident that this connected network must be a tree: otherwise, we can always remove some edges and get a connected graph with smaller weight. Thus the problem of n cities with a least expensivenetwork is the problem of finding connecting a shortest tree in a n A necesconnected of vertices. spanning weighted graph is given condition for a spanning tree to be shortest sary and sufficient by)
weight
the
is of
practical significance.
smallest
THEOREM
3-16
A spanning tree
tree (of
one
T(of a given
if there
weighted
connected
spanning
G) if
and
only
exists no other
that
graph G) is a shortest tree (of G) at a
spanning
distance of
from
T whose weight The necessary

shorter
is smaller than or
the
of
T.)
we shall is obvious; otherwise, interchange. The fact that this condition is also sufficient is remarkable It can be proved as follows: and is not obvious. Let Tl be a spanning tree in G satisfying the hypothesis of the theorem (i.e., T 1 ).))) there is no spanning tree at a distance of one from is shorter than Tl which Proof: \"only if\" condition
get another tree
than
T by a cyclic
62)
TREES AND
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
3)
The
proof
ferent
will be completed by from T1 ) in G, the weight

spanning
showing of
that
TI will
if T 2 is a shortest also be equal to also
spanning
that
of
tree (difT 2 . Let T 2 be

of
a shortest
theorem
tree
in G.
will
Clearly, T2
be
must
satisfy the
than
hypothesis
the
(otherwise there
T 2 , violating
a spanning
tree shorter
T 2 at a
distance
of
the assumption that T 2 is shortest). Consider an edge e in T2 which is not in TI' Adding e to TI forms a fundamental with branches in TI' Some, but not all, of the branches in TI that form the circuit with e may also be in T 2 ; each of these branches in TI has circuit fundamental a weight smaller than or equal to that of e, becauseof the assumption on T 1. all those edges in this circuit which are not in T 2 at least one, say b j , must Amongst form some fundamental circuit e. Because of the (with respect to T2 ) containing T b than that on of cannot be less of e. Therefore minimality assumption 2 weight j bj must have the same weight tree as e. Hence the spanning T; == (T 1 Ue - bj),
obtained
one from
from
T 1 through
one cycle
with
exchange,has
T?, and
it
the
same
weight
T 1 has
one edge
more in
common
satisfies
the condition
as T1. But of Theorem
3-16.This
T l' than
a series of trees of equal weight, can be repeated, producing argument T . . . unit to T each distance closer a Tt, l' , 2' until we get T 2 itself. at a unit distance from T is shorter trees This proves that if none of the spanning T exists in the graph. .) T, no spanning tree shorter than
Algorithmfor
available Tree: There are severalmethods Spanning both hand in a tree a shortest by given graph, spanning actually finding List all is as follows: due to Kruskal One algorithm and by computer. [3-8] smallest selecta in G of order the of nondecreasing weight. Next, graph edges all remaining edges of select of G. Then for each successive (from step edge selected the circuit with that makes no smallest another previously edge G) - 1 edges have been selected, these and n until Continue edges will edges. The validity of the method tree. constitute the desired shortest spanning Shortest
for
follows from
Another
Theorem
3-16.
of does not require listing all edges in order algorithm, which selected forms if a at each or edge newly step checking weight nondecreasing vertices For Prim's algorithm, draw n isolated a circuit, is due to Prim [3-10]. of the edges of G the given weights and label them VI' V 2 , . . . , v n ' Tabulate with rein the table are symmetric the entries in an n by n table. (Note that nonthe of Set is the and the to weights empty.) diagonal diagonal, spect no direct which existent edges (correspondingto those pairs of cities between as very large. road can be built) it to its nearest neighbor (i.e., to the Start from vertex v I and connect conI of the table), say vko Now in row which has the smallest entry vertex to its closest sider v 1 and v k as one subgraph, and connect this subgraph v I and v k that has the smallest entry than other neighbor (i.e., to a vertex be Vi' Next regard the vertex new Let this I and in all entries rows k). among and continue the process V as one and vertices tree with , subgraph, Vi VI' k have been connected by n - I edges. Let us now illustrate all n vertices until a shortest of finding this method spanning tree.)))
SEC. 3-10)
SPANNING
TREES IN A WEIGHTED GRAPH)
63)
VI Vs
V2
V3
V4 1 1 ex>
Vs
V6
10
VI
10 10
16 9.5
10
ex>
17
19.5 12
v2
v6
v2
v3 v4 Vs
v6
16
11
7 7
ex>
ex>
ex>
8
8
7 9
10
17
ex>
19.5
12
9)
(a))
(b))
Fig. A connected
3-20
Shortest spanning tree
in
a weighted
graph.)
and 12 edges is shown in Fig. in Fig. 3-20(b). We start with VI and pick the smallest entry in row I, which is either (v l' v 2 ) or (v I' V s). Let us pick (vl'v s). [Had we picked (VI' v 2) we would have obtained a different tree with the same weight.]The shortest of subgraph (VI' v s) closest neighbor I is V 4' as can be seen by examining in and 5. The three reall the entries rows selected out to be (v 4 , v 6 ), maining edges following the above procedure turn v v and in that The tree-a shortest (v3 , 2 ) (v 4 , 3), resulting spanning sequence. tree-is shown in Fig. 3-20(a) in heavy lines. The weight of this tree is 41.5
3-20(a).
weighted The weight of its
graph
with
6 vertices
edges
is tabulated
units.)
tree Shortest Spanning Tree: In a shortest spanning any preceding construction, a vertex Vi can end up with - l. In some degree; practical casesan upper limit on d(vJ < n the degree of every vertex (of the resulting spanning tree) has to be imposed. in an electrical wiring For one may be required to wire instance, problem, three wires n pins (using as little wire as possible) with no more than together wrapped around any individual pin. Thus, in this particular case,) Degree-Constrained
resulting
from the that is, I <
d(vJ
<
3)
for
every
Vi.)
tree. a spanning tree is called a degree-constrained shortest spanning In general, the problem may be stated as follows: Given a weighted nected graph G, find a shortest spanning tree Tin G such that)
Such d(vJ
con-
<
k)
for
every
vertex
Vi
in
T.)
= 2, this Hamiltonian
If k
problem,
in fact,
well
reduces to the
the
problem of
finding
the
(without
shortest
the)))
path, as
as
traveling-salesman
problem
64)
CHAP.
3)
salesman
far,
no
to returning efficient method
his home of finding
at base), discussed
the
end
of Chapter
2. So
an
arbitrarily
degree-constrained
shortest
spanning tree
has been found.)
SUMMARY)
type of connected graph calleda tree. in trees form the most important topic applications, labeled Different such as and rooted of trees, unlabeled, graph theory. types and unrooted, were discussed, with their properties and applications. together interest are those trees that Of are subgraphs of a given connected special G all vertices G. trees are called trees of of Such containing spanning graph G. Finding all spanning trees of a given is of great practical importance, graph and a shortest so is the problem of finding spanning tree in a given weighted
This
chapter
dealt
wide
with
a particular
Because of
their
graph.
Other related concepts,such as centers, and of a graph, fundamental nullity cyclic interchange, distance between spanning
rank
radius,
circuits,
and diameter
branches
of a tree,
trees,
and
also introduced
chords, tree graphs, were
and
and
studied.
from
Trees,
time
will continue
to appear
to time
circuits spanning trees, and fundamental in most of the succeeding chapters.)
REFERENCES)
Every textbook
are)
on graph
theory
has a chapter
or two
on trees.
Especially recommended
1. Berge
[1-1], Chapters
12,13,and
16. 3-7, 6- I 9, 6-22,
[1-2], Sections 1-8,2-6,3-6, 3. Harary [1-5], Chapters 4, 15, and Appendix 3. 4. Ore [1-9], Chapter 4, Sections 2.4 and 6.5. 3.) 5. Ore [1-10],Chapter
2. Busacker and Saaty
and 6-31.
of trees in information The importance storage and processing can be seen in Knuth's in [3-2]. For counting trees of various and book [3-7], pages 305-422, types, see Chapter 6 in Chapter 10 of this book. An book of Riordan's given [3-11], and also see references has been minimum a binary tree with weighted path length elegant algorithm for finding 11 in [3-6]. On algorithms for generating spanning trees, see Chapter given by Huffman 10 different proofs of Cayley's in this book and the references cited there. Moon [3-9] gives 3 in Harary's book [1-5] has diagrams of all trees trees. formula for counting Appendix between trees and central trees one should with n < 10. For treatment of distance and Cottafava to Deo [3-4] and Amoia and refer [3-1]. Tree graphs were first introduced
studied
[3-3]. Kruskal's by Cummins study of shortest spanning trees.

AMOIA,
[3-8] and
Prim's
[3- 10]
papers are sources
for
the
3-1.
Trans.
of Central \"Invariance V., and G. COTTAFAVA, Properties Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-I8, No.4, July 1971,465-467.)))
Trees,\" IEEE
CHAP.
3)
PROBLEMS)
65)
3-2. 3-3.
3-4.
3-5.
and D. MICHIE (eds.) Machine Intelligence, Vol. 1,AmericaQ Elsevier Company, Inc., New York, 1967. IEEE Trans. Circuit R. L., \"Hamiltonian Circuits in Tree CUMMINS, Graphs,\" Vol. CT-13, No.1, March Theory, 1966,82-90. Vol. CT-13, No.4, Dec. DEO, N., \"A Central Tree,\" IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory,
COLLINS,
N. L.,
Publishing
439-440. 1966,
3-6.
3-7.
3-8.
3-9.
Vol. 21, No.4, Dec. 1971,514-532. D. A., \"A Method for the Construction of Minimum-Redundancy 1098-1101. Proc. I.R.E., Vol. 40, Sept.1952, Codes,\" Vol. I, Addison-Wesley PubD. E., The Art of Computer KNUTH, Programming, Inc., Reading, Mass., 1968. lishing Company, and the Traveling KRUSKAL, J. B., Jr., \"On the Shortest Spanning Subtree of Graph Proc. Am. Math. Soc., Vol. 7, 1956, 48-50. Salesman Problem,\" for Counting J. W., \"Various Proofs of Cayley's Formula MOON, Trees,\" Chapter II in A Seminar on Graph Theory, (F. Harary, ed.), Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
HUFFMAN,
New
Hu, T. C., and A. C. TUCKER, 1049, University of Wisconsin,
\"Optimal Madison,
No. Binary Search Tree,\" MRC Report March 1970; also in SIAM J. Appl. Math.,
York, R. C., J.,
1967,70-78.
and Some Generalizations,\" Bell \"Shortest Connection Networks 36, Nov. 1957, 1389-1401. An Introduction to Combinatorial John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Analysis,
3-10.
PRIM,
3-11.
System Tech.J., Vol.

RIORDAN, New
York,
1958.)
PROBLEMS)
3-1.
3-2. 3-3. 3-4.
3-5.
3-6.
3-7. 3-8. 3-9.
I, 2, 3, 4, and 5. = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Draw all trees of n for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Draw all unlabeled It can be shown that there are only six different (nonisomorphic) trees of six vertices. in Fig. 2-4. Draw the other four. Two such trees are given Prove Theorem 3-4. the radius. a tree in which its diameter is not equal to twice Under what Show condition does this inequality hold? Elaborate.
Draw
all trees
of n labeled
vertices for n = unlabeled vertices for n rooted trees of n vertices
Cite three
by
different
situations
(games, activities, or problems) that
can
be represented
trees.
Explain.
How many isomers does pentane CsH 12 have? Hexane, C6 H 14 ? Suppose you are given eight coins and are told that seven of them are of equal the rest. You are provided than weight, and one coin is either heavier or lighter with an equal-arm balance, which three times, for comparing you may use only coins. Sketch a strategy in the form of a decision tree for identifying the nonconout whether it is heavier or lighter than the rest. coin, as well as for finding forming 3-10. Sketch all (unlabeled) binary trees with six pendant vertices. Find the path length of each. [Hint: the 1 I vertices Distribute (because 11 = 6 +- 5) alllong different levels. Observe that level 0 has exactly one vertex, level 1 has exactly two vertices; level 2 can have either two or four vertices; and so on. There are six such trees, and two of them are shown in Fig. 3-13.] 3-11. Sketch all spanning trees of the graph in Fig. 2- I.
3-12. Show
that
a path is its own spanning
tree.)))
66)
TREES AND
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS)
CHAP.
3)
3-13.
Prove that a pendant connected graph G is
3-14.
3-15. 3-16. 3-17.
edge (an edge whose one end vertex is of degree one) in a contained in every spanning tree of G. G is contained in some spanProve that any subgraph g of a connected graph ning tree of G if and only if g contains no circuit. What is the nullity of a complete graph of n vertices? Show that a Hamiltonian path is a spanning tree. Prove that any circuit in a graph G must have at least one edge in common with a chord set.
Prove Find
3-18.
3-19. 3-20.
Theorem a spanning
3-13.
in Fig.
3-17. List
the
tree at a distance of four from spanning tree {bI, b2, b3, b4, circuits with respect to this new spanning all fundamental between two spanning trees as
are given
does
all defined
b s , b 6}
tree.
Show that metric.
distance
in this
chapter is a
3-21. Can you construct a graph if you 3-22. Prove that the nullity of a graph
in
its spanning
the
middle
of an
edge, or remove a
not change when vertex of degree
trees? How? you either insert a vertex two by merging two edges
3-23.
incident on it. Prove that .any
tree of G. Is it tree of G?
given edge of a also true that any
connected graph G is a branch of some spanning arbitrary edge of G is a chord for some spanning
a method for determining the total number of spanning trees of a connected listing them. graph without actually 3-25. Prove that two colors are necessary and sufficient to paint all n vertices (n > 2) of a tree, such that no edge in the tree has both of its end vertices of the same color. fact is expressed number of a tree is two.) by the statement that the chromatic (This condi3-26. Suppose that you are given a set of n positive integers. State some necessary tions of this set so that the set can be the degrees of a tree. of all the n vertices Are these conditions sufficient also? 3-27. Let v be a vertex in a connected graph G. Prove that there exists a spanning tree T in G such that the distance of every from v is the same both in G and in T. vertex G. If edge e is in T 1 Let Tl and T2 be two spanning trees of a connected 3-28. graph but not in T2, prove that there exists another edge f in T2 but not in Tl such that subgraphs (T1 - e) U f and (T2 - f) U e are also spanning trees of G.
3-24. Suggest
3-29. Construct
of a 3-30.
In labeled
a tree
graph
(with
16 vertices,
each corresponding
to
a tree
in Fig. 3-15)
complete
graph
of four vertices.
the
covered and an
tree graph obtained in Problem 3-29, observe the following properties (dishas at least one Hamiltonian R. L. Cummins). A tree graph circuit, by in a Hamiltonian circuit. edge of a tree graph can be included arbitrary an edge
shortest
3-31.
In
weight
exists a given connec;ted weighted graph G, suppose there is smaller than that of any other in G. Prove that every
in
es
whose
spanning
tree
G must
contain es.
3-32. Let
3-33.
G be a connected weighted graph in which every edge If e/ is the edge with weight greater than that of any other tree in G will contain shortest e/. spanning
belongs to edge in G,
some circuit. show that no
Show
cannot
by
constructing
be said
of
the
second
counterexamples smallest
that in Problems 3-31 and 3-32 the same and the second largest edges, respectively.)))
CHAP. 3) 3-34.
PROBLEMS)
67)
Use the tree in

Pick an
algorithm the graph
of Kruskal, as outlined of Fig. 3-20(a).
in this
chapter, to find
a shortest
spanning
3-35.
cities in the United States and obtain the 105 intercity distances from the shortest spanning tree connecting these cities by using (a) Kruskal's method, and (b) Prim's method. Compare their relative efficiencies.)))
15 large atlas.
Find
4)
CUT-SETS
AND
CUT-VERTICES)
3 we studied the spanning tree-a special type of subgraph of In Chapter a connected graph G-which kept all the vertices of G together. In this chapthe cut-set-another ter we shall study type of subgraph of a connectedgraph in G. Properties G whose from others removal from G separates somevertices will be covered. Other related such of cut-setsand their applications topics, of graphs, will also be disas connectivity, separability, and vulnerability
cussed.)
4-1.
In
CUT-SETS)
is a set of edgest whose removal G from graph G, a cut-set G disconnected, provided removal of no proper subset of these edges in Fig. 4-1 the set of edges [a, c, d,f} is a cut-set. G. For instance, disconnects There are many other cut-sets, such as fa, b, g},fa, b, e,f}, and [d, h,f}. Edge [k}aloneis also a cut-set. The set of edges[a,c, h, d}, on the other hand, is not a cut-set, because one of its proper subsets, [a,c, h}, is a cut-set. To emphasize the fact that no proper subset of a cut-set can be a cut-set, a proper cut-set, or a some authors refer to a cut-set as a minimal cut-set, is We a cut-set also called a shall cut-set. Sometimes cocycle. simple just use the term cut-set. A cut-set \"cuts\" a graph into two. Therefore, a cut-set can also be always set of edges in a connected graph whose removal reduces defined as a minimal The rank of the graph in Fig. 4.1 (b), for in-) the rank of the graph by one.
a connected
leaves
set
a tSince in G is a
set of edges(together subgraph of G.)
with
their end
vertices) constitutcs
a subgraph,
a cut-
68)))
SEC. 4-2)
SOME
PROPERTIES
OF A CUT-SET)
69)
V3)
V3)
VI)
VI)
g)
V6)
h)
V2) I I / /) (a))
V2)
Vs)
(b))
Fig.
4-1
two.)
Removal of a
cut-set
fa, c, d,
f} from a graph
\"cuts\"
it
into is four,
stance,
one less than
that
of the
graph
in
Fig.
4.1 (a).
Another
way
of
is this: if we partition all the vertices of a connected graph number of edges exclusive subsets, a cut-set is a minimal whose removal from G destroys all paths between these two sets of vertices. set [vI' v 2, v 6 } vertex For example, in Fig. 4-1 (a) cut-set [a, c, d,f} connects of vertices may with [v 3, v 4 , v s }. (Note that one or both of these two subsets consist of just one vertex.) Since removal of any edge from a tree breaksthe tree into two parts, every edgeof a tree is a cut-set. in studying properties of communication Cut-setsare of great importance and networks. Suppose, for example, that the six vertices in transportation lines (edges). We wish Fig. 4-1(a) represent six citiesconnected by telephone need weak to find out if there are any strengthening spots in the network that by means of additional telephone lines.We look at all cut-sets of the graph, I n Fig. is the most vulnerable. and the one with the smallest number of edges v rest of the the 4-1(a), the city represented by vertex 3 can be severed from After additional of just one edge. some network study of by the destruction w e shall return to their the properties of cut-sets, applications.)
looking G into
at a cut-set two mutually
4-2. SOME PROPERTIES

set S in
OF
A CUT-SET)
a connected
Consider a spanning G. Is it possible
tree T in
for
graph
edge
from
G and an
in common
G
arbitrary
cut-
S not
to have
of the
any
answeris no. Otherwise, nect the graph. Therefore,)))
removal
cut-set S
with T? The would not discon-
70)
CUT-SETS AND
CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP.
4)
THEOREM
Every
4-1)
cut-set
in a connected
G.)
graph
G must
contain
at least
one branch
of every
spanning
Will
tree of
the
true? In other words, will any minimal set of branch one of every spanning tree bea cut-set?The edgescontaining answer is yes, by the following reasoning: In a given connected set of edges containing G, let Q be a minimal graph at least one branch of every tree G. of G Consider spanning Q, the subin that remains after the G. from the Since removing edges Q graph subgraph G - Q contains tree of G, G - Q is disconnected no spanning (one component of which Also, since Q is a minimay just consist of an isolated vertex). set of edges with mal this e from to G - Q any edge Q returned property, at least one spanning tree. Thus will create the subgraph G - Q + e will be a connected set of edges whose removal graph. Therefore, Q is a minimal G disconnects G. This, by definition, is a cut-set. Hence) from
converse
at
also be
least
THEOREM
4-2)
In a connected
of every
THEOREM
spanning
tree
graph G, any minimal of G is a cut-set.)
set of
edges
containing
at least
one branch
4-3)
an
Every circuit has
even
number S in
of edges
in
common
with
any cut-set.)
partition
a Proof: Consider
cut-set
two
the
vertices
of G into
(mutually
graph G (Fig. 4-2).Let the removal of S exclusive or disjoint) subsets VI and
V 2 . Con-
vertex sider a circuit r in G. If all the vertices in r are entirely within set VI (or V 2 ), r is zero; that is, N(S n r) = 0, an even to Sand the number of edges common number. t If, on the other hand, some vertices in r are in VI and some in V 2 , we traverse)
./
.....
S \"
\"\" ,) \\ \\) I I I /) \\ \\ \\) /)
/ ./
/' -
\037----
-) ....... ,
\"-
,
\\ \\ \\ \\ I I /
I I \\ \\ \\ \\. \"
J) ......
----
---)-
./)
/
\037 // .....)
/'
./
..........-----\"\"\ Circuit
r shown
traversed along
Fig.
in heavy lines, the direction of in
and is the arrows)
4-2
Circuit and a cut-set
G.)
t As
in
Chapter
3, N(g) stands
for
the
number
of edges
in
subgraph
g.)))
SEC. 4-3)
ALL
CUT-SETS
IN A GRAPH)
71)
and forth between the sets VI and V 2 as we traverse the circuit (see Fig. 4-2). of edges we traverse between Because of the closed nature of a circuit, the number since VI and V2 must be even.And very edge in S has one end in VI and the other in V 2 , and no other edge in G has this property (of separating sets VI and V 2 ), r is even. .) the number of edges common to Sand
back
4-3.
ALL
CUT-SETS
IN
A GRAPH) shown
In Section
4-1 it
was
how cut-sets
purpose
are used to
identify
weak
spots
cut-sets of the correspondIt must have the smallest number of edges. also have become apparent to you that even in a simple example, such as in and we must have a systematic of cut-sets, 4-1, there is a large number Fig. method of generating all relevant cut-sets. In the case of circuits, we solved a similar problem by the simple technique a set of fundamental circuits and then realizing that other circuits in of finding a graph are just combinations of two or more fundamental circuits. We shall follow a similar here. Just as a spanning tree is essential for defining strategy tree essential for a set of funa set of fundamental circuits, so is a spanning It will be beneficial cut-sets. damental for the reader to lookfor the parallelism between circuits and cut-sets.)
we list all
in a communication net. For this and find which ones ing graph,
one branch chords with respect to T. Sucha cut-set S containing exactly to T. Sometimesa with respect cut-set tree T is called a fundamental is also called a basic cut-set.In Fig. 4-3, a spanning tree) fundamental cut-set
S are
a spanning tree T of a connected Consider graph T. Since is any [b} a cut-set in T, [b} partitions all vertices the same partition at each end of b. Consider of T into two disjoint sets-one Cutof verticesin G, and the cut set S in G that corresponds to this partition. the rest b and the of set S will contain branch one of T, edges in (if any) only
Fundamental
Cut-Sets:
G. Take
branch
b in
of a
V2)
I I)
d)
V4)))
VI
V6
/ //
V3 I /
/
/
/
I
Vs
Fig.
4-3
Fundamental
cut-sets of a
graph.)
72)
CUT-SETS AND
CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP.
4)
cut-sets with respect T (in heavy lines) and all five of the fundamental to T are shown (broken lines \"cutting\" each cut-set). through tree defines a unique Just as every chord of a spanning cirfundamental tree defines a unique fundamental cut-set. It cuit, every branch of a spanning must be kept in mind that the term fundamental cut-set (like the tern1 also with tree. fundamental has meaning only to a given circuit) respect spanning can be obtained from Now we shall show how other cut-sets of a: graph a given set of cut-sets.)
THEOREM
4-4)
The disjoint
ring sum of any two union of cut-sets.)
cut-sets
in a graph is either
a third
cut-set or
an
edge-
Outline of Proof: Let SI and
S2
G. Let
V
VI
and
V 2 be
the
(unique
be two cut-sets in a and disjoint) partitioning

be
given
connected graph of the vertex set
of
G corresponding
[see
to S2. Clearly
Figs.
V t V 3
to S 1. Let V 3 and V 4 4-4(a) and (b)],)

U U
the
partitioning
corresponding
V2 = V4 =
V
V
and
and)
VI n
V 3
V2 = V4 =
0, 0.)
Now let the subset (VI n V4) u (V 2 n V 3) be called V s , and this by definition is the same as the ring sum VI EB V 3. Similarly, let the subset n V 3) u (V 2 n V4) be called V 6 , which is the same as V 2 EB V 3 . See Fig. (VI 4-4(c). The of sum of the two cut-sets S 1 EB S2 can be seen to consist only ring V in V in . there are no outside 6 Also, s to those edges edges that join vertices SI EB S2 that join vertices in V s to those in V 6 . a partitioning of V into V s and the set of edges Sl EB S2 produces Thus V 6 such that) V s n V 6 = 0.) V s U V6 = V and
Hence S I
connected EB S2
is a
of
after
union
St EB S2 is
cut-sets.
cut-set if the subgraphs containing removed from G. Otherwise,
V s and
SI
ffi
V6 each remain S2 is an edge-
disjoint
Example: of cut-sets.)
In Fig.
4-3 let
us
consider
ring sums
of the
following
three
pairs
{d, e,f}
{d, e,
EB
{J:
g, h}
= {d, e, g, h},
another another
cut-set, cut-set,
{a, b} EB {b, c,
e,f} =
=
g,
h}
ffi
{.t: g,
{a,c, e,f}, = {d, e,J: h, k} k}

{d, e,f}
{h,
k},
an edge-disjoint
II)))
union of
cut-sets.
SEC. 4-4)
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS
AND CUT-SETS)
73)
I I I (a))
I I \\
/
,
/ ./
./ \"
,.....\"\"\" ,,\"\"\"
\037......-------....
v2 nv
3)
/ /---........\" \\ I
I
/\"--
\037 \\
I
'
\\
'/ --\037
---)
...... -)
vtnv3\\
\\
::-... \"\\ \\ I I '-
--)
----)
//
v2 nV 4)
(b)
(c))
Fig. 4-4
Two cut-sets
and
their
partitionings.)
So we have a method cut-sets from a number of generating additional of with in cut-sets. we start two cut-sets cannot a Obviously, any given given is a then graph and hope to obtain all its cut-sets by this method. What minimal set of cut-sets from which we can obtain every cut-set of G by taking in Chapter 6) is the set of all fundamen(to be proved ring sums? The answer a tal cut-sets with to respect given spanning tree.)
4-4.
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS
AND
a given
CUT-SETS) connected
circuit
Consider a spanning
tree T in
graph G. Let C i
made
be
a chord
with respect to T, and let the fundamental of k branches sisting hI' b 2 , . . . , h k
by Ci
be
called
Ci ;
r, conis,
in
addition
to the
chord
that
r =
rCi'
b t, b 2, . . . , hk }
is a fundamental tree
circuit
with
respect
to T.
Every branch
of any
spanning
has a fundamental
cut-set associated with)))
74)
CUT-SETS AND
CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP.
4)
it. Let
in
SI
be
the
fundamental
cut-set associated
that is,)
with
b l'
consisting
of q chords
addition
to the
branch b I ;
C2,
SI
= {bp
cp
. . . , cq}
is a
fundamental
cut-set
with
respect
to
T.)
of Theorem 4-3, there must be an even number of edgescommon Sh and there is only one other edge in SI. Edge b I is in both rand we must have two also be in Sl. Therefore, r (which is cJ that can possibly edges b I and Ci common to S I and r. Thus the chord c; is one of the chords) C p c 2 ,..., cq . cut-sets the same argument holds for fundamental associated with Exactly in every fundamental b 2 , b 3 , . . . , and b k . Therefore, the chord C i is contained
Because to
rand
cut-set associated with

Is
(with it
branches
in r.
to
possible
for to T,
the chord C i
be in any
other fundamental
cut-set S'
bk ? there
S'),
respect
of course)
with besidesthose associated
b p b 2 , . . . and
in r answer is no. Otherwise(since of the branches none would be only one to S' and r, a contradiction edge C i common 4-3. Thus we have an important result.)
The THEOREM
With
4-5)
are
in
to
Theorem
respect
to a given spanning
every
tree T, a chordCi
cut-set
that
detennines
with
a fundamental branches
circuit r
and
occursin
other.)
fundamental
associated
the
in r
in no
As an example,
consider the
spanning
tree
[b, c,
e,
h,
k},
shown
is)
in heavy
lines,
in
Fig.
4-3.
The fundamental
L/:
circuit made by
e, h,
chord
k}.)
by the
The three fundamental

are)
cut-sets
determined
three branches e, h,
and
determined
by branch
branch
e:
h:
{d, e,f},
determined by
determined
Chord
Lt:g,h},
by branch k:)
fundamental
[.t:g,k}.)
cut-sets,
f occurs
fundamental true.)
in each
cut-set
of these three
thai
and there is
Theorem
no
is
other
also
contains
f The
converse of
4-5
THEOREM
4-6)
given
With respect to a
spanning
in
tree
every
mental cut-set S is contained in S, and in no others.))) chords
T, a branch fundamental
bi
that
determines
a fundawith
circuit
associated
the
SEC.
4-5)
CONNECTIVITY AND
SEPARABILITY)
75)
Proof:
The proof
the
consists of
S =
arguments
similar
by
to those that
a branch
led to Theorem
4-5.Let
fundamental
cut-set S determined {hi, CI, C2, .
bi
be)
. . , C p },)
by
and
let
be the
fundamental
r
1
circuit determined
=
chord
C 1 :)
{Cl, b h
b2 ,
. . . , b q }.)
Since
the number
is true
The same
On the
for the
hand,
of edges common to Sand fundamental circuits

suppose
C
r
in
must
be even,
made
other
that
b i occurs
by chords a fundamental
bi must be in r 1. C2,C3, . . . , C p. circuit r p+ 1 made

C 1, C2, . . . , C p is and
by a chord other than in r p+ 1, there is only which is not possible.
1, C2, . . . , C p. Since
one edge bi common Hence the theorem.

illustration
none of the chords to a circuit r p+ 1

.)
the
cut-set
S,
e of
Turning again for spanning tree {b,
to k}.
c, e, h,
The
the graph in Fig. 4-3, consider branch fundamental cut-set determined by e d, f}.)
is)
{e,
The
two
fundamental
circuits
determined
determined
by
by
by chords d:
f:)
d and fare) e},
chord
chord
{d, c,
determined
Branch
{f,e,h,k}.)
circuits,
e is
contained
fundamental
in both
these
fundamental
and
none
of the
remaining three
circuits
contains
branch
e.)
4-5.
CONNECTIVITY
AND
SEPARABILITY)
Each cut-set of a connected graph G consists of a cerThe number of edgesin the smallest cut-set (i.e., cutset with of edges) is defined as the edge connectivity of G. the a be defined as of connected can Equivalently, edge connectivity grapht the minimum number of edges whose removal (i.e., deletion) reducesthe rank of the graph by one. The edge connectivity of a tree, for instance, is one. The edge connectivitiesof the graphs in Figs. 4-1(a), 4-3, 4-5 are one, two,
Edge Connectivity:
number
tain
of edges. fewest number
and
three,
respectively.
graph
a pair and edge
Vertex Connectivity: On examining the removal of no even although single edge(or

t Although
in Fig. 4-5, we find that of edges) disconnects the) connectivity only for a conof and vertex connectivity
we
some
shall
talk
of edge
connectivity the
vertex
nected graph,
authors
define both
connectivity
a disconnected graph
as zero.)))
76)
CUT-SETS AND
CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP.
4)
Fig. 4-5
graph,
Separable
graph.)
the
removal
called
of the single vertex

vertex
does.t
Therefore,
as
we define
(or
another
simply
analogous term
connectivity)
Again,
connectivity.
G leaves
The vertex
the
connectivity
of a
connected graph G is defined

from
minimum
number of
vertices whose removal

the
in
graphs
that
vertex connectivity of a tree is one.The 4-3, and 4-5 are one, two, 4-1(a), Figs.
the
the remaining graph

vertex and
disconnected.\037
connectivities
one,
from
for
graphs
way we have defined it vertex that have three or more vertices

connected other
and
connectivity are not
of the Note respectively. is meaningful only

its
complete.
vertex
connectivity
equivalent
Separable Graph: A is one. All

definition
graph connected
is said graphs
if to be separable
are called
a connected graph G is saidto be separable if such that g (the complement of g in G) and g are equivalent have only one vertex in common. That these two definitions In a separable graph a vertex whoseremoval can be easilyseen(Problem 4-7). a cut-node, or an articulation the graph is called a cut-vertex, disconnects point. For example, in Fig. 4-5 the vertex v is a cut-vertex, and in Fig. 4-1 (a) vertex v 4 is a cut-vertex. in a tree every vertex I t can be shown (Problem 4-18)that with than one is a cut-vertex. Moreover:) degree greater
is that there
nonseparable.An
exists a
subgraph g in G
THEOREM A vertex vertices
4-
7)
v in a
y
connected
graph
G is a
path
cut-vertex
between
if
and
y
only
passes
if there through
exist
v.)
two
x and proof
The
in
G such that
every
x and
The
of the
in
theorem is quite easy and

of the sense
4-17).
implication the
crucial vertex
is left as an exercise (Problem theorem is very significant. It states that v is a between x and y (if G rethat any communication network)
presented a communication
t Recall
must
\"pass through\"
v.)
because vertex, when we delete in the
that removal of a vertex the removal of all implies without both the end vertices an edge does not or removean edge from a graph, the end vertices
footnote
the edges exist. On of
incident on that the other hand, the edge are still left
graph.
the
\037See
on p.
75.)))
SEC. 4-5)
CONNECTIVITY
AND SEPARABILITY)
77)
Fig.
4-6
Graph
with
8 vertices
and 16
edges.)
An by
Application:
means
where e
that
the
we are given n stations that are to be connected Suppose of e lines (telephone lines, or highways) railroads, tunnels, > n - I. What is the best way of connecting? By \"best\" we mean network should be as invulnerable to destruction of individual sta-
bridges,
tions and individual n vertices and e
lines
has n = 8, e = 16, and has vertex with the of one and edge connectivity of three. Another connectivity graph as same number of vertices and can be drawn edges (8 and 16, respectively)
in
edges that vertex connectivity. For example, the graph

shown
4-6.
as possible. In other the maximum has
words, construct
a graph
with
possible edge connectivity and
Fig. 4-5
in
Fig.
as well as the vertex coneasily be seenthat the edge connectivity this four. even after is nectivity any three stations are graph Consequently, lines or three stations can still conthe bombed, any remaining destroyed, tinue to \"communicate\" with each Thus the network of Fig. 4-6 is other. better than that of Fig. 4-5 (although both consist of the same connected
It can
of
number
of Jines-16).
is the
can
The next question is what

achieve
highest
vertex and edge connectivity we

theorems
for
a given
nand
e? The
following
constitute
the
answer.)
THEOREM
4-8
The edge connectivity the smallest degree in G. Proof:

the
of a graph
be
Vi
G cannot
exceed the
smallest
by
degree of the
degree
removing
in
vertex
with
Let vertex
of
on
\"-';.
Vi
the vertex
can
with
the
G.
Let d(Vi)
degree
Vertex
\"-'i.
be separated
from G
the d(Vi)
be edges
incident
vertex
4-9)
Hence
the theorem.
.)
THEOREM
The vertex
connectivity of
rJ, rJ,
any
graph
G can
never exceed the
edge
connectivity
of
G.)
Proof:
Let
G with
denote edges.
rJ,
the edge Let S

vertices
set S
in
connectivity of partition the vertices

VI (or
V 2)
G. Therefore,
of G
there
exists
a cutV2 .
By removing
at most
from
on
into subsets VI which the edges in S are
and
incident,)))
78)
CUT-SETS AND
CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP.
4)
we can
effect
the
removal
vertices) from
COROLLARY)
G.
Hence
of S (together the theorem. .)
with
all
other
edges incident on these
Every
cut-set
in a nonseparable
graph
with
more
than two
vertices contains
at
least
two edges.)
4-10) one
THEOREM
The and
maximum vertex connectivity e edges (e > n - 1) is the integral

Every
can achieve
with
a graph 2e/n;
G of
that
vertices
part
of the
number
is, L2e/nJ.
in G contributes two degrees. The total (2e degrees)is divided Therefore, there must be at least one vertex in G whose degree of G cannot exceed is equal to or lessthan the number 2e/ n. The vertex connectivity this in light of Theorems 4-8 and 4-9. number, one can first construct To show that this value can actually be achieved, an add the remaining e - (n/2). n-vertex regular graph of degree L2e/nJ and then L2e/nJ The completion of the proof is left as an exercise. .) edges arbitrarily.
Proof:
edge
among
n vertices.
The results
of Theorems 4-8,4-9, and

vertex
4- I 0
can be
summarized as follows:)
.. connectIvIty
< e d ge _
. .
< connectIvIty _
pOSSI bl e
.
==
..
-,
2e n)
and) .
maxImum
vertex
2e
l n
connectIvIty
.)
Thus,
for a four
graph
with vertex
8 vertices
we can
high A therefore,
achieve a
(== 2.
G is
connectivity
and 16 edges (Figs. 4-5 and 4-6), for example, therefore (and edge connectivity) as
the
as
16/8).
graph
said to
be k-connectedif
graph
vertex
connectivity
of G is
k;
a I-connected
is the same
as a separable graph.)
THEOREM
4-11)
if and G is k-connected only if every pair of vertices in G is graph more paths that do not intersect, t and at least one pair of vertices k nonintersecting paths.) exactly
A connected joined
by
k or
is joined by
THEOREM
4-12
G is k if and only if every pair of vertices in edge connectivity of a graph (Le., paths that may intersect, but have joined by k or more edge-disjoint paths is joined by exactly of vertices k edgeand at least one pair no edges in common),
The
G is
disjoint
tPaths
secting
paths.)
paths
with no common vertices, except or vertex-disjoint paths.)))
the two
terminal
vertices,
are called
noninter-
SEC. 4-6)
NETWORK
FLOWS)
79)
4-] I
The reader is referred to Chapter 5 of [1-5] for the proofs of Theorems and 4-12. Note that our definition of k-connectedness is slightly different from the one given in [1-5]. A special result of Theorem 4-11is that a
a circuit
graph
in
G is nonseparable if and (Problem 4-13).
only
if any
pair of
vertices
in
G can
be placed
The reader is encouraged to verify edge-disjoint and vertex-disjointpaths

tices
these
between
theorems
each
by enumerating
of the
all
15 pairs
of ver-
in Fig.
4-3.)
4-6.
NETWORK
FLOWS)
In a
network of
and
gas or water),
that
work
is possible
is
telephone lines, highways, is important to from one station to another

so on, it
railroads,
know
the
of pipelines maximum rate

in
oil (or of flow
in
the
network.
the
This type of
which
net-
represented
number
number,
by a weighted connected graph
the
vertices
weight,
are the stations and the
edges are lines through

of messages,
associated
which
given commodity
The
(oil, gas, water, a real positive

the graph
number of
with
cars, etc.)flows.
network
each edge
flow
line, in
that Fig.
is, the
maximum amount of flow
represents the capacity of possible per unit of time. The

consisting
stations and 31 lines.The

the
4-7, for example,

capacity
represents a
of each
of 12
in
of these
lines is also indicated
figure.
It is assumed
entering
that
at
each
intermediate
is equal
of through
to the rate
the a vertex
or generation
the
dent through flow
leaving.In
other
vertex the total rate of commodity there is no accumulation words,

along the
commodity
at any is limited only
vertex by
the way.
as
Furthermore,
capacities
on
it. In
the
other words, the vertex itselfcan handle edges. Finally, the lines are lossless.)
B)
of the edges incimuch flow as allowed
A)
M)
6)
7.5)
Fig. 4-7
Graph of a
flow
network.)))
80)
CUT-SETS
AND CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP. 4)
In such
].
a flow
problem
the questions
flow
to be answeredare)
through
What
is the
of
maximum
possible
the network
4-7?
between a
through
specifiedpair
2. How
each
vertices-say,
from
flow
flow
B to
(i.e.,
exists)?)
in
Fig.
edge
Theorem
do we achieve this when the maximum

4-13, perhaps
determine
the actual
flow
port networks, answers the

implicitly
the most important result in the theory of transThe second question is answered first question.
a constructive the statement proof of the theorem. To facilitate of the theorem, let us define a few terms. a and b in a connected graph G A cut-set with respect to a pair of vertices puts a and b into two different components (i.e., separates verticesa and b). in Fig. 4-3 cut-set [d, e,f} is a cut-set with respect to VI and V 6 . For instance, The set [./: g, h} is also a cut-set with to VI and V 6 . But the cut-set respect to VI and V 6 . The capacity of cut-set S in [./: g, h} is not a cut-set with respect a weighted connected graph G (in which the weight of each edge represents its is defined as the sum of the weights flow of all the edges in S.) capacity)
by
and proof
THEOREM
4-13)
flow
The maximum to
the
possible
between
two vertices
cut-sets
and
bin
a network
is equal
minimum
of the
capacities of all
with
respect to
and
b.
Consider any cut-set S with respect to vertices a and b in G. In the subS left after is no path between removing S from G) there (the subgraph graph a and b. Therefore, every path in G between a and b must contain at least one edge one or more of S. Thus every flow from a to b (or from b to a) must pass through edges of S. Hencethe total flow rate between these two vertices cannot exceed the capacity of S. Sincethis holds for all cut-sets with respect to a and h, the flow rate of their capacities. cannot exceed the minimum .)
Proof:
G
To show
requires
will
that
some concepts
therefore
It flow can actually be achievedis somewhat involved. later. The completeproof that are to be introduced be deferred till 14, where flow problems will be treated Chapter this
detail.)
in much
greater
4-7.
1-ISOMORPHISM)
of two or more nonseparable subgraphs. Each is called a block. use the authors (Some subgraphs with components of a disconnected term component, but to avoid confusion graph, we shall use the term block.) The graph in Fig. 4-5 has two blocks. The
A separable
largest
graph consists
of the
nonseparable
graph
in Fig.
4-8 has five
blocks
(and
three cut-vertices
a, b, and c); each
block)))
SEC. 4-7)
I-ISOMORPHISM)
81)
I / / I I I \\ \\ \\
/ ./
\"\\
'\\ \\ \\
/) \"- I) \\ \\ \"
./
.\"...-- -......)
\"-
\\ b ...-------. \\'......____---c
'\\ '\\ ,) ./) I I I
\"\"-)
./)
/)
\"\\ \\ \\ I I I / /
'-/)
Fig. 4-8
Separable graph
with
three
cut-vertices
and
five
blocks.)
. b2)
.
c()
x)
Fig.
4-9
Disconnected
graph
I-isomorphic
to Fig. 4-8.)
enclosed by a broken line. Note consists of graph just one block.

is
shown
that
nonseparable 4-9 with
connected
Visually
compare
the
disconnected
not
graph
in
Fig.
4-8. These
number
two graphs
vertices),
are certainly
but they
isomorphic
the
of
are related by
the one in Fig. have the same do not (they fact that the blocks of the
the graph
become
in
graph
Such
of isomorphic to the components are said be to More formally: graphs I-isomorphic. in Fig.
4-8 are
G1
Fig.
4-9.
Two
graphs
and
G 2 are
repeated
said
to be
I-isomorphic if they
isomor-
phic to each
other under
\"Split\"
application
of the following
operation.
disjoint
OperationI:
subgraphs.
a cut-vertex
into two
vertices to producetwo
From
isomorphic
this
definition
if and
it is apparent that two if only they are isomorphic.)
nonseparable graphs are
1-
THEOREM
4-14)
G2
If Gland G 2 are two I-isomorphic and the nullity of G 1 equals the Proof:
graphs,
the rank
of G1
equals
the rank
of
into)))
nullity of G2 .
a cut-vertex
Under
operation 1,
whenever
in a graph G is
\"split\"
82)
CUT-SETS AND
CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP.
4)
two vertices,
the
is)
number
of components
in G increases
by
one.
Therefore,
the rank
of G which
number remains
of vertices
in
- number
of components in
G)
invariant
under operation 1.)
or new edges created by operation Also, since no edgesare destroyed 1, two have the same number of edges.Two with equal rank I-isomorphic graphs graphs and with equal numbers of edges must have the same nullity, because) nullity
=-::
number
of edges
rank.
.)
What jf we join two components of Fig. 4-9 by \"gluing\" two together vertices (say vertex x to y)? We obtain the graph shown in Fig. 4-10. to the graph in Fig. 4-9. Clearly, the graph in Fig. 4-10 is I -isomorphic in Fig. 4-10 are isomorphicto the blocks Since the blocks of the graph of the Thus the three graph in Fig. 4-8, these two graphs are also I-isomorphic. to one another.) graphs in Figs. 4-8, 4-9, and 4-10 are I -isomorphic
al)
.
c()
Fig.
4-10
Graph I-isomorphic
to
Figs.
4-8 and
4-9.)
4-8. 2-ISOMORPHISM)
In Section 4-7
I -isomorphism. were
we
generalized
the concept
isomorphic
for
A graph to the
G 1 was I -isomorphic blocks of G2 . Since

nonseparable
of isomorphismby to graph G2 if the
introducing
blocks
of G 1
for block, I-isomorphism However, I
a nonseparable graph is just one is the same as isomorphism. graphs

vertex
-isomorphism
I
graphs (i.e., graphs with separable is different from isomorphism.

but
I
connectivity
that
of one),
isomorphic
Graphs
are
are also
generalized
-isomorphic,
-isomorphic
useful
isomorphism
is very
may not be isomorphic.This graphs in the study of separable graphs.)))
SEC. 4-8)
2-ISOMORPHISM)
83)
its scope for 2-connectof connectivity two), as follows: I n a 2-connected graph G let vertices x and y be a pair of verticeswhose removal G will leave the remaining graph disconnected.In other from words, G consists of a subgraph gland its complement g t such that gland g 1 have two vertices, x and y, in common. that we perform the folexactly Suppose 2 on G (after which, G no longer remains the of course, lowing operation
We can
ed graphs
generalize
graphs
this
concept
further
to broaden
(i.e.,
with vertex
original
graph).
and
X 2 X 2
the vertex x into x 1 and X 2 and the vertex y into Y 1 Operation 2: \"Split\" x 1 and Y 1 go with gland Y2 such that G is split into gland g l' Let vertices and Y2 with g 1. Now rejoin the x 1 with Y2 and g 1 by merging graphs gland with were x and y in G could have edges whose end vertices Y 1. (Clearly, g 1 or
gone with
Two
become isomorphic after undergoing operation I (in Section 4-7) or operation 2, or both operations how the two graphs in of times. For example, Fig. 4-11 shows any number 4-1 I (a) and (d) are 2-isomorphic. Note that in (a) the degree of vertex Figs. x is four, but in (d) no vertex is of degreefour. the definition are From it follows immediately that isomorphic graphs always I-isomorphic, and I-isomorphic graphs are always 2-isomorphic. and But 2-isomorphic I-isomorphic) graphs are not necessarilyI-isomorphic, graphs
if they
x)
g l' without affecting the are said to be 2-isomorphic
final
graph.)
Xl
X 2)
gI)
Y)
YI
(a))
Y2) (b))
Y1
2)
gl)
Xl
Y2)
(c))
(d))
Fig. 4-11
2-isomorphic graphs
(a) and (d).)))
84)
CUT-SETS AND
CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP.
4)
are not necessarily isomorphic.However, for graphs three or more, isomorphism, I-isomorphism, and
with connectivity are syn2-isomorphism

graphs
onymous. I t is clear
that
tion 2. Therefore,
operation 2. And not change under

rank
and equal
in
to specifya graph
a counterexample
Circuit if correspondence
under operaremain unchanged under as shown 4-7, the rank or nullity of a graph does 1. Therefore, in operation 2-isomorphic graphs are equal The fact that the rank r and nullity nullity. J.l are not enough within can easily be shown 2-isomorphism by constructing
are
no edges
the
or vertices
created
or destroyed
rank
and nullity in Section
of
a graph
(Problem 4-23).
they
Correspondence:
meet
between correspondence
ence between the circuits certain edges of G1 has
graphs Gland G2 are said to have a circuit the following condition: There is a one-to-one the edges of Gland G2 and a one-to-one correspondG 2' such that a circuit in G 1 formed of Gland by
Two
a corresponding
circuit
in
G 2 formed
by the
correhave
sponding edgesof
circuit
G 2'
and
vice versa.
lsomorphic graphs, obviously,

to
correspondence.
as a particular G undergoes
Since in a separable graph G every circuit is confined block (Problem 4-15), every in G retains its -edges circuit
operation I
(in
Section
4-7).
Hence
-isomorphic
graphs
circuit
have circuit
in
correwhen
pondence.
Similarly,
let
us consider
2, undergoes operation one of three categories:)
what happens to a as defined in this section.
a graph
it
in
A circuit
in
G will
fall
I. r is made of
edges
all in
2. r 3. r
In cases
is is
made made
of edges of edges
all in
or g l' or
g l'
and
both vertices x and

I
from both gland g l'

y.)
in that
case r must
include
and
2,
r is unaffected
that is
by
operation
original edges, except constituted a part of r, undergoing Theorem
the
path
its
between
around.\"
original
2. In case 3, r vertices x and y
still in
has g l'
the
which
\"flipped
Thus
edges.
operation
circuit
which
2 retains
Therefore,
every circuit in a graph 2-isomorphic
graphs also have

4-15,
due
correspondence. is considered
the most
important result for 2-isomor-
phic graphs,is
THEOREM
to H.
Whitney.)
4- I 5)
Two
graphs
are 2-isomorphic
\"only \"if\"
if
and
only
if they
shown
have
in
circuit
correspondence.
Proof:
the
The
paper
if\" part
theorem.
The
part has already been is more involved, and
the argument
preceding
Whitney's
the
reader
is referred to
original
[4-7].)))
CHAP.
4)
SUMMARY)
85)
As we
and
shall observe
correspondence
in
subsequent
chapters, in duality
the ideas
circuit
play important
and
roles
m of 2-isomoTphis
in
the
theory
of contact
networks, electrical networks,
of graphs.)
SUMMARY)
Our
tion
main
concern
a connected
in this
chapter was with

Which part of
answering
the to
following
quesre-
about
moved,
breaks
specifya graph
graph: the graph apart? Clearly, the in many aspects and tells a great
considerable
a connected graph, when

answer deal
this question it. Some of about
does
answer to the above question, we came acrossthe concut-vertices, connectivity,and so on. Many of the theorems cepts between these characteristics of a graph. showed relationships a cuttree (which keeps the vertices In contrast to a spanning together), there was be a bound to closereset separates the vertices. Consequently, a spanning tree and a cut-set. Someof the theorems between (and lationship describe this relationship between the problems at the end of this chapter)
the
are of properties graphs. In pursuit of

of cut-sets,
significance
both in theory and
these applications of
spanning
trees
and
cut-sets.
minimum
In terms
of the
graphs
number
of vertices
whose removal disconnects
a graph,
all
can be
classified according to
Fig. 4-12.)
All graphs)
Connected
m \0371)
Disconnected
m =
0)
Separable
m =
Nonsepara
1)
ble
\0372)
2- connected
m- connected
m\037 3)
m =
2)
(m is the
Fig.
vertex-connectivity))
4-12
Classification
of graphs
according
to
their
connectivity_)))
86)
CUT-SETS
AND
CUT-VERTICES)
CHAP.
4)
very
important
and practical result
of this
chapter
was
the max-flow
min-cut theorem
(Theorem 4-13).)
REFERENCES)
material in this chapter is based on the classic work of Hassler Whitney in the early 1930s, [4-6, 4-7]. Menger [4-5],in 1927, showed that the vertex of a graph was related to the number of vertex-disjoint paths between two connectivity vertices in a graph. Many of Menger's theorem have appeared. variations Harary [1-5], results and shows how there are 18 Chapter 5, gives an excellent survey of Mengerian different theorems the two most important-Theorems possible (of which we have given 4-I 1 and 4- 12). The max-flow a variation of Mengerian min-cut theorem-also results -was discovered independently and Elias, by Ford and Fulkerson [4-2] Feinstein, and Shannon [4-1].The best reference for network flow problems is the authoritative book and Fulkerson [4-3]. Other for this chapter are) references recommended by Ford
Most
of the
conducted
1. Berge
[1-1], Chapter
and
20.
[1-2], Chapter
2. Busacker 3. Kim and

4-1.
Saaty
7.
3.)
Chien
[4-4], Part V, Chapters 2 and

and
Vol. IT-2, Dec. 1956, 117-119. IRETrans./nform. Theory, 4-2. FORD, L. R., and D. R. FULKERSON, HMaximal Flow Through a Network,\" Can. J. Vol. 8, 1956, 399-404. Math., 4-3. FORD, L. R., and D. R. FULKERSON, Flows in Networks, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1962. 4-4. KIM, W. H., and R. T. CHIEN, Topological Analysis and Synthesis of Communication Columbia Networks, University Press, New York, 1962. 4-5. Fund. Math., Vol. 10,1927,96-115. MENGER, K., \037'Zur allgemeinen Kurventheorie,\" 4-6. Am. J. Math., WHITNEY, H., \"Congruent Graphs and the Connectivity of Graphs,\" Vol. 54, 1932,150-168. 4-7. WHITNEY, H., \"2-Isomorphic Graphs,\" Am. J. Math., Vol. 55, 1933,245-254.)
ELIAS, P., A. a Network,\"
FEINSTEIN,
C. E.
SHANNON,
HA Note
on the
Maximal
Flow
Through
PROBLEMS)
4-1.
4-2. 4-3. 4-4.
4-5. 4-6.
Pick n By
an arbitrary spanning tree in the graph given in Fig.4-6. List all = 7) fundamental cut-sets with to this tree. respect
seven (because
in
list
List Show
the ring sum taking all other cut-sets of

all cut-sets that
of the seven the graph. with respect to the

and
fundamental vertex vertex pair
cut-sets obtained
V2, V3
Problem
4- I,
in the graph
the
in Fig.
are
the edge connectivity each equal to three.
connectivity of
graphs
in Fig.
4-1(a). 2-2
4-7. 4-8.
What is the edge connectivity of the complete graph of n vertices? Prove that in a connected graph G the conlplement of a cut-set in G does not contain a spanning tree and the complement of a spanning tree (i.e., chord set) does not a cut-set. contain Show that the two definitions of separability in Section 4-5 are equivalent. Prove that in a nonseparable graph G the set of edges incident on each vertex of G
is a
cut-set.)))
CHAP.
4)
PROBLEMS)
87)
4-9.
4-10.
4-11.
4-8 not applicable to separable graphs also? Why is the result of Problenl Explain. Prove that in a connected graph G a vertex v is a cut-vertex if and only if there exist two (or nl0re) edges x and y incident on v such that no circuit in G includes both x and y. Prove that every connected graph with three or nlore vertices has at least two vertices which are not cut-vertices.
Prove
4-12. 4-13. 4-14.
that
a nonseparable
graph
has
a nullity
J1
if and
only
vertex
if
the
graph
is a
circuit.
Show
that
placed in
sonle
a graph G is nonseparable circuit in G.
If
and
only
if
every
pair in G can
arbitrary
be
that a sinlple Show edges a circuit can

How
graph
always
is
if and only if for any two given nonseparable be found that will include these two edges.
4-15.
4-16.
4-17.
can
tifYing
What constitute
4-13 you utilize the result of Problenl every block of a large separable graph? condition necessary and sufficient a set of fundanlental cut-sets in G?
to obtain an algorithm
n
for
iden-
is a
that any
cut-sets
in Problem
4-8
Prove Theorem
that that
Show
4-7.
every
4-18. Prove
4-19.
in a tree
vertex
of degree
greater
is
a graph with n vertices and with least kll/2 edges. (A special case of this result nonseparable graph is at least two.)
vertex
cut-vertex. k must have at connectivity that the degree of every vertex in a

than
one
is a
4-20. Is every regular graph of degree d (d > 3) nonseparable? graph of degree three that is separable. 4-21. Conlplete the proof of Theorem 4-10. 4-22. In a connected graph G, let Q be a set of edgeswith of edges (a) Q has an even number (zero included)
of G.
If not,
give
a simple
regular
the following properties: in comnlon with every cut-set
subset of Q that satisfies property (a). circuit. 4-23. Construct a graph G with the following of G = 4, properties: Edge connectivity = > vertex of G and of vertex of G 5. 3, connectivity degree every 4-24. two graphs with the same rank Show (by drawing them) that and the sanle nullity need not be 2-isomorphic. 4-25. I n Fig. 4-7, between vertices A and M, pick out a completeset of
no proper
(b) There is
Prove
that
Q is a
(a)
4-26.
Edge-disjoint
paths.
(b) Vertex-disjoint
paths.
Theorems 4- I
I
From
this, that
verify
and
4-12.
tennis tournament is to be arranged among n players and the Suppose n - 1 < e < n(n - 1 )/2). number of nlatches is a fixed number e (where planned For the sake of fairness, how will you make sure that some players do not group together and isolate an individual (or a small group of players)? 4-27. Let us define a new term called edge isomorphism as follows: Two graphs Gland G2 are edge isomorphic if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the edges of Gland G 2 such that two edges are incident (at a common vertex) in G 1 if and in G 2. Discuss the properties of only if the corresponding edges are also incident an example to prove Construct that edge isomorphism. graphs edge-isomorphic not be isomorphic. may have a cut-set with 4-28. Prove that an Euler graph cannot an odd number of edges.
a singles
(Hint:
Use
Theorem
1-1.))))
5)
PLANAR
AND
DUAL GRAPHS)
In Chapters of subgraphs, such as paths, 2, 3, and 4 we studied properties in a given connected graph G. In this circuits, spanning trees, and cut-sets, we shall subject the entire graph G to the following chapter important question: Is it possible to draw G in a plane without its edges crossing over? This of planarity is of great significance a theoretical from question point of view. In addition, planarity and related concepts are useful in many other practical situations. For instance, in the design of a printed-circuit board, the electrical without must know if he can make the required connections engineer an extra layer of insulation. The solution to the puzzle of three utilities, posed in Chapter I, requires the knowledge of whether or not the corresponding in a plane. graph can be drawn But before we attempt to draw in a plane, let us examine the a graph
meaning
of \"drawing\"
a graph.)
5-1.
COMBINATORIAL
VERSUS
GEOMETRIC
GRAPHS)
As mentioned
any
in
Chapter
geometric
connotation
1, a graph of its ability

an
exists as an
of
abstract
object, be defined
devoid as)
of
being
drawn
in a
can
three-dimensional
Euclidean space.For example,
abstract
=
graph
G1
G1
(V, E,
'P),)
G,
where the set
consists
of the five V =
objects named [a, b, c, d,

88))) e},)
b,
c, d,
and e,
that
is,)
SEC. 5-1)
COMBINATORIAL
VERSUS
GEOMETRIC
GRAPHS)
89)
and
the set
E consistsof seven
7,
objects
(none
of which is
in
set
V) named
1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, and
that
is,)
==
[1,2,3,4,5,6,
7},)
and
the
relationship
of)
between the two sets is definedby

1
the
mapping
'P, which
consists
\037
(a, c)
2 \037 (c, d)
3
\037
(a, d)
(a,
'P == 4 -\037
5 \037
b).
(b, d)
(d,
6 -\037
7 \037
Here,
e)
(b, e))
1
the
symbol
pair
1 --\037
(a,
c) says
that object
set
from
set E
is mapped
onto the
(unordered)
(a, c)
of objects from
V.
this Now it so happens that combinatorial abstract object G 1 can also be of a geometric figure. In fact, the sketch in Fig. 2-13 is represented by means one such geometricrepresentation of this graph. Moreover, it is also true that can be represented means of such a configuration in threeby any graph
dimensional
Euclidean
space.
realize
It is important
to
that
what
is sketched of the graph
in
Fig.
2-13
not
is merely
the
one
G1
(out of infinitely
itself.
many)
representation
Gland
graph
We
placed e
representing
representation
have, for instance, twisted some of the edges or could have within the a, d, b and thereby obtained a different triangle figure is no chance of confusion, a pictorial G 1. However, when there be regarded of the graph has been and will as the graph
could
slurring
itself.
This convenient
Unlike in the make a distinction
geometric
over
theory and
is done
for little
in
and clarity. Learning graph would be extremely difficult

last
between
deliberately for the the first time without

chapter
sake
of simplicity
any
diagrams
fun. t
this
four chapters,
the of a
it
will
often
be necessary
to
abstract
(or combinatorial)
graph and a
representation
graph.)
this pOint I cannot resist quoting the following \"Descomment by Hadamard: tAt it completely of imagination, and wishes to eliminate cartes distrusts that intervention another . . freed from science.. .. More recently, rigorous treatment of... geometry. mathematician has been developed. . . by the celebrated from any appeal to intuition, of geometrical sense is eliminated. But is it the same Hilbert. Logically, every intervention the psychological not. . . . Diagrams from point of view? Certainly appear at practically every page (of Hilbert's book).\)
90)
PLANAR
AND DUAL GRAPHS)
CHAP.
5)
5-2.
PLANAR
GRAPHS)
be planar on
of G
A
A graph G is saidto which can be drawn
if there
exists some geometric

that
representation
a plane
such
no
two
of its
edges intersect.t
that cannot be drawn on a plane without a crossover between its graph edges is called nonplanar. A drawing of a geometric representation of a graph on any surface such that no edges intersect is called embedding. to declare that a graph G is Thus, non planar, we have to show that of all possible geometric of representations G none can be embedded in a plane. a geometric graph G is Equivalently, if there exists a graph isomorphic to G that is embedded in a plane. planar Otherwise, G is non planar. An embedding of a planar graph G on a plane is called a plane representation of G. For instance, consider the graph represented by Fig. 1-3. The geometric representation shown in Fig. 1-3 clearly is not embedded in a plane, because the edges e and f are intersecting. But if we redraw edgef outside the quadriwe have embedded the new lateral, leaving the other edges unchanged, in the plane, thus that the graph which is being geometric graph showing the two isomorphic represented by Fig. 1-3 is planar. As another example, diagrams in Fig. 2-2 are different geometric representations of one and the same graph. One of the diagrams is a plane representation; the other one is not. The graph, of course, is planar. On the other hand, you will not be able to draw any of the three configurations in Fig. 2-3 on a plane without edges The reason is that the graph which these three different intersecting. diagrams in Fig. 2-3 represent is nonplanar. A natural now is: How can we tell if a graph G [which be question may given by an abstract notation G = (V, E, 'P) or by one of its geometric is planar or nonplanar? To answer this let us first representations] question, discuss two specific nonplanar graphs which are of fundamental importance. These are called Kuratowski's after the Polish mathematician Kasimir graphs,
Kuratowski, who
5-3.
KURATOWSKI'S
discovered
their
unique
property.)
TWO
GRAPHS)
THEOREM 5-1)
The complete graph

Let the five Proof: Vs. A complete graph,
of five
vertices is
in the
non
planar.)
vertices as
complete
graph
be
named
VI,
V2,
V3, V4, and
is joined to
tNote
every
other
you vertex
may recall, is a by means of an
simple graph
edge. not
in which
every vertex
This
being the an
case, we
must)
that the
\"meeting\"
of edges
at a vertex is
considered
intersection.)))
SEC. 5-3)
KURATOWSKI'S TWO
GRAPHS)
91)
V2)
V2)
VI)
V3)
VI)
V3)
V5)
V4) (a))
Vs) (b))
V4)
V2)
\037)
V3)
V3)
Vs)
V4)
Vs)
V4)
(c)) V2)
(d))
VI)
V3)
Vs) (e))
V4)
Fig. have
5-1
Building up of
the
five-vertex
complete
graph.)
v I to V2 to V3 to V4 to Vs to v I-that is, a pentagon. pentagon must divide the plane of the paper into two regions, one inside and the other outside (Jordan curve theorem). Sincevertex VI is to be connected to V3 by means of an edge, this edge may be drawn inside or outside the pentagon (without the five edges drawn intersecting that we choose to draw a line from v I to V3 inside the penpreviously). Suppose tagon. See Fig. 5-1(b). outside, we end up with the same argument.)))) (If we choose
a circuit
going from
This
SeeFig. 5-1
(a).
92)
Now
PLANAR
AND DUAL GRAPHS)
CHAP.
5)
we have
neither
to draw an of these edgescan
edge
be
from
drawn
V2
to V4 and
another
one from
without pentagon.
V2
to
Vs. Since
inside the
pentagon
edge already drawn, The edge connecting crossing the edge

with
we draw V3 and
both these Vs cannot

and
edges outside the

be
drawn
over the crossing See Fig. 5-1(c). pentagon
outside
the
without
between
V2
V4. Therefore,
V3 and
1'S have to be
V4.
connected
an
Now
edge
we
have
placedinside
be embedded
inside the pentagon. See Fig. 5-1 (d). an edge between VI and yet to draw a crossover. or outside the pentagon without in a plane. See Fig. 5-1(e). .)
may
This edge cannot be Thus the graph cannot
find this proof somewhat unsatisfactory because it we shall provide you on visual intuition. Do not despair; depends with an algebraic nonvisual proof in the next section. two graphs of is the first five vertices of the A complete graph with Kuratowski. The second graph of Kuratowski is a regulart connected graph with six vertices and nine edges, shown in its two common geometric representations in Figs. 5-2{a) and (b), where it is fairly easy to see that the
Some readers
so heavily
graphs Theorem
are isomorphic.
visual
Employing
geometric
arguments
that
similar
second
5-1, it can
The
be shown
of
the
graph
to those used in of Kuratowski

left
proving
is also
exercise
nonplanar.
(Problem
proof
Theorem
5-2 is, therefore,
as
an
5-1).)
(a))
(b))
Fig. THEOREM
5-2
Kuratowski's
second graph.)
5-2
Kuratowski's
second
graph
is also
non planar.)
properties
Kuratowski.
You may have noticed several These are)
common
to the
two
graphs
of
]. Both are
tRecall
regular
graphs.)
in
that a graph
which
all vertices
are of equal
degree
is called
a regular
graph.)))
SEC. 5-4)
DIFFERENT
REPRESENTATIONS
OF A PLANAR
GRAPH)
93)
2. Both
are nonplanar.
of
3. Removal
4.
one
edge or
a vertex makes each a

is the nonplanar
planar with
graph. the
Kuratowski's number of
graph with nonplanar In the literature, second graph by
vertices, and Kuratowski's secondgraph the number of edges. Thus both smallest
graphs.)
first graph
graph
smallest
is the are
the
nonplanar simplest
Kuratowski's
K 3 . 3 -letter
first
graph
is usually
denoted
by
Ks
and
the
Kbeing
for Kuratowski.)
5-4.
In
DIFFERENT
REPRESENTATIONS
OF
PLANAR
following
GRAPH)
the of Theorem proof a planar graph in a plane
have appeared that one's on his to draw depended ability many crooked lines through This is not the case. The following devious routes. and somewhat tells us that there is important surprising result, due to Fary, no need to bend edgesin drawing a planar graph to avoid edge intersections.)
5-1,
it
may
ability
to draw
THEOREM
5-3
in
drawn
can be embedded Any simple planar graph as a straight line segment.)
a plane
such that every
edge is
is involved and does not contribute much to the understanding The interested reader is, therefore, referred to pages 74-77 in [1-2] or to the original As an illustration, the graph in Fig. 5-1(d) [5-4]. paper of Fary can be redrawn line segments to look like Fig. 5-3. In this theorem, using straight it is necessary because a self-loop or one of two paralJel for the graph to be simple edges cannot be drawn by a straight line segment. .) of
Proof: Theproof
planarity.
Region:
plane
representation
faces,
of a
meshes),
graph divides
as shown
in
the
(also called windo\"'s,
or
plane 5-4. Fig.
into regions A region is)
VI)
V3)))
Vs
Fig. 5-3 Straight-line representation the graph in Fig. 5-1(d).)
of
94)
PLANAR
AND DUAL GRAPHS)
CHAP.
5)
Plane representation Fig.5-4 bers stand for regions).)

characterized
(the num-
by the set of edges (or the set of vertices) forming its boundary. a region is not defined in a nonplanar graph or even in a planar embedded in a not For the graph plane. example, geometric graph in Fig. 1-3 does not have regions. Thus a region is a property of the specific plane of a graph and not of an abstract representation graph per see Note
that
Infinite in
Region:
The
portion
Fig.
of the plane
lying
outside
a graph
embedded
is
a plane,
such as
region 4 in
5-4, is infinite
in its
extent. Sucha region
called
the infinite, unbounded, or exterior region for that outer, particular plane Like other regions, the infinite is also characterized by representation. region a set of edges (or vertices). Clearly, the embedding of a given by changing we can change the infinite For instance, planar graph, region. Figs. 5-1(d) and 5-3 are two different embeddings of the same The finite region VI V 3 V s graph.
in Fig.
show
5-1 (d) that any
becomesthe
region
infinite
region
in Fig.
infinite
5-3. In fact, we
by proper
shall
shortly
can
be made the
region
embedding.
finite and of a sphere.
Embedding on a
infinite
Sphere:To eliminate
graph is often
the
distinction
the
between
surface
regions,
a planar
embedded in
It is accomplished by stereographic of a sphere on a plane. Put projection on the plane and call the point of contact SP (south pole). At point sphere and let the point where SP, draw a straight line perpendicular to the plane, this line the surface of the sphere be called NP (north intersects See pole).
the
Fig. 5-5.
Now, corresponding to any point p on the plane, there exists a unique where the p' on the sphere and vice versa, p' is the point at which line from point p to point NP intersects the surface of the sphere. straight Thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between the of the sphere points in the plane correand the finite points on the plane, and points at infinity spond to the point NP on the sphere. it is clear that From this construction, that can be embeddedin))) any graph
point
SEC. 5-4)
DIFFERENT
REPRESENTATIONS
OF A PLANAR
GRAPH)
95)
NP
\"-, I
I
J I
...., \"
'
\"-
t I I I I I I)
.\037)
.
SP)
p)
Fig. 5-5
a plane
embedded
Stereographic
projection.)
(i.e.,
in
drawn
on
a plane
the
surface
such that its edges do not intersect) of the sphere, and viceversa. Hence)
can alsobe
THEOREM
5-4)
A graph can
in embedded
be embeddedin
the
surface
of a
sphere if
and
only
if it
can be
a plane.)
A planar graph embedded in the surface of a sphere divides the surface is finite, the infinite on different regions. Each region on the sphere region the plane having been NP. Now onto the region containing the point mapped it is clear that the sphere we can make rotating any specified by suitably on the plane. From this we obtain) region region map onto the infinite
into
THEOREM 5-5)
A
planar
graph
by
(i.e., specified Thinking

difference
the
may be embedded in edges forming it) can
plane
such that
infinite
any
specified
region
be made the
region.)
in terms
between
when
Therefore,
we
include
the
we see that there is no real of the regions on the sphere, on the plane. the infinite region and the finite regions we talk of the regions in a plane regresentation of a graph, is no essential difference infinite region. Also, since there planar graph of a sphere
between an embeddingof a may be regarded as the surface

\"plane
on a
plane or on
large
a sphere
of infinitely
radius),
spherical
representation\"
of a
graph is often
used to include
different
(a plane the term as well as
planar embedding.
Euler'sFormula:
tations,
Since
a planar number
graph may have
plane
represen-
we may
same.
ask if
answer
the
of regions resulting
as
graph.)))
from each embedding

Euler's
is the
The
is yes.
any
Theorem 5-6, known

planar
formula,
gives
the number
of regions in
96)
PLANAR
AND DUAL GRAPHS)
CHAP.
5)
THEOREM
5-6)
planar
A connected
graph
with
the
n vertices
theorem adds
and
e edges
has e
2 regions.)
Proof:
a self-loop
It
will
suffice
to prove
for a simple
graph, because adding

graph
or a parallel
edge simply
one
region to
the
and
simultane-
all edges ously increases the value of e by one. We can also disregard (i.e., remove) in Fig. 5-4. that do not form boundaries of any region. Three such edges are shown e by one and inAddition (or removal) of any such edge increases (or decreases) n by one, e - n unaltered. creases (or decreases) keeping the quantity Since any simple planar graph can have a plane representation such that each line (Theorem that such 5-3), any planar edge is a straight graph can be drawn each region is a polygon net representing the net). Let the polygonal (a polygonal let k p be the number of p-sided regions. consist of fregions or faces, and given graph Sinceeach edge is on the boundary of exactly two regions,)
3.k3 +
where
4.k4 + 5.ks+
with
...
...
r.k
r =
2.e,)
(5-1))
k r is
the number
of polygons,
k3 +
k4
maximum
edges.
k r = f.) (5-2)) net
is)
Also,)
+
at
ks +
each
-+
The
sum of all angles subtended
vertex
in the
polygonal
2n n .)
(5-3))
the
Recalling sum
that the sum of all interior of the exterior angles is n(p

angles
defining
angles
as the
exterior
grand sum of all interior angles of the polygon

n(3
+ 2), let us compute of f - 1 finite regions

the
+
polygon is n(p - 2),and the expression in (5-3) plus the sum of the infinite region. This sum is)
of a p-sided ...
-t-
- 2). k 3
n( 4
- 2).k 4
n(r
- 2). k r
-t- 4n (5-4))
= n(2e
Equating
- 2f) + 4n.
(5-3), we get
(5-4) to
2n(e or)
f)
4n =
=
2nn,
n.)
e- f+2
the number
Therefore,
of regions is)
f
= e
2.
.)
COROLLARY
In
any
simple, connected
following
planar
graph
with f
regions,
vertices,
and
e edges
(e > 2), the
inequalities
must hold:)
e> 3
2f,
3n
(5-5)
e<
6.)
(5-6))))
SEC. 5-4)
DIFFERENT
REPRESENTATIONS
OF A PLANAR
GRAPH)
97)
Proof:
belongs
Since each
exactly
region
is
bounded
by at
least three edges and
each edge
to
two regions,)
2e >
3f
or)
e>
for f
'ff)
(5-5),)
Substituting
from Euler's
formula
in inequality
e >
or)
2(e
3n
6.
2)
e <
.) out if a graph is non planar. For of five vertices [Fig. 5-1(e)],) -
example,
Inequality (5-6) is often useful in the case of Ks, the
in
finding
complete graph
10 ,)
(5-6), 3n
n=5
Thus
,)
e =
6 =
9<
e.)
the
graph
violates
this
inequality
Incidentally, of Kuratowski's planarity

is
an
alternative
first
graph,
and hence it is not planar. and independent proof of the as promised in Section 5-3.
non-
not a
but (5-6) is only a necessary, of a graph. In other words, must although every simple planar graph satisfy (5-6), the mere satisfaction of this does not the of a graph. For example, inequality guarantee planarity Kuratowski's secondgraph, K 3,3' satisfies because) (5-6),
be
The reader must

sufficient,
warned
condition
for
that inequality the planarity
3n
- 6
e=9 ,) = 3.6 -
6=
12.)
Yet
the
graph
is non planar.
the
To prove
than
nonplanarity
the additional
fact that
no
of Kuratowski's second graph, we make in this graph can be bounded with region
this
use of
fewer
four edges.
Hence, if
graph 2e
were
planar,
we would
have)
> 4f,)
and,
substituting
for
f from
2e
Euler's formula,)
> 4(e
2),
or)
2.9 >
4(9 - 6 + 2),
a
or)
18> 20,
the graph cannot
Representation
contradiction.)
Hence
Plane
be planar.
and
Connectivity:
embedding
of each
component
In a disconnected graph the can be considered Therefore,))) independently.
98)
PLANAR
AND DUAL GRAPHS)
CHAP.
5)
is planar if and only if each that a disconnectedgraph of its comin a is (or Similarly, separable ponents I-connected) graph the planar. embedding of each block (i.e., maximal nonseparable subgraph) can be Hence a separable considered graph is planar if and only if independently. each of its blocks is planar. it
is clear
Therefore,
in questions
of embedding
planar
this
or
planarity,
one
need
consider
only
a
nonseparable graphs.
Does a
nonseparable
graph
question,
G have
we must
a unique embedding on
sphere?
embedding.
Before
answering
of a planar graph Two embeddings the embeddings can be made to coincide by suitably to the other and possibly distorting regions respect
define the meaning of unique on spheres are not distinct if

rotating (without
one sphere with letting a vertex

distinct,
plane
cross an
edge).
If of all
possible embeddings
a unique
the graph is
representation).
said to
have
embedding
on a sphereno two are on a sphere (or a unique
embedding (b) has
the same graph in Fig. 5-6. The with five edges, but embedding (a) has no region with five edges. Thus, rotating the two spheres on which (a) and (b) are embedded will not make them coincide. Hence the two embeddingsare the graph has no unique plane representation. and distinct, On the other hand, the embeddings in Figs. 5-1 (d) and 5-3, when conto coincide. that edges can be sidered on a sphere, can be made (Remember
For example,
consider two embeddingsof

a region
bounded
bent, and
due to
in
a spherical
tells
Whitney,
sphere. For
THEOREM
a proof
Theorem region.) embedding there is no infinite embeddable when a graph is uniquely the reader is referred to [5-9].) of the theorem, us exactly
5-7,
in a
5- 7
planar
The spherical embedding of every

This
3-connected
graph is
determining
unique.)
theorem
plays
a very important
role in
if a
graph
is)
e 7)
e4)
e()
e 4)
e()
e2) (a))
e 2)
(b))
Fig.
5-6
Two distinct
plane
representations
of the
same
graph.)))
SEC. 5-5)
DETECTION
OF PLANARITY)
99)
planar
or not.
all,
The theorem states

can
that in
a only
3-connected one
graph,
if it can
be
embedded at
5-5.
be embedded
way.)
DETECTIONOF PLANARITY)
How
to
problem,
must
following
and
have
tell if a given graph G \"find out by drawing some simple and efficient
steps:)
is planar or
it\"
nonplanar
is
an
important
we take
is
obviously
not a
good answer. We
goal,
criterion. Toward that
the
simplifying
Elementary
Reduction)
graph
Step J: Sincea disconnected components is planar, we need
consider
only
a separable graph
fore,
is planar
if and
is planar if each if and only of its only one component at a time. Also, if each of its blocks is planar. There-
for
the
given arbitrary
graph G,
G =
determine the
G k },)
we
set)
fGl' G2 ,..., block of
where
each
Gi
is a
nonseparable
G. Then
self-loops
have
to test
each Gi
planarity,
for
planarity.
Step 2:
remove
Since addition or
removal
of
does not
affect
all self-loops.
Step 3: parallel by
Sinceparallel
removing
edges
also
do not
affect planarity,
pair
by
eliminate
edges
in
all but
one edge
between every
of vertices. two
in
of a vertex of degree two Step 4: Elimination seriest does not affect planarity. eliminate Therefore, of steps 3 and 4 will usually Repeated application
merging
edges
in
all edges
reduce
series.
cally. For example, Fig. 5-7 graph of Fig. 5-6(b).

Let
illustrates
the
series-parallel
a graph drastireduction of the

new
the
nonseparable
connected
steps answer.)
after the
Theorem 5-8 has the

THEOREM
repeated application of
5-8
Hi is)
graph G,. be reduced to a 3 and 4. What will graph
graph
Hi
Hi look
like?
Graph
1.
A single
A
edge, or
graph
2.
complete nonseparable,
of four
simple
vertices, or
with
3. A
tIn
graph
n >
5 and
e>
7.)
and Fig.
if
this
a graph, two edges are said to be in series if they have exactly one vertex in common vertex is of degree two. Edges es and e6 (and also eland e2) are in series in
5-6.)))
100)
PLANAR AND DUAL GRAPHS)
CHAP.
5)
(e s e6))
e7)
e4)
e 4)
(e I e 2 ))
(a) Series
Reduced)
(b) Parallel
Reduced)
(e4
e7))
(c) Series
Reduced) Series-parallel
can
(d) Parallel reduction of

by the
Reduced)
Fig.
5-7
graph
in Fig.
5-6(b).)
Proof: The theorem

graphs
be proved
considering
of
six edges
or less. The proof

Hi
is left
all connected nonseparable as an exercise (Problem 5-9).)

I
In Theorem 5-8, all be checkedfurther.

From
falling
in categories
or
2 are
planar and need not

simple, vertex of
now
on, therefore,
nonseparable graphs
of at
can
least
fi ve
or more. Next, we
check
we need to investigate vertices and with to see if e < 3n -
only every
connected,
degree three
is not
6. If
this
inequality
satisfied, the graph Hi is non planar. If the inequality test the graph further and, with this, we come the most important result 5-9), perhaps (Theorem
is satisfied, of this
we have to
to Kuratowski's theorem
chapter.
series series.
Homeomorphic Graphs: Two

graph
graphs
by
are
the
said to
creation
be homeomorphic if one
(i.e., The
can
be obtained
from the other

5-8
by insertion three graphs
of verticesof degree two)

in
or
by the
of edges in merger of edges in

other,
Fig.
if and is planar planar. (This is a restatement
graph G
are homeomorphic only if every graph

of
to each
that
for
instance.
is
homeomorphic
in
A to G is
series
reduction,
step 4
this
section.))
THEOREM 5-9
A
necessary
either
and
not contain
of
sufficient condition for a graph Kuratowski's two graphs or
G to
any
be planar is
graph
that
G does
homeomorphic
to
either of
them.)))
SEC. 5-5)
DETECTION
OF PLANARITY)
101)
Fig. 5-8 Three
graphs
homeomorphic
to each
other.)
G cannot because a graph be embedded be embedded. That this condition is also sufficient is surprising, and its proof is involved. Several different proofs of the theorem have appeared since Kuratowski stated and proved it in 1930. For a complete proof of the theorem, 108the reader is referred to Harary [1-5], pages or Busacker and Saaty [1-2], pages70-73.) 112, Berge [I-I], pages 211-213, condition
in
Proof: The necessary

if G
a plane
has a
subgraph
that
is clear, cannot
Note
that
it is
not
necessary
for
a nonplanar
theorem
graph to
have
either
of the
graphs as a subgraph, as this The,nonplanar graph may have a subgraph

Kuratowski
For
graph.
is sometimes
misstated.
Kuratowski
example,
the graph
Kuratowski
in
Fig.
5-9(a)
homeomorphic to a is nonplanar, and yet
it does we
not
have either
of the
graphs
as a
subgraph. However, if
remove)
c)
c)
a)
c) (a))
a)
c) (b))
c)
a)
c) (c))
Fig.5-9
Nonplanar graph with
a subgraph
homeomorphic to K3,
3.)))
102)
CHAP.
5)
edges
in Fig. we get a subgraph, as shown this (a, x) and (A, C) from graph, 5-9(b). This subgraph is homeomorphic(mergetwo series edges at vertex x) to is isomorphic to the one shown in Fig. 5-9( c). The graph of Fig.5-9( clearly the non planarity of K 3 ,3' Kuratowski's second graph, and this demonstrates
c)
the graph
The
in
Fig.
5-9(a).
example just discussed

gives
also points
an
out
(Kuratowski's theorem)
planarity
elegant
and
to
large graph
three or
planar
a graph, the theorem is difficult a simple, nonseparable more). There have been several
of (say,
5-9 Theorem that although simple-looking criterion for apply in the actual testing of a
graph of
25 vertices,
each
of degree
alternative
characterizations
a dual
of a
is
graph.
One
of these
next
characterizations, the existenceof

sections.)
graph,
the subject
of the
two
5-6.
GEOMETRIC DUAL)
Consider
in Fig. of a graph the plane representation 5-IO(a), with six us six Let F F and F or faces , , , points PI' P2' . . . , F6. place 2 3 4 Fs, regions Fl' let us in Next as shown in each the of one join these Fig. 5-IO(b). regions, P6' six points according to the following procedure:)
P6
0)
(a))
(b))
(c))
Fig. 5-10
Construction of a
dual
graph.)))
SEC.
5-6)
GEOMETRIC
DUAL)
103)
If two regions Fi and Fj are adjacent (i.e., have a common draw a edge), line joining points Pi and Pj that intersects the common between edge F,. and If once. there is than F more one common between and edge i Fj exactly Fj, draw one line between points Pi and Pj for each of the common edges.For an e lying entirely in one region, edge say F k , draw a self-loop at point Pk intersecting
By
e exactly
this
once.
we obtain a new G* [in broken lines in Fig. graph six of . . . and of edges joining these vertices, , 5-10(c)] consisting P6 Pi' P2' G* is called vertices.Such a graph a dual (or strictly a geometric speaking,
procedure
dual) of
Clearly,
G.
is a one-to-one there correspondence between the edges of graph its dual G*-one edge of G* intersecting one edge of G. Somesimple that can be made about the relationship observations between a planar graph G and
G and
its
dual
G* are)
a self-loop G series
1. An
edge
forming
in G
yields a
in
pendant
edget
in G*.
2. A pendant
3. 4. 5.
edge in
are
in in
yields in G
a self-loop
G*.
Edges that Parallel Remarks
produce parallel
edges in series
in
edges in
G*.
G*.
edges
G produce
1-4 are the result
of the
of edgesconstituting the degree of the corresponding
boundary
that the number observation of a region F,. in G is equal to the vertex Pi in G*, and vice versa.
general
in
6. Graph 7. Considering
G
G*
is also
the
embedded
the
plane
and is
therefore planar.
process
is a
dual of G*
and
a dual of G, we
8.
If n,
regions, f*,
e, f, r,
of drawing a dual G* from G, it is evident that G* instead of calling Therefore, [see Fig. 5-10(c)]. that G dual and G* are usually say graphs. denote as usual the numbers of vertices, edges, p,
of
rank, and nullity and r*, p,* are the
a connected
corresponding n* e* f*
numbers
planar graph G, and if n*, e*, in dual graph G*, then)
= = =
f,)
e ,)
n.)
Using
the
above
relationship,
r*
one can immediately

= J.l,
r.)
get)
p,* =
Uniqueness t An
of Dual
incident
Graphs: Is
a (geometric)dual
called
of
a graph
unique?
In)
edge
on a
pendant vertex is
a pendant
edge.)))
104)
CHAP.
5)
* e7)
* e()
(a)
Dual of
5-
6(a))
(b) Dual of
5-6(b))
Fig.
5-11
Duals of
graphs
in Fig. 5-6.)
other
constructing
words,
a dual,
are all duals of 2l given it is reasonable

only
graph
isomorphic?
a planar
to expect that
From the method graph G will have

unique
of
a
unique
embedding
dual if and
on
if
it has
a unique plane
representation or
a sphere.
Fig.
For instance, in
embeddings,
(a) and (b).
(isomorphic) had two the duals of these isomorphic Consequently,

5-6
the same graph
distinct
graphs
are nonisomorphic, as shown in Fig. 5-11. The graphs in Fig. 5-11, however, are 2-isomorphic. is a generalization of this example.) without proof,
THEOREM
stated Theorem 5-10,
5-10
All duals
of a
G is
planar
graph
dual
G are
of
G.)
2-isomorphic;
and
every
graph
2-isomorphic
to a
dual
of
also a
With
this
qualification
in mind,
planar
it
is quite
appropriate
embedding duals
to refer to
on a
a dual
as
the dual must
of a
Sincea 3-connected
dual
planar graph.
graph
has a
unique all
also be
unique. In other
words,
of a 3-connected
sphere, its graph
are isomorphic.)
5-7.
COMBINATORIAL
DUAL)
of planar graphs in a purely we have defined and discussed duality with an equivalent us definition of The sense. following provides geometric of notions.) geometric duality independent
So far
THEOREM
5-11
sufficient
A necessary and duals of each other
condition There
for
two planar
graphs
Gland
G 2 to be
between)))
is as follows:
is a one-to-one
correspondence
SEC. 5-7)
COMBINATORIAL
DUAL)
105)
the edges
and
in
Gland
the edges
in
G 2 such
only
if the
corresponding set in
plane
G 2 forms
that a set of edgesin a cut-set.)
G 1 forms
a circuit
if
of a planar graph G. Let us also representation G* of G. Then consider circuit r in G. an arbitrary r will form some closed simple curve in the plane representation of GClearly, Thus the vertices of the plane into two areas. (Jordan Curve Theorem). dividing r G* are partitioned exclusive subsets-one into two nonempty, inside mutually the other outside. In other words, the set of edges r* in G* corresponding to and the set r in G is a cut-set in G*. (No proper subset of r* will be a cut-set in G*; that corresponding to a cut-set S* in G* there is a why?). Likewise it is apparent circuit of the unique consisting corresponding edge-set S in G such that S is a 5-11. circuit. This of Theorem proves the necessity portion To prove the sufficiency, let G be a planar and let G' be a graph for which graph there is a one-to-one correspondence of G', the cut-sets of G and circuits between and vice versa. Let G* be a dual graph of G. There is a one-to-one correspondence the circuits between of G' and cut-sets of G, and also between the cut-sets of G and circuits of G*. Therefore there is a one-to-one correspondence between the circuits of G' and G*, implying that G' and G* are 2-isomorphic (Theorem 4-15). According to Theorem be a dual of G. .) 5-10, G' must
draw
Proof: Let us considera

(geometrically)
a dual
Let G be a planar and G* be its dual. Let a be Subgraph: graph and the in G* be we a*. G, corresponding edge Suppose that delete edge a from G and then to find the dual of G was on a try edge the boundary of two regions, removal of a would merge these two regions into one. Thus the dual (G - a)* can be obtained G* by deleting the from
Dual
of a
an edge
in
- a.If
corresponding edge a*
On that
the
the
- a*. fusing the two end verticesof a* in G* the not on a In a* forms hand, edge boundary, self-loop. case G* - a* is the same as (G - a)*. Thus if a graph G has a dual G*, dual of any subgraph of G can be obtained by successive of application
and
then
other
if
a is
this proced ure.
Dual of a
that
Homeomorphic
dual. Let a be an
we
create
Let G be a planar graph G* be its and Graph: and the corresponding edge in G* be a*. Suppose an additional vertex in G by introducing a vertex of degree two
edge
in G,
in
a (i.e., a now affect the dual? It will

edge
becomes simply
two add two
reverse process of merging simply eliminate one of G*, graph G has a dual
obtained
edges in series). How will this addition an edge parallel to a* in G*. Likewise, the edges in series (step 4 in Section 5-5) will parallel
graph
the
corresponding
edges
in
G*.
Thus
if a
the
dual
of
any
homeomorphic
to G
can be
from we
graphs only. This was on the graph depended 5-11 provides us being embedded in a plane. However, now that Theorem with an equivalent abstract definition of duality the correspondence (namely, between circuits and cut-sets), which does not depend on a plane representation of a graph, we will see if the concept of duality can to))) be extended
have
So far
G* by
us
the above
procedure.
for of
been
forced upon
because
studying duality the very definition
planar
duality
106)
CHAP.
5)
non find
planar graphs another graph

every answer
such that versa? The

THEOREM
a non planar also. In other words, given graph G, can we G' with one-to-one between their edges correspondence in G corresponds to a unique in G', and vice circuit cut-set to this question is no, as shown in the following important
theorem, due
5-12
to Whitney.)
if and it is planar.)
if\"
A graph has a Proof: We that a nonplanar
dual
only
the
if
Let G be a nonplanar graph. Then according to Kuratowski's theorem, G contains Ks or K3. 3 or a graph homeomorG can have a dual only of these. We have already seen that a graph phic to either if every subgraph g of G and every graph homeomorphic to g has a dual. Thus if we can show that we have proved the theorem. neither Ks nor K3.3 has a dual, This we shall prove by contradiction as follows: in K3.3 corresthe cut-sets that (a) Suppose K3.3 has a dual D. Observe that in D and vice versa (Theorem pond to circuits 5-10).Since K3.3 has no cut-set
graph
need prove just

does
\"only
part.
That
is, we have
only
to
prove
not have a dual.
consisting
of two edges, D has no circuit of two edges. That consisting is, D contains no pair of parallel edges.Sinceevery circuit in K3.3 is of length four or six, D has no cut-set with less than four edges. Therefore, the degree of every vertex in D is at least four. of every vertex is As D has no parallel edges and the degree or more. That is, at least each of degree four four, D must have at least five vertices D must have at least (5 x 4)/2 = 10 edges. This is a contradiction, because K3.3 has nine edges and so must its dual. Thus K 3. 3 cannot have a dual. Likewise, (b) Supposethat the graph Ks has a dual H. Note that Ks has (1) 10 edges, two edges, and (4) cut-sets with no pair of parallel edges, (3) no cut-set with (2) H must have (1) 10edges, (2) no vertex only four or six edges. Consequently, graph with degree less than (3) no pair of parallel edges,and (4) circuits of length three, of length six), and four and six only. Now graph H contains a hexagon (a circuit without creating a circuit of no more than three edges can be added to a hexagon edges [see Fig. 5-2(b )].Since both of these are forlength three or a pair of parallel be at least seven vertices in H. The H has 10 edges, there must bidden in Hand at least is at least three. This leads to H having vertices degree of each of these 11 edges. A contradiction. .)
This
Whitney's
proof of
proof,
yet
theorem 5-12is not the one originally given more involved. though more rigorous, is much
by
by
Whitney.
Our proof is
based on one given

There is
Parson
[5-7].
given by Whitney and Two planar graphs
combinatorial definition of duality, also [5-10]. proved equivalent to the earlier two definitions G and G* are said to be duals (or combinatorial duals) between the edges of G of each other if there is a one-to-one correspondence and G* such that if g is any subgraph of G and h is the corresponding subgraph of G*, then)
another
equivalent
rank This
of (G*
h)
== rank
of G*
in
Fig.
nullity
of
g.)
(5-7))
relationship
is shown
diagrammatically
5-12.)))
SEC.
5-8)
MORE ON CRITERIA OF PLANARITY)
107)
c) Rank of (C
c*)
*-
h)
= Rank of
Combinatorial
C*
Nullity
of g
Fig. 5-12
As 5-11 (a).
duals.)
an example,
Take the subgraph
consider the graph f e 4 , e 5' e 6' e7 }

=
in
Fig.
in Fig.
and its dual in Fig. and the corresponding 5-6(a)

5-6(a)
subgraph fe:,
rank
et, e:, erJ in Fig. 5-II(a).) of (G* - fe:, et, e:, erJ)
nullity
rank
of fef,
e\037,
ef}
2,
rank of G* = 3,
of
fe 4 , e s , e 6,
e7 }
1,)
and)
2 =
Clearly,
1.)
this
definition
is also
independent of
proving
the
geometric
connotation.
It is therefore often
preferred for
results
in purely
algebraic fashion.
in deciding whether or not two given graphs are dual the combinaHowever, to use. torial definitions are difficult The proof of equivalenceof combinatorial and geometric duals is quite reader is referred involved. The interested to the original papers of Whitney
5-12] or to Seshu and Reed [1-13], [5-10, pages combinatorial duals are one and the same,
45-50.
Since
the geometric and

them
we simply
refer to
as
the
dual, rather
than
the
geometric
or combinatorial
G is
shown
dual.
isomorphic
that
is called
graph Self-DualGraphs:If a planar a self-dual graph. It can be easily

graph
the four-vertex
graphs
to its own dual, it comhave
plete
is
self-dual
interesting
5-8.
properties
graph (Problem and pose some unsolved
5-20). Self-dual
problems.)
MORE
Theorems
ON CRITERIA
OF
PLANARITY)
5-9 (Kuratowski's us with two different provided third The classic planarity graph.
next.
theorem)
and
alternative
criterion,
and 5-12 (Whitney's theorem) ways of characterizing a planar due to MacLane [5-6], is given
in
Set of
set
of basic
Basic Circuits: A set circuits if (i) every
C of
circuits
the
a graph
circuit in
graph
is said to be a can be expressed
complete
as a rin
\037)))
108)
PLANAR
AND DUAL GRAPHS)
CHAP.
5)
or all circuits in C, and (ii) no circuit in C can be expressed as in C. The significance of complete sets of basic circuits in Chapter 6, in relation to the vector space of a graph.It may, will be clearer a set of fundamental circuits (as here that whereas be mentioned however, 3 with respect to a spanning a in Chapter constitutes defined always tree) the converse does not hold for all graphs complete set of basic circuits,
sum
of some
sum
a ring
of others
(Problem
5-15).
In a planar graph a complete set of basic circuits has an additional pronext. perty, which we will observe G the set of circuits In a plane representation of a planar, connectedgraph For the interior regions constitutes a complete set of basic circuits. forming the any circuit r in G can be expressed as the ring sum of the circuits defining in at most two of in r. Observe that contained every edge appears regions G we can find a complete basic circuits. Thus for every these planar graph in more than of these no edge two set of basic circuits such that appears can be found in and its converse basic circuits. This result (proof of which of planar graphs.) characterization well-known [5-6]) lead to another
THEOREM
5-13
(i.e.,
A graph G is planar if and only if there the nullity of all J.l of them, J.l being
exists
G) such
a complete set of basiccircuits that no edge appears in more
than
two of
these circuits.)
All three from two shortcomings. of these classic characterizationssuffer difficult to implement for a large in First, they are extremely Second, graph. case the graph is planar they do not give a plane representationof the graph. These drawbacks have prompted recent discoveries of several mapitself is based on an of planarity construction methods, where the testing a plane representation of the graph. One such method is to produce attempt Several other construction methods, some of them quite Tutte [5-9]. given by similar, have been implemented on digital [5-2, 5-8]. In most of computers these methods, the given graph is first reduced to one or more simple, non- 6. separable graphs with every vertex of degree three or moreand with e < 3n in is applied Then the construction algorithm such that either one succeeds More is nonplanar. a planar realization of the graph or the graph obtaining 11. will be said on such algorithms in Chapter but all are laborious and timeSome algorithms are better than others, consuming.The search for a simple, elegant, and practical characterizationof a planar graph is far from over.)
5-9.
THICKNESS
AND CROSSINGS)
that
Having found
is
a given
the
minimum
number
graph G is nonplanar, it is natural of planes necessary for embedding
G?
to ask, The
what least)))
CHAP.
5)
SUMMARY)
109)
is the given graph G is called the of planar subgraphs whose union the number of of G. In a printed-circuit board, for instance, is the thickness of the corresponding insulation necessary graph. layers is one. The thickness graphBy definition, then, the thickness of a planar is clearly two. The readercan show, of each of Kuratowski's by graphs of eight vertices is them, that the thickness of the complete graph sketching is three vertices the thickness of the complete graph of nine two, while are several results available on the thickness there (Problem 5-19). Although the thickness of an arbitrary of special types of graphs [1-5, 120-121], pages
number
thickness
graph
is in
general,
difficult
to
determine.
a nonplanar graph ask about Another question one might fewest number of crossings(or intersections)necessaryin order
is:
What
is the
to \"draw\"
the
graph
either
in
a plane?
The crossing
of
number of a
graphs,
planar
graph
is,
exists
by definition,
to give
zero, and of
of
Kuratowski's
it is
one. The crossing numbers
graphs have been determined.No formula
only a few the crossing number
of an
arbitrary
graph.)
SUMMARY)
Can a given graph This is clearly a geometric two different worlds,

Harary
be placed
question
purely
in a
plane
without
its
edges
crossing
that
over?
exists
about
the graph-an
and
object
in
combinatorial
purely
geometric. To quote
study. . . is
[1-5],
page
106, \"one
of the most fascinating areas of

graph
the
interplay between considering a

geometric
as
a combinatorial
object and as
only three.
3n
figure.\"
On probing simple,
bit
further,
we discovered
which
nonseparable graphs we found that Moreover, any

any Three
have
graph further,
different,
need not be investigated

equivalent,
that we needed to investigate of degree less than with the number of edgese > because such a graph is nonplanar.
no vertex
planarity
but very
and Kuratowski, Whitney, MacLane, and drawbacksdiscussed. For graphs
were
that
properties, such as thickness and number discussed.There are many unsolved problems in this field of study. Because of in such areas as automatic the current interest of complex wiring systems, and design of large-scale integrated circuits, circuits, technology of printed these geometrical of graphs are of practical importance. properties
The
those of their and significance presented are non planar, additional relevant were defined and of crossings,
characterizations,
existence of
of a
dual graph, dual graphs
in in
to
that
planarity,
is important a subject
relationship
between
the
to being a condition equivalent structural right. The underlying becomes very clear in terms of the vector
addition its
own
space of
graph,
for the next
chapter.)))
110)
PLANAR
AND DUAL GRAPHS)
CHAP.
5)
REFERENCES) in 1930, a large number of papers on Starting from Kuratowski's celebrated paper of graphs have appeared. An excellent on charplanarity survey of this work, especially acterization of planar and practical methods of embedding, is given in [5-8],which graphs also contains a bibliography of about 120 papers on the subject. Recommended readings from textbooks are Harary [1-5],Chapter 11,Seshu and Reed [1-13], Chapter 3, Ore [1-10], Busacker and Saaty [1-2], Chapter 4. Bruno, 8, Berge [1-1], Chapter 21, and Chapter an efficient computer algorithm for testing of planarity, Steiglitz, and Weinberg [5-2] give as does Shirey [5-8]. Works of Whitney MacLane [5-10, 5-1I, 5-12], [5-6], Fary [5-4], and Tutte [5-9]have already been referred to earlier. More on self-dual graphs can be found in [5-1] and [5-3]. A thorough with relevant references is to survey on thickness of graphs be found in [5-5]. For more on computer for planarity testing, see Chapter 1 I. algorithms
5-1.
5-2.
BENEDICT,
C. P.,
\"On Self-Dualism in
and
University BRUNO,
of Waterloo, J., K.
STEIGLITZ,
Waterloo, Canada 1969.

L.
WEINBERG,
Graphs
and Networks,\"
\037\037A New Vol.
Ph.D.
Dissertation,
3-Connectivity,\"
IEEE
197-206.
Trans. Circuit Theory,
CT-17,
Test Based on Planarity No.2, May 1970,
5-3.
5-4. 5-5.
5-6.
5-7.
5-8.
Annual Allerton Con! N., \"Self-Dual Graphs and Digraphs,\" Proc. Sixth on Circuit and System Theory, Oct. 1968, 832-840. F ARY, I., \"On Straight Line Representation of Planar Acta Sci. Math. Graphs,\" Szeged,Vol. 1 I, 1948, 229-233. in Recent A. M., \"A Survey of Thickness,\" HOBBS, Progress in Combinatorics 255-264. Press, Inc., New York, 1969, (W. T. Tuttle, ed.), Academic Condition for Planar Graphs,\" Fund. Math., S., \"A Combinatorial MACLANE, Vol. 28, 1937, 22-32. T. D., \"On Planar Graphs,\" Am. Math. PARSON, Monthly, Vol. 78, No.2, 1971,
DEO,
176-1
78. R. W.,
SHIREY,
Algorithms,\"
5-9.
TUTTE,
Madison, Wisc., 1969. W. T., \"How to
\"Implementation and Analysis Ph.D. Dissertation, Computer

Draw
of Efficient
Graph
Planarity
Testing
Sciences,University
Soc.,
of
Wisconsin,
5-10. WHITNEY,
34,
1963,743-768.
a Graph,\"
Planar
Proc. London Math.

Graphs,\"
Ser. 3,
Vol. 13,
5-11. 5-12.
and H., \"Non-separable 1932, 339-362. Set of Topological WHITNEY, H., \037\037A 1933,231-235.
WHITNEY,
Trans.
Am. Math. Am. J.

Math.,
Soc., Vol.
Vol.
Invariants
for Graphs,\"
55,
H.,
\037\037Planar Graphs,\"
Fund.
Math., Vol. 21,1933,73-84.)
PROBLEMS)
5-1.
5-2.
Using
geometric
arguments
simple by
that
Kuratowski's is bounded
similar to second graph is also

planar k edges,
those
used
in proving and e
Theorem 5-1, prove edges) embedded in
nonplanar.
If every
a plane
region of a
graph
(with
vertices
show
ken
that
e=
5-3. A simple
planar
- 2) \302\267
can
k-2)
graph
to which
no edge
be
added
without destroying
its)))
CHAP.
5)
PROBLEMS)
111)
planarity
(while that
keeping every
the graph region also
simple, of course) is
maximal
graph. Prove
in a
vertices
5-4.
5-5.
Prove
that
a planar
This
graph of n
will
Problem
five or (Hint:
less.
prove
that
a maximal planar is a triangle. (n > 4) has at least four vertices with degree there are no 6-connected planar graphs.
called planar
graph
Use the result of

and
5-3.)
said to be completely regular if the degrees of all vertices of G every region is bounded by the same number of edges.The graphs in Figs. 2-20(a) and 2-21(b) are completely for example. Show that there regular, are only five possible the trivial simple completely regular planar graphs, excluding Use Euler's formula.) graphs with degree < 2. Sketch them. (Hint:
A planar graph G is
are equal
5-6.
5-7. 5-8. 5-9.
that an infinite pattern formed of a regular polygon repeating itself, such as in Fig. 1-10),can consist those found in mosaics and tiled floors (seeinfinite graphs of only three types of polygons-square, triangular, and hexagonal. Redraw the graph in Fig. 5-4 such that region 2 becomes the infinite region. show that the graphs in Fig. 2-3 (known as Petersen's Using Kuratowski's theorem,
Prove graph)
are
nonplanar.
5-10. 5-11.
5-12.
By sketching all (don't panic, their number is small) simple, nonseparable graphs with n < 4 and e < 6, prove 5-8. Theorem Draw the geometric dual of the graph in Fig. 5-4. Show by actual construction that the geometric dual of the two (2-isomorphic) in Figs. 4-11(a) and (d) are isomorphic. graphs Construct an example to demonstrate that G**, the dual of a dual of a graph G, not be isomorphic to G, but is 2-isomorphic to it. may
Prove
5-13. 5-14.
that
the geometric
dual
of a
self-loop-free nonseparable
is
planar
graph if its
is also
nonseparable.
Prove
that
a self-loop-free planar
2-connected.
graph
has
2-connected
if and
only
dual is also
5-15. Give
not
5-16.
5-17.
5-18.
5-19.
5-20.
one completeset of basic circuits to any spanning tree). Show that the edges forming a spanning tree in a planar graph G correspond to in the dual G*. the edges forming a set of chords Show that a set of fundamental circuits in a planar graph G corresponds to a set of fundamental cut-sets in its dual G*. Determine the number of crossings and the thickness of the graph in Fig. 2-3. the the that thickness of Show, by sketching, eight-vertex complete graph is two, whereas that of the nine-vertex completegraph is three. Show that the complete graph of four vertices is self-dual. Give another example of a self-dual graph.)))
an example of a graph which a set of fundamental constituting
at least
circuits
(with respect
6)
VECTOR
SPACES OF
GRAPH)
Modern applications
abstract algebra is a powerful of graphs. It is essential for a

for
tool in
thorough
the
theory
understanding
as well Moreover,
as
in
the
of graphs
and a
digital
must
those
least internally) work on pictorial to represent a graph algebraically and to manipulate necessary the aid of a computer in solving cally, if one wishesto enlist
computers
wishing do not (at
to do
research in
the
field.
since
graphs, it is it algebraigraph-theory
problems.)
6-1.
SETS
Set: A
WITH
ONE
OPERATION)
the elements of the set). on the nature of the elements or the number of elements. Nor do the elementshave anything to do with each other, of a except belong to the same set. Braces are used to enclose the elements set. For instance, a set S consisting of five objects a, b, c, x, and y may be written as S = [a, b, c, x, y}. Since the order in which these elements appear is of no significance, we could have written the same set as S == [x, b, a, y, c}, for instance. The symbol E S is used to indicate that element a a is in set
objects
set is a collection of
there
(called
Note
that
is no
specification
S.
A subset S' of a set S is a collection of some of the elementsof S. If S has at least one element that is not in S', then S' is called a proper subsetof S. The set null written in it and is considered a or has no element set, 0, empty subsetof every set. The two most common combinations of sets are the union
u and intersection n,
defined
as)
112)))
SEC. 6-1)
SETS
WITH
ONE OPERATION)
113)
Sl
U S2
S2
= S3'
=
a set a set
and
containi ng containing
in
S2.)
all
only
the
elements
of S 1
and
S2'
Sl n
In
S4')
those
elements
that
are both
in
S 1
this
chapter
a set
elements within
Operation:
we shall be concerned with rather than the combination
the
combination
different
of two
sets.
of two
of combination called binary operation law of composicomposition, or internal of a set. Addition, tion) between two elements multiplication, subtraction, and are some of the familiar binary between two elements division operations in a set of numbers. To keep the binary general enough, we shall operation use the symbol * (rather than using +, -, x, \037, etc.) to denote the binary
Let us introduce
composition,
a rule
(also called binary
law of
operation.
A set with
operations
Algebras:
defined on it
is called
an algebraic
system or
just algebra.
Types Special
of
a binary on
the
* (written operation nature of the binary

called
as
Now we have a set, say S = [a, b, c, . . a * b) between the elements of S. Depending

*, set
.J,
and
operation
S can
if *
be
classified
as
one
of
below, set S is
several special types
of algebras.For instance,
a semigroup:)
and
satisfies
postulates]
and 2
1. Closure: If
2.
b are
in S,
then
a * b
and
is also
c are
in
S.
then
Associative:
If the elements
a, b,
in S,
(a
* b) * c
(b *
c).)
Semigroups great
have
many
interesting
several
detail.
In fact,
since
there are
semigroups
semigroups.But
at hand,
A
as
properties and have been studied in written on the theory of books such are not applicable to the business
thick
monoid.)
we shall move on to more specialized semigroups. that satisfies postulate 3, below, is called a semigroup
Identity
3.
element:
element
A
in
S, x * e
There exists = e* x
a unique
=
x.)
element
e in
S such
that
for
any
monoid Inverse: such
that satisfies For every
postulate 4, below, is called a group.)

S there
4.
x * x' = x' * x with respect to operation

that
A
element x in
=
*.)
exists a unique
element x'
inverse
in
e. Element
x' is called the
of x,
semigroup
group
5.
that satisfies postulate or commutative semigroup.)

Commutative:
5, below, is called an
then
abelian
semi-
If a and b
are
in
S,
a *b
= b
* a.)))
114)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
Set
No opera
tion)
1.2)
Semigroup)
Abelian
Senligroup)
Monoid)
3)
4)
Abelian
1l1onoid)
Group)
Abelian
gro
11p)
All five po\037tl1late'l)
Fig.
6-1
Algebraic systems with

an
one
internal
operation.)
If an
abelian semigroup also has

(or
identity
element,
element).
it is
called an
abelian monoid
an abelian
an operation five is called A set S with postulates an abelian group (or a commutative group). 6-1 summarizes the definitions of these \"algebraic and systems\" Figure The arrows shows the relationships among them. point toward the direction restriction next to a line indicates the of increasing on the set S. The number
semigroup with identity * that satisfies all these
one particular postulate that converts to be mentionedhere that It ought

operation mathematical
algebraic
an
system
into
another.
algebraic
does
not satisfy even the closure and interest. observation that Another
of
system in which the binary associative rules is of little be made is that postumay two remarks,
late
show
4 cannot
all
be satisfiedbefore 3.In view

combinations
in order
these
Fig. 6-1 does
possible
of the five postulates.

integers,
are Examples: Someexamples the set of all Consider positive
now. S 1 = [I, 2, 3,
. . .}.Set
S 1 satisfies)))
SEC. 6-1)
SETS
WITH
ONE OPERATION)
115)
closure
and associative
Moreover, addition
operation +.
Slunder
latter
is
* is the ordinary addition binary operation satisfies the commutative requirement. Hence a commutative semigroup. Note that in S 1 there is no
it also added
rules if the
identity element (an

element).
element when
to any
other element
results in
the
the same set S1 == [1, 2, 3, . . .} under the division ordinary no fractions, --:-.Since S1 contains clearly S 1 does not satisfy the closure rule, and hence is not a semigroup. \302\267 is an abelian monoid, because Again, the same set Slunder multiplication it has an identity is not a group under the element, 1. The set Sl' however, because S 1 does not have the inverse of every element operation multiplication Consider operation
(because
abelian
has
no fractions).
all
The set
group
of
integers
[. . . , 6-2)
- 3, that
2, -
1,
0,
1, 2,
3, .
abelian , is
. .} is
the
an
under
the addition
verify
operation (hence an
-1, i,
additive
group).
four
fourth
The reader roots of

.
can
unity,
(Problem
which
is [1,
- i}(where
the set
consisting of
a multiplicative
i == \037)
an abelian
group under the

group)
multiplication
operation
(therefore,
abelian
Groups
any
given
graph
very
of of Subgraphs: Now \\ve shall show that sets of certain subgraphs G satisfy the preceding postulates and thus form their groups.
fundamental
These are
and
important
results
in
graph
theory.)
THEOREM 6-1)
The ring
sum
of two
circuits
in
a graph
G is either a
circuit
or
an edge-disjoint
union of circuits.)
Let r 1 Proof: no edges or vertices
graph
of
Hand,
possible
in a graph circuits G. If the two circuits have r their sum subring common, 1 E9 r 2 is a disconnected an edge-disjoint union of circuits. If, on the other G, and is obviously in common, we have the following and r 2 do have edges and/or vertices
and
r 2 be
any
two
in
situations:
Since the
v
degree of every
r
2) 1
vertex
in a graph
where)
that is a
circuit
is two,
every vertex
in subgraph
E9
r 2 has is
in
degree d(v),
r
1
d(v)
if v edges
only,
or in
formerly
1
incident
intersect
r 2 on
only;
v
or if one in both
of r
the
was
1 and
r 2;
or
d(v)
4)
if
and of
r 2 just
vertex
at
v (without
a common
edge).)
Euler of
There
is no other type and therefore consists
in r
a
E9
of either
circuit
r 2. Thus r 1 E9 r 2 is an or an edge-disjoint union
graph, circuits
(Theorem
2-6).
immediate
.)
from
It is circui
ts.)))
Theorem
6-1 that the

or
ring
sum
of
any two
disjoint unions of circuits is alsoa circuit
edge-
another
edge-disjoint
union of
116)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
THEOREM
The
6-2)
set consisting
of all
0)
the
circuits
and
an
(including
eration
Proof:
EB.)
the
null
set
in a graph G is
abelian
the edge-disjoint unions group under the
of
ring-sum
circuits
op-
is required to prove that this set under the operation EB satisfies 1-5 in this section. That the closure postulate is satisfied has just been 6-1. Associative and commutative postulates are also clearly proved in Theorem The null graph serves as the identity element satisfied. 0, because 0 EB g = g, for any subgraph about the inverse? g of G. What A circuit union of circuits r is its own inverse, because) or an edge-disjoint
It postulates
rEBr=0.)
Hence the
theorem.
.)
THEOREM 6-3)
The set
(including
consisting
of
all the
in
the
null
set 0)
a graph
cut-sets and G is an
the
edge-disjoint
unions
of cut-sets
abelian
group
under
the
closure
ring
sum
operation.
from Proof: It is follows and commutativity Associativity
Theorem
are
4-4 that this

also
own
set satisfies the
axiom.
immediately
existence of
edge-disjoint
the
identity
element
0. Just
its
as in
inverse.
the
union
of cut-sets is
apparent. And so is the case of circuits, a cut-set or an Thus the theorem. .)
6-2.
SETS
WITH
TWO
OPERATIONS)
another Now suppose that on the elements of an abelian group we impose 6-1. The to the operation * imposedin Section binary operation 0, in addition as follows five postulates on 0 can be written (note that these are the same as in Section 6-1, but they are for a different 0):) binary operation postulates
6. Closure: If
7.
and
b are
in S,
then
a S,
0
then
b is also
(a
in
S.
Associative:
Identity
If a, b, and
There
8. 9.
element:
element
tity Inverse:
x in
S, x
(or every
0 i
element For
in
unity)
0 b) 0 c == a 0 (b 0 c). exists a unique element i in S such that for any == i i is called the iden0 x == x. This element with respect to operation O.
c are in
tulate 3
Section x
such that
x,
with
0 respect
element e of poselement (except for the identity in element X-I in S x there existsa S, 6-1) unique X-I == X-lOX == i. Element X-I is called the inverseof
to operation
If a
O.
in
10. Commutative:
And
and b
are
binary
S,
then
0 b
==
bOa.)
to relate
these two different
operations,
postulate
11 is introduced.)))
SEC. 6-2)
SETS
WITH
TWO
OPERATIONS)
117)
11.
Distributive:
The operation
is,
0
=
is
distributive
with
respect
to the
operation *; that
a
and)
for
elements
c)
a, b, and
c in
c,
a.)
S)
0 (b *
c)
0 b
* *
a c
0 0
(b *
in
a =
bOa
Just as
addition
Section
6-1,
the different
will
to
postulates
1-5,
group
render
combinations of these postulates,in different types of algebraic systems. to

*
Theseare
Ring:
An
abelian a ring.
11is
with respect
that
satisfies
postulates element
6, 7,
and
called
with
Ring
Unity:
A ring
O.
that has
a unity
satisfies
or
identity
i with respect
to the second operation

Commutative
with
Ring: A
to O.
Ring
ring
that
the commutative
postualate (10)
has
respect
Commutative
with
element (8) with

Division
isfies Ring
respect (or
Unity: to O.
A commutative
ring
that
an identity
Skew
Field or
S-Field):
respect Field): respect
ring
with
unity
that also
sat-
the
inverse
postulate
(9)
with
to O. A division to
Field (sometimes called Commutative commutative postulate (10) with eleven and therefore may postulates, considered here.) system
the
ring that satisfies Thus a field satisfies all O.

\"strongest\"
be regarded as the
algebraic
The relationship
Examples:
among
these
in
algebraic
Section
systems is summarized
6-1,
I
in
Fig.
6-2.
As mentioned
S 2 =
the set I, 2,
of all 3, . . .})
integers)
[. . . ,
- 3,
- 2, -
, 0,
ordigroup under +, the usual addition operation.Moreover, between elements of S2 also satisfies the closure, associaand and there is a unity commutative tive, distributive, I, element, postulates, in S2. Thus S2 is a commutative with unity. However, since S2 doesnot ring it does not satisfy contain fractions, 9, and hence S2 is not a field. postulate The set of all rational numbers does satisfy 9, in addition to the postulate other ten satisfied is a field numbers by S2. Therefore, the set of all rational under addition and multiplication. The set of all real numbers also forms a field under addition and multiplication. All complex numbers also form a field is an
abelian
nary
multiplication
under the usual addition and

In rest
multiplication. be
defined
this book we shall mainly of the algebraic systems are
concerned
simply
with
for
your
groups and general
fields. The
interest.)))
118)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
Abelian
1-5)
group)
6,7.
II)
Ring)
Commutative
nng)
Ring
wi th
uni ty)
8)
9)
Commuta
tive
with
ring
Division
nng)
uni ty)
Field)
I -
I 1)
Fig.
6-2
Algebraic systems with
two
internal
operations.)
6-3.
MODULAR ARITHMETIC
GALOIS
AND
FIELDS)
Consider 0, 1, and 2.
a system
And
of numbers
ru]es for
and
that
has
only three
multiplication
numbers
in
it,
ordinary
let
the
addition and
in this
system be
is used
system
tion
the same as ordinary addition If a number q \037resulting from exceeds 3, it is to be divided

in place
addition
by
with the following multiplication exception: or multiplication operations) equals or quotient
3, the
of q. The are given in Fig.

3. Together 3 arithmetic,)
modulo
addition and multiplication 6-3, and are called addition 3 they are called modulo
is discarded, and the remainder tables for such a number

modulo
3 and
multiplicain
arithmetic.
For example,
modulo
1 + 1 Similarly,
+ 2.2
+ 1 + 2 + 1 ==
modulo
1)
(mod
3).)
we can
define any
m arithmetic
system consisting
of m)))
SEC. 6-3)
MODULAR
ARITHMETIC
AND GALOIS FIELDS)
119)
0 0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
'1 ....
1)
0
1)
(a))
(b))
Fig. elements
6-3
Addition and
multiplication
tables
for arithmetic
modulo
q >
m.)
3.)
0, 1,
2, .
. .,m
and
the
r)
relationship
(mod down
for
and
any
- 1:)
q = m.p +
It
and
m)
r <
tables
is suggested
7 (Problem
that the reader

6-7).
write
arithmetic
for m =
4, 5, 6,
Finite [0, 1, 2}
identity
Fields: From the

with
tables in
Fig.
6-3,
addition
and
multiplication
addition,
0 with
respect to
modulo 3
the set it can be verified that modulo 3 is a field. There is an to and an identity 1 with respect
3 multiplication. Every element has a unique additive inverse, and a element 0 has other than inverse. every multiplicative means like in of actual those 6-3, it can be easily verfied tables, By Fig. that On modulo and 7 are fields. the other hand, the set also 2, 5, systems no 4 is and with modulo addition [0, 1,2, 3} multiplication not a field, because 4 inverse of 2 exists with to modulo respect multiplication (Problem 6-8). In fact, it turns out that every finite set)
modulo
Z
with
m
==
[0,
I, 2,
. ..,m
I})
modulo
number.
prime
m addition and multiplication is a field a field is called a Galois Such field modulo
if
and
m,
only
if m is
or GF(m).
As we shall see shortly, in representing graphs we are concerned only with field 2. It Galois modulo consists of GF(2), [0, ]} and the addition modulo 2
and
multiplication
modulo
2 operations.
with
in
Fig. 6-4. (Those
familiar
0 0
1
computer
The two arithmetic tables are given in) logic will readily recognize that
.
0 0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1)
0)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
6-4
Addition and
multiplication
tables
of
GF(2).)))
120)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
Fig. of
6-4, Boolean
+ is the logic.))
same as \"EXCLUSIVE OR\"
and
\302\267 is the
same as
\"AND\"
6-4.
VECTORS AND
In an ordinary
VECTOR
SPACES)
two-dimensional (Euclidean)plane, a point is represented X = (x l' x 2 ). Point X can also be regarded as ordered pair of numbers a vector emanating from the origin 0 = (0, 0) to the point (x l' x 2 ). Similarly, in three-dimensional Euclidean space the triplet (7, 2. I, -3) represents a vector. instead of row notation a column notation is used, for Sometimes,
by an
example,)
;
(
The
\037)-)
three
components
Every
7, 2.1, and
point
-3
in
the
example
many
above
points)
are from the

in
the \302\2433'
field of real numbers.

three-dimensional
(of the
infinitely
ordered triplet space, corresponds to a unique of three real numbers. (of the infinitely consisting many triplets) the field of integers modulo that we are working with Now GF(2), suppose 2. Then every number in a triplet can only be either 0 or I. Thus there are only 3 as in the real many eight (2 = 8) vectors possible (instead of infinitely number system) in a three-dimensional to space if our numbers are restricted These are) GF(2).
Euclidean
(0, 0, 0),
This
(I,0,
0),
(0,
I, 0),
(0, 0,
I), (I, I, 0),
(I,
0, I),
(0, I,
I), (I, I, I).)
concept
a vector
the
of representing in k-dimensional space (0,

the field
in
7-tuple
of vectors can be extendedto representation means an For of ordered instance, k-tuple. by in a seven-dimensional a vector I, I, 0, I, 0, I,) represents
them are sometimes called scalars (to distinguish The scalars in the field GF(2) are 0 and I. A in addition to being made of k-tuples vector (from some space, up specifiedfield), must satisfy certain other conditions regardingcombinations a scalar, and the like. These can with or operation of a vector of two vectors, in the following definition.) be summarized a field
vector space over The numbers

vectors).
G F(2).
from
DEFINITION
A k-dimensional
vector space (or a
linear
vector
space) over
the
field
F, is an
object
consisting
of)
1. A field
(with
its
set of
elements S,
and
two
operations
* and
0).)))
SEC.
6-5)
VECTOR
SPACE
ASSOCIATED
WITH A
GRAPH)
121)
2. A
set W of k-tuples
binary such
(all
EB an
numbers
(called abelian
taken from
vector group
F).
of the
3.
4.
A W,
operation that W is
sum) between the elements under this operation EB.

multiplication), X = (XI, scalar
set
A binary
between another
operation D
any vector
(calledscalar
which
scalar
c in F and a vector P in W. P is called the cOX
X2, . . . , Xk) in
product
applied W produces of c and X, and is
when
given
by)
P =
= (c 0
XI,
X2, . . . , c
the
Xk).)
Furthermore,
scalar CI
CI
multiplication
X)
satisfies
X,
following:) where
0 (C20
0 (X
EB
(CI
CI
0 C2)0
0 X
X EB
CI,
C2
F,
= Y)
ClOY,
(CI *
X = CI C2) 0 = X, lOX
EB C2 0 X, where 1 is the identity respect to operation
with
in
F.)
Let specific
us now leave vector space
the general vector associated with

ASSOCIATED
space, a graph
and
G.)
concern
ourselves
with
the
6-5.
VECTOR SPACE A GRAPH)
WITH
consider the graph G in Fig. e l , e 2, e 3 , e 4 , e s . Any subset of these five

Let us
6-5 with
edges
four vertices and

any subgraph
five
edges
(i.e.,
g) of G can
be representedby
such
a 5-tuple:)
x =
that)
(Xl' X 2 ,
I
X 3 , X4,
xs))
x. I) =
if e;
is in g and
not
x.I) =
For
0
in
if e; is
Fig.
in
g.) represented
instance,
the subgraph
gI
6-5
will
be
by (1,
0, 1,0,
I).)
e l)
e()
G)
gl)
g2)
Fig.
6-5
Graph and two of
its
subgraphs.)))
122)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
or 32 such 5-tuples possible, including the zero a null graph, t and (I, I, ], I, I), 0 == (0, 0, 0, 0, 0), which represents which is G itself. It is not difficult to see that the ring-sum operation between two subgraphs between the two 5-tuples representing to the modulo 2 addition corresponds Altogether
there
are 2 5
vector
the two subgraphs. For example, considertwo

gt ==
==
subgraphs)
[el' e 3 , e s }
[e 2 , e 3 ,
represented represented
by (I, by (0,
0, I,
g2
The
e 4})
0, I), and ], I, 1, 0).)
ring
sum)
gt
which
EB
g2
==
[el'
e 2,
e4 ,
e s })
represented
by (I,
I, 0,
I,
I),)
is clearly
modulo 2
this
addition of
example,
the
5-tuples
for gl and
g2'
observa-
Now, generalizing
tion
we can
space
make the most

W G associated
important
of this
this
chapter: There is a vector

vector
with
every graph
G, and
space
consists
of)
is,
]. Galois field modulo 2; that 2 written as + such that 0

and O. I, and
set [I,
0,
OJ
with
+ 0 == multiplication modulo 2 written

1. 1
==
I + as
addition operation == I = 0 + I, I +
that
modulo
I
== 0,
\302\267 such
O. 0 == 0 in G.
==
I. 0 ==
I. number
2. 2 e vectors
(e-tuples), where e is the

operation
sum\037)
of edges
X,
3.
An
addition vector
between
two vectors
Y in
this space,
defined
as the
X ffi
==
(x t +
Y t'
X 2
Y2' .
. . , Xe
Ye),)
being
addition
as c.X
==
modulo 2.
between a
4.
And
a scalar
multiplication
(c.x
scalar c in
Z2
and
a vector
X,
defined
...,
c.xe).)
with a graph
vector
The
reader
can
as defined above,
tIn considering Hence a null graph
\037The
does
verify that the vector space W G associated indeed satisfy all the requirements
G,
of a
no
space)
vertices are of isolated vector spaces of graphs, of four vertices is not distinguished from a null graph
EB
consequence.
of 100
vertices.
same
the vector sum much to eliminate

subgraphs will be no
has been used for the ring sum of two subgraphs, as well as for the two subgraphs. This is done as the two vectors representing the reader that a ring sum between two an extra symbol as to remind vectors. There as vector sum of the corresponding amounts to the same thing
symbol
between
occasion for
ambiguity.)))
SEC. 6-6)
BASIS
VECTORS
OF A GRAPH)
123)
(Problem
in a
6-11). Note that vector space is 0, the
the zero
identity vector.)
element
(for the vector
sum
operation)
6-6.
BASIS VECTORS OF A
Linear
GRAPH)
Dependence:
A set
of vectors
if for
C2X
Xl'
said to be linearly
independent
C 1X
scalars c l' ...
X 2 , . . . , X r (over some field F) is c2 , . . . , Cr in F the expression)

crX
l +
2 +
== 0)
holds
only if c 1
== C == 2
...
==
Cr
== O. Otherwise, set
be linearly field of real
dependent. For
numbers:)
the example,consider
the set of vectors is said of three vectors, over
to
the
Xl
=
(\037).
X2 =
X 3
=
(\037)-)
(!).
Ari
arbitrary
linear
combination of
C1
these three
0
vectors
set to
zero
gives)
3C 3
C1 + 3c 3
=
0
=
\302\267)
ctX
C2 X 2 +
C3X 3
=
(
4\0371)
+
( ;:2
4c (
\037 )
2::
( \037 )
c1
That 0, 4c 1 + is, 2c 2 == c == C == O. Thus the 2 3

==
On the real numbers):)
other
hand,
C1 + 3c 3 == 0, which C 2 == 0, and hold only if set of vectors{X l' X 2 , X 3} is linearly independent. the same field of consider another set of vectors (over
X4
Xs
=
(\037)-
X6 =
(_\037)Setting an
arbitrary
(.;)-)
linear
combination
of these
Cs +
vectors to
.5C6
2c s c 6)
zero,)
0
== 0 ,
C4X 4 +
csXs +
C6 X 6 ==
2c
+ +
- 2c4 (
gives C 4 == -C
( 0) ) necessarily
X 3})))
== .5c
the
6 == (x\"
set
where
(X, X 6}
can
be any
real number not
zero.Therefore,
set {X4,
Xs,
is linearly
dependent.
Basis Vectors:To the
of three
linearly independent
vectors{Xl'X 2 ,
124)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
in
the
first example,
let us add
another vector)
=
(fJ)
Now
you
can
show
without
a,
much
what
difficulty
that
the
set {Xl'
zero)
X 2,
linearly dependent
of four real numbers
regardlessof
b, c,
Y is.
In other
words, you
are
can
X 3 , Y} is find a set
and d (not all

+
of which
+
such thatt)
aX
Rewriting
bX 2 +
cX
dY =
o.)
(6-1))
Eq.
(6-1),)
Y = -\037X 1
d
\037X
.\302\243..X 3
d')
Thus a
X 2,
vector Y
system)
can
be expressed
linearly
as a
independent
linear combination
vectors
of
the
vectors
Xl'
the
X 3 . Such
If every
a set
vector
of k
is called
a basis (or
coordinate
in the vector space. Moreformally: in a vector space W can be expressed
as a
vector
linear combinaspace
tion
of a
given set
of vectors,
this
set is
said to
span the
W. The
dimension of the vector space W is the minimal number of linearly independent vectors required to span W. Any set of k linearly that vectors independent W. is called a basis for the vectorspace spans W, a k-dimensionalvector space, F or example, in a k-dimensional vector the following set of k unit vectors space is a basis.This is the most commonly used basis, and is often called the
natural
or
standard
basis.) 1
0 0
,...,) o
o)
o o)
o
1)
It is clear that real numbers) Basis
any
vector
in the
can be expressed
of a solution (out of
as
k-dimensional vector a linear combination

was
space (over the field of thesek vectors.

that
of
Vectors possible d=l
Graph: In Section 6-5 it

infinitely
shown
there was
a)
tOne
many)
that satisfies
Eq. (6-1)is
24')))
a=
Y3- 2Y2
8'
b =_
Y3 (
2
)'
C=_
8YI-2Y2+Y3
SEC.6-7)
vector
graph
CIRCUIT
AND CUT-SET SUBSPACES)
125)
space
of
WG
associated
with
every graph
a set
basis
for
was a vector in this vector space W G is

G there
W G , represented
G. Corresponding to each subby an e-tuple. The natural

independent
of e
one
linearly
vectors,
each
the W G .)
representing a subgraph consisting of in Fig. 6-5, the set of the following graph
(I,
edge
five
For instance, for vectors serves as a basisfor

of G.
0, 0,
0, 0),
(0, I, 0,0, 0),

CO,
0,
I, 0,
0),
(0, 0, 0,
I, 0),
I).)
(0,0,0,0,
Any
of the possible be represented by vectors.)
32 subgraphs (including
a
as well
as the
null
graph)
can
suitable
(and
unique) linear
combination of these five
basic
6-7.
CIRCUIT
A nonempty
AND
CUT-SET
SUBSPACES)
in space.
satisfies the vectors is a

plication
subset of vectors axioms of a vector

we
a space is called a To check whether
if subspace
the
subset of
given
subset
subspace
have
only
to check
for closure under scalar multi0 and
the zero
and vector addition. Since the vector 0, the closure under scalar
scalar
scalar product of
multiplication
a vector
is
assures
of O. Closureunder
vector
the presence
multiplication
[because
the inverse
of vector X
is the
axioms commutative, and distributive also hold for every subset of vectors. and multi plication by vector addition
A
also assures the inverse of every If the associative, vector ( X]. must hold in the original space, they Thus a subset of vectors closedunder is a subs pace. scalars
I).
vector
space
is
trivially
its
own
A 0, is also a subspace.
Euclidean
the
three-dimensional
both
Euclidean
E
2
of The null space, consisting subspace. is a subs paceof plane E 2 through the origin A E line the origin is a space E3. 1 through
the
subspace of
required
and
E3. number
The dimension
to
is of a subspace
of linearly
independent vectors
span
in
the subspace.)
Subspaces
In the graph
WG)
vector space
W G
(over
G, let us
in
consider the
a vector
in graph
union
G. A
W G representing cut-set vector
field modulo 2) associated with a of vectors: A circuit vector is of edge-disjoint circuits either a circuit or a union either a cut-set or a is a vector in W G representing
the
Galois
two
following
types
of
edge-disjoint
cut-sets
in
G.)))
126)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
We
(which
ring
that in the vector space W G the linear combination of two vectors is simply modulo 2 addition of their components) corresponds to the sum of the corresponding subgraphs in G. From Theorem 6-2, the ring
know of two
sum of
edge-disjoint
circuits (or unions of edge-disjoint is a circuit or a union circuits) circuits. Therefore, the linear combination of two circuit
vectors
is also
a circuit
vector.
Hence)
THEOREM 6-4)
The set of
Based
all
circuit
vectors
in
W G forms
a subspace
Wr .)
have
on
parallel
arguments
and on Theorem
6-3, we
an
identical
result for
THEOREM
cut-set vectors.)
6-5)
The set
Quite
of all
cut-set
vectors
in WG
forms
a subspace
Ws .)
circuit
naturally,
subspaces
respec\037ively.)
Wr and Ws
are called the
subspace
and
cut-set subspace,
Bases
of
After
W s and Wr)
having How
discovered
that
that a
one
particular set
of
vectors
constitutes
subspace, the questions

subspace?
about
asks
next are: What is the
dimension of this
many
vectors does the

W r and Ws
the
subspaces
subspace conrain? These questions are answered by the following important
results.)
THEOREM
6-6)
The with
set of
circuit any
vectors spanning
corresponding tree,
respect
Proof:
to
to the forms a basis for

in
set of
the
fundamental
circuits,
circuit
subspace
W r .)
G, with n - 1 = r c 1 to T produces a and the corresponding circuit can be included in the vector fundamental circuit, another chord T U Cl produces another basis of Wr . Adding C2 to subgraph with at least one edge that was not in the previous circuit. fundamental circuit, circuit and the Therefore, the circuit vector representing the second fundamental Thus both these circuit first circuit vector are linearly vectors can be independent. included in the basis. Adding a third chord to T U Cl \037)C2 will give another fundawith at least one edge not in either of the previous circuits. Therefore, mental circuit in the basis. Continuing with third circuit vector can also be included this this we see that all the J.l vectors obtained this way are linearly successively argument, because each representsa circuit at least one edge not containing independent, in of the ones. each corresponding these previous present any Therefore, J.l vectors, to a fundamental are linearly independent.))) circuit,
Consider a spanning
tree branches and
tree, T,
J.l
a connected
graph
1 =
chords.
Adding
a chord
SEC.6-7)
Now we have to Jl vectors.
show
CIRCUIT
AND
CUT-SET
SUBSPACES)
127)
that
every
circuit vector is a
in
linear
combination
of these
Consider an
arbitrary
circuit r
=
G, such
that)
{e., e2, chords
. . . , ei, ei+\"
. . . , em},)
and
where
edges
branches
cuits
e., e2, of T.
by the
. . . , ei
are
with respect to T,
ei+\"
ei+2, . . . ,
em
are
sum of the i fundamental cirobtained by taking the ring chords e., e2,. . . , and ei. of Theorem 6-1, subgraph or a union of edgebe a circuit Because g must r 1 E9 g must be either a r 1 \"* g. Then the subgraph circuits. Assume disjoint both r 1 and g contain the or a union of edge-disjoint circuits.But since circuit r 1 E9 g will not contain chords el, e2, . . . , ei and no other chords, the subgraph So a contradiction. with respect to T. Hencer 1 E9 g has no circuit, chord any r 1 = g. a union of edge-disjoint Thus we have shown that any circuit (and by extension circuits in G can be expressed as a ring sum of some of the fundamental circuits) must to a set of fundamental circuits with respect to T. The vectors corresponding therefore span Wr . .) subgraph formed
As
Let g be a
was
brought
in
stitutes
but
a basis
the
every
basis in
concircuits 5, every set of fundamental Wr (i.e., forms a set of basiccircuits), to a set of funthe circuit subspace need not correspond
out in Chapter
circuit
subspace
damental circuits. (SeeProblems

COROLLARY
5-15
and
6-18.))
W r is equal to the nullity of the circuit subspace Jl of the graph, of circuit vectors O) in Wr is 2JJ . (including an argument parallel to that used in proving Theorem 6-6, it can be Employing to a fundamental cut-set with shown that the r cut-set vectors,each corresponding to a spanning tree, are linearly independent. respect or a union of Also, by a parallel argument it can be proved that any cut-set the ring sum of a subset of the r by taking edge-disjoint cut-sets can be obtained thus we get a similar to a spanning tree. And cut-sets with fundamental respect for the cut-set subspace.) result
The
dimension
and
the number
THEOREM
6-7)
to the set of fundamental cut-sets, set of cut-set vectors corresponding a basis for the cut-set subspaceW s .) to any spanning tree, forms
The
with
respect
COROLLARY
The
and
dimension
the number
of the cut-set subspace of cut-set vectors(including

illustrate
Ws is equal to the O) in Ws is 2'.) results
rank
r of
the
graph,
Example: Let us now
these
with an
exanlple.)))
128)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
For
the graph
G in
Fig.
6-5)
number
of edges,
rank,
e = 5,
r =
J.l
3,
2.)
nullity,
The
are) 1
number
of vectors
in
the
circuit
subspace,
1
2 therefore, is 2
4, and
these
0 ,
and
0 0
'----v---\"
1
1
1
1
o. 0
0
a basis
The
of
W r)
with
to the set of fundamental circuits two of these vectors correspond to either of the spanning trees in Fig. 6-5, and therefore they form a basis for Wr . (In fact, any two of the first three vectors form a basis of Wr .)
first
respect
three in
The
subgraphs, Fig.
each
corresponding
to a
nonzero vector
in
Wr,
are
the
shown
The number
6-6.
therefore
cut-set subspace W s has a dimension of three, and of vectors in W s is 2 3 = 8. These cut-set vectors are)
1 1 1
0
1
0
1 1
I
I
0
0
0
1
0
0
1 1
0
1 1
I
1
0 I
1
o.
0
0
0
0
a basis
0
1 ...
0
1
of Ws)
The
first
three
be the
respect to the tree g2

vector
cut-sets with vectors correspond to the three fundamental in Fig. 6-5. The rest of the can easily be seen to vectors basis vectors. The seven) sums of .any two or three of these
e1)
eI) Q)
Fig.
6-6
Circuits
in
graph
G of Fig.
6-5.)))
SEC. 6-8)
ORTHOGONAL
VECTORS
AND SPACES)
129)
e()
e()
e()
e()
e3)
Fig.
6-7
Cut-sets and
union
of edge-disjoint
cut-sets
in
graph
G of
Fig. 6-5.)
to subgraphs, each corresponding

Fig.
a nonzero
cut-set
vector,
are sketched
in
6-7.
In this example you may have observed that the subgraph reI' e2 , e 4 , e s } is both a circuit and a union of two edge-disjoint cut-sets. The vector (I, I, 0, I, to this occurs in both subs paces Wr I) corresponding therefore, subgraph, and Ws . Another observation there are at least you may have also made is that e r (2 - 2JJ - 2 -t-- I) nonzero vectors which are neither in W r nor in Ws . In this we must have at least 21 (= 2S - 2 3 - 2 2 + 1) such vectors. example Since is one vector common to Wr and Ws, we have in fact 22 vectors in there WG that are neither circuit vectors nor cut-set vectors. subobtained some Having insight into the circuit subspace and cut-set the relationship between these two subspaces.) space, let us now explore
6-8.
ORTHOGONAL
VECTORS
AND
SPACES)
a plane
Consider
two-dimensional
two
vectors Euclidean
(4, 2)
and
(- 3, 6) in
shown
orthogonal notion to
product 4. (- 3) a k-dimensional vector space,we have Dot Product: The dot product of two vectors
because
space
as \302\2432)'
their dot
(which is also called a in Fig. 6-8. These vectors are this + 2 - 6 = O. Generalizing
the
X
following
Y in
definitions:
and
a vector
space W
is a
scalar
quantity defined
X -Y
as)
= (x
=
l'
2' . . . , X k ) (y
X 2
l'
2, . . . , Y k )
X1-Yl +
-Y2 -t-
...
Xk-Yk.)))
130)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
(-3,6))
(4,2))
Fig. 6-8
space
Pair
of orthogonal
vectors
in
\302\2432.)
Orthogonal
Vectors:
two
is zero;
vector
of Returning
and
subspaces
Two vectors are are said to

every
called orthogonal
in the
if their
dot product
if every
be orthogonal to each other

other.
in one is
to
orthogonal to
vector
two
vectors,
the vector space each representing

corresponding
products of the
product
associated with a graph G, the dot product 2 sum of the a subgraph of G, is the modulo in the two vectors. For example,the dot entries
g2
of the
(],
vectors representingsubgraphs gl and

0, 1,
in Fig.
1
6-5
1
is)
0, 1). (0,
1, 1, 1,0)
1. 0
+
+ O. 1
1.
O.
].0
(mod 2 sum)
=0+0+1+0+0
=1.)
in the sum of products above of nonzero entries is the number of common and 6-8 definition to Theorem follows from the edges g2. directly gl of the dot product of two vectors.)
The number
THEOREM
6-8)
The dot product of two vectors, one representing is zero if the number of edges common to g and g' is odd.) the number of common edges
a subgraph g
is even;
and
the
product
the dot
other g', is 1 if
THEOREM 6-9)
In
the
vector
space of a
graph,
the
circuit
subspace
and
the
cut-set
subspace
are orthogonal to
Proof:
each other.
to Theorem
What
According
4-3,
the
the
number
and
a cut-set
is even.
about
number
edge-disjoint circuits and a union of edge-disjoint can be shown as follows: of three edge-disjoint circuits r h Let gl be a union of two edge-disjoint cut-sets S 1 and and g2 be a union Let the number of edges common to)))
of edges common to a circuit to a union of of edges common cut-sets? That this is also even r 2, and S2 in G.
in a
graph
G,
SEC. 6-9)
INTERSECTION
AND JOIN
OF W r AND
W s)
131)
1 1
and and
be
2a,
r r
S 2 be 2b, S1 be S2 be S
1
2 and 2 3 3
2c, 2d,
2e,
r r
r
and and and
be
S2 be
2f)
between
Since there r 3, the six

empty).
is no
edge common between
S1 and S2, or
gt
r
is)
and
r 2 and
be
common edges enumerated above to of edges common Therefore, the number

sets of
2a
are all
and
distinct (some may

g2
-+ 2b
-f-
2c
-1- 2d
+ 2e
gt
2f,)
an
even
number.)
This example can be extended to and of edge-disjoint circuits dot product of a circuit vector and the in each of these subspaces is orthogonal the theorem. .)
numbers
cut-sets, a cut-set
of any finite and gz to include the union From Theorem 6-8, respectively. vector is zero. Henceevery vector to every vector in the other. Therefore,
For
circuit
instance,
the
dot
product
in
vector (I,
(0,
I, ], 0, 0)
the
of the cut-set vector (0, I, I, I, 0) and the in Section 6-7 (i.e., Fig.6-5)is) example
=
I, I,
I, 0). ( I,
I, I, 0, 0)
O.
I.
(mod
+
2).)
I.
I. 0
+ O.0
=0
OF W
r
6-9.
INTERSECTION
AND JOIN
AND
W s)
W G , it is interestW r and Ws of the vector subspaces space is the largest set of vectors that belongs to both circuit subspace W r and the cut-set subspace W s ; and what is the smallest set of vectors both Wr and Ws ? Clearly, the null or zero vector 0 is in containing W r and Ws, but both in there contained may also be some nonzero vectors the intersection Wr n W s . For example, the vector)
Given the
to
two
ing
ask
what
I I
o I
I)
for
the
graph
in Fig.
W r
the set
of vectors
6-5 is in both subspaces. n Ws always forms a
It is not
vector
difficult
to
show
that
subspace
in
W G .)))
132)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
W r and Ws both hand, the smallest subspace containing Wr U W s , of course, but (because of the closure for a subspace) it will usually contain some additional vectors requirements in W r U Ws . For example,for the graph in Fig. 6-5 set W r U W s contains not 10 vectors of Figs. 6-6 and 6-7), while the smallest con(union subspace set W r U Ws, that the set in vectors of is, the subspace taining spanned by W r U Ws, consists of 16 vectors. (What are the remaining six subgraphs not in Figs. 6-6 and 6-7?) The included subs pace spanned by Wr U W s is called the join of W r and W s , and is written as W r V W s . The following is a well-known result from linear algebra:If X and Yare
On
the
other
must
contain
the
set union
two
subspaces in their join, dim(X

dim(X
a
V
finite-dimensional
Y),
vector
space,
then
the
dimension
of
is given
by)
V Y)
= dim X
dim
- dim(X
Y).)
Using
this
result,
we
get)
dim(W
r V
Ws)
= e-
dim(W
r n
W s ).)
Two subspaces of a vector if the complements space are said to be orthogonal are to each and the entire other, subspaces orthogonal they together span vector space.Thus we have the following interesting result.)
THEOREM
6-10)
Subspaces
Wr
and
Ws
are orthogonal
complements if
W
and
only
if)
dim(W
r n
Ws)
= 0, i.e.,
r n
Ws
o.)
a set of basis vectors W r together with a set of basis of a basis for W G if and only if Wr n W s = O. Consequently, as a ring sum of two subany g of G can be uniquely subgraph expressed a an circuit or of and the a one union circuits other cutgraphs, edge-disjoint set or an edge-disjoint union of cut-sets, if and only if)
In
other
words,
vectors of W
s form
W r
n
Fig.
Ws
O.)
These
properties In
are illustrated
in
6-9.
the case)
W
r n
Ws
=1= 0)
we
have nonzero vectors each orthogonal to situation arises from the finitenessof the field.
itself. I
This
seemingly
peculiar
n fact,
the dot
product of any)))
SEC. 6-9)
INTERSECTION
AND JOIN OF W r AND
W s)
133)
dim
U{-;
= e =
-
3
1
d i In
d i 01
a)
=n W s
Wr =
= 2
= 1) J.1
Gra
ph
G)
WI' contains
and
\302\267
(D
W s
(g)
contains
and
(l).
=
w\"nws=(g)
Wr V Ws = WG) Wr
(:).
a)
(D
(g))
Ws =)
(1),
The
(n,
uniquely
G),
(D. (g))
as)
remaining
three vectors are
expressed
=
(g)
\037
(D =
\037
G)
,and
(n
( D
=
(D
\037
(D
Fig. 6-9 vector
number
(l))
different
Graph and its

is zero if
subspaces.) if the
over GF(2)
of
1
with
itself
and
only
vector
contains an even
's.
Now,
since)
dim( Wr n
the
s ) =1= 0,)
possible
two subspaces to express
Wr and Ws are not every vector in W G as

W
orthogonal
complements.
Nor
is
it
a sum
of two vectors,
one from
W r
of)))
and the
other from
s . For
example,
in Fig.
6-5 no
linear
combination
134)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP.
6)
vectors
in
W r and Ws
will
yield
the
vector)
1
o.
o
o)
In
fact,
for Fig.
6-5 there are

V
16such
e
vectors
in W G that
are not in
Wr
W s,
because)
dim(W r
The
in (W [6-8]
W s ) ==
dim(W
r II
Ws)
==
== 4.)
reader
6-5.
Fig. s II and
Identify
like is encouraged to sketcha figure all 32 subgraphs, and place them

(W
Fig.
in
6-9, using the graph
W r ),
and
s V
W r ).
For more
on
properties
subs paces Wr , Ws, of these subspaces see
[6-1].)
SUMMARY)
or number systems were introduced, and a vector space W G over the graph G corresponds field of integers modulo 2 [i.e., GF(2)]. For a graph G with e edges the e in W G is 2 , each corredimension of W G is e, and the number of vectors sponding to a subgraph of G. an r-dimensional and unions of edge-disjoint cut-sets formed Cut-sets In
this
chapter
various
algebraic
it was
shown
that to every
Ws in W G . The number subspace each vector corresponding to a Similarly,

,u-dimensional the
of vectors
in union
subs
pace
of
W s is
naturally
r 2 ,
cut-set or a
of 2 JJ vectors.
edge-disjoint
cut-sets.
the circuits and

vector
union
edge-disjoint
circuits
W r , with Out space to any representing all fundamental circuits, with respect the in the circuit subspace. Likewise, basis spanning tree, forms a convenient r set of fundamental cut-sets, with respect to any spanning tree, provides a
set
correspond to a of many bases available,
of ,u vectors
basisin
the
cut-set
subspace.
circuit
The cut-set
subspace and
subs pace
of a graph are
orthogonal to
each other. The intersection two subspaces is not necessarily[O}; and circuit subto cut-set that be nonzero vectors common is, there may is to itself, and W these in W vectors s II r orthogonal spaces. Everyone of The set of vector the form another subspace. they (including origin 0) a vector form in W W the does not vectors union space. r s U necessarily of vectors in general, a large number W G has, It was also shown that e - 2JJ - 2 r or more) which belong neither to the cut-set + 1 vectors (2 circuit nor the to subspace. subspace
of these
On one hand, a graph provides an
elegant
and
concrete
example
of)))
CHAP.
6)
PROBLEMS)
135)
which often appear frighteningly A graph also provides an example of a vector space over a field than other those of usual real or complex numbers.On the other hand, a study of the vector spaceof a graph and the nature of different us \"what makes a graph tick.\" It gives us shows subspaces an additional mathematical and applications of graphs, in analysis footing
than
\"spaces\" of
more
three
dimensions,
mysterious
to many
nonmathematicians.
as in coding in Chapter theory (to be covered Vectors and matrices are closely related.In a graph, various matrices associated with explore
such and
12).
the
we will next chapter and tie the vector spaces
matrices
of graphs
together.)
REFERENCES)
in its barest of abstract algebra has been presented rigor. Since the classical book of van der Waerden on the subject. Of these, four are recommended (1931), many excellent texts have appeared for those wishing a more detailed and thorough For groups and fields see coverage. 3 of Miller [6-7]. For vector spaces, Chapters 2, 3, and 4 of Herstein [6-6] and Chapter 1 of Halmos and 5 of Herstein consult Chapter [6-5], Chapter 7 of Dean [6-2], Chapter [6-6]. For a study of vector spaces of graphs, 4 of Seshu and Reed [1-13], and papers Chapter in particular, for the material and Rota [6-3] are suggested; by Gould [6-4]and Goldman in Section 6-9, see Chen covered [6-1] and Williams and Maxwell [6-8]. (Note that in [6-8], union of cut-sets; cire is a circuit or an edge-disjoint seg is a cut-set or an edge-disjoint
A
small
but very
that
important
portion
essentials, and
too without much
union
6-1.
6-2.
6-3.
6-4.
6-5.
with a Graph,\" SIAM J. Appl. \"On Vector SpacesAssociated Math., Vol. 20, No.3, May 1971,526-529. R. A., Elements of Abstract John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, DEAN, Algebra, 1966. in Recent of Subspaces of a Vector GOLDMAN, J., G. C. ROTA,\"\"The Number Space,\" Progress in Combinatorics Press, Inc., New York, 1969. (W. T. Tutte, ed.), Academic J. Math. Phys., Vol. 37, 1958,193-214. GOULD, R., \"Graphs and Vector Spaces,\" ComVector HALMOS, P. R., \"Finite-Dimensional Spaces,\" Van Nostrand Reinhold
CHEN,
of circuits.) W. K.,
6-6.
6-7.
6-8.
pany, New
HERSTEIN,
York, 1958.
I. N.,
Topics
in Algebra,
Modern
Xerox CollegePublishing,
Abstract \"The
Lexington,
Mass.,
1964.
MILLER,
K. S.,
Elements of
Algebra,
Harper & Row,
Inc., New
York,
1958.
T. W.,
WILLIAMS,
and L. M.
New
MAXWELL,
Decomposition
Introduction of a
May
Class
of Subgraphs,\"
SIAM J.
Appl.
Math.,
of a Graph and the Vol. 20, No.3,
1971,
385-389.)
PROBLEMS)
6-1.
Show Show
that
6-2.
that
all
five
does not satisfy the associative axiom. operation of subtraction of the four fourth roots of unity that is, {1, -1, i, -i}, satisfies criteria for being an abelian multiplication group under the ordinary
the usual the set
operation.)))
136)
VECTOR
SPACES
OF A GRAPH)
CHAP. there is only

the
6)
6-3.
Given a set (x, y, z} of three with this set.

From unique
elements, show
that
that
one group
set
{O,
possible 1, 2} has modulo
6-4.
6-5.
6-6.
the
table
inverse
under
in Fig. 6-3(a), show modulo 3 addition.
each
What
about
element in under
multiplication
6-7.
3? Use the table in Fig. 6-3(b). Show that there are only two different groups possible with four elements, and that both these groups are abelian. Given a set (a, b, c, d} of four elements, construct two four by four tables for * and 0, such that the set is a field. Identify the letters playing the roles operations with respect to * and of identities 0 (Le., 0 and 1). Write down the addition and multiplication tables for each of modulo 4, 5, 6, and 7 arithmetics (similar to those in Figs. 6-3 and 6-4).
6-8. 6-9.
6-10.
(i.e., 1,2,
table in Problem 6-7, show that not every nonzero element appropriate the modulo 4 multiplication operation. 3) has a unique inverse under is an abelian ring with unity, but is not a field. Show that the modulo 6 system 0 is orthogonal to every Prove that in any vector space the null vector in vector
From
the
and
the space.
6-11.
Show
that
W G , as defined
in
Section
vector space,as stated in Section 6-4. 6-12. In vector space WG, do the vectors associated with the spanning trees of G form a vector space over G F(2)? Explain. of a circuit of length Let G be a graph 6-13. four. Depict the four subspaces consisting W r , Wr n W s , and Wr V Ws as was done in Fig. 6-9. Draw the corresWs, Have all 16 subgraphs of G been accounted for? ponding subgraphs. 6-14. Repeat Problem 6- 13 for a completegraph of four vertices. Find a basis for Ws
and
6-5, satisfies
all
four
conditions
for being a
Wr .
If a graph G is a tree (or a forest), show that the cut-set subspace Ws fills the entire vector space W G of graph G. a graph for which the circuit space contains 6-16. Characterize the vector (1, 1, . . . , 6-17. Prove that the number of distinct bases possible in a cut-set subspace is 6-15.
1,(2 r.) where r is the
that
1).
- 20 )(2
the
- 2 1 )(2
- 2 2 )...
(2 r
- 2r -
),
rank of
number
graph.
6-18.
Prove
J1,
the
of spanning
JJ 2\302\260)(2
trees in
JJ
a connected
labeled graph
with
nullity
cannot
exceed
the number
2 1 )(2 tree
(2JJ 1, J1,.
(Hint:
- 2 JJ- 1 22) . . . (2 JJ ). there is a distinct

circuits.
Associated
to
with each
the set
spanning fundamental
basis in
corresponding
of
Therefore,
there are
Wr , subspace as at least
6-19.
6-20.
trees.) spanning many distinct basesin W r as the number of different vectors Sketch a graph G that has the following (among others) in its circuit sub0,0,1), (0, 1, 1, 1, 0, I, 1,0), (0, I, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1,0), (0, 1,0, 0, 0, space: (0, I, I, 1,1, 1 , 0, 1), (1, 0, I, 0, I, I, 0, 1), (1, 0, 1, 0, 0,0, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0, I, 1, 1, I, 0), and (J, 0, 0, I, 0, 0, 0, 1). that a graph is connected and that W r n W s =I=- 0, investigate further the Given to the vectors in subspaces (a) Wr n Ws properties of the subgraphs corresponding and (b) Wr V Ws.)))
7)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
Although
pictorial
representation
of a graph is
are better
very
convenient
for
visual
matrix
Matrices
study,
known
A processing. of representing a graph to a computer. is a convenient and useful way lend themselves easily to mechanical manipulations. Besides, many to study the structural results of matrix algebra can be readily applied
other
representations
for computer
In many of graphs from an algebraic point of view. properties applications network and operations reof graph theory, such as in electrical analysis turn out to be the natural of expressing the problem. also search,matrices way I n this chapter we shall consider two most frequently used matrix representations of a graph.Also a correspondence between some graph-theoretic will be established. I n view of the close tie properties and matrix properties
between matrices and upon as a continuation

algebra
vector of
spaces, Chapter
this chapter should, in fact, be looked 6. A rudimentary knowledge of matrix
is assumed.)
7-1.
INCIDENCE
MATRIX)
Let G be a graph with n vertices, e edges, and no self-loops. = matrix A n e whose to the n vertices rows by correspond [aij]' columns correspond to the e edges, as follows:
Define an
and
the e
The matrix
aij
element)
=
=0
I,) ,)
if jth
edge e j is incident
on
ith
vertex
Vi' and
otherwise.)
137)))
138)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
V3) V6)
V4)
c)
VI)
d)
Vs)
(a))
a 0
c 0 0 0
(!
0
VI
0 0 0
t2
V3
0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0)
V4
Vs
0
0
0 0 0
0 0
V6
(b))
Fig.
7-1
Graph and its incidence matrix.)
a matrix A is called the vertex-edge or simply incidence Such incidence matrix, as A(G). A graph matrix. Matrix A for a graph G is sometimes also written in Fig. 7-1. are shown and its incidence matrix The incidence matrix contains only two elements, 0 and 1. Such a matrix is called a binary matrix or a (0, I)-matrix.Let us stipulate that these two elements are from Galois field modulo 2.t Given any geometric representawe can readily write tion of a graph without its incidence matrix.) self-loops, are customarily defined over a commutative matrices ring with identity, not be a field (such as the ring of integers), we have defined matrix A over a of the vector space WG in Chapter 6.))) field, G F(2), in keeping with our definition
t Although
need
which
SEC. 7-1)
INCIDENCE
MATRIX)
139)
On the
its
other hand, if we are given

graph
an
geometric
without the
ambiguity. same
geometric graph contain

ternative
matrix A( G), we can construct matrix and the incidence are simply two alinformationt-they
incidence The
l'he
made:)
ways
following
of representing
observations
the same
about
(abstract) graph.
matrix
A
the incidence
can
readily
be
1. Since every
A has
edge
is incident
on exactly two
vertices, each column

the
of
exactly two 1's.

of l's in
2.
The
number
each row equals the
degree of
corresponding
vertex.)
3. A row
with
all
O's, therefore,
represents an isolated
2 in
vertex.
its
4. Parallel
matrix,
in a graph produce edges for example, columns 1 and
identical columns in
Fig. 7-1.
incidence
5. If a graph G is disconnected g 2' the incidence matrix A( diagonal form as)

A(G)
and consists
G) of
graph G
of two components can be written
in
g t and a block-
=
[\037\037!\037-+-A(\037\037J')
(7-1))
where
and
A(g 1) and
g 2. This incident on
also true
for
matrices of components g 1 A(g2) are the incidence in g t is no edge observation results from the fact that vertices of g2' and vice versa. Obviously, this remark is a disconnected of components. graph with any number rows
the
6. Permutation of any two corresponds to relabeling

This
or columns
vertices
in
an
incidence
matrix
simply
and
edges of the
observation
leads
us to
Theorem 7-].)
same graph.
THEOREM
7-1)
Two
A(G1)
and
graphs Gland A(G 2) differ

the
G2
only
are
isomorphic
if and only
if
their
incidence
matrices
by permutations Matrix:
of
rows
and
columns.)
Rank of
Incidence
vector
be regarded as a
t Just
evident
planar
7-1(b).)))
over
GF(2)
Each row in an incidence in the vector space of
matrix
graph
A(G) may
G. Let the)
of representation, some properties are more alternative methods than in the other. For example, the fact that the graph is representation it is not at all obvious from the matrix in Fig. is obvious in Fig. 7-I (a), whereas
as in one
any two
in
140)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
vector
in the
first row be
called At,
in
the
second
AI
row
A 2
, and
so on.
Thus)
A
A(
= G)
(7-2)
An)
are exactly two l's in every column of A, the sum of all these is 0 (this being a modulo 2 sum of the corresponding entries). Thus vectors Therefore, the rank of AI, A 2, . . . , An are not linearly independent. A is less than n; that is, rank A < n - 1. nz of these n vectors (m < n Now consider the sum of any I). If the
Since
there
vectors
graph is connected, A(G)

A(gt) is with
submatrix
m
cannot
with
be
partitioned,
n \037 m
as
in
Eq.
(7-1),
such
that
by
rows
of A(G) can be found, 2 sum for m < n I, such that the modulo of those m rows is equal to zero. Sincethere are only two constants 0 and I in this field, the additions of all taken m at a time for m = I, 2, . . . , n - I exhausts vectors all possible linear combinations of n - I row vectors. Thus we have just shown that no linear combination of m row vectors of A (for m < n - I) can be equal to zero. the rank of A(G) must be at least n - I. Therefore, Since the rank of A(G) is no more than n - I and is no less than n - I, it must be exactly equal to n - I. Hence Theorem 7-2.)
THEOREM
and A(g2)
rows. -
In other
words, no m
7-2)
If A(G)
of
is
A(G) is n
The
an
incidence
I.)
matrix
of a connected
graph
G with
n vertices,
the
rank
argument
rank of A( G) is n -
that leading to Theorem 7-2 can be extendedto prove with n vertices and k k, if G is a disconnectedgraph
the
ponents (Problem 7-3).This is called the rank of a graph with If we remove anyone row - I) by (n graph, the remaining
In
the
reason
the
why
the
number
- k has been
com-
k components. from
e submatrix n
matrix incidence is of rank n vectors
of a connected
I
(Theorem
7-2).
other words, the

n
remaining
row
1 rows of an incidence matrix to specifythe correthe same amount of completely, for n - I rows contain I rows n we information as the entire matrix. (This is obvious, since given can easily reconstitute the missing because each column in the matrix row, has exactly two l's.))))
Thus we need only

graph
are linearly
independent.
sponding
SEC.
7-2)
SUBMATRICES OF A(G))
141)
Such
an
(n
matrix. The vertex
- ])
by
submatrix
Af of
to the
is
called
in
corresponding
deleted row
erence vertex.
reference
Clearly,
any
vertex
of a
connected graph can be made

n of
a reduced Af is called
incidence the refthe
vertex.
Since a
reduced
words,)
tree is a connected graph with incidence matrix is a square matrix
vertices order
and
n
n
- 1 edges,its
-
and rank
1. In other
COROLLARY)
The
reduced
incidence
matrix
of a
tree is
1
nonsingular.)
A graph
The
rank
with n vertices and n of the incidence matrix

the
edges
that
is not
will
a tree is disconnected.
be
Therefore, will
(n
- I) by
if and
(n
only
of such a graph
less
than
- 1.
of
not
be nonsingular.
I n other
graph
is
nonsingular
of such I) reduced incidence matrix words, the reduced incidence matrix if the graph is a tree.)
a graph
a
7-2. SUB MATRICES

Let g
matrices
sibly
OF
A(G))
with
be a subgraph of a graph G, and let A(g) and A(G) be the incidence is a submatrix of A(G) (posof g and G, respectively.Clearly, A(g) is a one-to-one correthere rows or columns permuted). I n fact,
each
between spondence
kedges,
vertices
k being in G.
any
of A(G) less than e positive integer

n by
k submatrix
and
and
a subgraph n being the
of G with number of
such
Submatrices of A(G) corresponding to specialtypes of as circuits, spanning trees, or cut-setsin G, will undoubtedly 7-3 gives one such property.) properties. Theorem
THEOREM
subgraphs,
exhibit special
7-3)
(n
Let A(G)
be
-
an
incidence
submatrix
matrix
of
I)
by
(n
1)
edgescorresponding
in
to the
of a connected graph G with n vertices. An is nonsingular if and only if the n - 1 of this matrix constitute columns a spanning tree
A(G)
G.)
Proof:
matrix
of
the
Every square submatrix same subgraph

Theorem if and
of order
in
with
- 1 edges, and
that
- 1 in
a
A( G)
is the
vice
reduced incidence
versa.
remarks
nonsingular
following
7-2,
the
it is
clear
square
edges
submatrix
of the
only
tree,
.)))
if
corresponding
subgraph
n
is a tree.
The tree
From the of A(G) is

in
this
case is a
Thus
spanning
because
it contains
n-vertex graph.
the
theorem.
142)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
7-3.
CIRCUIT
MATRIX)
circuits
matrix
edges
defined
Let the number of different in G be e. Then a circuit

as follows:)
in a
B =
graph G be q and the number [bij] of G is a q bye, (0, I)-matrix
of
= b.. IJ)
if ith
circuit
includes jth edge, and
==0 ,)
To
otherwise.)
B is
emphasize
the fact
as Fig.
that
a circuit matrix
different
of graph G, the
circuits,
circuit
matrix
may also be written The graph in
B(G). 7-1(a)
has four
its
{a, b}, {c,
e, g},
)-matrix
{d,f,
as
g},and
shown:)
{c,
d, f,
e}. Therefore,
circuit
matrix
is a
by
8, (0,
a
1
b
1
c d e
0
I
f g
0
0
1 ] I I
0
0
1 1
0
I 0
]
0 0
0 0 0)
B(G)
2 0 0
3
0 0
(7-3)
4
The
following
observations
can be made about
a circuit
matrix
B(G) of
a graph G:)
1.
A column
that
does
not
of all zeros corresponds to belong to any circuit).
noncircuit
edge
(i.e.,
an edge
2. 3.
Each Unlike
row of
B(G) is a circuit
matrix,
vector. a circuit
the incidence
matrix
will
a self-loop-the
corresponding
row
have
is capable a single I.
number
of representing
of
of l's in 4. The number corresponding circuit.
a row is
equal to the
edges
in the
5. If graph
is separable
(or components)
a block-diagonal
(or disconnected) and and g2, the circuit matrix gl

form as)
consists of
B(G)
two
blocks
in
can
be written
8(G) =
where
1\037\037\0371!__!
----\037-
L 0
,
g2. This
: B(g2)) l
B(g 1) and
B(g2) are the
circuit matrices
of
gland
ob-)))
SEC. 7-3)
CIRCUIT
MATRIX)
143)
servation
ing
to
g2, and
results from the fact that circuits vice versa (Problem 4-14).
of
in gl
have no
edgesbelongmatrix
6.
Permutation
any
two rows
the
or columns in
and edges.
circuit
simply
corresponds to relabeling
circuits
7. Two graphs Gland G 2 will have the same circuit matrix if and only if (Theorem Gland G2 are 2-isomorphic 4-15). In other words, (unlike an incidence does not specify a graph commatrix) the circuit matrix
pletely.
It only
specifies
the graph
that matrix,
within
2-isomorphism.
in
For 4-11 (a)
instance,
be easily verified have the same circuit

it can
An
the
two graphs yet the graphs

matrix
Figs.
and (d)
are not isomorphic.)

and
important
theorem
graph
relating
G
is)
the incidence
the circuit
matrix
of a
self-loop-free
THEOREM
7-4)
A
Let B and
be,
graph) self-loop-free
the circuit matrix respectively, columns are arranged whose
and
using
the
the
is,)
incidence matrix (of a same order of edges.
Then every
row
of B is
orthogonal to every
A.BT
row
A;
that
= B.AT
0)
(mod
2),)
(7-4))
where
superscript
T denotes
the
transposed
matrix.)
Proof:
it the
is not. other
If v is
Consider a vertex v and a circuit r in the graph G. Either v is in r or not in r, there is no edge in the circuit r that is incident on v. On in the r that are circuit hand, if v is in r, the number of those edges
consider
in the
if
on v is exactly two. With this remark in mind, Since the edges are arranged
incident
sponding and
positions
occur
circuit.
only
in
the ith row in A and the jth row in B. same order, the nonzero entries in the correthe particular on the ith vertex edge is incident
is also
in the jth
ith
If the
vertex of
is not the two
the dot
will 1 the
product
be -t- 1 = other
two exactly 0 (mod 2),

from
l's
the
in
dot
the jth circuit, there is no such nonzero entry, and rows is zero. If the ith vertex is in the jth circuit, there the sum of the products of individual Since entries. from A and of the two arbitrary rows-one product theorem.
B-is
zero. Hence the
.)
As an
of
the
graph
example, let us multiply in Fig. 7-1(a), after
the making
incidence sure
matrix and transposed that the edges are in the
circuit
same
order
in
both.)))
144
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS
CHAP. 7
1
0 0
1
0 0
0
I
0 0
1
1
0 0
A.
BT =
0
1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
1 1
0
1
1
0
0
0 0
0
0
1
0 1
0
1
0
1 1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0 0
0
0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
(mod 2).
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0)
7-4.
FUNDAMENTAL
AND
CIRCUIT
OF
B)
MATRIX
RANK
A
ning
set of
tree
in a
independent
ring
sums of these circuits. Thus, (i.e., linear combinations) if we retain only those rows that correspond to a set of fundamental circuits and remove all other rows, we would not lose any information. The remaining rows can be reconstituted to the set of funfrom the rows corresponding damental circuits. For example, in the circuit matrix in Eq. (7-3), the fourth of the second and third row is simply the mod 2 sum rows. A submatrix a in all circuit which rows (of matrix) correspond to a set of B f. A graph and is called a fundamental fundamental circuits circuit matrix its fundamental circuit matrix with to a tree (indicated by respect spanning heavy lines) are shown in Fig. 7-2. As in matrices A and B, permutations of rows (and/or of columns) do not affect Bf. If n is the number of vertices and e the number of edges in a connected graph, then B f is an (e - n + 1) by e matrix, because the number of fundamental circuits is e - n + I, each fundamental circuit being produced
by
fundamental circuits (or basiccircuits) with in Chapters connected graph, as discussed in a graph. The rest of the circuits circuits
respect 3 and
to any span-
6, are the
only
can be obtained as in a circuit matrix,
one
chord.
Let us
correspond
arrange the columns

to the
first
in I
Bf
such
that
all the
fundamental
+
circuit
chords
columns.
Furthermore,
let us
rearrange
made)))
the rows such that
the
first
row corresponds
to the
SEC.
7-4)
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUIT
MATRIX
AND RANK
OF B)
145)
e4)
es)
(a))
e2)
e3)
e6)
e()
e4)
es) o)
e7)
o)
o)
o)
o)
o)
o)
o)
o)
o)
o)
(b))
Fig.
to
7-2
the
spanning
Graph and its fundamental tree shown in heavy
circuit
matrix
(with respect
lines).)
by the chord made by the

matrix A
in the first column, the second row to the fundamental circuit second, and so on. This indeed is how the fundamental circuit in Fig. 7-2(b). is arranged B f thus arranged can be written as) matrix
Bf
where I Jl is an
J.l
[IJl! BJ,)
=
(7-5))
ing
by
(n
- I)
identity
matrix of
order J.l
submatrix,
corresponding
to the
I, and Bt is the remainbranches of the spanning
tree.
From
Eq.
(7-5)
it is
clear
that
the)
rank
Since
of Bf
Jl
1.)
Bf is
a submatrix
of the
circuit
matrix
B, the)
n
rank of B
In
> e-
I.)
fact,
we can
7-5)
prove Theorem 7-5.)
THEOREM
If B is a
circuit
matrix
of a
connected
graph G with
e edges
and n vertices,)
rankofB=e-n+l.)))
146)
Proof:
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
If A
is
an
incidence
matrix A.
BT
of G, from
=
Eq. (7-4)we
have)
(mod 2).) (Appendix

of B <
to Therefore, according
Sylvester's
rank
theorem
of
B),) e;)
A.)
-t-
rank
that
is,)
rank
Since) we
of B <
rank
of
rank
of A =
1)
have)
rank of B <
rank
ee
-f-
1.)
But
of B >
1.)
Therefore,
we
must
have) rank
of B =
-t- 1.
.)
An Alternative Proof: Theorem 7-5 can also be proved by considering the circuit subspace Wr in the vector space WG of a graph, as discussed in Chapter 6. B is a vector in W r , and since the matrix rank of any Every row in circuit of linearly independent rows matrix is equal to the number in the (or columns)
matrix,
we
have.)
matrix
rank of
B =
number
of
linearly
independent B <
rows
in B;)
independent
dimension
but
of
the
number
vectors Wr
= J.l. Therefore, rank of rank of B > e - n + 1, Theorem
in Wr , and
of linearly independent of linearly the number B <
rows
in
number of
vectors
linearly
e - n + 7-5 follows.
independent
in Wr
already
1. Since
we
showed
that
.)
graph
Note that sume that G
in talking is connected.
of spanning
trees of a
In the case
of a disconnected graph,
to consider a spanning forest and fundamental forest. It is not difficult to show (considering component by component) k components, if G is a disconnectedgraph with e edges, and n vertices,)
rank
is necessary to aswe would have circuits with to this respect

G it
that
of B
J.l
k.)
7-5.
APPLICATION you
TO A SWITCHING are given G, b, c, d,
NETWORK)
Suppose
of eight
from
One
switches
a box that e,f, g, and
contains h. The
outside. You are

box, way
asked to
determine
a switching network switches can be turned the switches are how the available
consisting
on
or off
connected
terminals)))
inside the
without
to find
opening the box, of course. the answer is to connect a lamp at
SEC.7-5)
APPLICATION
TO A SWITCHING NETWORK)
147)
Swi tch
k)
@@@ e d
f
h
Lamp)
@@@
g
@@)
Ba
II
ttery)
TI1Cbox)
Fig. 7-3
in then
Black box
with
a switching
network.)
series find
with
out
In this on the lamp
a battery and an additional switch k, as shown in Fig. 7-3. And which of the various combinations light the lamp. up the combinations that turn experiment, you discover that suppose
are eight:)
b,f,
(a,
h, k),
k),
(a, b, g, k),
(c,f,
(b, c, e, h,
Solution:
sent
h, k),
(a, e,f, g, k), (a, (c, g, k), (d, k).)
e, h,
k),
Consider We
lit
switches.
loop.
this
Since a
list
the switching network can assume that the graph the formation lamp implies
a partial list of circuits in a circuit matrix:)
a
I 1 1
as a graph whose edgesrepreis connected, and has no selfwe can regard the of a circuit,
the
preceding
list
as
corresponding
graph.
With
we form
b
I 1
f
1
g 011
1
1
0
0
I
B=
0 00101 o 0 1 1 101 o 0 10011

o
1
o
o
6 7
8)
01011
0
0)
0
1)
o 0
o
o
matrix,
001)
Next, to
circuits.
simplify
the
we should
ring
Observe
ts :) (a,
that
the k)
following
sums
remove the obviously redundant of circuits give rise to other

== == ==
circui
b, g,
EB
(C,f, (a,
h, k) e, h,
EB EB EB
(c, (c, (c,
g, k) g, k) g, k)
(a, (b, (a,
b,f, c, e, e,f,
h, k),
(a, b, g, k) EB
k)
h, k),
g,
k).)))
(a, e, h,
k)
EB (c,f,
h, k)
148
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS
CHAP. 7
fifth
Therefore,
any
we can
delete the
a
] 1
first,
third,
and
5
rows
from
matrix
1:
8,
without
loss
of information.
Remaining is a
b
1
by
9 matrix
h
c
0
d
0
e f
0
1
g
1
k
1 1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
8 1
0
0 0
0
0 0
1
1
0 0
0
1
1 0
1 1
1
0
0
0
0
to
0
matrix
0
the
0
form
Our
next
interchange
goal is to bring columns to get

b
1
of Eq.
(7-5). For this
we
82 :
f
0
0
1
e
0
1
g d
1
a c
1 1
k
1 1 I
0 0
0
1 1
0 8 2 =
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
I
0 the
0
in
Adding
fourth
row
b
1
8 2 to
the first, we get
83.
k
e
0
f
0
g d
0
a c
1 1 1
0
1
0
1 1
0
8 3
0 0 1 0 0
1
0
1 I
0
0
0
1 0
[Is!
F].
0
0 note
0
0
0
0
0
1
I
1)
0
redundant
We
that
there are
matrix
no
of
circuits
in matrix
8 3,
and
of
fundamental circuit five, and the network

information
the
was
assumed
graph. Since the rank required to be connected, we have the
8 3 is a 8 3 is
following
about
the graph:)
number of edgese =
nullity
9,
4,
5.)))
== 5, J.l
rank
number
r =
n =
of
vertices
SEC. 7-5)
APPLICATION
TO A SWITCHING NETWORK)
149)
Constructing a graph from
a graph
its
from
its
incidence
matrix
is simple,
We
but
constructing
fundamental
circuit
matrix
B3.
is
difficult.
shall,
therefore,
B
construct an incidence matrix from Since the rows in the incidence according to
matrix
look
are orthogonal
for a
to those in
M, whose
3-
are linearly
Si nce,)
Eq. (7-4)-we must

and
first
4 by
9 matrix B 3.
rows
independent
are orthogonal B3 =
to those of
[Is! F],)
an
orthogonal
matrix
to B3
is)
=
=-=
[[F T
FT
! 14 ]
! 1 4 ],)
because 1 is
in mod
2 arithmetic
-I
=--=
I,
[i.e.,
in G F(2)
the additive inverse
of
1].
Thus b
I
1
e f
1
g d a c
0
1
0 I
I 1
0
0
0
1
0
0
I
0
0
0
I)
0
1 1
M=
0
0
0
I
0
1
0
0
0
0
Clearly,
the
rank
of M is four, and
B 3 -M
T
it
is easy
to check
that)
o.)
Before
M can
I's
most
third
two
in each
be regarded as a reduced incidence column. This can be achieved

in
matrix,
by
it must (mod
have at
2) the
adding
row
to the
fourth
M,
which
gives us
M'.)
h
b e
II
I
f g d a c
0
1 1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
I 1
0
0
0
1)
M' =
l\037
0
1
0
I
0
I
0
0
0
0
Matrix
M'
by
is the
adding
reduced incidence matrix.

a
fifth
The
that
incidence
there
matrix exactly
be obtained
row
to
M' such
are
A can two l's)))
150
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS
CHAP. 7
in every
column;
that
is,
b
1
e
1
f
0
1
g d a
0
1
c
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 A==
0 1
0 0 0 0
1
1 o .
1 1 1)
0 0 0 1
0
0
1
0
1
0
A
0
we
0
can
From
the incidence
matrix
readily
as shown
the corresponding switching
network,
construct the graph and hence in Fig. 7-4.)
a)
5)
e)
A)
J)
II)
4)
(a))
Ins ide B Ia c k Bo x)
/ /
/ I I I \\ \\ \\
,/
/'
./ -----
-- - -- - --) --a)
......)
External
k)
\037WI tch)
Lamp)
e
\\ \\ \\ \"\"\"\"-
II
Ba -......) ------) ---)
ttery)
'......
(b))
Fig.
7-4
Graph and the corresponding
switching
network.)))
SEC. 7-6)
CUT-SET
MATRIX)
151)
7-6.
CUT-SET
Analogous
MATRIX)
which graph,
the
circuit matrix, we can define rows correspond to the cut-sets and

to a
a cut-set the
columns
matrix C = [cij]in to the edges of the
as follows:) =
if ith
otherwise.)
Cij
],) ,)
cut-set
contains jth edge,
and
=0
For
example,
a graph and
its
cut-set be
matrix made
The following
remarks
may
are shown in Fig. 7-5. about a cut-set matrix
C(G)
of
graph G.)
1.
As
in
the
case
of the incidence
matrix
matrix,
permutation
renaming
of rows
of
or
the
columns in
cut-sets
a cut-set
corresponds
simply to a
and edges,
row
2.
3.
Each
in C(G)
respectively. is a cut-set vector.

corresponds to an
identical Fig. edge
A column
with all O's
forming
a self-loop.
matrix
4. Parallel edgesproduce
first
columns
in the
cut-set
(e.g.,
two columns
in
7-5).
5. In
6.
a nonseparable graph, every set of edges incident on a vertex is a cut-set (Problem 4-8).Therefore, row of incidence matrix A(G) every is included as a row in the cut-set matrix C(G). In other words,for a the graph G, C(G) contains A(G). For a separable nonseparable graph, in the cut-set matrix. For incidence matrix of each blockis contained matrix of the block fc, d, e,f, g}in Fig. 7-5 is example, the incidence the 4 by 5 submatrix of C left after deleting rows a, b, and h and columns ], 2, 5, and 8. In view of observation 5,)
rank
of C(G)
>
of
rank
of
A(G).)
Hence,
for a
connected graph
rank of
n vertices,)
n
C(G) >
].)
a circuit
in
(7-6))
is always the provided
words,)
7. Sincethe
edges
in
number
in
even, every row

both
of edges common C is orthogonal
to a cut-set and to every row

in
B,
Band
C are
arranged
the
same
order.
In other
B.CT=C.BT=O)
(mod 2).)
(7-7))))
152)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
CJ) I /
/')
//
CD
\\. '\\
..........-------0)
0---/'/
f)
=0------0)
\\ \\
1/
I I I
@)
cD)
a 0 2
d 0 0
e
0 0
f
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
c=
5 6
7
0 0
0
0 0
0 0 0
Graph
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
Fig. 7-5
and
its cut-set matrix.
On
applying
Sylvester's
rank
theorem
of
to Eq.
(7-7),
B +
rank of
C < e,
and
since
for
a connected
graph
rank of B rank of
= en
1,
(7-8))))
C<
1.
SEC. 7-7)
RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG
Af,
Bf,
AND
C f)
153)
Combining
Eqs. (7-6) and

rank
(7-8),)
of
C == n
1.)
Thus
we have 7-6
the
following
important
theorem
for a
connected graph G.)
THEOREM
The rank
A(G), As
of cut-setmatrix
equals the
rank
C(G) of
is equal
G.)
to
the
rank
of the
incidence
matrix
which in the
graph
redundant
the cut-set matrix generally has many to define rows. Therefore, it is convenient (or linearly dependent) C a fundamental as follows: cut-set matrix, f, e edges A fundamental cut-set matrix C f (of a connected graph G with the of C such that rows correand n vertices) is an (n - 1)by e submatrix with respect to some spanning tree. cut-sets spond to the set of fundamental circuit a fundamental As in the case of a fundamental cut-set matrix, C f can also be partitioned into two one of which is an matrix submatrices,
case of the
circuit matrix,
identity
matrix
In-t
of
order
- 1. That
==
is,)
Cf
[C c : In- d,)
(7-9))
where
n
the last
1
columns
branches
of the
the identity matrix correspond to the forming formspanning tree, and the first e - n + 1 columns
fundamental
lines) are given in Fig. 7-6. Again note that in talking of cut-set matrices we have confined ourselves to include to connected graphs only. This treatment can be generalized at a time.) one component connected graphs by considering
RELATIONSHIPS
In
ing C c correspond to the chords. A connected graph and a in heavy tree (shown spanning
cut-set
matrix
with
respect to
dis-
7-7.
AMONG
Af' Bf'
AND
C f)
the reduced insection we shall explore the relationships among B matrix and the the fundamental circuit matrix fundamental cidence f' Af' C cut-set matrix f of a connected graph.
this
It has
been
shown
that)
Bf = [IJJ :
B f ],
(7-5)
(7-9))
C f == [C c i In- d,)
t denotes the submatrix corresponding to the branches and tree, subscript c denotesthe submatrix corresponding spanning chords. and tree T in Eqs. (7-5) and (7-9) be the Let the spanning same,
where
subscript
of a to the
let
the)))
154)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
c)
d)
d 0 0
e
0
f
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
Cf -
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0 0
0
0
= [C : c . 15]
0
Spanning
0
tree
Fig. 7-6
mental
in a graph and the
corresponding funda-
cut-set
matrix.)
be the same. Furthermore, in the reduced order of the edges in both equations the edges (i.e.,the columns) matrix Af-of size (n - I) bye-let incidence be arranged in the same order as in B f and Cf. Partition Af into two sub-
matrices:)
Af
[Ac !At]')
corresponding
(7 -10))
to the
where At
spanning e
consists
of the n
is
columns
tree +
1
T, and
Ac
the
remaining
submatrix
in
branches of the corresponding to the

same
chords.
in
Since
(7-4)
we
have
the columns (in mod
Af and Bf are arranged 2 arithmetic)) -
the
order,
from Eq.
Af
B\037
o.
That
and)
is,)
JJ [A c :I A t ] - _lBT -
t)
= 0,
Ac +
At- B;
O.)
(7-11))))
SEC. 7-7)
RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG
Af,
Bf,
AND
C f)
155)
Since
At is nonsingular,
A; 1, we
its
inverse
A;
exists.
Premultiplying
both
sides
of Eq. (7-11) by
get)
A; Since in mod
1 \302\267=
Ac
- B;.)
(7 -12))
arithmetic
-1
I,)
A t-l.
BT= t
Similarly,
A c.)
the
(7-13))
since the
columns
have
in
according to
Eq. (7-4),we
(in = =
f and C f are arranged in mod 2 arithmetic))
same
order,
Cf.B\037
o. 0,
That is,
[Ce :
In-l]{-\037rJ
Cc =
=
-BTt
BT t
c'
(7-14)
(7 -15) from
=A-l.A t For
in ping
(7-13). used
Figs. the
for the graph example, let us look at the following three matrices tree, and 7-1, 7-5, and 7-6. Using fa, e,f, spanning h} as the sixth row from matrix A in Fig. 7-1 to get Af' we have
g,
drop-
b
0
c d a e f
0
I
g
0
0-
0
Af
0
1
0 0 0 0
1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 =
1 0 I
[Ac!
AJ,
0
1
0 1
0 0
h
0
b
=
[\037
c
0
1
d
0
0
1
a e f
1 0
0
g
0
1 1
0
1 0
0
0
1
Bf
=
\037]
[1 3 :
B,J,
b
1
c
0
1
d
0
0
1 I
a
1 0
0 0
e f
0
1
g
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
1
Cf =
0 0 0
0 0
1
0 0
0
0
1)))
= [Cc ! 15].
0 0 0 0
156)
MATRIX =
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
Bf
C c is
immediate. It can alsobe readily =BT A-I. A ct.) t
verified
that)
This leads
].
to
three
conclusions:)
A or Af' we can readily arbitrary spanning tree and

Given
B
construct
its
B f and At in
Cf ,
starting
from
an
subgraph
Af.
2. Given either
termines a graph 3. 7-8.

Given
or C f , we can
within
construct the
2-isomorphism,
in
either
Bf
or C f , Af
general
Thus since Bf deother. does so Cf. be determined cannot completely.)
PATH
MATRIX)
and to use in communication often convenient is for a A matrix defined the is matrix. path path transportation The as a and is written vertices in of P(x, (x, y). y), graph, say specificpair between vertices x and y, and rows in P(x, y) correspond to different paths for (x, y) the columns correspond to the edges in G. That is, the path matrix vertices is P(x, y) = [Pu], where) Another
(0,
)-matrix
networks
Pu =
=0
As
],) ,)
if jth
edge lies
in
ith
path,
and
otherwise.)
an illustration, 2,
There are three

them
I,
consider all paths between verticesV 3 and V 4 in Fig. 7-] (a). d, c}. Let us number [h, e}, [h, g, c}, and [h,f, paths; and 3, respectively. Then we get the 3 by 8 path matrix P(v 3 , v 4 ):)
different
a
I
b
0
c
0
I I
d
0
0 1
e f
I
g
0
I
P(v 3 ,
v4) =
2
3
[\037
0
0
0 0
at
0
I
:}
about
Some
of the
observations one can make

G are)
once
a path matrix
P(x, y) of a graph
1. A
column of all path between x

A column
between
O's
and
corresponds
y.
to an
edge
edge
that
does
not
lie in any
2.
of all ]'s
y.
with
row
correspondsto
all O's.
an
that
lies in every
path
x and
3. There is no 4. The ring

edge-disjoint sum
of any two rows in P(x, union of circuits.)))
y) corresponds
to a circuit
or an
SEC.
7-9)
ADJACENCY
MATRIX)
157)
THEOREM
7-7
If the
of the
edges of a
connected A and
graph
incidence
matrix
are arranged in the same order for the the path matrix P(x, y), then the product
A. PT(X,
columns
(mod
2))
y) =
M,)
where
the matrix
O's.)
M has
l's
left
in
two
rows
x and
y,
and
the rest
of
the
- 2 rows
are all
Proof:
As
P(v 3,
The proof is
as
an exercise
for
the
reader
(Problem Fig.
7-14).)
an example, v 4 ), just
multiply the incidence
matrix
in
7-1 to the
transposed
discussed.
0
0
1
0
0
]
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 I
A. PT(V3, v 4 ) =
0
1
1 1
0
I
0
1 1
0
0 0
1
0
]
0
1
0
0
1
0 0 0
I 0
0
0
] 0
0 0
0
1
0
0
0
I
0
I
1
0
0
I I
1
0
1
0 0
0
1
VI
V2
0
0
I
0
0
I I
0
0
I
v3 v4
Vs
V6
]
0
0
(mod
I
2).
0
0
0
0
Other properties of the to investigate on his tains less information about C or does.) B, A,
reader
path own.
matrix,
It should
the
graph
as the rank, are left for the be noted that a path matrix conof the matrices in general than any
such
7-9.
ADJACENCY
MATRIX)
As an
alternative to the
graph
incidencematrix,
it is
sometimes
more convenient
to represent a
jacency
by
matrix of
binary
a graph
matrix if there
symmetric
= x.. IJ)))
The its adjacency admatrix or connectionn1atrix. G with n vertices and no parallel edges is an n by n X = [xij] defined over the ring of integers such that)
'
,)
is an
edge between ith
and
jth
vertices,
and
=0
if there is
no edgebetween
them.)
158)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
V3)
V2)
VI)
VI
V2
V3
V4
Vs
V6
VI
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
V2
x=
V3
V4
s 0
0 0
and
0 0
0 0
V6
Fig. 7-7 Simple graph
its adjacency matrix.

are
A simple graph and its
adjacency matrix
be made
Observations that
X of ].
can
immediately
in Fig. 7-7. shown about the adjacency matrix
a graph
The
G are)
along the principal diagonal of X are all O's if and only at the ith vertex corresponds has no self-loops.A self-loop of adjacency matrix the adjacency
edges.
t)
entries
if
X..==]. II)
2.
the graph
to
The
definition
is
makes
no
X
provision
defined
edges. This
without
why
matrix
was
for parallel for graphs
parallel
tSome
authors
the
equal to
parallel
number
(see Busacker and Saaty [1-2], page 109, for i and j, and of edges incident on both vertices
define Xij as example) thus take into account
edges.)))
SEC.
7-9)
ADJACENCY
MATRIX)
159)
3.
If the graph
has no
(and self-loops
no
parallel
edges,
the
degree of
or column
a vertex
of X.
equals
the number
of l's
of course), the
row
in
corresponding
4. Permutations
ing the
reorderof rows and of the corresponding columns imply vertices. It must be noted, however, that the rows and columns must be arranged in the same order. Thus, it two rows are interchanged in X, the corresponding columns must be interchanged. also Hence two and
graphs Gland G2 with no parallel edges are isomorphic if their adjacency matrices X(G1) and X(G 2) are related:)
only
if
X(G 2)
where
R-l.X(G
1 ).
R,)
R is
a permutation matrix.
disconnected
matrix
5.
graph
G is
and is
X(G)
in
two
components
gland
g2
if and
only if its
adjacency
can
be partitioned
as)
X(C} =
[\037\037lL+-X(\037\037jl)
where
that
of
X(g 1) is the adjacency the component g2.

partitioning
matrix
of
the
component
gland
X(g 2) is
This
any
clearly
implies
any
that
there exists no g2.
edgejoining
vertex
in subgraph
square,
gl to
vertex
in subgraph
6. Given any
always
that
symmetric,
binary
construct
is the x:
a graph G of n vertices adjacency matrix of G.

multiply
matrix Q of order n, one can (and no parallel edges) such

matrix of the matrix X2, is in the ring of
Powers
of
Let us
Fig.
by
itself
the 6
by
6 adjacency
simple graph in
shown
7-7.
below
(note
not
that
another 6 by 6 symmetric this is ordinary matrix multiplication

The result,
integers and
mod
2 multiplication):)
3
1
0
1 1
3
1
3
1 1
2 I
I
2
1
0
X2=
3
1
0
I I
4
1
2
2)
0
The
2
entry
value =
of an number of
of
off-diagonal l's in the dot

positions
in X2,
that is,
ith
ijth
entry
(i
* j)
in
X2,
row) of X.
number
product
of
row
and
jth column
rows
ith
(or jth
l's.
in which both
are
ith
andjth
of
and
have
= number
of vertices that
adjacent
to both
and
ith
jth
vertices.
jth vertices.)))
= number
of different
paths
of length
two between
160)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
the ith diagonal Similarly, X. Thus (or column) of matrix the degree of the corresponding
Sincea matrix
commutes
in X2 is the number of I's in the ith row the value of each diagonal in X2 equals entry if the graph has no self-loops. vertex, with matrices that are its own power,)
entry ==
X.X2
And
X2.X
== X3.)
since
the product
matrix,
of
two
square
symmetric
matrix.
matrices
(Again
also a
The
symmetric
X3 is
a symmetric
that commute is note that this is
an ordinary
matrix
product and not mod 2.) X3 for the graph of Fig. 7-7 is)
2
3
I
2
8
7 6
5
I
7 4
3
X3==
I
2
0
8 7
2
0)
7
6
Let
5 I 8 4 2 0 7 2
entry
us now entry
consider the
==
ijth
of X 3.)
X2
ijth
of X3
dot
X.) n
product
of ith row
and
jth
column
(or row)
of
==
\037 k=1) n
ikth
entry of
ith
of X2. kjth
entry
of X.
==
k=1
\037
number
all different
to jth
edges from
==
vertex
edge sequencest via kth vertex.

three
of
three
number
between
of different ith and jth

the
edge seq uences of vertices.) on

X3
edges
For example, considerhow 7-7 is formed. It is given by the

row
I
1,5th entry dot product)

==
for
the
graph
of Fig.
of
X2. row
5 of
(3,
I, 0, +
I
== 3
3, I, 0). (I, I,0, I,0,0) -t- 0 -t- 3 + 0 + 0 == 7.)

edges
These
seven different [e p
edge sequencesof
e 2 }, [e 2 , e 2 , e 2 },
three
between
VI
and
V s are)
el ,
{e 6 , e 6 , e 2 },
[e 2 , e 3, e 3},
[e6 ,
t An first
e 7 , e s },
[e 2 ,
e s , e s},
[el' e4 ,
e s }.)
edge sequence is a sequence of edges in which each edge (except, of course, the and the last) has one vertex in common with the edge preceding it and one vertex in common with the edge following it. A path, a circuit, and a walk are all special examples of an edge sequence. An once in an edge sequence.))) edge may appear more than
SEC. 7-9)
ADJACENCY
MATRIX)
161)
Clearly
this
list
incl
udes
all the paths

e s }.
of length
three
between
vI
and
v 5'
that is,
{e6 ,
entry
e 7 , e s } and
rei' e4 ,
It is left as an exercise for the reader to show (Problem 7-19) that the iith in X3 equals twice the number of different circuits of length three (i.e., triangles) in the graph passing through the corresponding vertex Vi' The result that includes the properties of X, X2, and X 3 discussed general so far is expressed in Theorem 7-8.) THEOREM 7-8
Let
is the
be
number
the adjacency matrix of a simple of different edge sequences of
graph
G. Then
the
vertices
ijth
entry 1'i and
in Xr v j.)
r edgesbetween
has
It
can
in
holds for r = I, and it for any positive integer r, by In other words, assume that it holds for r of the relation) X, with the help
Proof.
The theorem
been
proved for r
then
=--= 2
and
3 also.
entry
be proved
- 1,and
induction.
evaluate
the
i}th
Xr
-= Xr- I . X,)
as was
done for
rest
X3.)
The
of the
A
proof is
left
as
an exercise
(Problem
7-17).)
COROLLARY
In a connected is k,
if
and
only if k
graph, the distance is the smallest integer

result
between
two vertices Vi and v j (for i \"* for which the i, jth entry in Xk is nonzero.
j)
This is
of vertices.)
useful
in determining
the distances
betweendifferent
pairs
COROLLARY
If X is
the adjacency matrix

Y =
of
a graph
Xn-I,)
with
n vertices,
and)
X +
X2
X3 +
if
... +
only
(in
the ring
of
integers),)
then
G is
disconnected
and
if there
exists at least one
entry
in
matrix
that is
zero.)
Between
its
Relationship
self-loops,
Likewise, information
incidence
A(G) matrix
and X(G): Recall that A(G) contains all the

adjacency
if G
has no
parallel edges, its
if a graph G has no information about G. matrix X( G) contains all the
G has neither nor parallel self-loops G is a both and contain the entire inedges (i.e., simplegraph), A(G) X(G) formation. Thus it is natural to expect that either matrix can be obtained is directly from the other, in the case of a simple graph. This relationship
about
G. Therefore,
if a graph
given in Problem
7-23.)))
162)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
SUMMARY)
The
theory
The
of matrices
of matrices
has been
in studying
brought
to
bear
upon
the theory of
demonstrated
graphs.
in this
use
graphs has been amply
chapter.
We have seenthat there are several matrices which can be associated with matrix A and the adjacency matrix X, graphs. Two of these, the incidence a simple graph completely,that describe Two others, is, up to isomorphism. B and the cut-set matrix the circuit matrix some important features C, display of the graph and describe the graph only within 2-isomorphism. The path matrix P(x, y) contains even less information than B or C does. To see further into the structure of the graph, we investigated these C C C out submatrices and matrices, pulled c' and Af' Bf' f , IJJ' In-I' Bp Bc, 1, studied them and their interrelationships. The properties brought out in this chapter do not by any means exhaust the list. Many interesting and useful results are contained in the problems
of
this
chapter.
converse problem of finding a graph to represent a given matrix has been touched upon lightly in Section 7-5. The problem of realizability, that is, B satisfy so that what conditions must a given matrix a graph can be found whose circuit matrix is B, is very useful and interesting. We shall encounter
The
this
problem
of realizability
again
in
Chapter
12.)
REFERENCES)
in this chapter. For those of elementary matrix algebra was assumed with matrices, dozens Out of these we have listed of good books are available. and somewhat two, special results, the Binet-Cauchy theorem [7- t] and [7-3]. Two A and B, respectively. are explained and proved in Appendices law of nullity, Sylvester's have some portion devoted to matrices referred to earlier Most textbooks associated recommended with graphs. Particularly readings are Chapter 13 of Harary [1-5], Chapter 4 5 of Busacker and Saaty [1-2]. Gould's paper and of Seshu and Reed [1-13], [6-4] Chapter to this chapter. A survey referred to in the last chapter is also relevant by Harary paper [7-2] proves someof the results given in this chapter. 7-1. AITKEN, A. C., \"Determinants and Matrices,\" 9th ed., Oliver & Boyd Ltd., Edinnot
Some knowledge
familiar
burgh,
1956.
7-2.
7-3.
HARARY, F., \"Graphs and F. E., Elementary HOHN,
Matrices,\" SIAM Rev., Vol. 9, Matrix Algebra, The Macmillan
No.1,
Jan., 1967, 83-90. Company, New York,
1958.)
PROBLEMS)
7-1.
Write
the
incidence
4-1(b). Put the incidence form of Eq. (7-I).)))
matrices for the matrix of
labeled
the
graph
simple graphs shown in Figs. 1-12 and of Fig. 4-I(b) in the block-diagonal
CHAP.
7)
PROBLEMS)
163)
7-2.
7-3.
7-4.
7-5.
Consider the graph in Fig. 4-3. With respect to the spanning tree [b, c, e, h, kJ, write matrices Af, Bf, and Cf in the forms of Eqs. (7-10),(7-5),and (7-9), respecEqs. (7-13)and (7-15). by actual computation tively. Verify Show that for a simple disconnected graph of k components, n vertices, and e edges n - k, e - n + k, and n - k, respectively. of matrices A, B, and Care the ranks Label the edges of the graph in Fig. 4-8, and write down its circuit matrix B. 1-5 made in Section 7-3 about the properties of matrix B. observations Verify
and nonseparable Draw two nonisomorphic, connected, simple, graphs Gland G2, with as small a number of edgesas you can\037 such that the circuit matrices B(G d = B(G2). (Hint: Gland G2 are 2-isomorphic, and must be 2-connected.) network of seven switches-I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7-6. A black box containing a switching in Fig. 7-3. The lamp was lit when each 7-was subjected to the experiment shown of the following combinations of switches was turned on, in addition to the external switch k, of course: (1, 4, 5), (1,4, 6, 7), (2, 5, 7), (2, 6), (3, 5), and (3, 6, 7). Show network the switching configuration. was obtained In Section 7-5a graph circuit 7-7. corresponding to a given fundamental sketch a procedure for obtaining a graph if its fundamental cut-set matrix. Similarly, matrix C f is given. Can you get two different (nonisomorphic) graphs for the same Cf? If yes, how are these different related? graphs the if you were given 7-8. Show that you can determine a graph within 2-isomorphism set of all spanning trees. (Hint: the set of all spanning From trees every cut-set 4-2. And the set of all cut-sets a can be determined, determines using Theorem graph within 2-isomorphism.) 7-9. If the following is the list of all spanning trees of a graph G, deternline G.
[a, c,
fa,
d, e},
d, eJ,
[a,c, d,f},
[b,
[b,
c, d, e},
[b,
c, d,f}, e,f},
c, e,f},
b,
c, e,f},
b,
[a, d, e,f}, [a,

between
b,
[b, d,
fa, 7-10.
[a,
d,f},
e,f}.)
Express the relationship of appropriate matrices.

Characterize Prove
dualism
two planar,
simple graphs
in terms
of
7-11. 7-12.
sin1ple,
self-dual
graphs
in
terms
of their circuit and
cut-set matrices.
that)
- IT B f = [ I ,ul : AT. ] ,) c At
Cf
=At-
.A
f.
in
7-13.
Write down the path matrix P(Vl, V6) for the graph 1-4 in Section 7-8 and Theorem 7-7.
Theorem
Fig.
4-3. Verify
observations
7-14. Prove
7-15.
7-7.
Bf,
X matrices of the complete graph of n vertices. in the 4-8 in Problem having graph Fig. 7-4), write its (as required X. How does the fact that the graph is separable reflect in X? adjacency matrix X of a separable graph, in general. the adjacency matrix Characterize of Theorem the 7-8. 7-17. Complete proof 7-18. The diameter of a connected graph is defined (Chapter 3) as the largest distance between two vertices in the graph. Given the adjacency matrix X, how will you determine the diameter of the corresponding graph? Consider a sum of the (Hint:
Characterize Af,
Cf, and
7-16.
After
labeled
powers
of X.)
each diagonal entry in the corresponding vertex.))) X3 equals
7-19.
Show that
through
twice the number of
triangles
passing
164)
MATRIX
REPRESENTATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
7)
7-20.
Prove
that
the
number
of spanning
trees in
A\037),
a connected
graph equals the
value
of
det(Af'
where
Af is the
out
reduced incidence
in the real
field
matrix and matrix,
are carried
of the graph, and not mod 2.
the arithmetic
operations
7-21.
7-22.
Similar
graph,
to the circuit or cut-set and observe some of
define a spanning-tree matrix

and
for a connected
its
properties. let C(x, y) be the cut-sets with respect cut-set matrix Cf of
Let C be the cut-set matrix of a nonseparable graph G, submatrix of C, containing only those rows of C that represent x and y. Show that C(x, y) contains a fundamental to vertices G.
7-23. For a labeled graph G of n vertices, define an n by n diagonal matrix D (called the in D equals the degree of the the ith diagonal entry of G) such that degree matrix A another ith vertex in G. Define matrix E, obtained from the incidence matrix column of G by arbitrarily replacing one of the two l's in every by a -1. Show if G is a simple, connected graph the following holds (the computations are in that and not mod 2): the ring of integers
(a) E.ET
(b)
X.
All cofactors
of
the
matrix
are
7-24.
trees in G, where X is (c) Each cofactor of D - X equals the number of spanning of G. as usual the adjacency matrix Use the result obtained in Problem 7-23(c)to prove Cayley's formula (Theorem
equal.
3-10).
7-25.
7-26.
G, and P(x, y) y be a pair of vertices in a simple nonseparable graph that every circuit in G is obtained corresponding path matrix of G. Prove as a mod 2 sum of two rows of P(x, y). From this result, prove that a path matrix the graph within determines in a simple, nonseparable graph 2-isomorphism. categories: (1) r passes through [Hint: Every circuit r in G falls in one of three neither x nor y; or (3) r passes either both x and y; (2) r passes through through x or y. Considerall three cases, and use Theorem 4-11.] for a connected, self-loop-free graph Prove that Wr and Ws are G, subspaces of WGover GF(2) if and only if the number of spanning complements orthogonal
Let
x and
be the
trees in
G is odd.
[Hint: Define a
C
fB\037
new
e bye
matrix
[\037\037J.
Compute
det(MMT),
using the identity A). Show that spanning trees.])))
det(MMT)
and the Binet-Cauchy theorem = 1 (mod 2) if and only if G has an
= 0, fC\037
(see Appendix odd number of
COLORING,
8)
COVERING,
AND
PARTITIONING)
and are asked to n vertices you are given a graph G with such same color. What that no two vertices the have paint adjacent is the minimum of colors that you would require? This constitutes number a coloring Having painted the vertices, you can group them into problem.
Suppose
that
its
vertices
different set consisting of bl ue, and so sets-one of all red vertices, another forth. This is a partitioning The of and can, coloring problem. partitioning In the case of a planar of a graph. course, be performed on edgesor vertices one may even be interested in coloring the regions. These are the types graph,
to be considered in this chapter. we came across the subject the edges of a given of partitioning a spaninto sets with some specified properties. For example, finding graph the edges into two. ning tree in a connected graph is equivalent to partitioning sets-one set consisting of the edges included in the spanning tree, and the cirother consistingof the remaining edges. Identification of a Hamiltonian cuit (if it exists) is another partitioning of the set of edges in a given graph. The coloring and partitioning of vertices (or edges) is not performed out
of
questions
Earlier
as it may appear from this of mere playfulness, introduction. Partitioning such as coding theory, partitioning practical problems, applicable to many machines.) of sequential of logic in digital computers, and state reduction
is
8-1.
CHROMATICNUMBER)
Painting
all the
the
verticeshave
coloring) of
same
vertices of a graph with colors such color is called the proper coloring
graph
that
(or
no two adjacent
sometimes
simply
a graph. A
in which
every vertex
a color) has been assigned
165)))
166)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
VI
Red)
VI
Red)
VI
Red)
V3
Vs
V3
Vs
V3
Vs
Green)
Y cllow)
Green)
Yellow)
Yellow)
Yellow)
(a))
(b))
(c))
Fig.
8-1
Proper colorings of a
graph.)
according
to a
given graph
three The
can be properly
proper coloring
proper coloring is
colored
called a properly
in many
colored
graph.
Usually
different ways. Figure
8-1shows
the
different proper
colorings which
A
of a graph. is of interest
graph
to us is one
that
requires
number of colors. proper coloring, and no less, K is called the chromatic number 8-1 is 3-chromatic.
minimum
G that G.
requires
verify
K different
colors
the
for its
number
is called
of
a K-chromatic graph, and

You can
that
the
graph
in Fig.
How we
In coloring graphs there

color
is
no
vertices
in one
graph component of a disconnected
point
in considering
disconnected graphs.
has to
no in-
effect on the
coloring of the other components. vestigate coloring of connected graphs only. vertices can be replaced a single edge by
be
Therefore,
All
without
it is edges
usual
parallel
between two
adjacency
we
affecting
of
need
vertices. Self-loops must to consider only simple,
disregarded. follow
Thus
for coloring
problems
Someobservations
I.
connected graphs.
directly
that
from the definitions just introduced
are)
A graph
A
consisting of
with
only
isolated
vertices
is I-chromatic. of course) is at
2.
graph
one or
more edges (not

bichronlatic).
a self-loop,
least
are
2-chromatic(alsocalled
3. A
of n vertices graph containing at least r-chromatic. For instance, least 3-chromatic.

adjacent.
complete graph Hence a
is n-chromatic,
a complete every
as all
graph having
its
vertices
graph
of r vertices is a triangle is at
4.
graph
consisting
of simply
one circuit
with
> 3
vertices is
2-)))
SEC. 8-1)
CHROMATIC
NUMBER)
167)
chromatic
numbering
if n is
odd vertices
have
2, vertices], and another

have
the same
will
and
even and 3-chromaticif n is odd. (This can be seen by . . . , n in sequence and assigning one color to to even. If n is even, no adjacent vertices will color. If n is odd, the nth and first vertex will be adjacent a third color for proper the same color, thus requiring
coloring.))
Proper
with
the
coloring minimum
yet
of a given graph is simple enough, number of colors is, in general,

been
but
a proper
a difficult
there has not

course,
found
method
a simple
of
in
way
of
characterizing
coloring task. In fact, a K-chromatic
graph. (The brute-force

always
be applied,
as
is highly
types
unsatisfactory,
because
all possible combinations can, of But brute force combinatorial any problem. it gets out of hand as soonas the size of the using
Chromatic
the
graph increases
of
beyond a few
will be
vertices.)
numbers
of some
specific
graphs
8-1)
discussed' in
rest
of this
section.)
THEOREM
Every
tree
with
two
or more vertex color
vertices is 2-chromatic.)
vertex
v in the given at tree T. Consider T as a rooted tree 1. Paint all vertices adjacent to v with color 2. Next, the vertices 2) paint adjacent to these (those thai just have been colored with till every vertex in T has been painted. (See process using color 1. Continue this Fig. 8-2).Now in T we find that all vertices at odd distances from v have color 2, v have color 1. v and vertices at even distances from while in T the vertices are of alternating colors. Since there is Now any path along vertices one and only one path between any two vertices in a tree, no two adjacent two colors. T has been properly colored with One color have the same color.Thus not have been enough (observation 2 in this section). would .)
Proof: Select
v. Paint
any
with
Though a
utilities
tree is 2-chromatic,
for
not
every
2-chromatic
What
graph,
instance,
is not a
tree.)
then
is the
graph is a tree. (The characterization)
Fig. 8-2
Proper
coloring
of a
tree.)))
168)
COLORING, a 2-chromatic
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
of
graph?
Theorem 8-2 (due to
Konig)
characterizes
all
2-
chromatic
THEOREM
graphs.)
8-2)
A graph
with at least
of odd length.)
Proof:
one edge is 2-chromatic
if and
only
if
it has
no circuits
be a connected graph with Consider circuits of only even lengths. tree T in G. Using the coloring procedure and the result of Theorem 8-1, let us properly color T with two colors. Now add the chords to T one by one. Since G had no circuits of odd length, the end vertices of every chord being replaced are differently colored in T. Thus G is colored with with no adjacent two colors, vertices having the same color. That is, G is 2-chromatic. if G has a circuit of odd length, we would need at least three colors Conversely, for that circuit (observation 4 in this section). Thus the theorem. .) just
Let G a spanning
An
upper
limit
on the
left
chromatic
an exercise
number
of
a graph
is given
by
Theorem
8-3, whose
THEOREM
proof is
8-3)
as
(Problem 8- I).)
If d max is the maximum
degree of the
number
upper vertices.
vertices
in a graph
1
G,)
chromatic
of G <
bound In
d max
.)
Brooks
[8-1]
showed
that
+
this I
complete graph of dmax
can be improved that case)

of
by
if G
has no
chromatic number
< dmax
.)
A graph G is called bipartite if its vertex set V can be decomposed into two disjoint subsets V t and V 2 such that every edge in G joins a vertex in V t So are the graphs in with a vertex in V 2' Thus every tree is a bipartite graph. 8-8. no 8-6 and a can have self-loop. A set of Obviously, bipartite graph Figs. be between a of vertices can all replaced with one edge parallel edges pair
without
Clearly,
affecting bipartiteness
every
of a graph.
Vt
and
2-chromatic
graph
subsets
is bipartite
because the
that
coloring
partiin
tions
V 1 (or one
the vertex
V 2) are trivial
set into
two
V 2 such
no two
vertices
adjacent. Si milarly, every bi partite graph is 2-chromatic,with with no a graph of two or more isolated vertices and exception;
I-chromatic.
concept, p disjoint
in
edges is bipartite but is I n generalizing this can be decomposedinto G joins the vertices in if and only if) p-partite
a graph
the
subsets subset. same <
G is called p-partite if its vertex set V l' V 2' . . . , V p' such that no edge is Clearly, a K-chromaticgraph
po)))
SEC. 8-2)
CHROMATIC
PARTITIONING)
169)
With
this qualification,
the results
graphs
of this
section
on K-chromatic
graphs
are applicableto K-partite

8-2.
A
also.)
CHROMATIC
proper
PARTITIONING)
coloring
tices into
the
different
subsets.
a partitioning of a graph naturally induces of the verFor example, the coloring in Fig. 8-1 (c) produces
partitioning)
[v p V4 },
[v 2 },
and
{v 3, v s}.)
a subset in any of these three subsetsare adjacent.Such No two vertices of vertices is called an independent set; more formally: A set of vertices in a graph is said to be an independent set of vertices or an independent set (or an internally stable set) if no two vertices in the simply set are adjacent. For example,'in Fig. 8-3, {a, c, d} is an independent set. A in any graph constitutes an independent set. vertex single A nlaximal stable set (or maximal internally independent set) is an indewhich no other its vertex can be added without destroying property. The set [a, c, d, f} in Fig. 8-3 is a maximal indepenset. The set [b, f} is another maximal dent set. The set {b, g} is a independent third one. From the preceding example, it is clear that a graph, in general, has many maximal independent sets; and sizes. be of different they may all maximal independent sets, one with the largest number of vertices Among
pendent set to
independence
is often of particu
Suppose
lar
interest.
that the graph in Fig. 8-3 describes the following problem. Each of the seven vertices of the graph is a possible codeword to be used in some communication. Some words are so close in sound) to others that they (say, be confused for each other. Pairs of such words that may be mistaken might for one another are joined for a words by edges. Find a largest set of code reliable communication.This is a problem of finding a maximal independent set with number of vertices. I n this simple largest example, [a, c, d, f} is an
answer.)
f)
a) h)
g)
Fig.
8-3)))
170)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
The number of vertices in the independence number (or
the
largest
independent
set of a graph
G is
called
Consider a
different
cannot
K-chromatic
of internal stability), coefficient G of n vertices properly graph
peG).
colors.
exceed
Since the largest number of vertices in G with the same the independence number peG), we have the inequality)
peG)
colored with K color
>\037.
-K)
Finding a
maximal
in
Maximal Independent
set
in
Set:
A reasonable
will
the
set.
independent Add more

any
a graph
the
G
set,
be
to start
vertices to
of those
selecting
a method of finding with any vertex v of G at each stage a vertex that
is not produce
maximal
adjacent to
independent
already
selected. This
set,
procedure will
is not
ultimately
a maximal
independent set. This

set with,a
however,
necessarily a
largest number
A
of vertices.
(but
Finding
All
Maximal
Independent Sets:
for
reasonable
not very effici-
ent for
any
large graphs) method

can be
in
obtaining
all maximal
arithmetic Boolean developed using be treated as Let the logical (or a Boolean variable. graph sum a b the denote of a or b or both; vertex + Boolean) operation including let the ab the both verdenote of logical multiplication operation including tices a and b, and let the Boolean complement that vertex a is not a' denote graph
independent sets in on the vertices. Let
each vertex
the
included. For a given

not
graph
G we
must
find
a maximal
subset
of vertices
that
does
verticesof any edge in G. Let us expressan edge (x, y) as a Boolean product, xy, of its end vertices x and y, and let us sum all such products in G to get a Boolean expression)
include
the two end
rp
1:
xy)
for
all (x,
y)
in
G.)
Let us
it
as
a sum
further take the Booleancomplement of Boolean products:)

rp'
rp' of
this expression,
and express
11 +
f2 +
. . . + Ik.)
and
only
0 (logically false), is possible if and only if at if each if and only vertex appearing in ;:. least one /; = 1, which is possible set of G. Thus each/; the vertex (in complemented form) is excluded from will set will a maximal yield independent independent set, and every maximal
A vertex
maximal
set is
independent if rp'
set if
if rp =
which
is possible
if and
only
(true),
which
example.
be produced by this method. For the graph G in
This
Fig.
procedure
8-3,)))
can be
best explained
by
an
SEC. 8-2)
CHROMATIC
PARTITIONING)
171)
rp
ab +
bc +
bd +
be
ce +
de + ef +
eg + fg,
rp'
(a' +
b')(b' -f- c')(b'

f')(e'
(e'
Multiplying
c' + e')(d' + e') + d')(b'+ e')(

+ g').) the
aa
usual
-f-
-t- g')(f'
these
as)
out
and employing
identities
of Boolean
arith-
metic, such
a,)
a +
a =
ab
a,
a
we
get)
-t-
= a,)
'I' = b
rn'
Now
' '
e
'
--
b eg
' , , ' t- ac
'
d ' e 'f
'' ' + ac
'
eg
' '
, c d 'f 'g.)
maximal
if we
exclude
terms,
are)
these five
we get
from the vertex a maximal

acdg,
set of G vertices appearing independent set. The five

bg,
in anyone of inde-
pendent sets
acdf,
bf,
and
ae.)
Theseare all
Finding
the
maximal
independent
and
sets of the
graph.
Once all the maximal find have been we the size of the one with obtained, independent the the number of vertices to number largest get independence P( G). The in number the 8-3 is four. of independence Fig. graph To find the chromatic find number of G, we must the minimum number of these (maximal which include all the versets, independent) collectively tices of G. For the graph in Fig. 8-3, sets [a, c, d,f}, {b,g},and [a, e}, for this condition. Thus the graph is 3-chromatic. example, satisfy
Independence
Chromatic
Numbers:
sets
of G
ChromaticPartitioning: Given a simple, connected graph G, partition all verticesof G into the smallest possible number of disjoint, independent sets.
This
is perhaps the chromatic partitioning of graphs, of important problem graphs. all maximal By enumerating independent sets and then selecting the smallest number of sets that include all vertices of the graph, we just solved this The of the graph four are some chromatic problem. following partitions
problem,
known
as the
most
in partitioning
in
Fig.
8-3,
for example.)
{(a, c, d,f),
{(a,
f(c,
(b,g), (e)},
(e)},
(a, e)},
c, d,
d,f),
g), (b,f),
(b, g),
f(c, d, g), (b,f), (a,e)}.)))
172)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND
PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
V3)
V4)
Fig.
8-4
A 3-chromatic graph.)
enumeration
This
method
of chromatic
A
partitioning inefficient
(requiring and
of all
maximal
mentation
independent sets) is
is proposed Colorable
needs
prohibitively
large
amounts of computer memory.

in [8-6].
Graphs:
in Uniquely
more
efficient
method for computer

only
imple-
A graph
Fig.
that
has
is called colorable properties
a uniquely colorable but the one graph,

of uniquely
graph. The graph in

8-4 is
Fig.
one chromatic 8-3 is not a

to
partition uniquely
(Problem 8-2). For some interesting
colorable graphs, the
reader is referred
Chapter
12
of [1-5].
related to that of the independent set and chromatic partitionnext. dominating set, to be discussed A dominating Sets: set (or an externally stable set) in a graph Dominating G is a set of vertices that dominates sense: every vertex v in G in the following v is included in the dominating set or is adjacent to one or more verEither in the dominating set. For instance, the vertex set {b, g} is a tices included a dominating set. A set in Fig. 8-3. So is the set {a,b, c, d,f} dominating set need not be independent. For example, the set of all its verdominating a dominating set in every graph. tices is trivially minimal sets In many one is interested in finding dominating applications defined as follows: set from A minimal which no vertex can be set is a dominating dominating its dominance property. For example, in Fig. without removed destroying set. And so is {a, c, d,f}. Observations 8-3, {b, e} is a minimal dominating
A
concept
ing is the
that
follow
from
these definitions are)

vertex
1. Anyone
set.
in
a complete
graph constitutes
at
a minimal
dominating
2. Every
dominating set contains

may
least
one minimal
sets,
dominating set.
and
3. A
graph
have
many minimal
dominating
of
different)))
SEC. 8-2)
CHROMATIC
PARTITIONING)
173)
sizes. [The
of
a graph minimal
in number of vertices G is called the domination
the
smallest
number,
minimal dominating
a( G).]
set
4.
may not be independent. 5. Every maximal independent set is a dominating set. For if an indethe graph, there is at least one vertex pendent set does not dominate in the set. Such a that is neither in the set nor adjacent to any vertex its invertex can be added to the independent set without destroying set could not have been maxdependence. But then the independent
A
dominating
set mayor
imal.
6. An
independent
set.
independent graph G,)
set has the

Thus
dominance
independent
property
dominating
independent
maximal
an
set.
only if it is set is the
a maximal same as a
7. In
any
a(G)
Finding
< peG).)
Sets: A method for obtaining all minimal Dominating in a graph will now be developed. The method, like the one all maximal for arithmetic. finding independent sets, also usesBoolean To dominate a vertex Vi we must either include Vi or any of the vertices this for every vertex Vi is condition adjacent to Vi. A minimum set satisfying a desired set. Therefore, for every vertex V i in G let us form a Boolean product . . . of sums the vertices + Vi,)' where Vii' Vi2 ' . . . , Via are (Vi + Vii + Vi2 -1adjacent to Vi' and d is the degree of Vi:)
Minimal dominating
sets
() =
II
(Vi
Vii
-+-
V i2 -1- . . . + of
Vi,))
for
all Vi in G.)
in
When () is expressed as a sum minimal dominating Let set. Fig. 8-3:

the Consider
products,
this
each
term
it
will
us illustrate
()
algorithm
using
represent the graph
of
following
expression +
for
Fig.
8-3:)
b
() =
(a +
b
b)(b
e +
d+ e
g)(/+
+ a)(e+
e +
x,)
e)(d + b
+ e)
(e +
Since
-t- e -f-- d -+-1+
g)(g + e + I).)
in Boolean
() =
arithmetic
(a +
(x +
y)x =
= ae +
Each dominating
b)(b + e +
be
+
in
bl + bg +
the
e)(b+ d + e)(e + aedl + aedg.)

expression
example.)))
this
I +
g)
a
of the set.
six terms
Clearly,
a( G)
=- 2, for
preceding
represents
minimal
174)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
8-3.
CHROMATIC
POLYNOMIAL)
In general, a given G of n vertices can be properly in many colored graph different ways using a sufficiently large number of colors.This property of a of a polynomial. This polynomial is graph is expressed elegantly by means called the chromatic of G and is defined as follows: polynomial The value of the chromatic polynomial Pn(J..,) of a graph with n vertices the number of of the gives ways coloring properly graph, using J.., or fewer
colors.
Let ci be the different ways of properlycoloring G using colors. Since i colors can be chosenout of J.., colors in)
J..,
exactly
i different
different
ways,
i.
there are out of

than
J..,
Ci
different ( \037)
ways
of properly
coloring G using
exactly
i colors
colors.
Since
i can
be any
on
n
positive
n colors
is,)
vertices),
from integer the chromatic
1 to n (it is not possible to use more polynomial is a sum of these terms;
that
Pn(l)
ii1
_
Ci(\037)
-.! II!
C2
J..,(J..,
I
- 1) + c3 J..,(J.., 2!
n.),
1)(J..,3!
2) +
...
+ cn J..,(J..,
Each Ci
any and
)(J..,
2) . . . (J.., - n + I) .
the given two
has
to be
evaluated
individually
for least
graph therefore)
with
even one
edge requires at
CI =
colors
graph. For for proper
example, coloring,
o.)
A
in
graph
n!
with n vertices and that
using
n different
colors
can be
properly colored
ways;
is,) C n
= n!.)
As an illustration, in Fig. 8-4.

'1 P 5 (A )
let
us find
the chromatic polynomial

J..,(J..,
of the
graph
given
CIA +
'1
C2
J..,(J..,
I) +
C3
1)(J..,3!
C5
J..,(J..,
2)
I
J..,(J.., + C4
1 )(J..,
- 2)(J..,
4!
3) +
)(J..,
- 2)(J..,
5!
3)(J..,
4) .)))
SEC. 8- 3)
CHROMATIC
POLYNOMIAL)
175)
Since the graph

different
in
Fig.
colors
for
proper
C 1
8-4 has a triangle, coloring. Therefore,)

= C2 =
it
will
require
at least
three
and
that
Cs =
we
5!.)
three
VI' V 2 , and
Moreover,
to colors ways.
evaluate can
c 3'
Thesethree
different
suppose
have
vertex
v 2
s must
be assigned properly to vertices done that, we have no more Having have the same color as V 3 , and V4 must
=
colors x, y, and z. V 3 in 3! = 6
left,
choices
because
have
the same
color as
. Therefore,)
C3 6.)
Similarly,
with
four colors,
vI'
color
v 2
' and
24 different ways.
two
The
fourth
can
be properly colored in 4.6 = be assigned to V 4 or v s , thus providing

V 3 can
choice.
choices.
The
fifth vertex
provides no additional
c4 =
Therefore,)
24.2 =
48.)
Substituting
these
coefficients
A(A
in Ps(A), we
get, for the graph

-
in
Fig.
8-4,)
PS(A) =
=
The
A(A
1)(A 1)(A
2) + 2A(A I)(A - 2)(A 2 2)(A -
3)(A 5A +
1)(A 4)
2)(A
3)
A(A
7).)
presence
of factors
polynomials reader
A-I
have
and
2 indicates
in
that
is at
least 3-
chromatic.
Chromatic
been studied
great
more
detail
thorough
in the
literature.
of
The interested colorful world

THEOREM 8-4
A IS)
is referred
to [8-5] for
8-6
discussion
their properties.
of
Theorems 8-4,8-5, and

chromatic
should
provide
a glimpse into the
polynomials.)
graph
of n
vertices is a complete graph

Pn(A)
if and
only
-
if
its chromatic
polynomial)
= A(A
- l)(A
- 2) . . . (A
ways
properly ways,
n +
1).)
any
Proof: With
of a graph. third in A ways A
A colors, second
vertex
there are A can be

fourth
different
of coloring
in . . . , and
selected
vertex
the
colored
A
exactly
A-I
in
ways,
2 ways,
the
in
- 3
the nth
A and
- n + 1
only if
if and
only
if
every
vertex
is adjacent to every
other. That is, if
the graph is
THEOREM
complete. .)
graph is a
8-5)
An n-vertex
tree if
and
only = A(A
if its
chromatic
polynomial)
Pn(A)
l)n-l.)))
176)
COLORING, That
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
Proof:
the theorem holds for
as an exercise to
THEOREM
prove
the
theorem
1, 2 is immediately evident. by induction (Problem 8-9).)

n
It
is left
8-6
Let a
by by
and b be two
nonadjacent
vertices
and
adding fusing
an edge between the vertices a and

Then)
b.
Let
b together
in a graph G. Let G'be a graph obtained G\" be a simple graph from G obtained and replacing sets of parallel with edges
single edges.
Pi).,)
of G
= Pn().,)of
of
G' + Pn - 1 ().,)
coloring
same
of
G\".)
Proof:
The
number
that
of
ways
properly
cases,
one such
that
vertices colors.
a and
b are
of the
number
color
G can be grouped into and the other such
two
that
a and b
are of different
a and
Since
the number
such
and
b have
different colors
coloring
of ways
of ways
of properly coloring of properly coloring b have
G',
number
of ways
of
properly
G such that
and
the same color)
\\ ,)
/)
,\"
/
\037
I\037 ,-.....
/\\)
/-\037)
\\
\037\037)
;\\(;\\
- I) (;\\ - 2) (;\\ - 3) (;\\ - .4)
;\\(;\\
- 1) (;\\ - 2) (;\\ - 3))
A(;\\
- I) (;\\ - 2) (;\\ - 3))
;\\(;\\
- I) (;\\ - 2))
15 (A) of
G=
A(A
- 1)
(A
- 2) +
(A
2A(A
1)
(A
- 2) - 3)
(A
- 3) - 4)
+A
=
Fig.
A
- I)
(A 2
(A
- 2)
(A
(A
(A
- 1)
(A
2)
- SA +
7))
8-5
Evaluation of a
chromatic
polynomial.)))
SEC. 8-4)
MATCHINGS)
177)
= number
of
ways
of properly
coloring
G\",)
Pi).,)
of G
= Pn().,)of
G' + Pn - t ().,)
the the
of
G\".
.)
8-6 is often used in evaluating For how graph. example, Fig. 8-5illustrates
Theorem
G is
The graph
chromatic chromatic
polynomial polynomial
of a of a
expressed
pair
as a
sum
of
the chromatic
graphs.
of nonadjacent
polynomials of four complete vertices shown enclosed in circles is the one
used for reduction at that stage. In the last three sections we have been concerned with proper coloring of in a graph. Suppose that in coloring the edges the vertices we are interested rather than the vertices. It is reasonable to call two edges adjacent if they have one end vertex in common (but are not parallel). A proper coloring of edges 1hen requires that adjacent results Some colors. edges should be of different 8-1 and in Sections on proper coloring of edges, similar to the results given 8-2, can be derived (Problem 8-19). to an a set of edgesin which no two are adjacent is similar Moreover, subset the of vertices.Such a is called a set of matching, independent edges
ject of
8-4.
the
next
section.)
MATCHINGS)
Suppose
that
four
applicants
a p a2 ,
and
a 3'
and a 4
a
are
available
positions PPP2' P3' P4' Ps, P6. Applicant or Ps- Applicant 02 can fill P2 or PS. Applicant a 3 is qualified for PPP2' or is fill can This situation or by represented jobs P2 PS. P3,P4' P6. Applicant 04 the graph in Fig. 8-6. The vacant positions and applicants are represented by
vacant
t is qualified
to fill six to fill posi-
tionp2
vertices.
The
edges
represent
the qualifications
of each applicant
..-- -- ........) ........ \"\"
for
filling)
/ /
/ /,----, a
l
a2)
\" \"
PI P2 p) P4 Ps
'\\ \\ \\\\ \\ \\ I I
/
I I \\ \\ \\ \\ \"'-)
a))
, /
VI
v2
a4
---)
........
P6 ---)
tions)
_/
Applicants) Fig.
Posi 8-6
Bipartite
graph.)))
178)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
(a))
(b)) its
Fig.
8-7
Graph and two of
maximal
matchings.)
different
sets
VI
The questions
to hire all
= fa I'
the vertices positions. The graph clearly is bipartite, a 2 , a 3, a 4} and V 2 = {PI' P2' P3' P4' Ps,P6}' one
falling
into
two
is most
the applicants
likely to ask in this and assign each a position
situation
for
If toe answer is no, what is the maximum number of filled from the given set of applicants? This is a problem of matching of one set of vertices into (or assignment) another. More formally, a matching in a graph is a subset of edges in which no two edges are adjacent. A single edge in a graph is obviously a matching. A maximal to which no edge in the graph can be matching is a matching added. For example, in a complete graph of three vertices (i.e., a triangle) The edges shown by heavy lines in any single edge is a maximal matching. differFig. 8-7 are two maximal matchings. Clearly, a graph may have many ent maximal sizes. these, the maximal matchings, and of different Among maximal matchings with the largest number of edges are called the largest In Fig. 8-7(b),a largest maximal is shown in heavy lines. matchings. matching in a largest maximal The number of edges is called the matching matching
number
Although
are: Is it possible he is suitable? that can be positions

which
of the
graph.
matching
is defined
for
any
graph, the
it is
context
of bipartite
graph set
In a bipartite of verticesin
incident
graphs, as suggested by
having
1
introduction
mostly studied in the to this section.
into
those
with
every
vertex
in
a vertex partition VI and V 2 , a complete matching in V 2 is a matching in which there is one edge in V 1. In other words, every vertex in V 1 is matched Clearly, a complete matching the converse is not
(if
against
some vertex
matching, existence
V 2.
it exists) set
is a
est maximal For the

must
larg-
whereas of a
necessarily true.
into V 1. In
complete
vertices
have at
must
least as many
be at least as many vacant positions as the number however, applicants are to be hired. This condition, in Fig. 8-6, although F or example, there are six positions and four applicants, a complete matching does not exist. Of the three applicants aI' a2 , and a 4, each qualifiesfor the same two positions P2 and Ps' and thereforeone of the three cannot be matched. applicants This us to another necessary condition for a complete leads matching: in VI must collectively be adjacent to at least r Every subset of r vertices is not))) vertices in V 2 , for all values of r = 1,2, . . . , I VII. This condition
in V 2
matching of set VI as there are in
there
all the
V 2, first we other words, if of applicants is not sufficient.
SEC. 8-4)
MATCHINGS)
179)
in Fig. 8-6. The subsettap a 2 , a 4 1 of three vertices has satisfied tices P2 and P5 adjacent to them. That is also this condition of a complete matching is indeed existence Theorem surprising. and proof of this result.) mal statement
THEOREM
8-7) VI
only sufficient
two
verfor
for-
8-7 is a
matching of every subset of r verticesin for all values of r.)

A complete Proof:
into
V 2 in a bipartite
VI is
collectively
graph exists if and only adjacent to r or more verticesin
if
V2
the necessity of a subset of r applicants collecis immediate and has already been pointed out. Thesufficiency the \"if\" part) can be proved by induction on r, as the theorem (i.e., holds for r = 1. For a complete is referred to Theorem trivially proof, the student 11-1in [8-3], Theorem 5-19 in [4-5], or Chapter 4 in [1-9].)
The
\"only
if\"
part
(i.e.,
tively
qualifying
for
at
least
r jobs)
Let
us illustrate
this
important
theorem Five
with an senators c 3.
example.
Problemof Distinct Representatives: members of three committees, c p c2 ,

Fig.
8-8. One
member
it
from
each
committee.
Is
possible
to send
sp S2' S3'S4'and S5 are The membership is shown in committee is to be represented in a supereach one distinct representative from of the
and
committeest?
This problem is one of finding a complete matching of a set V I into set Let us use 8-7 Theorem and check if r vertices from bipartite graph. are at r to least vertices from V 2 , for all values of r. collectively adjacent VI The result is shown in Table 8-1 (ignore the last column for the time being). Thus matchthe condition for the existenceof a complete for this example the is stated in 8-7. Hence it is to satisfied as Theorem form ing possible supercommitteewith one distinct representative from each committee. A) The one. of distinct problem representatives just solved was a small
V 2 in a
/' ,/
./
--C1
\"-
/
/
I I I \\ \\ \\
........ \"\\
/'
/'
./ --51 52
........ \"
\"
\\
\\ \\ \\ I I I
C2
5) 54
/
/
\\
\"....... ........ ---
C)
./
/'
\"
........ -
55
---)
./
/'
Committees
Fig.
Senators)
8-8
Membership of committees.)
first
tThis
problem,
the
and studied by
English
known as the problem of distinct representatives, was mathematician, Philip Hall, in 1935.)))
formulated
180)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
VI)
V2)
r-q)
r =
1)
[cd
[51,52J
-I
[C2J
[C3J r=2)
[51,53,54J
-2
[53,54,55J
-2
[Cl,C2J
[51,52,53,54J
[51,53,54,55J
[C2,
r = 3)
C3J
-2
-2
[C3, cd [Cl,C2,C3J) Table
[51,52,53,54,55J
[51,52,53,54,55J) 8-1)
If
-3 -2)
are M
larger
find
most
Theorem
problem would have become unwieldy. 8-7 requires that we take all 2 M the number of vertices of V 2 adjacent
cases,
there
vertices
of
in
VI' and
nonempty
subsets
VI
collectively in any large
to each
Theorem
graph.)
of these.In
8-7
however,
the following
a complete
simplified version of
matching
will
suffice for
THEOREM
detection of
8-8
if)
there
In a bipartite graph is a positive
a complete
integer
m for
matching of VI which the following
into
V 2 exists
condition
if (but not is satisfied:) in V2.)
only
degree of every
Proof:
vertex
in VI > m
> degree of every
vertex
Consider
incident
a subset
on
m. r Since
are
edges
incident
them.
vertex
of r vertices in VI. These Each m. r edge is incident

in set
=
V 2
the degree of every on at least
is no
in
greater
V2.
r vertices have at least to some vertex in V 2 . than m, these m. r edges
(m.r)/ 111
r vertices
Thus
in VI
V 2 . Therefore, into
any subset of r vertices according to

.)
in VI is
Theorem 8-7, there
collectively adjacent to r or more vertices exists a complete matching of
V2 .
In the
degree
bipartite graph of
of every
Fig. 8-8,)
in
vertex
VI
> 2
:?: degree of
every
vertex
in
V 2')
there exists a complete matching. In the bipartite graph 8-6 no such number of Fig. is found, because the = 4 > . of of a degree P2 degree 1 I t must be emphasized that the condition of Theorem 8-8 is a sufficient condition and not necessary for the existenceof a complete It will matching. be instructive that does not for the reader to sketch a bipartite satisfy graph 8-8 and yet has a complete matching Theorem (Problem 8-15). The matching problem or the problem of distinct representatives is also
Therefore,
called the
those
with
marriage real
problem (whose marital problems!)
solution, unfortunately, See Problem 8-16.)))
is of
little use to
SEC. 8-4)
MA
TCHINGS)
181)
If one fails to find a complete he is most likely to be interested matching, in finding a maximal vertices that is, to pair off as many of VI with matching, let us define a new term called those in V 2 as possible. For this purpose, deficiency, \037(G), of a bipartite graph G. A set of V 2. of r vertices in V I is collectively incident on, say, q vertices r - q taken over all values Then the maximum value of the number of r = 1,
2, . . . and
G.
all
subsets
of
V I
is called
the deficiency
of the
and
\037(G)
of
the
bipartite
that
graph
in Theorem 8-7, expressed
terms
matching
in a
bipartite graph G existsif

\037(G)
deficiency, states
only
if)
a complete
<
o.)
For largest
example, number
prepare a table for the deficiency is +
Theorem 8-9
with
a positive
you that of Fig. 8-6, similar to Table 8-1,and verify 1 graph (Problem 8-17). the size of the maximal matching for a bipartite graph gives deficiency.)
is
the deficiency of the bipartite graph in the last column of Table 8-1). It
the
in
Fig.
8-7 is
-1
that
(the
suggested
graph for this
THEOREM 8-9)
The maximal
number
of vertices
in set
VI
that
can be
VI
matched
into
V 2 is
equal to)
number of verticesin
The
maximal
\037(G).)
proof
of Theorem
matching
number
8-9 can
8-6,
vertices
be found
Theorem
in
[8-3],
in Fig.
of
using
page 288. is obtained 8-9,

=
The size of a as follows:)
in
V I
\037(G)
3.)
Matching
and
Adjacency
vertices
Matrix:
Consider a
the in
bipartite
adjacent sets of
respectively,
adjacency
and let n I matrix X(G) of
VI and V 2, having < n 2, n I + n 2 = n,
number
of
number the form)
G with nongraph vertices nt and n 2 , of vertices in G. The
G can be written
X( G)
X I2 0 ----: - -- - -
:
:
[ XI2
where
0)
] containing
the submatrix
which
12 is
the n I
by
tion as to
tices
of
the
nI
vertices
n 2 , (0, of V I are
the
1 )-matrix
the informa-
connected
12 .
to which
graph
of the
n 2
ver-
of
V 2
. Matrix
XI2 is the transpose
of X
its
all Clearly, X 12 matrix.
the information
VI
about
bipartite
G is
contained
in
in
A matching X I2 such that
into
V 2 corresponds
to a
selection of the
has
l's
the
matrix
no
line
(i.e., a row or
a column)
more
than
one].)))
182)
The
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND
PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
matching
exactly one 1
in every
is complete if the n 1 by n 2 matrix made of selected row. For example, the X 12 matrix for Fig. 8-8 is)
51
l's has
52 1 0 0
==
53 54 55 0
1
1
Ct
X 12 == C 2 c 3 [l
0
1
\037l
n 1 == 3,
VI
n2
5,
n=8
and
n 1
<
n 2,
== ==
{c p c 2' {51' 52'
c3}
53' 54' 55}.)
V 1
V2
A
complete
matching
of
into
V 2 is given 52
by)
51
53 54
55)
\037
\037
\037
\037
=::
[\037)
000)
to
in 12
lj
number
A maximal matching of l's from X
corresponds 12 such
that no row
in
according of
which
to Theorem 8-9, are in one row, is

number
matrix
to)
the selection of a largest possible it has more than one I. Therefore, the number of I's, no two largest
equal
of vertices
in
VI
\037(G).)
Matching
problems
problem
the
flow
(see
in bipartite graphs Section 14-5). All
can also be
edges
formulated
in terms
of
are
assumed
sink
to be
of
unit
capacity,
and
of
the problem
flow
of
finding
a maximal
matching
is reduced to the
(also
problem
8-5.
In
maximizing
from
the source
to the
see [8-3]).)
COVERINGS)
a graph
G, a
set g of
cident on at
least
one
be an
edge
covering,
G example, a graph a spanning nected graph forest in an unconnected (or graph) is another circuit (if it exists) in a graph is also a covering. covering. A Hamiltonian interest. We have already Just any covering is too general to be of much trees and))) dealt with some coverings with specific properties, such as spanning
is said to cover G if every vertex in G is inedges a graph G is said to that covers edge in g. A set of edges a covering 5ubgraph, a covering of G. For or simply tree in a conis trivially its own covering. A spanning
SEC. 8-5)
COVERINGS)
183)
(a))
Fig.
(b))
8-9
Graph and two of

this
its
minimal
coverings.)
Hamiltonian
circuits. In
from
section
we shall
investigate
two
the minimal
destroying
coverits
ing-a
covering
which
and ability to cover the graph. In Fig. 8-9a graph are in lines. shown ings heavy be made:) The following should observations
no edge
can be removed
without
of its
minimal cover-
1.
2.
covering
exists
for a graph if and
only
if the
graph
has no
isolated ([xl deof the
vertex.)
A covering
notes
of an n-vertex
smallest
graph will
not less
than
have x.)
at least
[n/2l edges.
covering
the
integer
3.
Every
pendant
covering
edge
contains
in
graph
is included
in
every
graph.
4. 5.
Every If
a minimal
covering.
graph
we
denote
the remaining
edges of a
by
(G
- g),
the
set
of
a covering if and only if, for every vertex v, the degree of vertex in (G - g) < (degree of v in G) - I. vertex 6. No minimal covering can contain a circuit, for we can always remove an edge from a circuit without leaving any of the vertices in the circuit a minimal of an n-vertex graph can uncovered. Therefore, covering
edges g is
contain
no
more
than
- 1 edges.
7.
has many minimal coverings,and of different numbers consisting number of edges in a minimal covering of the smallest number of the graph.) covering
graph,
in general,
sizes
they
may
be of
different
(i.e.,
of
edges).
The
sizeis called the
THEOREM
8-10)
A covering g
three
of a graph
is minimal
if and only
if
g contains
no paths
of length
or
more.)))
184)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
I)
.)
.)
.)
(a))
(b))
(c)) of one,
(d))
and
Fig. 8-10
Star
graphs
two, three,
path
four
edges.)
Proof:
Suppose
that
a covering
g contains a
VtetV2e2v3e3v4.)
of length
three, and
it
is)
its end vertices V2 and V3 uncovered. Edge e2 can be removed without leaving Therefore, g is not a minimal covering. Conversely, if a covering g contains no path of length three or more, all its must be star graphs in the shape of stars; seeFig. components (i.e., graphs From a star graph no edge can be removed without leaving a vertex uncovered. That is, g must be a minimal covering. .)
that Suppose
8-10).
of a
the
city. Each of
the
in graph vertices is a
Fig. 8-9 representsthe
street
map
of a part
be kept
the surveillance of a patrol number of cars to vertex covered? patrol keep every The answer is a smallest minimal The covering shown in Fig. covering. is an and it six since there are II cars. answer, 8-9(a) requires Clearly, patrol vertices and no edge can cover more than two, less than six edges cannot cover the graph.
Minimization
potential trouble spot and must car. How will you assign a minimum
under
of
digital
Switching
machine
Functionst:
is to
design
menting gives
of a
the
F
An important step minimize Boolean functions

building
in
the
logical
that
before imple-
them.
we Suppose function following

wxyi
are interested in F of four Boolean
a logical
variables
circuit w, x, y, and z.)

+
==
+ wiyi
+ wiyi
wiyz
wxyi
wxyz
wxyz,)
where +
Let
denotes logical
pair of
8-11 .
represent vertices that
us
OR, xy denotes x AND y, and i denotes NOT x. each of the seven terms in F by a vertex, and join every differ only in one variable. Such a graph is shown in Fig.
An edge between two vertices represents a term with three variables. A minimal cover of this graph will represent a simplified form of F, peras F, but with less logic hardware. forming the same function I and 7 must be included in every of the) The edges covering pendant
tThose
not
familiar
with switching functions
may
skip
this
subsection.)))
SEC. 8-5)
COVERINGS)
185)
2)
7)
Fig.
8-11
Graph representation of a Boolean function.)
e)
G)
Fig.
8-12)
graph.
Therefore,
the terms)
xy
and
xyz
are essential.)
5 or
Two additional
Thus a
simplified
edges
3 and
6 (or
is)
4 and
3 and
5) will
cover
the
remainder.
version
of F
F
xyi
+ xyz +
wyi
wyz.)
This expression
in
can again
be
represented
by a graph
of four vertices,as shown
Fig.
8-12.
The essential terms xyi and xyz cannot be covered by any edge, and hence cannot be minimized further. One edge will cover the remaining two vertices in 8-12. Thus the minimized is) Boolean Fig. expression
F
xyi
+ xyz +
wy.)
Dimer
Problem:
In crystal
Each
dimensional lattice.
edge between
vertex
is represented physics, a crystal in the lattice represents an bond
by a
atom,
threean
the)))
and
vertices represents the
between
the two
atoms. In
186)
COLORING, of the
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
study
surface properties
of crystals, one is interested

Fig.
certain
in
two-dimen-
such as the two shown in sionallattices, To obtain an analytic expression for
1-10.
surface
properties
of crystals
molecules to find (also called dimers), one is required consisting of diatomic the number of ways in which all atoms on a two-dimensionallattice can be The problem is equivpaired off as molecules(eachconsistingof two atoms). alent to finding all different such that every vertex coverings of a given graph in the covering in which is of degree one. Such a covering every vertex is of
degree one is called a dimer

ously a
matching
covering
or
because
no two
edges
This
in
a I-factor. A dimer covering it are adjacent. Moreover,

a dimer
is obvi-
coveringis a maximal to as a perfect matching.

Two
Fig.
matching.
is
why
covering
a dimer is often referred

in
different
dimer coverings
have
are
shown
in
heavy
lines in the graph

have
8-13. an even
Clearly, a graph must This condition, covering.
number of
enough
verticesto
a dimer
however, is not
(Problem
8-21).)
(a))
.III)
...)
Fig.
(b)) graph.)
8-13
Two dimer
coverings
of
8-6.
FOUR-COLOR
PROBLEM)
So far we have consideredpropercoloring of vertices and proper coloring of edges. Let us briefly consider the proper coloring of regions in a planar a on or J ust as in coloring of vertices and))) graph (embedded plane sphere).
SEC. 8-6)
FOUR-COLOR
PROBLEM)
187)
edges,
the regions
if they
of a planar
have a
graph
are
the
said to
same
contiguous
or adjacent
regionshave
color.
common edge between make two regionsadjacent.) The coloring proper of regions is also called map in an atlas to the fact that coloring, referring different countries are coloredsuch that countries with common boundaries
vertices
be adjacent
be properly coloredif no two (Two reg-ions are said to them. Note that one or more
in common
does not
are shown
in
different
colors.
Once again we are not interested in just properly coloring the regions of a given graph. We are interested in a coloring that uses the minimum number of colors.This leads us to the most famous conjecture in graph theory. The colored conjecture is that every map (i.e., a planar graph) can be properly with four colors. The four-color conjecture, referred in to already Chapter 1, has been worked on by many famous mathematicians for the past 100years. the theorem or come up with a map No one has yet been able to either prove than a that more four colors. requires plane) (in That at least four colors are necessary to properly colora graph is immediate from Fig. 8-14, and that five colors will suffice for any planar graph
will
be
shown
shortly.
may
made here in passing. Paradoxically, for surfaces the theorems have complicated plane (or sphere) corresponding been proved. For example, it has been proved that seven colors are necessary sufficient for properly and Second, coloring maps on the surface of a torus.t it has been proved that all maps containing less than 40 regions can be properwith four colors. Therefore, if in general the four-color ly colored conjecture
Two remarks
be
more
than
is false, the
a graph
counterexamplehas to be a very
Region
only
complicated
and
large one.
Vertex Coloring Versus has a dual if and
Coloring:
From
Chapter
5 we know
the
that
if it
is planar.
Therefore, coloring
vertices
regions
and)
of a
planar graph G is equivalent
to coloring the
of its
dual G*,
Color
1)
Fig.
8-14
Necessity of
four
colors.)
tIn fact, the
Heawood map-coloring
surface
theorem
gives the
than
exact number
of a sphere.
of colors
required
for
or
every
orientable
more complicated
that
See page 136,[1-5],
page
94,
[1-2].)))
188)
COLORING, versa.
COVERING,
AND
PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
vice
Thus
the four-color
conjecture can be restated

of four
as
follows:
Every
planar graph has
chromatic
number We
or less.
that
Five-ColorTheorem: properly coloredwith

THEOREM 8-11
shall
now
show
every
planar
map
can be
five
colors:)
The verticesof
every
planar
will
graph can
be properly
colored
with
five colors.)
be proved by induction. Since the vertices of all graphs with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 vertices can be properly colored with five colors, let us assume that vertices of every planar graph n - 1 vertices with can De properly colored with five colors. Then, if we prove that any planar graph G no more than five colors, with n vertices will require we shall have proved the
(self-loop-free,
Proof' The theorem
of courset)
theorem.
Consider the planar graph G with n vertices. Since G is planar, it must have at least one vertex with degree five or less (Problem 5-4).Let this vertex be v. Let G' be a graph (of n - 1 vertices) obtained from G by deleting vertex v (i.e., v and all edges incident on v). Graph G'requires no more than five colors, according to the induction that the vertices in G' have been properly Suppose hypothesis. colored, and now we add to it v and all edges incident on v. If the degree of v is a proper color to v. 1, 2, 3, or 4, we have no difficulty in assigning This leaves only the case in which the degree of v is five, and all the five colors the vertices adjacent to v, as shown in Fig. 8-15(a). have been used in coloring is of a of that 8-15 planar representation Fig. part graph G'.) (Note Suppose that there is a path in G' between vertices a and c colored alternately in Fig. 8-15(b). Then a similar path with colors 1 and 3, as shown between band with colors 2 and 4, cannot exist; otherwise, these two paths) d, colored alternately
3)
Color
a)
I)
Color
e)
2)
Color Color
e) 5)
2)
3)
Color
5)
Color
c)
4)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
8-15
Reassigning of colors.)
Graph\"
tSee \"Regularization
of a
Planar
in this section.)))
SEC. 8-6)
FOUR-COLOR
PROBLEM)
189)
color 2. And
and cause G to be nonplanar. is a consequence of the Jordan (This used in Section 5-3, also.) If there is no path between band d colored alternately with colors 2 and 4, from vertex b we can interchange 2 and 4 of all verticesconnected colors starting to b through vertices of alternating 2 and 4. This interchange colors will paint vertex b with color 4 and yet keep G' properly colored. Since vertex d is still with color 4, we have color 2 left over with which to paint vertex v. Had we assumed that there was no path between a and c of vertices painted 1 and 3, we would have color 1 or 3 instead of released alternately with colors
will intersect curve
theorem,
thus
the theorem.
.)
of degree one Graph: Removing every vertex from the G does not the affect (together pendant edge) graph regions of a planar graph. Nor doesthe elimination of every vertex of degree two, by the two edges in series (Fig. 5-6), have any effect on the regions of a merging
Regularization
of
a Planar
with
the
planar
graph.
consider a typical vertex v of degree Let us replace vertex v by a small circle with incidenceson v. This results in a number
Now
four or
as
more
each
in
a planar
graph.
many
vertices
of
as there
degree
were
three
of
vertices
(see Fig. 8-16).

Performing
this
transformation
produce the
a planar graph G will is of degreethree. When

coloring
another regions
of the
new regions backto the original Such a transformation may

it because
regions of G can be obtained

vertex.
be
on every vertex of degree in four or more H in which vertex planar graph every of H have been properly colored, a proper
simply
by shrinking
each of the
called
regularization
regular
of a
graph
planar graph,
converts if H
a planar
three. Clearly,
coloring
regular
problems,
graphs
can it is
graph G into a be colored with four

.sufficient
of degree
three.
And
H of degree G. colors, Thus, for mapto confine oneself to (connected) planar, the four-color may be restated conjecture
planar
so can
as follows:)
in G)
(a)) (b))
Fig.
8-16
Regularization
of a
graph.)))
190)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
The
regions
with
of every
four
planar, regular graph
of
degree
three can
be colored
properly
If, in
planar
colors.
a planar
graph.
graph G, every
number
graph
in which
a triangular less.)
is of degree three, its dual G* is a vertex every region is bounded by three edges; that is, G* is as the four-color conjecture may be restated Thus again of every
follows: The chromatic
triangular,
planar graph is four or
SUMMARY)
of the coloring of the vertices.
we were concerned with sections of this chapter, proper vertices of a graph.This led us to the chromatic partitioning the concept of an indepenIn the process we also developed a dominating set of vertices.Associatedin a natural and dent set of vertices maximal sets, largest maximal independent way with these sets we found sets, and the independence number; minimal sets, dominating independent the number. domination The chrosmallest minimal dominating sets, and of matic polynomial, studied in Section 8-3, was also a direct consequence
In
the
first three
proper
coloring
of vertices. developments
8-4 and
than
8-1
ing
Sections 8-4 and 8-5 contain Sections and 8-2, except that of the edges of a graph rather
edges,
8-5 are
the
parallel to those in concernedwith proper
Sections
color-
vertices.
pendent set of
maximal
matching
that
is a
is, a set maximal set
somewhat similar to a dominating the graph is either in a covering
of edgesno two An of independentedges.

set
A matching is an indeare adjacent. A of which

edge
covering edge
of edges
in the
sense that
A
every
is in
or is
perfect matching.
it
An
independent
set is
adjacent to it. also a dominating

covering
dimer
set if and
is maximal. sketch
Likewise,
in Fig.
fect. The
cepts.
a matching is also a 8-17 summarizes the

direction with
is a only if only if it is percovering if and

these
relationships among
restriction.
in
con-
The arrows
than
indicate the
or edges.)
of increasing
The last sectiondeals

vertices
proper
coloring
of regions
a planar
graph
rather
REFERENCES)
on coloring, covering, matching, deal of research has been done and published of Mirsky of the vertices as well as edges of graphs. The survey paper and references for most of this chapter. and Perfect [8-4] is an excellent source of material is very readable. Wilkov and Kim Read's survey paper [8-5]on chromatic polynomials for chromatic partitioning of graphs. Among textbooks, [8-6] present an efficient algorithm 10 and recommended readings are Chapters 4, 10, 11, and 18 of Berge [1-1];Chapters the interesting))) 12 of Harary [1-5]; and Chapters 9 and 11of Liu [8-3]. Rouse Ball [1-12]gives
A
good
and
partitioning
CHAP.
8)
REFERENCES)
191)
Independen set)
Domina ting
set)
Maximal
Minimal
t
independen
set)
dominating
set)
Largest
Smallest
maximal
minimal
t
Independen
set)
dominating
set)
(a ) Vertex
Subsets)
Ma tching)
Covering)
Maximal ma tching)
Minimal
covering)))
Perfect
matching (if exists))

(b) Edge Subsets) Fig.
8-17
Structure of
terms.)
192)
COLORING,
COVERING,
AND PARTITIONING)
CHAP.
8)
book devoted to this unsolved history of the four-color problem. For an entire problem, see Ore [1-11]. 8-1. BROOKS, R. L., \"On Coloring the Nodes of a Network,\" Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., Vol., 37, I 941, 1 94- t 97. 8-2. P. W., \"Graph Theory and and KASTELEYN, Crystal Physics,\" in Graph Theory Theoretical Physics (F. Harary, ed.), New York, Academic Press,Inc., 8-3. McGraw-Hill Book ComLIU, C. L., Introduction to Combinatorial Mathematics,
early
pany,
]967,43-110.
Anal.
New L.,
8-4.
8-5.
MIRSKY,
York, 1968. and H. PERFECT,

\"An
Vol. 3,
READ,
1966,520-568.
Introduction
\"Systems
of Representatives,\"
Polynomials,\"
J.
Math.
Appl.,
R. C.,
to Chromatic
\037'A Practical
J. Combinatorial
Vol. 4, No. I,
8-6.
WILKOV, Problem,\"
R. S., and W. H. KIM, J. Franklin Inst., Vol.
1968,52-71.
Theory,
Partition
289,
No.5,
to the Chromatic Approach May 1970, 333-349.)
PROBLEMS)
8-1. Prove
that the chromatic number of a graph will not exceed by more than one the maximum degree of the vertices in a graph. 8-2. Show that the graph in Fig. 8-4 has only one chromatic partition. What is it? 8-3. Show that the chromatic number of a graph G cannot exceed the diameter (i.e., the length of the longest path) of G by more than one.
8-4. 8-5.
Show
bipartite
that
a simple graph.
graph
graph
with
n vertices
and more
than
Ln2J4 J edges
cannot be a
to be a complete graph if there is one edge between bipartite vertex of set V 2 . Show that the maximum number is Ln2J4 J. of edges in a complete bipartite graph of n vertices 8-6. Show that if a bipartite graph has any circuits, they must all be of even lengths. 8-7. In a chessboard, show the positions of of queens that collectively dominate all 64 squares number (a) The minimum (an number of vertices). example of a minimal dominating with smallest number of queens such that none of them can take another (b) The maximum of a maximal independent set with largest number of vertices). (an example 8-8. Find the chromatic polynomial of the graph in Fig. 8-7. Use a technique similar 8-9. Using induction on n, prove Theorem 8-5. (Hint: to one used in proving Theorem 3-3.) satisfies the inequality 8-10. Show that the chromatic polynomial of a graph of n vertices A bipartite
is said
VI
every
vertex
of set
to every
Pn(l)
< l(l
1 )n-l.
8-11. Show
Use Theorem 8-5.) the chromatic polynonlial length n (i.e., an n-gon) is)
(Hint:
that Pn(l)
of a
graph consisting of a
I)n.)
single
circuit
of
= (l
l)n
+ (l
- 1)(-
8-12.
8-13.
that the absolute value of the second coefficient of In-l in the chromatic of edges in the graph. of a graph equals the number Pn(l) Sketch two different (i.e., non isomorphic) graphs that have the same chromatic
Show
polynomial
polynomial.)))
CHAP.
8)
PROBLEMS)
193)
8-14.
in schedule Suppose that you are required to makea class a total of n courses to be taught in m available hours of the of courses that cannot be taught at the same time because like to take both. Explain how you will make the schedule. it will be impossible to make a compatible when schedule.
coloring
a university. There are week. There are pairs some students might State the condition (Hint:
Try properly
n vertices
with
available
colors.)
8-15.
Sketch a
yet
In
that does bipartite graph has a complete matching.
not
satisfy
the
condition
in Theorem
8-8 and
8-16.
a village there are an equal number of boys and girls of marriageable age. Each of girls and each girl dates a certain number of boys. boy dates a certain number Under what condition is it possible that every boy and girl gets married to one of their dates? not allowed.) (Polygamy and polyandry
Make a completetable (like Table 8-1) for the graph of Fig. 8-6 to determine number or not a completematching Find the deficiency from this exists. table. 8-18. Show that a nonnull graph is 2-chromatic if and only if, for all odd r, every diagonal Xr is zero. The matrix X is the adjacency matrix of the entry in matrix graph. (Hint: Use Theorem 8-2.) 8-19. Just as with an independent set of vertices (or simply independent set), define an independent set of edges in a graph as a set of nonadjacent edges (not incident on a common vertex). Make some observations to those in Section 8-2. parallel Observe that matching is an independent set of edges. What are complete matchings, maximal and so on? matchings, 8-20. Explore how the covering number of a graph G with n vertices is related to the
8-17.
whether diameter of G.
a graph
8-21.
8-22.
Sketch
with an even number of
vertices
that
has no
dimer covering.
with Show that the regions of a simple planar graph G can be colored properly two colors if and only if every vertex in G is of even degree. (Hint: Use Theorem 8-2 and Problem 4-28.)
8-23. From
Two such combinations m < k. This relationship
of k objects. objects one can select v !j[k !(v - k)!] combinations are m-related if they have m or more objects in common, can be expressed by means of a graph with v !j[k !(v - k)!] vertices and with edges between every pair of m-related combinations. Makeobserthis graph is vations on the properties of such a graph. Give conditions for which (a) a null graph; (b) a complete graph. How will you select a largest set of combinations that are not m-related? Illustrate method by sketching the graph your m = 2. for v = 6, k = 3, and v distinct
aN are arranged aI, a2, . objects once once in each row and exactly
8-24.
An N by N square in which each object appears exactly called a Latin square. A Latin of 2N vertices. What graph graph? How many of these
..,
8-25.
by square can also be represented is the total number of different matchings are edge disjoint? Call a subset of vertices incident that includes at least one vertex on every edge of G a vertex cover of G. Show that the number of vertices in the smallest vertex cover is to or less than the domination number of G.))) equal
in such a way that in each column is a complete bipartite matchings in such a
9)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
direction
Vi
The graphs studied in was assigned to

v j could
this
the
book
edges
so far
in a
have been undirected

An
graphs.
No
graph.
edge
e k between
vertices
and
Vi. In
as going from vertex Vi to vertex v j or from v j to this chapter we shall consider directed graphs-graphs in which edges
be considered
physical
have directions.
M any
with
situations
flow
require
networks
directed graphs.
with
The street
map
of a city
pipes, and electrical are represented directed networks, for example, by graphs. Directed graphs are employed in abstract of representations computer programs, where the vertices stand for the program instructions and the edgesspecify the execution The directed is an in the invaluable tool of sequential sequence. graph study machines. Directed graphs in the form of signal-flow graphs are used for in control theory. system analysis Most of the concepts and terminology of undirected graphs are also
one-way streets,
valves in the
the planarity For example, of a graph does not is directed or undirected, and therefore Chapter 5 is applicable to both directed and undirected The same is true for graphs. most other topicscovered so far. It would be wasteful to devote another eight of directed minor chapters to the study graphs, mostly repeating, with what has already been said. In this we shall therefore, changes, chapter, out those of directed graphs that are not shared by mainly bring properties
graphs.
to directed applicable
depend on whether
the
graph
undirected
graphs.)
IS
9-1.
V =
WHAT
A DIRECTED
GRAPH?)
G consists
. .},
A directed graph (or a digraph for short) {VI' V 2 , . . .}, a set of edges E = {e p e 2 ,.
194)))
and a
of a set of vertices mapping'Pthat maps)
SEC. 9-1)
WHAT IS A
DIRECTED
GRAPH?)
195)
e3)
e7)
Directed graph Fig. 9-1 and 10 edges.)

ordered vj
with
5 vertices
every edge
undirected
onto
some
graphs,
a vertex
Vi
segment
referred
between
to
and
pair of vertices (Vi' is represented by a point with an arrow directed from

five
V j).
As in the
by
case of
a line
Fig. 9-1shows
In a digraph
a digraph
with
vertices
and
ten
example, edges. A digraph is also

but
and an edge Vi to v r For
as an
oriented graph.t an edge is not only

and
incident
on a
vertex,
Vi'
is also
incident
out of
incident
vertex
incident
into a
vertex. The
vertex vertex
vertex
which
out of, is called the initial incident into, is called the terminal vertex and v 4 is the terminal vertex and terminal vertices are the same
authors
of eke The vertex of e k' I n Fig. 9-], V 5 is the An edge for which a self-loop, such as
the
edge v ' which j
ek ek
initial
is is
initial
of edge e7 .
forms
reserve the term arc for an oriented or directed We the use term edge to mean either an undirected is or a directed edge. Whenever there a possibility of confusion,we shall explicitly state directed or undirectededge.)
es. (Some
edge.
The out-valence
number or
of edges outward
edges incident into degree) of Vi and is
incident out of a vertex Vi is called the out-degree (or of and is written demidegree) d+(v i ). The number of Vi is called the or inward demiin-valence in-degree (or Vi written as d-( Vi). In Fig. 9-1, for example,)
d+(v 1)
== 3,
d-(v
1)
==
1,
d+(v 2) == 1,
d-(v 2) == 2,
d+(vs)
It is
all
==
4,)
d-(v s) ==
in
O.)
not difficult
is equal authors
by
in-degrees tSome
to prove (Problem 9-1)that to the sum of all out-degrees,
any digraph each sum
G the sum being equal
of
to)
graph\" directed
reserving edge between
make a distinction between the terms \"oriented graph\" and \"directed the former for only those digraphs which at most one have a pair of vertices. This often leads to confusion; therefore, we use
these two terms synonymously.)))
196)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
the
number
of edges
in
G;
that
n
is,) n
;=1
An
\037
d+(vJ
\037 ;=1)
d-(vJ.
isolated
vertex
is a
vertex in
vertex
which
the
in-degree
are both equal to zero. A degree one, that is, if)
v in
a digraph is
called pendant
and the out-degree if it is of
d+(v)
+ d-(v)
I.)
whereas edgese2
Since
undirected
many
Two directed edges are said to be parallel if they are mapped onto the same ordered pair of vertices. That in addition to being parallel in is, the sense of undirected edges, parallel directed edgesmust also agree in the In Fig. 9-1, edges eg , e 9 , and e 10 are parallel, direction of their arrows. and
e 3 are
not.
of
properties
directed
graphs
are the same

orientations
as
those
of
ones,
it is
often convenientto
in a
obtained from a digraph. Such an undirected graph be called the undirected graph corresponding to G. On the other hand, given an undirected graph H, we
the disregard
directed graph
can
of edges G will
assign
of H somearbitrary
called given
each edge by
direction. of H (or
unique
The
resulting
associated
digraph,
with
designated
H). Note
that
is a
an
orientation
digraph
while
digraph has a
it, why
(within
isomorphism)
undirected
graph corre-
sponding to
a given we
This is possible. but an orientation

This the
undirected graph say the undirected

When
orientations may have \"different\" a digraph, to graph corresponding
brings
us to
of a graph. the question:
are
two
digraphs
defined
considered
such
to be have
labels
same
or isomorphic?
Isomorphic Digraphs:
Isomorphicgraphs were
of graph
that they
their
identical behavior
are removed,
in
terms
properties. In other words,if

For
two isomorphic
graphs are indistinguishable.
two
digraphs)
e2) (a))
e 2)
(b))
Fig.
9-2
Two nonisomorphic digraphs.)))
SEC. 9-2)
SOME
TYPES
OF DIGRAPHS)
197)
to be
isomorphic not
the
only
must
their
corresponding
that
undirected
graphs be
also
isomorphic, but
directions
of the
digraphs
corresponding edges must

are not
agree.
For example, Fig. are orientations they

Figure distinct
9-2 shows two

of the same
isomorphic,
although
undirected graph.
9-2 (i.e.,
immediately nonisomorphic)
problem was solved by F. cases are left as an exercise
a problem. What is the number of suggests undirected The orientations of a given graph? and E. M. Palmer in 1966. Some specific Harary (Problem 9-3).)
9-2. SOMETYPES
Like their
OF
DIGRAPHS) varieties.
graphs
to the
choice
than
of assigning
undirected
undirected sisters,digraphs come in many a direction to each edge,directed

ones.
has
In fact, due have more
varieties
Simple
calJed
Digraphs:
a simple
A digraph that digraph (Figs. 9-2 and

Digraphs: Digraphs of vertices, but are
no
for
self-loop
example).
or parallel
edges is
9-3,
Asymmetric
between asymmetric
that
have
pair
or
allowed
at most one directed edge to have self-loops, are called
antisymmetric.
which
a).)
vertex
Symmetric Digraphs: Digraphs in a to b) there is also an edge (b,

digraph
Similarly,
for
every
edge (a, b)
(i.e., from
that is both
a The
digraph.
asymmetric.
a simple symmetric is caJIed symmetric and is both asymmetric is simple digraph simple will be and reason for the terms symmetric asymmetric that of binary
simple and
apparent
graph
in
in
the
context
relations
in
Section
9-3.
as a simple Digraphs: A complete undirected graph was defined vertex exactly by one edge. other every vertex is joined to every For digraphs we have two types of complete graphs. A complete symmetric from in which there is exactly one edgedirected digraph is a simple digraph vertex to every other vertex every (Fig. 9-3), and a complete asymmetric
Complete
which
digraph every
A
is an pair
asymmetric
asymmetric
symmetric
digraph
digraph
digraph
in
which
there
is exactly
contains
one edge between

n(n
n(n
of vertices
(Fig. 9-2).
of
n
complete
vertices
or
1 )/2
edges,
A
but a
complete
complete
of n
vertices contains
1) edges.
a
asymmetric
digraph
is also
called a
tournament
complete
tournament (the reason for this term will be made clear in Section 9-10). A digraph is said to be balancedif for every vertex Vi the in-degree equals the out-degree; that is, d+(vJ = d-(vJ. (A balanced digraph is also referred A balanced to as a pseudosymmetric digraph is said digraph, or an isograph.) as every if every vertex has the same in-degreeand out-degree to be regular other vertex.)))
198)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
Fig.
9-3
four
Complete symmetric digraph

vertices.)
of
9-3.
DIGRAPHS
AND
BINARY
RELATIONS)
The theory of graphs and the calculus of binary related (so much so that some people often mistakenly the as a branch of of relations). theory theory In a set of objects, where) X,
relations
are
regard
closely
graph
come to
X =
a binary
[Xl' X 2 ,..
Xj)
.},)
relation
R between
pairs (Xi'
may exist.
In
which
case,
we write)
x.Rx. I J)
R to X r relation Xi has R may for instance be \"is parallel or to,\" \"is orthogonal to,\" \"is congruent to\" in geometry. It may be \"is greater \"is a factor of,\" than,\" \"is equal to,\" and so on, in the case when X consists of numbers. On the other R may be \"is son of,\" the relation hand, if the set X is composed of people, relations is defined \"is spouse of,\" \"is friend of,\" and so forth. Each of these numbers of the and this is the name on of relation. set, why binary only pairs a x j and there are relations other than \"is of\" binary Although product (Xi Xk , for example, will be a tertiary relations are the most relation), binary and the word \"relation\037' a binary relation. implies important in mathematics, a binary A digraph is the most natural of representing relation on a way
and
say that Relation
set X. Each Xi E R to xj ' a directed
X is
represented
is drawn
by
a vertex
Xi. If
Xi
Xi
has
the specified
relation
edge
from vertex
to
For
x j'
for every pair

\"is greater
example,
the
digraph
five
in Fig.
numbers
on
a set
consisting of
without
9-4 representsthe [3, 4, 7, 5, 8}.

on a
finite
(x,.,xj).
than\"
relation
Clearly, every
digraph
binary
relation
set
can
parallel edges.
relation
Conversely, every
set of its
digraph
be represented by a without parallel
edges defines
a binary
on the
vertices.)))
SEC. 9-3)
DIGRAPHSAND
BINARY
RELATIONS)
199)
5)
7)
Fig.
9-4
Digraph of a
binary
relation.)
XI)
X2)
X 3)
X 4)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
9-5
Graphs of
symmetric
binary
relation.)
element R it may happen that Reflexive Relation: For some relation every is in relation R to itself. For example, a number is always equal to itself, or a line is always parallel to itself. Such a relation R on set X that satisfies) x.Rx. I
for
I)
The digraph of a reflexive relation. vertex. Such a digraph representing a reflexive be called relation on its vertex set may a reflexive digraph. A binary no vertex has a self-loop is called an irreflexive digraph. digraph in which R it may happen that for all Xi and Symmetric Relation: For some relation if) x j' every
relation
will
Xi E X is called a reflexive have a self-loop at every
xiRx
j holds,
then xjRx
also
holds.)
\"Is spouse of\" is a symmetric relation. symmetric \"Is equal to\" is both symmetric and reflexive. The digraph of a symmetric because for relation is a symmetric digraph every directed edge from vertex Xi to x j there is a directed edgefrom x j to Xi' of an irreflexive, symmetric binary relation on Figure 9-5(a) shows the graph a set of four elements.The same relation can also be represented by drawing of vertices that are related, as in just one undirected edge between every pair Thus every undirected graph is a representation of some Fig. 9-5(b). sym-)))
Such a
relation is called a
relation.
but
irreflexive
200)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
metric
binary
relation
with
undirected
2e
graph
edges.
opposite
e edges
(on the set of can be thought
its
vertices). of
Furthermore,
every
with
as a
symmetric digraph
directed
(A two-way street is equivalent to two

directions.)
one-way streets
if for
pointed in
elements
Xi'
Transitive
X j'
Relation: A relation R is and X k in the set,) xiRx j and

xiRx
said to be transitive
xjRx k)
k.)
any three
always
imply)
The
binary
relation
\"is X
greater
than,\"
for example,
\"Is descendent
is a
transitive
relation.
If
Xi > x j and
of a transitive
The is shown
transitive
xj >
k , clearly
Xi > x k .
of\" is
another example
relation.
irreflexive and asymmetric) binary relation (but digraph of a transitive in Fig. 9-4. Note the triangular A subgraphs. digraph representing directed relation (on its vertex set) is called a transitive graph.
Equivalence
it
Relation: A
symmetric,
\"is
binary
relation
is called
an equivalence relation if
equivalence
\"is
is
reflexive,
and transitive.
to,\"
Some examples of
\"is
relati
ons are
parallel
\"is equal
to,\"
congruent
to,\"
equal
to
to.\" modulo m,\" and \"is isomorphic be called an equivaThe graph representing an equivalencerelation may an equivalence does lence graph. What graph look like? Let us look at an 3\" to modulo of the equivalence relation \"is congruent consisting example, is shown in Fig. 20. The graph defined on the set of 11 integers, 10through undirected but each 9-6. (Recall that edge in Fig. 9-6 represents two parallel
oppositely
disjoint classes,each in
undirected
reflexivity).
directed edges.) In Fig. 9-6 we see that

subgraph
Furthermore, an
set of the graph is divided into three Each component is an component. at each vertex (due to (due to symmetry) with a self-loop in each component every vertex is related to (i.e.,
the
vertex
separate
joined by
edge
to) every
other
vertex.)
== I
(mod
3)) Fig.
==
2 (mod
3))
==
0 (mod
3))
9-6
Equivalence
graph.)))
SEC. 9-4)
DIRECTED
PATHS
AND CONNECTEDNESS)
201)
In general,
an equivalence
(called
and
relation on a set partitions

classes) such
in the
that
the two
elements
set into classes same class if

ambiguity
only
equivalence if they are

membership
elements
regarding
have been component
to band
that
related to xj but not every vertex is joined to every is related to c, a is also related
related. Symmetry ensures that equivalence class; otherwise, vice versa. Transitivity ensures
other to
of the are in the there is no

Xi in
that
may each
vertex,
because
c. Transitivity
if a is related also guarantees

an element in the set.
no
in
element
a class
to be
can be in more than one class. Reflexivity by itself, if it is not related to any other
binary
allows
element
R on a set can alsobe represented by a (0, I), n by n matrix, where n is the the set. The i, jth entry is 1 if Xi RX j is in the matrix matrix of the relation \"is true, and is 0, otherwise.For example, the relation than\" on the set of integers greater {3, 4, 7, 5, 8} is)
Relation Matrices: A
relation
a matrix, called a relation number of elements in
matrix.
It is
5
0
I
8 0
o .
0 0 0 0 0
I I I I
4
7
5
0
I I I
0
0 0
I
0
I
0
0)
8
We
shall
see
in
Section
9-8 that
binary
this is precisely the
adjacencymatrix
of the
digraph
representing
the
relation.)
9-4.
DIRECTED
PATHS
AND
CONNECTEDNESS)
they
Walks, paths, and circuits in a directed graph, in addition are in the corresponding undirected graph, have the added
to being what
consideration
edges s e 7 V 4 e 6 V 3 e l VI
of orientation.
(although
tent
For example, in
is a path
in \"directed\"
Fig.
9-1,
from
the sequence
V s to
of vertices and
V
V s e g V 3 e 6 V 4 e 3 VI
VI' whereas
a path
direction
from
the corresponding undirected V s to V 1. A distinction must to
graph) has no such consisthese two be made between
types of
either
paths. It is natural
call
the first
The
and the second

a directed
A directed and
one a semipath.
path or a
word
cutsets. Moreprecisely:
edges,
a
semipath, and
to
V 5 to VI' from one a directed path \"path\" in a digraph could mean for walks, circuits, and similarly
walk from beginning
a vertex Vi
Vi
v j is
with
oriented from the vertex
ending precedingit to the
and
edgein
directed
walk
appears
more
than
an alternating sequence of vertices is with v j ' such that each edge vertex following it. Of course, no but a vertex may appear))) once,
202)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
than more once, just as directed graph is a walk a directed walk. A walk
in
the
case
of undirected
graphs.
a
semiwalk
but
in a
is
in
the
corresponding
undirected
graph,
directed
not
in a
digraph can
mean either
walk
or a
semiwalk. The definitions

similarly.
directed
and directed circuit can be written circuit, semicircuit, to Fig. 9-1oncemore. The set of edges [e t , e 6' e 3} is circuit. But [e t' e6 , e 2 } is a semicircuit. Both of them are circuits.
of
Let
us turn
Connected undirected (i.e., Digraphs: In Chapter 2 a graph graph) was defined as connected if there was at least one path between every of pair are two different we vertices. In a digraph there types of paths. Consequently, in digraphs. A digraph G is said to have two different types of connectedness if there is at least one directed path connected be strongly from every vertex A digraph G is said to be weakly if its correconnected to every other vertex. but G is not strongly In is connected connected. sponding undirected graph is strongly connected, and the other one is weakly Fig. 9-2 one of the digraphs The statement that a digraph G is connected simply that its means connected. or corresponding undirected graph is connected; and thus G may be strongly A directed graph that is not is dubbed as connected connected. weakly
disconnected. Sincethere are

types
we can define two types of connectedness in a digraph, also. Each maximal connected or strongly) (weakly subgraph of a digraph G will still be called a component of G. But within each be called the connected will of G the maximal strongly subgraphs component
two of
components
fragments (or strongly For example, the

component
connectedfragments)
digraph in Fig. gt contains three fragments

e 3 , e 4 , and
9-7
Observe
that
e9
do
not
appear
of G. consists of two components. [e p e 2}, res, e6 , e 7 , e g }, and in any fragment of gl.)
The
[eto}.
e I)
es)
gI)
Fig.
9-7
Disconnected digraph
with
two
components.)))
SEC.
9-5)
EULER
DIGRAPHS)
203)
(e I , e2
))
----)
(e lO ))
Fig.
9-8
Condensation
of Fig. 9-7.)
each
Condensation: The condensation strongly connected fragment
edges single
in
a digraph G is a digraph in which a and directed all vertex, by replaced are from one strongly connected to another replaced by a component G in Fig. 9-7 is shown directed edge. The condensationof the digraph
G c of is
Fig.
9-8.
Two observations I. The
can be made from

strongly
the
definition:)
condensation of a
condensation
connected
digraph
is simply
a vertex.
2. The
of a
digraph has
no directed circuit.)
Accessibility:
from vertex
strongly other vertex.)
In a digraph a vertex b is said to be accessible (or reachable) G is a if there is a directed path from a to b. Clearly, a digraph connected if and only if every vertex in G is accessible from every
9-5.
EULER
DIGRAPHS)
The notion of the Euler graph can be extended to digraphs also. In a walk starts and ends at (i.e., a directed walk that digraph G a closeddirected the same vertex) which traverses every edge of G exactly once is calleda is called directed Euler line. A digraph containing a directed Euler line an Euler digraph. The graph in Fig. 9-9 is an Euler digraph, in which the walk a b c d e f is an Euler line. When is a digraph an Euler digraph? Clearly, the must be digraph connected, with the possible exception of isolated vertices; otherwise, every be traversed in one walk. In fact, an Euler digraph must be edge cannot need not be connected connected, strongly although every strongly digraph an Euler digraph (Problem 9-13).Theorem 9-1 (whose proof follows the 2-4 test for almost verbatim) provides a very simple proof of Theorem has an Euler line.))) determining whether or not a digraph
204)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
3)
2) a)
4)
Fig.
9-9
Euler
digraph.)
THEOREM
9-1
an
A digraph G is
Euler
digraph
v
if and only
in G].)
if
G is
connected
and is balanced
[i.e.,d-(v)
Let
d+(v)
for every vertex
us now
consider an application of
in
important problem referred to as the teleprinter's problem, in using the digraph, and was presented
communication
Euler digraph The theory. problem, in 1940 was solved

the a classic
for solving an
which by
is
often
I.
G.
Good
Teleprinter'sProblem:How
of
long
is a
I's and
the
O's such that no subsequence sequence? Construct one such longest sequence.
distinct
2 r
[9-2]. circular (or cyclic) sequence longest of r bits appears more than once
paper
in 1946
in
construct
a circular sequence 2r bits of r bits be repeated. subsequence

Clearly,
Solution:Sincethere are 2 r sequence can be no longerthan
bits long
0 and 1, the r-tuples formed from we shall Theorem 9-1, long. Using with the required property that no
Construct a digraph G whose vertices

there
are
are 2
- 1
all (r
1 )-tuples be)
of O's
and
1 's.
vertices
in G.
Let a typical vertex

where
CX;
CXI CX 2
. . . cx r - p) this
0 or 1.)
. . . cx r - I )
Draw an edge directed

vertices
cx I CX 2
from
vertex
(cx I CX 2
(cx2 cx)... ... each

CXI
CXr-IO) and (cx 2 CX)... cxr-II); cxr_IOandcx I CX2 ... cxr_II, respectively.
label
to each of two these directed edges
from
when
of the
=
CX2
2r-1 vertices.(A self-loop ... = CXr - 1 = 0 or 1.)

digraph
will
result in each
Draw two suchedges directed of the two cases because for each
to
vertex
The
in-degree
resulting
is an
Euler digraph
the
equals
G consists
line
any
in
the out-degree of the 2r edges, edges

in
(each being equal

each
two).
A directed
cx I CX 2
Euler
two
consecutive
the
CX2 CX)
. . . CX r CX r + I ; that
to the r
made
- 1 leading
first
is, the r of the bits of
Euler
1
with a distinct r-bit line are of the form

bits
label. The labels of

. . . CX r - I CX r ; edge
trailing
of the
first
are
identical
of the
bit
of 2 r bits, second edge. Thus in the sequence each of the edges in the Euler line, every possible)))
SEC. 9-5)
EULER
DIGRAPHS)
205)
o
= 00 I I)
0)
e8
e2
= 0001
e 3 = 00 I 0
e4
ell
= 0101)
= I0 1 I
e 12 =0111
e 13 =1111)
e 1 = 0000)
e6 = 0 I 00
e s = 1010
e 10 = I I 0 I)
e IS)
= I 1 00
Fig.
9-10
Euler digraph for
maximum-length
sequence.)
subsequence have the
of r bits occurs as the label of an edge; and since no two edges same label, no subsequence occursmore than once. The circular is the two ends of the sequence.) achieved by joining arrangement
of obtaining procedure 0000101001101111 such is sequence. sequence maximum-length correspondingto the walk e l e 2 e 3 e 4 e s e 6 e 7 e g e 9 e lO ell e l2 e l3 e l4 e lS e 16 . This problem the position is also encountered in locating of a rotating with the two different of marks. drum surface 9-19) (Problem carrying types shift register The problem of the rotating drum is similar to that of a feedback in Chapter each arrange12). The quest for a word in which (to be discussed
4,
For r
==
the
graph
in Fig.
9-10 illustrates the

One
such a
ment of r
cryptography,
letters of
difficult
is also m. ]n
It is
number
not
given alphabet appears exactly once, encountered in the same problem (Problem 9-20). size need not be 2. It could be any to see that the alphabet
a
maximum-length
that case, the

out-degree rather
m,
sequence
is m r
symbols long.
Euler
The in-degree and

digraph equals Number of Euler
of
each
vertex
in
the
corresponding
than
two.
Lines: In Fig. 9-10 there is more than one Euler line. In the 16distinct Euler lines. (Note that rotations of the same has fact, digraph the number of distinct of are considered not distinct.) edges Finding sequence in many directed Euler lines in a given Euler digraph is also of interest G. This N. of enumeration was solved deBruijn in))) by problem applications.
206)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
1946
for
those
vertex
regular Euler
were
digraphs in
and
which
the
in
in-degree
Fig.
of
every van
exactly
two, the digraph

deBruijn
9-10, Euler
for example.
and out-degree In
1951
problem
Aardenne-Ehrenfest
[9-9] solved the

directed
more
general
of counting
of by
the number
distinct
of distinct
in
lines in any Euler
digraph.
The number
be obtained
the
counting
Euler lines certain types
a balanced,
connected
G,
of spanning trees in
to be
digraph G can covered in
next
section.)
9-6.
TREES
A tree
WITH
DIRECTED
EDGES)
as
same for has no circuit-neither a digraphs. A tree is a connected digraph that directed circuit nor a semicircuit.A tree of n vertices contains n - 1 directed and has properties similar to those with Trees with undirected edges edges. in many applications, suchas electrical directed edges are of great importance
any
circuit.
(for undirected graphs) was defined The basic concept as well as the
a connected
\"tree\"
graph
the
without
term
remains
of languages,computer programming, to few. name a counting problems, In addition to being trees in the undirected have sense, trees in digraphs additional and variations from the relative orientations properties resulting directed of the edges. One such particularly useful type of rooted tree with called an arborescence and is definedas follows: is edges
network
analysis,
game theory, theory
and
Arborescence:
digraph
G is
said to
be an
arborescence
if)
1. G 2.
contains
no circuit-neither directed nor

v of
semicircuit.
In G
there is preciselyone vertex

is called
zero in-degree.)
An
This vertex v
in
the root
of the
arborescence.
arborescence
is
shown
Fig.
9-1 I.)
(root))
Fig. 9-11
Arborescence.)))
SEC.
9-6)
TREES WITH DIRECTED
EDGES)
207)
THEOREM 9-2)
An
arborescence
is a tree
one.)
in
which
every
vertex
other
than
the
root
has an
in-degree of exactly
Proof:
An arborescence
1. Therefore,
with
n vertices
can have at
all
most
vertices
1 edges
because
of condition
the sum
+ d-(V2)
of in-degrees of
in
G)
d-(vt)
... + d-(v
n)
< n
1.)
one is zero because of left-hand side of this equation, only must all be positive integers. Therefore, they must all be 1's. one of vertex since there are exactly n - 1 vertices of in-degree one and Now, 1 it n also G has S ince G is circuitless, zero, digraph exactly edges. in-degree Of
the n
terms on
2;
the
condition
others
must
be connected,
and hence a
tree. .)
An arborescence is in a sense a tree directed out of the root. Therefore, an arborescence is sometimesreferred to as an out-tree. (Reversing the direction what may be called an in-tree.)) of every edge in an arborescence will produce
THEOREM
9-3
from the root R to every other In an arborescence there is a directed path G is an arborescence if there is a vertex vertex. Conversely, a circuitless digraph v in G such that every other vertex is accessiblefrom v, and v is not accessiblefrom any
other
vertex.
an
Proof. (a) In
R
arborescence
consider
can
and
we get Since an
from (b)
as far as possible. P continuing a vertex whose in-degree is two

arborescence
R
end or
a directed path P starting from the root only at a pendant vertex; otherwise, more. A contradiction.
is connected,
every vertex lies on

vertices.
some directed
path
the root
to
each
of the
pendant
circuit,
Conversely, since every vertex in G is accessible from v, and G has no G is a tree. Moreover, since v is not accessible from any other vertex, other vertex is accessible from v, and therefore the in-degree of d-(v) = O. Every each of these vertices must be at least one. The in-degree cannot be greater than in one because there are only n - 1 edges in G (n being the number of vertices
G).
.)
The
following
is an
important
to the application of arborescences

arithmetic
theory
of computer
algorithms.
expression)
Polish Notation: Consider the a+b-
c.d
gX
.
or ALGOL)
this
-I)
(9-1))
In a
procedural language
(such
as FORTRAN
expression)))
208)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
might
be written
as)
a + b
where
- c.d
\037
(g
i x
- f),)
(9-2))
i denotes exponentiation. must perform the arithmetic the computer In evaluating this expression in a certain order; otherwise,it will produce a wrong result. Let us operations be the operations in this expression in the order in which they number might
performed.)
a + b
- c.d \037 (g
i i i
i i
CD@)
i x
- f).
(9-3))
@wQ)@
To evaluate
sion backand
To
forth
will have to scan the expressuch an expression,the machine to find the sequence of operations to be performed.
avoid
scanning
back and
forth,
the
computer
makes
a preliminary
as (9-2) into the Polish notation such translation of expressions (invented by is also called parenthesisthe Polish logician, Lukasiewicz).Polish notation the it contains has because no parentheses. This notation free notation, the that in same order as are the they advantage operations appear exactly
performed.
The basic
idea
in
Polish
notation
is that
than
binary
operator
appears
just to
the
left y
of is
x+
two operands written as + xy.

the
first
rather
in
between
.of
the two
operands. Thus
from
The
translation
expressions
procedural
language into Polish notation
is extremely
important
(or
in compiling and
by
can be
of
accomplished by
arborescence
representing
a
the
given expression
constant)
internal
means
an
as follows: Each variable
appearing
vertex
its
in the
expres-
sion is represented by
binary operator having rescence for expression(9-2) is shown To obtain the expressionin Polish
vertex. Each pendant the two subarborescences

in
as
operands.
a represents An arbo-
Fig. 9-12. we traverse the notation,
arborescence)
j)
Fig.
a+
9-12 Arborescence b - c . d --;- (g t x
for
f).)))
SEC. 9-6)
TREES
WITH
DIRECTED
EDGES)
209)
starting
by the
in
as indicated left to right and from top to bottom, from the root from that has not dotted line in Fig. 9-12. Each time we come acrossa vertex its label to the existing string. This process been traversed before, we append Fig.
9-
2 yields)
+ a
An
right
cd --:- \302\267
gxf)
(9-4)) : We start at the is encountered the
expression
and
extreme
in Polish notation is evaluated as follows an operator move to the left. Whenever
the two operands immediately to the right of operation is performed between as one operand it. After an operation is performed, the resultant is regarded under this procedure expression for the next operation. You can verify that (9-4) is equal to (9-2). The advantage of expression(9-4) over (9-2) is that in (9-4) there are no parentheses and the operators appear in the order (from in to be which are to acted right left) upon. Therefore, no back and they forth
scanning
is required
relative
during
the
computation.
in the
in
Ordered
left
Trees: You must have

positions
noticed that
of the
and
expression
the
arborescence
of the
of Fig. 9-12the
or
vertices
plane
paperthis
right, it is
up or
down-are
and
important
must
sense
its \"rigid\" isomorphic to graph, this is in and This fact is a not properties. purely graph-theoretic problem; the first and only time in this book we shall consider such a structure. In computer a tree in which the relative order of subtrees literature at each vertex must be preserved is called an ordered tree or a planar meeting tree (because the in the plane of the tree can be visualized as rigidly embedded means an ordered science the term tree usually tree, and paper). In computer the a tree is drawn at with the root down by convention top. hanging a
a graph
Spanning
be preserved. In it may not preserve
Arborescence:
spanning
analogous to a
directed
tree
A spanning in an
tree in an undirected
n-vertex
connected
digraph,
tree that
9- 13 is
rescence
edges. is an
A spanning arborescence.
is
arborescence in a For example, a

a striking
graph, consists of n - I connected digraph is a spanning

spanning
arborescence
in
Fig.
arbo-
{f, b, d}. There

and an Euler
relationship
out
between a
by Theorems
spanning
line. This is brought

c)
9-4 and 9-5.)
2)
f)
Fig.
9-13
Euler
digraph.)))
210)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
THEOREM
9-4
In a connected, balanced digraph . . . , em) be an Euler line, which starts

vertex
- 1 edgesthat
subdigraph
of eland
The
spanning
n vertices and m edges, let W = (eJ, e2, ends at a vertex v (i.e., v is the initial the terminal of em). Among the m edges in W there are vertex \"enter\" each of n - 1 vertices, other than v, for the first time. the n vertices is a with g of these n - 1 directed edges together
G of
and
arborescence
of G,
rooted
at
vertex
v.)
Illustration:
Before
W
proving
Fig. 9-13,
(b d
c ef
2. The subdigraph [b, d,

Proof:
gh
f}
a)
is
g, g
going
the theorem, let us look at an example. In Euler line, starting and at vertex ending a spanning arborescence rooted at vertex 2.)
is an vertex includes
to
In the
subdigraph
v is
of in-degree zero, and

going
every to
other
vertex
n
is of
in-degreeone; for
and no edge
and
1 vertices,
g is
connected arborescence in
Theorem
contains
- 1 directed
v.
exactly one edge v. Moreover, the way
each
of the
in
is defined
g
W,
edges. Therefore,
is a spanning
G and
is rooted
at
.)
of obtaining a spanning arborescence provided the digraph is Eulerian. Conversely, a spanning arborescence in an Euler digraph, an Euler line can be given 9-5. This important result discovered by T. van constructed using Theorem n in 1951 is used in counting the numAardenne- Ehrenfest and N. G. deBruij ber of distinct Euler lines. Forthe sake of traversing the edges along with rather than opposite to the direction of edges,it is better to express Theorem 9-5 in terms of an in-tree, in which the direction of every has been inverted. that is, an arborescence edge In Fig. 9-14 the subdigraph [e 2 , e 3 , e 7 , e lO ' ell} is a spanning in..tree.)
9-4 provides
specified
method
rooted at
any
vertex,
THEOREM
9-5
Let G
R. Let
e1
W =\037 (eJ,
in G, rooted at a vertex in-tree and T be a spanning Euler digraph R. Then a directed walk an edge in G incident out of the vertex if it is constructed as follows:) e2, . . . , em) is a directed Euler line,
be
an
be
e9)
e4)
e 1) Fig.
9..14
Spanning in-tree rooted
at R.)))
SEC. 9-6)
TREES
WITH
DIRECTED
EDGES)
211)
1. No
edge is
exiting
included
in
W more than
once.
to
2.
In
outgoing
a vertex the one edge belonging edges have been traversed. is terminated
on
T is
not used
until
all
other
3. The
walk
no edge left
which
W must
only when a vertex is to exit.) terminate at R,
reached from
which
there
is
Proof: The walk

entered as often there is an edge
as
because all verticesmust
have
been
a in
G is balanced). Now they have been left (because suppose in W. Let v be the terminal vertex G that has not been included
of some edge b not also be the initial vertex v must in W. Edge b going of vertex v must out be in T, according to rule 1. This omitted edge leads to another in c so on. omitted and T, Ultimately, edge find an outgoing edge there not we arrive at R, and in W. This contradicts included
Since
of a.
is balanced,
included
rule
3.
.)
The number
starting
with
of distinct Euler lines formed edge e 1 at R, can be computed

after
from
by
a given
considering
all
in-tree T, and the choices

this
available at each vertex,
starting
with e 1.
Sincethere
to be
is exactly
one outgoing
remaining
edge in
d+(vJ
T at
each vertex and

vertex
selected last (rule 2), the

in)
- 1 edges at
edge Vi can
is
be
chosen
[d+(vJ
I]!
ways.)
And
since
these are
independent choices, we
n i
have
altogether)
[d+(v i ) II ==
1)
I]!
in
(9-5))
different
Euler lines that Let us apply these

9-14,
following
meet
the
three
rules
ell}'
Theorem
9-5. directed
Fig.
from
two
three rules to obtain the in-tree [e2 , e 3, e 7 , e lO '

directed
different
starting
Euler lines in with edge e t . We get
the
Euler es
lines:)
e 7 e g e 9 e lO ell
(e l
and)
e l2
e6
e 2 e 4 e 3),)
(e l e l2 The
eg
e 9 e lO ell
e s e 6 e 7 e 2 e 4 e 3).)
value of expression (9-5)for Fig. 9-14 is 2. Note that these are not all the directed Euler lines in the digraph, but only those that are generated by the with the rules in Theorem 9-5. specific in-tree in accordance The result in Theorem 9-5 may seem contrived at first but it is a sight, natural Euler lines in a directed very step in counting the number of distinct
digraph,
which
will
be undertaken
in Section
9-9.)))
212)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
9-7.
FUNDAMENTAL The
CIRCUITS
IN
DIGRAPHS)
edges of
T are also caIIed

mental
a connected digraph not

chords
with
when
graphs, every chord C i

circuit
(which
of
A cut-set in
may be a directed circuit a connected G (just as digraph

the
in a specified spanning tree included to T. Just in as the case of undirected respect added to the spanning tree T produces a fundaor
a semicircuit).
in an
of G into two disjoint subsets VI and V 2 such that the cut-set consists of all those in V t and edges that have one end vertex the other in V 2 . All edges in the cut-set may be directed from VI to V 2 , or vice be directed from V t to V 2 and others from V2 to Vt. t versa, or some edges may The concepts of spanning trees, fundamental and fundamental circuits, cut-sets are iIIustrated in Fig. 9-15. A spanning tree is shown in heavy lines. Observe that some of the fundamental circuits are directed circuits and others are semicircuits. The five fundamental each corresponding to cut-sets, an edge in the spanning tree, are also shown.)
partitioning
undirected graph) induces
vertices
Ring
Sum
of Circuits:
subgraphs
Just as in
of
undirected
graphs,
we can
ring
from undirected graphs are also applicable
sum of two is another of that are either subdigraphs g I EB g2 subdigraph consisting edges in gl or in g2 but in both. not As in undirected the ring sum of two circuits or semigraphs, (directed in a is either a third circuit or a union of circuit) digraph edge-disjointcircuits. For if we disregard the directions of edges in the circuits, the earlier results
between
tions
define opera-
a digraph.
In particular, the
operation,
Every
sets
EB,
circuits
this
and
group
element of
fundamental circuits with

also.)
to digraphs. Under the ring-sum unions of edge-disjoint circuits form a group. can be expressed as a ring sum of some of the to a spanning tree. The same holds for cutrespect
Directed Circuits Only: The most important of a set of property - n + 1) fundamental circuits in a connected graph G (directed or undirected) is that these circuits form a basis for aII circuits in G. Any circuit in a digraph) can be obtained as a ring sum of some (directed or semicircuit of these circuits. But in many applications we are interested only in the set of Is there a similar basis for all directed directed circuits in a digraph. circuits? The answer, unfortunately, is no. The ring sum of two directed circuits is or edge-disjoint not necessarily another directed circuit union of directed circuits. For example, in Fig. 9-15 the ring sum of directed circuits In fact, it can be shown that a c b EB a d g b = d g c, a semicircuit. there
Set of
e
J.l (=
exists
no binary operation under unions of directed circuits) form

t A
which
aII
directed
circuits
(and edge-disjoint
a directed
a group, in the
let alone
a vector space.)
called
cut-set.)))
cut-set
in
which
all edges
are oriented
same direction is
SEC. 9-8)
MATRICES
A,
B, AND C OF
DIGRAPHS)
213)
Rank Nullity
,.
= 5) = 4) P.
Spanning
tree T'
{a, d,f,
h,
k})
Chord-set toT'
wi th
respect
{b,c,e,g})
(semicircuit))
df
Fundamental
wi
circuits)
dkhc)
(semicircuit))
(semicircuit))
th respect
to T)
khg)
adkhb)
(directed
circui t))
ab)
bcde)
Fundamental cut-sets)
ef)
wi
th respect
to T)
hcgk)
hcgh)
Fig.
9-15
Directed
graph and a spanning

situation
tree.)
The
practical
with
acyclic
significance of this digraphs, the topic of
is to
be discussed
in
connection
Section 9-11.)
9-8.
in
MATRICES
A,
B, AND
C OF
DIGRAPHS)
The Chapter
matrices 7 for matrices
associated
the
with a
orientation
digraph are quite

the
similar
an undirected
consist
graph, with
of the
(instead
following
of
to those discussed basic difference. In undirected
order to account for

cut-set
graphs).
The numbers
+ 1, 0, -1 are regarded
as
of +
1,0, -1
edges, the incidence,circuits, and

only
as
0 and
ordinary
in
for
real
numbers.
arithmetic
Their addition and multiplication (and not modulo 2 arithmetic
interpreted in the case of
are
as
ordinary
undirected graphs).Conse-)))
214)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
quently,
the
vectors
and vector
the
spaces associatedwith
digraph
and
its
subdigraphs are over
field
of all real
numbers, and not GF(2).
Incidence Matrix: The to

is edges, and no self-loops vertices
incidence an
n by n
and
columns
==
==
correspond if jth
n vertices, with matrix e of a digraph matrix A == [aij]' whose rows correspond to edges, such that)
aij
1, -1,
== 0, A digraph
edge is incident out of ith vertex, ith vertex, if jth edge is incident into if jth edge is not incident on ith vertex.)
are edges
disregard
in
and its incidence matrix the orientations of the
shown and
in Fig.
9-16. Observethat
change
if we
correspondingly
-1 to 1
identical to Fig. 7-1. incidence matrix, Fig. 9-] 6 becomes 7-1 on the properties of the incidence Observations 1-6 made in Section also hold for digraphs. matrix of an undirected graph, with minor changes, is zero, the rank of the Since the sum (in the real field) of each column is less than n. In fact, we have the of a digraph of n vertices incidencematrix to Theorem 7-2, which can be proved following theorem, identical along
the
similar
lines.)
THEOREM9-6
If
of A(G) =
Deleting
A(
G)
is the - 1.)
incidence
matrix
of
a connected
digraph of
vertices,
the rank
anyone
row from
we
matrix.
The vertex
corresponding to
It was
get Af'
the
the (n
deleted
- I) bye
row
reduced
incidence
is called the
reference
vertex.
7 that if A is the incidence observed in Chapter submatrix of graph, the determinant of every square A is either 0 or 1.This was a result of the fact that the determinant was defined 2 arithmetic in modulo and, therefore, could have no other value. I n the case of digraphs, A is in the real field, and on the incidence matrix the of its square submatrices it would appear that determinants first sight in value. This, however, is not the case, as shown couldacquire integral any the following important theorem.)
Unimodularity
of A:
matrix
of
an undirected
THEOREM
9-7)
The
determinant
digraph,
Proof:
is 1,
The
-1, or o.
theorem
of every square
submatrix
of
A, the
incidence
matrix
of
a squaresubmatrix
or
row M
of A.
can be proved Consider a k by
directly
by
k submatrix
expanding M of A.
M
If
the determinant of M has any column

0 if every
consisting contains
of all the two
of
zeros, det M is clear1y zero. Also det nonzero entries, a 1 and a -1.)))
column
SEC.
9-8)
MATRICES A,
B, AND
C OF DIGRAPHS)
215)
V6)
V4)
c)
VI)
d)
Vs)
(a))
vI
t'2
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
-I
0 0
0
-I 0
0 -I
V:J
0 0
0 0
0 0
-I 0
V4
-I
0
-I
0
-I
-I
0
0 0
0)
Vs
V6
(b))
Fig.
9-16
Digraph and its incidence matrix.)
Now
column
a single
if det M * 0 (i.e., M is nonsingular), then the sum of entries in each IV! must of M cannot be zero. Therefore, have a column in which there i\037 nonzero element that is either + 1 or -1. Let this single element be in the
(i, j)th
position
in
M.
Thus)
---L 1 \302\267 M.. det M = I det Ii')
where
(k -
1)
Mij is by (k
it q)th
the submatrix - 1) submatrix

must
position.
of
M with
M ij is
its
ith
row
and jth
column deleted.
is nonsingular);
entry,
The
say
also nonsingular
with
(because M
a single
in
therefore, in the (p,
too
have at least one column det Mij about Expanding

M
nonzero
the
this element
(p, q)th
position,)
det
ij
(k
of a nonsingular :t:[determinant - 2) by (k - 2) submatrix
of
M].)))
216)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
Repeated
application
of this
procedure yields)
det M =
=:t
1.)
Hence
the theorem.
matrix called
in
.)
submatrix having a determinant (Unimodular matricesalso play
of I,
an
or0
tant
Any is
every square a unimodular matrix.

programming.))
with
- I,
impor-
role
linear
G be a digraph Circuit Matrix of a Digraph:Let with e edges and q An circuits (directedcircuitsor semicircuits). orientation (clockwise arbitrary or counterclockwise) is assigned to each of the q circuits. Then a circuit B = matrix defined as) [bij] of the digraph G is a q by e matrix
bij
I,
if ith circuit
== 0,
includes jth edge, and and circuit coincide,

if
the
orientations
of the
edge
I,
ith
circuit
i{lcludes does not

of the
jth edge,
but
the
orientations
of the
two are
if
opposite,
include the jth edge.)
digraph
in
ith
circuit
matrix
For example, a circuit
Fig.
9h
6 is
a
0
b
0
c
0
I I
d
1
e
0
f g
1 1 I
-I
o.
0
I
-I 0
-I
0
-I
0
0 0
0
0)
-I
Note
the four circuits is entirely clockwise orientation, in the second the third row counterclockwise, and the fourth counterclockwise, clockwise. Changing the orientation of any circuit will simply the sign change of every nonzero entry in the corresponding row. Also note that if we subtract the first row from the second, we get the third Thus the rows are not all row.
that
arbitrary.
The
the orientation circuit in the
assigned to each of
row
first
is assigned
linearly independent (in the real field, Observations 1-7 made in Section undirected graph are applicable to the
of course). 7-3 about

circuit
the circuit
matrix
of
an
matrix
of a digraph
also-with
rows (this
some obvious
minor
changes.
to in
circuit matrix are orthogonal the real field), as proved

THEOREM
Just as for undirected graphs, the the rows of the incidence matrix
9-8.)
of the time
in
Theorem
9-8)
A
Let B and
be,
loop-freedigraph
such
respectively, that the
the circuit columns in
matrix
and
incidence
matrix of a
using
self-
B and
A are arranged
the
same)))
SEC. 9-8)
MATRICES
A, B, AND C OF
DIGRAPHS)
217)
order of
edges. Then)
A.BT
= B.AT
0,)
where
superscript
T denotes
the
the
transposed
matrix.
in B and the kth row in A. If the circuit m does on vertex k, the product of the two rows is clearly zero. If, on the other hand, vertex k is in circuit m, there are exactly two edges on k that are also in circuit m. This situation can occur in (say x and y) incident four different ways, as shown in Fig. 9-17. (The other four with the cases only orientation of m reversed x and yare are identical to these when interchanged.) The possible in row k of A and x and row m of B in column entries positions tabulated for of four each these cases.) yare Proof:
include
Consider
any
mth
row
not
edge
incident
Case
Column
Rowk
x
Rowm
Column 1
y
Dot
y
Product
Column
Column
Row
k.Row
(a)
-I
(b)
(c)
1
-1
1
-1
-1
1
-1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
0
0
(d)
In
0)
each
case, the dot
product
is zero.
Therefore,
B) and
the theorem. Theorem 9-8, it
.)
can
UsingSylvester'stheorem
k)
(Appendix
be shown)
k)
(a))
(b))
k)
k)
(c))
(d))
Fig. 9-17
Vertex k
in
circuit
m.)))
218)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
that
in a
digraph
with
e edges)
rank
of B
rank
of
A =
e.)
Moreover, for a connected graph)

rank
of A
I,)
and therefore)
rank
of
B =
I.)
B hold for The A and two important properties of matrices following digraphs also, and can be proved as was done for undirectedgraphs in Chapter in ordinary real arithmetic and not in 7 (except that here we are working
modulo
2 arithmetic).)
1. The nonsingular
submatrices of
with
order
of
A are
in one-to-one
correspondence
vertices.
the
spanning
trees of the
connected digraph of n
J.l
2.
The
nonsingular
submatrices of B
with
of
order
(=
I) are
of
in
one-to-one
correspondence
the chord
of
set
(complement
the
spanning
tree) of the
Tree:
connected digraph
For
n vertices
and e
edges.) a value
Signof a Spanning
submatrix
of
a digraph the
sign
determinant of the
T can T.
nonsingular
+ 1 or
- 1.This
it
of A
corresponding to a spanning
is referred Chapter
tree of
assume either
analysis of a certain class of electrical of the spanning trees.Note that the a for of a tree is defined ordering of verticesand sign only spanning particular in or columns in a matrix A two rows (because interchanging changes edges tree is relative. Once the sign of its determinant). Thus the sign of a spanning the sign of one spanning tree is arbitrarily chosen, the sign of every other or with respect to this tree as is determined negative positive spanning
As we shall
see in
to as the 13, in the
networks
is necessary
to know the signs
spanning
tree.
the
We have Theorem 9-9 for determining Trees: trees in a connected digraph.(An identical in Problem undirected graphs was given 7-20.)) number
Number of Spanning of spanning
result
for
THEOREM9-9
Let Af
number
be
the
reduced
incidence
in
matrix
of
a connected
of)
digraph. Then
the
of spanning
trees
the
graph
det(Afe
equals the value

A\037).)))
SEC. 9-8)
MATRICES
A,
B, AND C OF
DIGRAPHS)
219)
Proof.
According
to
the
Binet-Cauchy
theorem
(Appendix
A))
det(Af. A\037) =
sum
majors
of the products of of A f and A\037.) unless

both
it
all corresponding
spanning tree,
have
Every
case
major of Af or its value is ] or
A\037
is zero
Since
corresponds
to a
tree.
in
which
+] or
- 1,
-1.
majors
of Af and
_)
A\037
the
same value
the
product
is +]
for each spanning
Circuit Matrix: The J.l fundamental respect to some specifiedspanning circuit matrix Bf for a digraph.The orientation fundamental circuits is chosen to coincide with Bf' a J.l by e matrix, can be expressedexactly in of an undirected graph in Section 7-4:)
Fundamental (with
chord
circuits
tree)
define assigned of the
each made by a a fundamental to each of the
that
chord. Therefore,
the
same form
as
in
the
case
Bf
where
I JJ
= [IJJ :
Bt]')
is the
in
identity
the edges
a spanning
matrix of order J.l, and the columns of tree. This is illustrated in Fig. 9-18.)
Bt
correspond
to
d)
d
0
g 0 0
f 0
0
-1
0 0
0
-1
0
-1
0
0
=
f
0
0
= II I #J.I Bf J
I
Fig.
9-18
Digraph and its
fundamental
circuit
matrix.)))
220)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
The
cut-set
submatrix
tree
matrix C of a digraph G is alsosimilarly C f , the fundamental cut-set matrix with respect
defined.
And
\"So spanning
is its
to a given
in
G.)
9-9.
ADJACENCY
MATRIX
matrix
OF A DIGRAPH)
used
Another
important
in
the
is the adjacency matrix defined digraphs n vertices, containing no parallel of the
as follows:
the
and study representation Let G be a digraph

adjacency
of with
digraph G is
edges.Then
I
matrix
==
[xij]
an
by n (0,
)-matrix
whose
ith
element)
vertex
x..==I , IJ)
==0 ,)
A
if there
is an
edge directed from
to jth
vertex,
otherwise.) adjacency
matrix names.
matrix
digraph
different
and its
are
shown
different
in Fig.
9-19.
and
it
The adjacency
has
transition
occurs
in many
disciplines,
therefore
the calculus of relations it is called the relation matrix. (Observe that the relation matrix defined in Section 9-3 is the same as the it is called matrix of the corresponding digraph.) In network flows adjacency the connection matrix. It is also known as the precedence matrix or preference in some I n scheduling and matrix sociological applications. critical-path is known as the predecessor matrix. analysis the adjacency matrix Let us make the following observations on the properties of the adjacency X of a digraph G.) matrix
In
the theory
of sequential machines
is called
matrix.
In the
I.
X is
a symmetric
matrix
if and
only if G is
main
symmetric
digraph.
2.
Every nonzero element on the the corresponding vertex.)

4
diagonal
represents
a self-loop at
')
5)
o)
o)
x= 3 4
5 5
0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
o)
o)))
Fig.
9-19
Digraph and its adjacency
matrix.)
SEC. 9-9)
ADJACENCY
MATRIX
OF A DIGRAPH)
221)
3.
There
is no
way
of
showing
4. The
and
adjacency sum of each row

matrix
is defined equals
parallel only for a
edges
in
X.
This
is why
the
digraph without
in-degree
parallel
edges.
the out-degree nonzero
the
sum
of each
number
column equals the

of
vertex. The edges in G.

5. Permutation
corresponding
entries
of the corresponding vertex, of the corresponding in X equals of the number

by a
vertices.
of
any
two
rows
accompanied
permutation of
The
the
columns
does
only
not alter the

the
graph.
permutation
merely
corresponds
to a
and
reordering of
if their
Thus
two digraphs
only
are isomorphic if
such permutations.
adjacency matrices differ

the
by
6. If X
is the
adjacency
matrix of
matrix
a digraph G, then
a digraph
transposed by
matrix
XT is the
adjacency
of
GR
obtained
reversing
the
direction of every 7. For any square (0,
edge
in G.
G of
The
n vertices,
I)-matrix Q of order n, there exists such that Q is the adjacency matrix
a unique
of G.)
digraph
of a
con-
adjacency
matrix is used
means
as a tool to
in
investigate
the
properties
digraph, specially by
nectedness
of
a digital
its
computer. For example, the

adjacency
of a digraph
is reflected
matrix
in the following
fashion.
and the Connectedness

only
Adjacency
Matrix:
A digraph is
a way
disconnected if and
X as
if its
can
be
ordered in such expressed as the direct sum of two

vertices
can be
that its adjacency matrix square submatrices X I and X 2
follows:)
x =
[\0371_
.)
(9-6))
:--\037J
Such
have
a partitioning
no edge Similarly,
is possible if and only if the vertices the vertex set in to or coming from going a digraph is weakly connected if and only
a way
in the
X 2. if its
submatrix
Xl
vertices
can be
the
ordered in
form
such
that
its
adjacency
matrix
X can
be expressed in
(9-7) or (9-8):)
X
==
-\037\037--!--\037J,
[ X 2I
X 2J
(9-7))
X =
[\037I--i-\037I:
(9-8))
1)
where Xl and X 2 are square submatrices. Form (9-7) representsthe there is no directed edgegoing from the subdigraph corresponding
case
when
I
to X
to the)))
222)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
one
corresponding
that
to
X 2 the
. Form
(9-8) represents
corresponding
a digraph
the case
when
there
is no
directed edge A digraph

connected.
going to
is
subdigraph
to Xl'
if
neither
Therefore,
unconnected we conclude that
and only if the vertices of G cannot be X is expressible in the form {9-6), (9-7),
Number Theorem
nor weakly connected is strongly G is strongly connected ordered such that its adjancency matrix
of 7-8,
Edge concerning
or (9-8). We have the following result, similar to Sequences: X of a digraph G.) the powers of the adjacencymatrix
THEOREM
9-10
The
(i,j)th
entry
the
of r edges from
Proof:
in Xr equals the number ith vertex to the jth.)
of different,
directed
edge
sequences
(By induction)
The theorem
the
is trivially
true for r
= 1. As
The
the
inductive
entry
hypothesis, Xr( = Xr-l
assume
\302\267 X))
that
theorem
holds
for
Xr-
1.
(i, j}th
in
k=l) n
\037
[(i, k)th
entry
of all
in
xr-l].
Xkj
\037 k=l
(number of length
directed edge sequences

vertex
(9-9))
- 1 from
k to
i to
k).
kh)
depending on whether sum (9-9) is nonzero if and only if there is a directed edge sequence r from i to j, whose last of length is from k to j. If the term is nonzero, its value equals the number of such edge edge sequences from i to j via k. This holds for every vertex k, 1 < k < n. Theredirected fore, (9-9)is equal to the number of all possible edge sequences from
induction
according to the or not there is a
hypothesis.
directed edgefrom
In (9-9), x kj = 1 j. Thus a term
or 0,
in
the
i to j.
As
.)
in
the
Xr
case of
the
entry
in
gives
number
Theorem 7-7, it must be kept in mind that of all directed edge sequences from
in
the vertex
(i,j)th i to
j.
These edge sequences fall
three
different
categories:)
which
1. Directed paths from i to j: Those directed edge sequences in vertex is traversed more than once.
2.
no
Directed
walks from i to j:
may
Thosedirected
once,
which
but
edge no
sequences edge
vertex
than
be
traversed
more than
in which a is traversed more
once.
3. Those
more
directed edge
than
sequencesin no easy way

this
an edge
may also
be traversed
once.)
of
from
there is Unfortunately, 2 and 3. This is why

directed
separating
these,
simple
method
cannot
a specified
say, category 1 be employed for

length.)))
enumerating
paths
or directed
circuits of
SEC. 9-9)
ADJACENCY
MATRIX
OF A DIGRAPH)
223)
For example, examine in Fig. 9-19:) digraph
the
fourth
power
of the
adjacency
matrix of
the
I 1
0
I 1
1 I
2 2
2 2
4 == X
O.
000
I I 2)
2 2
The
entry
in the
length third
sequencesof a walk). The

length
second row and third column c b gf(a directed walk four:

diagonal
four
gf
gf
(not
beginning a directed
of entry represents two directed edge sequences and ending at vertex 3: g e c b (a directed circuit) and the remaining circuit). The reader should also examine
two directed edge represents 2 to 3) and d d c b (not from
entries
in X4.
A method the number of spanning Number of Arborescences: of counting 7-23. There is a in a labeled, undirected graph was suggestedin Problem arborescences in a similar for counting the number of spanning formula arborescences of the spanning labeled, connected, simple digraph.(Counting of counting them in a simple, in any connected extension digraph is a trivial and addition connected right away, digraph. The self-loopscan be discarded the number of the b to an existing edge a simply of a parallel doubles edge
trees
with a arborescences-repeating the same arborescences In preparation for the arborescence formula, counting
simple digraph
K(
G of
n vertices, an
by
n matrix
by b.) let us define, for a called the Kirchhoff matrix

replaced
G)
or
==
==
[kij]:)
ku
d-( vJ,) -xu')
in-degree
(i, j)th
of the
in
ith
vertex,
k ij
==
entry
its
the
adjacency
matrix,
in
with a
Fig.
negative
to zero,
sign.)
For example, a digraph and The sum of the entries in

means
K matrix
each
column
are shown in a K matrix
9-20.
which
is equal
that
the n rows
are
linearly
dependent;
therefore,)
det
Next
== O.)
we explore
9-11)
the special
property of
the
K matrix
of an
arborescence.)
THEOREM
A simple
digraph G of
and only
if
vertices
rooted
at
VI if
the
n - 1 directed is an arborescence edges (I, 1) cofactor of K(G) is equal to 1.)

and
with 'l.'n
Proof: (a) Let G be an arborescence Relabel the vertices as VI, 'V2, . . . ,
n vertices
such
that
and rooted at vertex VI. vertices along every directed)))
224)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
path
K(
from
G) to
the root conform with

in
v 1
have this
increasing relabeling.
v 1
indices. Permute
zero,
the
rows
and
columns
only
of
Other
Since the entries
in-degree of
K( G) are)
equals
the first column contains i >
zeros.
k ij =
0,
j,
= -x.. k.. IJ IJ')

= k.. II
Then
1 ,)
i < .,
J
i >
1.
at
the
matrix
of an
arborescence rooted
0 0
VI is
of the
form)
-X12
1
-X13
-X23
1 0)
-X14
-X24
-X34
-x
In
-X2n
-X3n
K(G) =
0 0
0 0
o)
o)
o)
o)
1)
Clearly,
let
= 1. the cofactor of the (1, 1) entry is 1; that is, det K 11 and and n - 1 edges, (b) Conversely, let G be a simple digraph of n vertices the (I, 1) cofactor of its K matrix be equal to 1; that is, det K 11 = 1. Since det K 11 \"* 0, every column in K 11 has at least one nonzero entry.
Therefore,)
d-(v;) There
> I,)
to go
=
for i =
2, 3,
. . . , n.)
are only n
edges
around. Therefore,)
1,)
d-(Vi)
for;
= 2,
3, . . . , n,)
and)
d-(Vl)
Now
= o.)
G has
since
no vertex
it
in
circuit
at all,
has
to be a through
an in-degree of more than directed circuit. Suppose that
one, such
if G
a directed
can have any circuit
exists, which ;J, ;2, . . . , ir
vertices Vii' Viz, . . . , Vir. Then the sum of the columns zero. (This is because each of these columns contains exactly for the incoming a 1 on the main diagonal, and a -) two nonzero entries, edge in K 11 from the vertex preceding it in the directed circuit.) Thus these r columns are linearly dependent. Hence det K 11 = 0, a contradiction. Therefore, G has no
passes in K 11 is
n
circuits. If G has
edges
and
no circuits,
it
must
be a tree.
Since
in
this
tree)
d-(Vl)
and)
0,)
d-(v,.} G must
= I,)
for; =
2, 3,
. . . , n,)
be
an
arborescence
rooted
at vertex
VI.)))
SEC. 9-9)
ADJACENCY
MATRIX
OF A DIGRAPH)
225)
The
Vq .
arguments
in (a)
and
(b) vertices
are valid in G
Any
reordering
of
the
rows and columns in the determinant. .)
K(G).
Such
for an arborescence corresponds to identical do not alter permutations
rooted the
at
any
vertex
permutations
of
sign
value or
of
Next we come to
Bott and J.
THEOREM
an
important and
result,
P. Mayberry
was
proved
which was first by W. T. Tutte.)
discovered
by
R.
9-12
digraph
the
Let K(G) be the Kirchhoff matrix of a simple of K(G) is equal to the number (q, q) cofactor
V q .)
G.
Then
the value
in
of
of arborescences
G rooted
at the vertex
of Theorem 9-11 and on the fact that The proof depends on the result Proof: the determinant of a squarematrix is a linear function of its columns. Specifically, if P is a square matrix of n column vectors, each of dimension n, that is,) consisting
P
[p h
P2, . . . , (Pi
+ pD,
. . . ,
Pn])
then)
det P =
det[pbp2,'..
+
,Pi'...
,Pn]
det[php2,...
,p\037,... ,Pn].)
(9-10))
can be
of K(G) that vertex Vj has in-degree of d j . Thejth column of d j different columns, each corresponding to a graph in which v j has in-degree one. And then (9-10) can be repeatedly applied.After of columns can be carried out for each j, j * q, and det Kqq(G) can this, splitting of subgraphs; be expressed as a sum of determinants that is,)
In
graph
G suppose
regarded as the
sum
det
where
Kqq(
G)
\037 g)
det
Kqq(g),
(9-11))
g is a
subgraph
of
in
G, with
the
following
properties: one,
1. Every 2. g has
vertex
n
g has
an in-degree
of exactly
1 edges.
except
vq .
1 vertices,
and hence n
From Theorem 9-11,)

det
Kqq(g)
= 1,
if and
otherwise.)
only
if
g is
an arborescence
rooted at q, of arbo-
=0
Thus
rescences
,)
the
summation
rooted
in Vq .
(9-11)
carried
over
all
g's
equals
the number
at
.)
in
Theorem 9-12 is illustrated in Fig. 9-20. The cofactor of every entry second row of the K matrix is 3. The digraph does indeed have arborescences rooted at vertex 2. For an Euler digraph G, all cofactors of K(G) are equal, because the of each row and the sum of each column zero. Let this common equals
the
three
sum
value)))
226)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
0
b
-1
0
0 -1
h K( G) =
-1
3
2
0
0
-1
-1
2
-1
-1
2
a
G)
d)
3)
3)
d)
3)
b)
b)
g)
b)
h)
2)
f)
4)
2)
f)
4)
2)
4)
Fig. of
9-20
Digraph G, its
matrix, u
and all
arborescences rooted
different
at 2.)
all cofactors
of K(G) be u. This
rooted
at any given
vertex in
G. The
is the nUlnber of number of different is given
arborescences
Euler
lines
associated
with
Theorem
each of
these distinct
obtained.)
arborescences
by Eq.
(9-5). Therefore,
9- J 3 is
THEOREM9-]3)
In
an
Euler
digraph
the
number
of
n
Euler
lines
is)
U . II
i = 1)
[d-(v,.}
- I]!.
number
From
connected
Euler
theorem we can compute the balanced digraph. As an example, lines in Fig. 9-10. Its K matrix is)
this
]
of
Euler
lines
in
any
let us compute the
number
of
-1
2 -1
0 -I
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 -]
2
0
-]
0
0
0 -] -]
-]
0
0
0 -]
0
2 -1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 -1
0
0
2 -1
0
2)))
-1 -1
SEC. 9-10)
PAIRED
COMPARISONS
AND TOURNAMENTS)
227)
Hamilas they do in the directed (In this matrix, vertices appear in the order tonian path e2 e 3 e 4 ell e l2 e l4 e IS .) The cofactor of any term in this matrix is 16, and therefore a == 16 in Theorem 9-13. Since d-(vJ == 2 for each Vi in Fig. 9-10,)
8
II =
i
1)
[d-(vJ
- I]! == lines in
of
1.
Therefore,
the
number
of Euler
Euler the
However, for a regular often easier to compute

(Problem
digraph, number
9-10 is 16. Fig. such as the one
in
Fig. other
9-10,
it is
Euler
lines
by
methods
9-18).)
9-10.
PAIRED
COMPARISONS
AND
TOURNAMENTS)
In many experiments, specially in the social sciences, one is required to a number of given objects by comparing only two at a time.This is called where a numerical the method of paired comparisons, and is used in situations measurement is difficult, for individual example, preference for pieces of The items are presented two at a time and he is asked to to a subject music.
rank state
his
preference.
After
having noted the

n
results of
all
possible
n
n(n
1 )/2
paired
comparisons
of the
a natural
objects,
the
experimenter
ranks the
objects
in
order
A
of preference.
digraph
comparison
the results of a pairedclassic experiment of Kendall [9-5] are shown in Fig. 9-21. Six different dog foods {I, 2, . . . , 6} were to be ranked. Each day two of the six delicacies were served to a dog, and the dog estabthe other according to which he lished preference for one food over plate for 15 days, so that all possible finished first. The experimentwas conducted an edge is drawn the from representation, pairs could be tried. In the graph to 2 in Fig. preferred dish to the less preferred. For example, 1 was preferred 9-21. Such a graph is called a preference graph. a rank from a given is, in general, not easy. Establishing preference graph In Fig. 9-21, due to some canine inconsistency, the for example, dog preferred of the three is the best?) food lover 2, 2 over 4, and then 4 over I. So which
is
way
of
representing
experiment.
The
results
of a
2)
6)
3)
5)
4)
Results Fig. 9-21 son experimen t.)))
of a
paired-compari-
228)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
On
Tournaments:
A similar situation
is encountered
which
a
in
tournaments.
The
results
every
from
of a
other
vertex
in round-robin tournament may also be represented by
every player has played against in which an edge directed digraph
a to
complete
tournament
result of a
tournament
Ranking
b represents the victory of player a over player b. This is why a complete or asymmetric digraph was called a tournament in Section 9-2. The digraph in Fig. 9-2 I can also be viewed as the The of ranking players in a six-player tournament. problem in a paired-comparison experiment. is identical to that of ranking
Score:
by
has been
player
traditionally
by his
score.
score
A straightforward method of ranking, used in round-robin tournaments, The scoreis the number of games the
and
the one
rank
that
each
is to
terms of the its score.The

corresponding
dog
food,
vertex
the number player

in
of times
the
particular
of a
a tournament
equals
player has won. In preferred is the out-degree of the

dish was
in the
digraph.
Thus if
we
use the
scores for ranking, we would rank the six dog

(1,
foods as)
3),
(2, 5,
6), and
4.)
I and 3 are tied for the first rank; there is a three-waytie for the and food 4 is the least preferred. rank; the vertices is not always a according to their out-degrees Ranking In it the is easiest. this method loses satisfactory method, although particular, if is the tournament the not do comsignificance incomplete(that is, players pete in the same number of games). Path: Another method sometimesusedis to rank Ranking by Hamiltonian in a directed Hamiltonian path, the players such that each player has defeated I 3 2 5 6 4. In this his successor. One in 9-21 such is let ranking context, Fig. us prove the following result regarding Hamiltonian paths in a tournament.)
That
is, foods
second
THEOREM 9-14)
Every
complete
tournament
has a directed
Hamiltonian
path.)
Proof:
By
actual
sketching,
The theorem will be proved the theorem can
by induction
on
hold
the
number
of vertices.
tourna-
be shown
us
to
for all
complete
ments
of
1, 2, 3, and
4 vertices.Let
make
the inductive
assumption
that
the
and then prove that theorem is true for all complete tournaments of n vertices, it of n + 1 vertices. also holds for all tournaments of n + 1 vertices. Let g be an n-vertex Let G be any tournament complete of G. By inductive subtournament complete g has a directed Hamilassumption, tonian path. Let that path be VI V2 . . . V n . Let the vertex present in G but not in g be called v n + l' of n + 1 vertices, the Since G is a complete tournament vertex V n + 1 in G has of the other vertices Vb V2, . . . , V n . The a directed edge either to or from each
following
Case
1:
three cases are possible. The edge between v n + 1 and
V1
is directed
toward
l'
Then
we
have)))
SEC. 9-10)
PAIRED
COMPARISONS
AND TOURNAMENTS)
229)
Vn + I)
Vn + I) Vn)
VI)
Vn)
VI)
(a)
(b)
I
Case
Case
vn +
vI
Vn)
Vi- 1) (c)
Case
Fig.9-22
3)
Three
Vn
cases of Theorem9-14.) and the

Vn
Hamiltonian
path
t'n+ 1 VI V2 . . .
in G,
Case tonian Case to

Vn .
2: There
is
an
edg\037
directed
from
to
Vn +
case, as we move from V 1 to V m we encounter a reversal of direction in the edges incident on V n + 1. This reversal must occur because edge (V 1, V n + 1) is directed toward V n + h but edge (vn , V n + 1) is directed away from v n + 1. Call the vertex at which the first such reversal occurs Vi (Vi may be V n itself). Then edge v n + l' See Fig. 9-22(c). In this case we have a be directed toward (Vi- h V n + 1) must directed Hamiltonian the path VI V2 . . . Vi-l V n + 1 Vi Vi+ 1 . . . V n in G. Therefore,
In this
is VI V2 . . . V n V n + 1, and the path in G, which 3: Instead, both these edgesare directed
proof is complete[Fig.9-22(a)]. l' Then also we have a Hamilproof is complete [Fig.9-22(b)].

from
V1
to
Vn + 1
and
from
vn +
theorem. .)
Coming
back if the
to
the original
know
ranking
that
is
digraph is always possible.

this
problem of a complete tournament,
ranking
the at
vertices,
least
we now one Hamiltonian
also suffers from some drawbacks. For between such a ranking and the scores of the have more than one directed Hamiltonian may players. Second,a tournament and therefore several different are possible. In Fig. 9-21, for path, rankings 1 3 2 5 6 4 and 1 3 5 6 2 4 are two different Hamiltonian instance, rankings. However,
method
of ranking
one,there
may
be discrepancies
Ranking
any
with
tournament
Vi
directed from
Violations: For a given ranking of the n vertices in or incomplete), a violation is defined as an edge (complete to v j if v j precedes Vi in the ranking. For example, in Fig.)))
Minimum
230)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
9-21
the
order
13
6 to
order 3 1 to 5, and 1 to 6.
2. The
Ranking
2 564 has the 2 5 6 4 1 has

minimum
given
following
five
two
violations,
violations-edges 1 to 3, 1 edges
4 to 1 and to 2, 6 to 2,
fewest
with
the
number of
violations represents the

be shown
that
possible
upsets
for a
tournament.
It can
a ranking
with
violations automatically includes the ranking to scores, according as well as a Hamiltonian is ranking. Moreover, a minimum-violation ranking Thus this may be considered also meaningful for incomplete tournaments. the best method of ranking. to find one with of n vertices, out of all n! possibleorders However, A method minimum violations is computationally difficult. using dynamic programming has been used and is the best available so far, but it is comminimum
putationally
slow
and
cumbersome.
all n! rankings represents a among all removal from the digraph will eliminate the digraph acycJic. Acyclic digraphs are is, make section.)
A minimum number
of
violations
smallest set
directed
in discussed
of
edges
that
whose
circuits,
the
next
9-11.
In
ACYCLICDIGRAPHS
many situations
with
AND
DECYCLIZATION)
and one is consemicircuits are of no significance, a has a directed circuit. A not or cerned only given digraph us make the is called Let directed circuit folthat has no acyclic. digraph about acyclicdigraphs: lowing observations
whether
I.
2.
edges) is an acyclic digraph, but the in Fig. 9-4 is acyclic, but is not true. For example, digraph
Every
tree
(with
directed
converse
it is
the
not a
tree.
be condensed. That is, the condensation Gc The is G G itself. converse also because if is of an acyclic digraph true, Gc = G, obviously G has no directed circuit. 3. An acyclic digraph represents an irreflexive, asymmetric relation. But of an irreflexive, asymmetric relation is not the necessarily digraph
An
acyclic
digraph
cannot
acyclic.
(Why?)
if and
4. A digraph
G is acyclic directed path.

4 has in
ith
only if every
directed
walk
in
G is
also a
5. Observation
(i,j)th entry k from the
THEOREM
a significant
Xk gives the vertex to the
implication: If a digraph number of distinct directed vertex.) jth

one vertex
is acyclic,
paths
the of length
9-15
Every
acyclic digraph G has

with
at
least
with
zero
in-degree
and at least
one vertex
zero
out-degree.)))
SEC. 9-11)
ACYCLIC
DIGRAPHS
AND DECYCLIZATION)
231)
whose directed length cannot Proof: Consider any maximal path (i.e., a path be increased by an edge at either end) P in G. Let v be the vertex where P starts w be the vertex where it ends. and Since G is acyclic, v and w must be distinct. Now the vertices in G can be divided into two classes: The set VI of vertices that are on P, and the set V2 of the remaining vertices. into vertex in VI' Otherwise, G vertex v from any There is no edge incident would a directed circuit. Also, there can be no edgeincident into v from any have in V2 ; otherwise, of P could have vertex the length been increased by adding this = O. Similarly, vertex w has no edge incident of 'I), d-(v) edge. Thus the in-degree = out of it; that is, d+(w) O. .) 9-16
THEOREM
A digraph G is acyclic if and only if its vertices can be matrix.) adjacency matrix X is an upper (or lower) triangular Proo.f: (a) Let
orderedsuch
that
the
us assume that
X is
upper triangular;
for
that
is,)
= x.. IJ) It can

X3,
0
that
i > j.)
is also
be,seenby
direct
multiplication
X.
X2
X4, . . . , all
powers of
Since
every
diagonal
upper triangular, and so are entry in all powers of X is zero,
G has no
directed circuit. That is, G is acyclic.
Next remove V2 from G - VI. By continuing vertex in the reordering. this process all the vertices are reorderedt as Vb V2, . . . . X of G with the vertices appearing in this Now consider the adjacency matrix order. The first column (corresponding to VI) has all zeros. The second column - V I, and therefore contains all zeros. below the first row represents vertex V2 in G And so forth. is upper triangular. This matrix Thus the adjacency proves part (b) of the
this second
theorem.
that G is acyclic and then the second assume part of the theorem, the vertices of G, as follows: to Theorem 9-15, there is at least According of the vertices let this one vertex in G whose in-degree is zero. In the reordering on VI from G. The be the first vertex VI. Now, remove VI and edges incident G - VI must also be acyclic, because G was acyclic. remaining digraph Therefore, in G - VI is zero. Let V2 be G - VI has also at least one vertex, whose in-degree
(b) For
reorder
The
lower triangular
portion
reordering
of
the
vertices
with
of the theorem can also be zero out-degrees, or by considering
proved
either
by
XT and
GR.
.)
useful
X of a digraph G, the following result is quite Given the adjacency matrix in finding out whether or not G is acyclic.)
THEOREM
9-1 7 only if det(1 size as X.)
the identity
tThis
Digraph G is acyclic if and matrix of the same

is called
X)
is not
equal to
zero, where
is
a topological
also.))) sorting. SeeSection14-8
232)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
Proof.
Det(l
X)
if
and
only
I
if the X2 +
inverse (I
...
- X)-l exists.But)
+
(I
- X)-l
X +
Xn
....)
(9-13)t)
cycle of any
This inverse (I - X)-l exists if and only if the infini te series (9-13) converges; that is, Xk = 0 for all k > someN (because X contains only nonnegative entries). However,Xk = 0 for all k > N if and only if G contains no directed edge N or larger. And this is possible if and only if G contains no of length sequence
length.
.)
in many Acyclic digraphs are of enormous importance It inconsiswas out that directed circuits applications. pointed represent tencies in ranking by paired comparisons. Directed circuits may represent undesirable feedback paths in an electrical network. In the project graph of a CPM (critical PERT or path method) (program evaluation and review a directed circuit a technique) represents seriouserror, and must be eliminated. This is becausea directed circuit, a must say abca, implies that activity be completed before activity and c and b a. before before this b, c, Obviously, is an impossible situation and nothing will A in done. similar situation get Decyclization:
computer
programming
often
arises and is
justifiably
known
as the
deadly
encounter or the deadly embrace (Problem 9-26). In deductive logic (where vertices axioms or statements and represent directed edgesrepresent the theorems from or derivation of one statement a a directed circuit circular and hence others), reasoning implies fallacy. Thus it is important with a to know how to break these vicious cycles minimum of effort.In other find a smallest set of directededges whose words, will render the given digraph G acyclic. removal for Consider, example, Fig. 9-2(a). The digraph contains severaldirected circuits:e1 e 2 e 3, e 4 e 6 e 3 , and e 4 e S e 2 e 3. In this simple case, one can tell by that the removal of edgee3 will eliminate all directed circuits. This inspection is the smallest set of edges whose removal makes the remaining digraph whose removal acyclic. Such a smallest set of edges destroys all directed circuit in a digraph G is known as a minimum-feedback arc set in electrical a digraph engineering. I n general, may possess several minimum-feedback arc sets. Obtaining one such smallest set of edges may be called minimal decyclization of a digraph. Minimal of an arbitrary directed graph is at best a tedious decyclization affair. No sinlple method l1as been found so far. One method proposed in the literature (in 1969) uses Theorem as follows: Make the adjacency matrix 9-16, X upper as much as possibleby interchanging rows (and corretriangular below (and on) the principal diagonal) sponding columns). The l's remaining
tThis
(I
identity
can be seen
by
premultiplying
both
sides of
(9-13)with
the
matrix
X).)))
CHAP.
9)
SUMMARY)
233)
represent
I.
a minimum-feedback
all directed
9-11,
arc set. Another

in
method
can
be)
Obtain
Problem
circuits
the
given
digraph
G (using the result

its
of
say).
as
of
2. Express
3. Take
in
each directed circuit
a Boolean directed
sum of
circuit
edges.
the Boolean
2. (The
product
all
expressions
obtained
as
step
a.a
= a,
of
a+
whose arc
absorption laws of a == a, and a + ab
Boolean algebra are applied,such = a.)
4.
Each of
that
resulting terms in the sum of the products represents a set circuits. Pick a term all directed removal will destroy edges this is a minimumof edges; consists of the smallest number
the set.)
feedback
the
To illustrate the procedure, circuits are) directed
let us consider the
digraph
in Fig.
9-2(a).
All
e l e 2 e 3,
Expressing
e 3e 4 e 6 ,
and
e 2 e 3 e 4 e S .)
multiplying
these
as a
product of Boolean sums and e6 )(e

e3 +
out
and
simplifying,
(e l +
we
get)
e2 +
e 3 )(e
3 +
e4 +
2 +
e4
e s)
+
= el e 4
Clearly,
would
e l e 6 e S + e 2e 4 + e 2e 6 + e 3.)
break
number
of these terms represents the set of edges whose removal the smaIIest directed circuits in Fig. 9-2(a). The set with are Both these methods of edges, [e3 }, is the answer we were seeking.
anyone all
impractical
for large
digraphs.)
SUMMARY)
Most
of the
in
important and
this
fundamental
features there
investigated
graphs, from
digraphs:one in
such as
their
We saw that chapter. their which properties

thickness,
are
of directed graphs were two different aspects of

of
planarity,
spanning
are similar to those trees, fundamental
undirected
circuits, and
cut-sets; in
decyclization,
those of
different second aspect, digraphs have properties altogether undirected graphs, such as strong connectedness, arborescence, and
so on.
binary
The close relationshipbetween
relations
and digraphs was
explored.
such
Applicationsof
as in sequence
digraphs
ar.e virtually
in
unlimited.
Some
and
important
ones,
generation
in
telecommunications
paired
comparisons,
were dealt with
detail.
Others
were simply
mentioned.)))
234)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
Undoubtedly,
of digraphs For the rest
a great deal more remainsto besaid.Additional properties are presented in the form of problems at the end of this chapter. the reader must the tools on his own, using and results explore
the
presented
in
chapter.)
REFERENCES) and Cartwright [9-3] Norman, for those with little mathematical not covered in background. This book is recomn1ended reading for many of the topics this chapter. was written by Moon [9-7] Specializing even further, a 100-page monograph definion tournaments (complete asymmetric digraphs) alone.This is a compactly written tive book and is highly for those wishing to know all about complete, recommended in operations research, KaufFor applications of directed asymmetric digraphs. graphs mann's book [9-4] is a good source. In particular, Chapter 4 contains an excellent presentation of the prop\037rties of digraphs. (Be prepared for slightly different terminology.) For
has
by
An entire
400-pagebook
been written
Harary,
on
the theory
of digraphs. It is a
textbook written
specially
methods
Chapters 13-17 of Berge [I - I], intermediate-level reading; Chapters 8- 10 of Ore [I-9];and 16 of Harary [1-5] as a more advanced level of reading on digraphs. Chapter The classic works of Good, Kendall, and deBruijn, and Tutte van Aardenne-Ehrenfest have already been referred to. Chen and Wing [9-1] give some properties and interesting of a digraph was the subject of the of acyclic digraphs. Minimal decyclization applications thesis by Lempel [9-6]. doctoral 9-1. CHEN, Y. C., and O. WING, \"Some Properties of Cycle-Free Directed Graphs and the Identification of the Longest Ins!., Vol. 281, No.4, April Path,\" J. Franklin 1966,
293-301. 9-2.
of paired comparison, Kendall's Other books recommended are Chapters
book [9-5]is
5-7
recommended.
in Ore
[1-10]as very
introductory
reading;
GOOD, I.
HARARY, tion
9-3.
9-4.
1946, 167-172.
G., \"Normal
Recurring
Decimals,\"
J. London Math.
Structural
Soc.,
Vol. 21 (part 3),
and D. CARTWRIGHT, F., R. Z. NORMAN, to the Theory of Directed Graphs, John Wiley A.,
New
Models:
An IntroducYork,
& Sons,
Inc., New
1965.
KAUFMANN,
Inc.,
Paris.)
Graphs, Dynamic Programming and Finite 1967. (Originally published in French York,
Games,
Academic
Press,
Editeur,
in 1964,
Dunod
9-5.
KENDALL,
1948;
9-6.
9-7.
9-8.
LEMPEL,
Charles M. G., Rank Correlation Methods, Griffin and Co., 3rd ed., Hafner Publishing Inc., New York, 1962. Company, Feedback Arc and Vertex Sets of a Directed Graph,\" A., \"Minimum
London,
IEEE
Trans.
MOON,
Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-I3, No.4, Dec. 1966,399-403. and Winston, Inc., J. W., Topics on Tournaments,Holt, Rinehart
W. T.,
New
York,
1968.
TUTTE,
9-9.
\"The Dissection of Equilateral into Equilateral Triangles,\" Triangles Phil. Soc., Vol. 44, 1948,463-482. VAN AARDENNE-EHRENFEST, \"Circuits and Trees in Oriented T., and N. G. DEBRUIJN, Graphs,\" Simon Stevin, Vol. 28, 195 I, 203-2 17.)
Proc. Cambridge
PROBLEMS)
9-1.
Prove
that
in any
sum of their
out-degrees;
of all vertices is digraph the sum of the in-degrees and this sum is equal to the number of edges in
to the equal the digraph.)))
CHAP.
9)
PROBLEMS)
235)
9-2.
9-3.
9-4.
9-5.
9-6.
9-7. 9-8.
with 1, 2, and 3 vertices. orientations of a complete graph of four vertices. Characterize each of the resulting relations. digraphs in terms of binary An irreflexive, transitive relation on a set is called a strict partial order. asymmetric, Give two examples of strict partial orders. Show that the digraph of a strict partial order is acyclic. Is the converse also true? The combinations of reflexivity, and transitivity define eight (23 = 8) symmetry, and partial relations. Two such relations are equivalence order. types of binary List the other six and sketch a digraph for each. and study the directed Hamiltonian Define and semi-Hamiltonian circuit circuit
Sketch
Sketch
all
different
(nonisomorphic)
simple digraphs
all
distinct
(nonisomorphic)
in
a digraph.
that
Prove
cut-set.
every
edge in a digraph
digraph,
b\037longs
either
to a directed circuit
or a
directed
For an n-vertex
R
define
an n by n accessibility is a directed path
(or
one
reachability)
matrix
[rij] as
follows:)
rij
1,)
if there
of length
or more from i
= 0,) Devise
that not otherwise.)
to j,
of obtaining R from the powers of the adjacency matrix X. (Note this reachability matrix is slightly from that in [9-3], because we do different include paths of Zero length; i.e., ra is not necessarily one.) a.method
possible
9-9. Is 9-10.
it
matrix
Show
for two R? Explain.
nonisomorphic
digraphs
to
have
the same
reachability
that if R is the reachability matrix of a digraph G, the value of the ith entry in the principal diagonal of R2 gives the number of vertices included in the strongly the ith vertex. connected fragment containing that the following procedure applied to the adjacency matrix X = [Xij] of a digraph G will yield the reachability matrix R of G. Step I: Let Xli, Xl j, . . . , Xl m be the nonzero elements in the first row. Add the element ith, jth, . . . , mth rows to the first row. Replace each nonzero by a 1 (Boolean sum). that there are k additional nonzero elements p\037 Step 2: Suppose q, . . . , r generated in the first row as a result of step 1. Add the pth, qth, . . . , rth rows to the first row, and replace each nonZero element by a 1. l's can be added to the first row by this Step 3: Repeat step 2 until no additional
Show
9-11.
process.
Step
4:
Repeat
by)
9-12.
Prove that
defined
an n-vertex
the process on every row of X. digraph is strongly connected

M = X
if
and
only if the matrix
M,
X2
+ X3 +
... +
Xn,
has
no zero
9-13.
Prove Also
9-14. List 9-15. The Euler

for r =
adjacency matrix. that every Euler digraph (without isolated vertices) is strongly connected. show, by constructing a counterexample, that the converse is not true. all 16 distinct directed Euler lines in Fig. 9-10.
entry.
X is the
the teleprinter diagram or the Good diagram Sketch and label GD(3) and GD(5). Find one in each. [Hint: GD(r) circuit directed Euler line and one directed Hamiltonian has 2 r 1 vertices and 2 r edges. A vertex in GD(r + 1) corresponds to an edge
digraph
in Fig.
9-10 is
called
[abbreviated
as GD(4)].
in
GD(r).])))
236)
DIRECTED
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
9)
9-16.
An edge digraph
1. There
or a
line
digraph
Vi
L(G) of a digraph G is defined

in L(G) for
as
follows:
is exactly
one vertex
2. Whenever edges ei and into a vertex V and e j from the corresponding
every edge ei in G. e j (for a self-loop ej = e;) are such that ei is incident is incident out of the same vertex v, an edge is drawn
Vi
to V j in
L(G).
G, show
that
Show that
GD(r is the the
+ 1) is a line
9-17. If
EIGI 2n 1.E
is the
IG I
9-18. Prove that
number of Euler number of Euler lines in L(G). number of directed Euler lines in
- 1r) 2 2T
digraph of GD(r). lines in an n-vertex Euler

GD(r)
is)
digraph
(Hint:
Use the
results of
Problem
9-16
or use
Theorem 9-13.)
9-19. A
and rotates in discrete steps of 8 degrees, you are to determine its precise 0 position as follows. Divide the surface of the drum into k = 360 /8 sectors, and r conMount paint each sector black or white (or conducting or nonconducting). secutive reading heads-each capable of detecting the color of the sector. one such arrangement of Given some 8, express k and r in terms of 8. Sketch colors on the drum for k = 16.
drum
9-20. What
out of three symbols (letters) x, y, longest circular sequenceformed is repeated. Give one no subsequence (words) of four symbols such [Hint: Form a regular Euler digraph with d-(Vi) = d+(v;) = 3, in sequence. the manner of Fig. 9-10.] 9-21. Prove that any acyclic digraph G is an arborescence if and only if there is a vertex V in G such that every vertex is accessible from v. 9-22. Prove that for every n > 3 there exists at least one acyclic complete tournament of n vertices. (Hint: Use induction.) matrix of a digraph G, and let the vertices in G be 9-23. Let R(G) be the reachability ordered such that the sums of the rows in R(G) are nonincreasing; that is,) is the
such
and z
that
j=l
Show
if
n \037 \037
r\"> IJ -
n \037 \037 j=l) vertices
r k J' in
for every
i <
k.)
R(G)
with this ordering is an upper triangular
of
R(G) that digraph G is
acyclic
if and
only
matrix.
9-24.
9-25.
Prove that a digraph G is acyclic if and only if every element on the principal R(G) is zero. (or accessibility) matrix diagonal of its reachability Prove that an acyclic digraph G of n vertices has a unique directed Hamiltonian in R(G) is n(n - 1)/2. elements if the number of nonzero path if and only
are
9-26. There
15 computer
programs that
must
be processed
according to
the following
set of orders:)
1 > 2, 7,
13,
2 > 3, 8, 14,
3
>
9, 15,
4> 3, 5 > 4, 11,

6
>
5, 12,
6,)))
7>
CHAP.
9)
PROBLEMS)
237)
8 >
7, 9, 14,
9 > 15,
10> 4,9,
11> 10,
12>11,
13
>
7, 12,
14 >
where
13,15,
processed
1 > 2, 7, 13 means that after 2, 7, and 13 can be programs only 1 has been processed. Is it possible for the programs to be processed? program If so, give a processing sequence. [Hint: Write X(G); derive R(G) from X(G) using 9-23 to check if G is acyclic.] Problem Problem
9-11.Use
9-27.
A digraph defined on
the
relation
\"is
a parent
of\"
is called the
(Genetic digraphs digraphs.
are
useful
in biology.)
Investigate
properties
a genetic digraph. of genetic
9-28. Use digraphs

missionaries
solve the classical problem of \"three cannibals and three edible to cross a river in a boat that can hold at most two people, and all the missionaries and one of the cannibals can row the boat. Also, at no time should the cannibals outnumber the missionaries on either shore.\" (Hint: by a directed edge.)))) Represent each state by a vertex and a possible transition
to seeking
10)
ENUMERATION
OF GRAPHS)
Arthur
Cayley graph
(1857), theory
interested in
different hydrocarbon
one of the founding for the purpose
fathers
of graph
trees.
of counting
The
theory, became number of
trees
with
paper, a great tion) of different

some
vertices gave him the number of isomers of the saturated atoms, that is, C n H 2n + 2 . Since Cayley's classic deal of work has been done on counting (also called enumeraof graphs, and the results have been applied in solving types
of n n carbon
practical
problems.
been in earlier introduced Some enumeration problemshave already 2 the number of edge-disjointHamiltonian chapters. For example,in Chapter was discussed. in the complete graph of n vertices Enumeration of circuits trees in Section 3-6; finding all spanning trees in Section 3-9; the number of of vertices of length r between a specified different pair edge sequences the number of different 7-24; (Theorem 7-8); Problems 7-20, 7-23, and at a given vertex in Chapter rooted arborescences 9; and the number of directed Euler different lines in a digraph, also in Chapter 9, were all probIn this chapter a more unified to enumerlems of counting approach graphs. ating graphs will be taken. Certain enumerative techniques will be developed A thorough and used for counting certain types of graphs. exposition of is the most powerful tool in graph enumeration, theorem, P6lya's counting the central feature of this chapter.)
10-1.
All
TYPES
OF ENUMERATION)
problems number
graph-enumeration the
fall into two
categories:)
a particular)
I.
Counting
of different
238)))
graphs (or digraphs) of
SEC. 10-1)
TYPES
OF ENUMERATION)
239)
for example, all connected, two circuits.

kind,
simplegraphs with
of a particular
type
eight
vertices
and
2.
Counting
the
number
number
in
G, such
vertices
The
as the
type of
of subgraphs
of
G.)
in a
length
given graph
k
edge-disjoint
paths of
between
a and b
second
graph G and
encountered
problem usually
of this
involves
a matrix varied
representation
often
of as
this
manipulations
matrix.
not
those
chapter.
in
the
in practical applications, are first category. We shall not
Such problems, although

as
and
interesting
in
consider such
is of
utmost
problems
importance
In problems must be clearly
of type
distinct
the
word
the
\"different\"
graphs
and
understood. If
from
are
labeled
(i.e., each vertex is
graphs are counted.On the other case of unlabeled the word \"different\" means nonhand, graphs and set of each is as one. counted isomorphic, isomorphic graphs As an example, let us consider the problem of constructing all simple - 1 with n vertices and e There are unordered gra,phs edges. n(n pairs of )/2 vertices. If we regard the vertices as distinguishable from one another (i.e.,
assigneda name
in the
all others), all
labeled
graphs),
there are)
1\302\273
( 1 0-1 ))
c(n:
ways
))
of selecting
e edges
to form
the
number
Many
of simple
of these
for
labeled graphs with
Thus expression graph. n vertices and e edges.

is,
(10- I) gives
the
except
the
labels
graphs, however, are isomorphic(that of their vertices). Hence the number

and
they are of simple,
the same unlabeled
that given by (10- I). an equivalence relation unlabeled (Problem 10-1). The number of different graphs (of a certain type) of equivalence classes, under isomorphism, of the labeled equals the number For example, we have 16 different labeled trees of four vertices (Fig. graphs. these and trees fall into two equivalence classes,under In 3-15), isomorphism. class, and the Fig. 3-15 the 4 trees in the top row fall into one equivalence Thus we have only two different unlabeled trees of remaining 12into another. four vertices(Fig.3-16). Let us now proceed with counting certain specifictypes of graphs.) vertices
Among
graphs of n
collection
e edges is much smaller than of graphs, isomorphism is
THEOREM
10-1
of
The
number
simple,
labeled graphs
2n(n-l
of n
)/2.)
vertices
is)
( 10- 2))))
240)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
Proof:
The numbers of simple
graphs
edges are obtained by substituting The sum of all such numbers Then the use of the following
+
(\037) (\037)
0,
is the
identity
1, 2, . . . , n(n
proves
vertices and 0, 1,2, . . . , n(n - 1)/2 1)/2 for e in expression (10-1). number of all simple with n vertices. graphs
of n the theorem:)
+
(\037)
...
k (k
1)
+ (Z) = 2k .
.)
10-2.
COUNTING
LABELED
TREES)
Expression
graphs
others
of
n vertices
(10-1) can and n
be used to obtain - 1 edges.Someof

circuits.
the these
number
of simple
labeled
are going
will
which
3-10,
THEOREM
be unconnected graphs with the number of trees.) gives

3-10)
Let
us
trees and now prove Theorem

to be
There
are nn-2
Theorem
labeled trees with

3-10:
n vertices
(n >
2).)
T be labeled1,2,3,. .
having
Proofof
Remove
Let the
the
vertices edge
of a tree
.,
n.
the pendant
vertex (and
incident
on it)
the
smallest
label,
which is, say, at. Suppose that b t was the vertex adjacent to at. Among the remainwith the smallest label, and b 2 be let a2 be the pendant vertex ing n - I vertices is repeated on the vertex adjacent to a2. Remove the edge (a2, b 2 ). This operation and then on n - 3 vertices, and so on. The process remai ning n - 2 vertices, the is terminated after n - 2 steps, when only two vertices are left. The tree T defines
the sequence)
(bb b 2 ,...,
uniquely.
b n - 2 ))
(1 0- 3))
For
Note that
Conversely,
a vertex
example, for the i appears in

given
tree
in Fig.
10-1 the
sequence
if
is (I,
it is
1, 3, 5, 5, 5, 9).
sequence
(10-3)
n
if and only 2 labels,
not pendant
(see
be)
Problem 10-2).
a sequence
(10-3) of
8)
an n-vertex
tree can
())
4)))
Fig.
which
10-1
yields
Nine-vertex labeled tree, sequence (1, I, 3, 5, 5, 5, 9).)
SEC. 10-3)
COUNTING
UNLABELED
TREES)
241)
constructed
uniquely,
as follows: Determinethe
first
number
in the
sequence)
( 1 0-4))
1,2,3, . . . , n)
in sequence (10-3). This number that does not appear is a l' And thus the clearly In edge (ai, b 1 ) is defined. Remove b 1 from sequence (10-3) and al from (10-4). find in the the remaining sequence of (10-4) the first number that does not appear remainder of (10-3). This would be a2, and thus the edge (a2, b 2) is defined. The till the sequence (10-3)has no element construction is continued left. Finally, the last two vertices remaining in (10-4) are joined. For example, a sequence) given
(4,4,3,1,1),)
we can construct is (5,4). Next,
a seven-vertex (4,3).
tree as
follows: (2,4) is the

and 7)
first
edge.
in
Then
(3,1),
(6,1),
finally
(7, 1),
as
shown
The second Fig. 10-2.
.,)
Fig.
4)
10-2
quence
n
Tree constructed (4,4,3,1,1).) we can
from
se-
For each
n numbers,
of the
- 2
elements in
sequence
(10-3)
choose anyone
of
thus forming)
nn-2)
( 1 0- 5))
- 2)-tuples,eachdefining a distinct labeled tree of n vertices. And since each tree defines of these sequences uniquely, one there is a one-to-one correspondence between the trees and the nn-2 Hence the theorem. sequences. .)
(n
Rooted
Labeled the
Trees: nn-2 labeled
In a
For each of
of
rooted graph one vertex

n
is marked
trees we have
a root.
rooted
labeled
as the root. because trees, any
the
n vertices
can be made
Therefore,)
THEOREM 10-2)
The number
of different
rooted,
labeled trees with

nn- 1 .)
n vertices
is)
( 1 0-6))
given
All rooted
trees for
I, 2, and 3
are
in
Fig.
10-3.)
10-3.
COUNTING UN
LAB fLED
TREES)
of
The problem
of
enumeration
unlabeled
requiresfamiliarity
with
the
concepts
trees is more involved of generating functions and partitions.)))
and
242)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
n
1
Labeled free trees

.
La
beled
rooted
trees
2f
\0371 3
\037I 03
3
fl
3 4\037 .
1
u2
u3
..2
01
02
ul
\0372
\0372
\\;:3
\0373
\\12)
\0373
Fig. 10-3 Rooted labeled trees of one,
two,
and
three vertices.)
Generating
One
Functions)
of the
most
useful
tools
in enumeration
techniques is the generating

series)
function. A
generating
function
f(x)
I(x)
is a
power
a2x
2
== a o +
a1x +
...)
( 10-7))
in which
some
dummy
depends
variable
on a
function)
x. The coefficientOk of Xk is the desired number, collection of k objectsbeing enumerated. For in example,
the generating
+
(l
x)n =
(\037)
+
G)x
the
G)X2
(;)x
...
C)xn,) of n
(10-8 ))
different
the
coefficient
of
\037k
gives
number
of distinct combinations
objects
taken
k at a
example,
time.
consider
As another
the following
(1 +
00
generating
x3+ xk.
function:)
(1
- x) - n
==
x + x2
n +
...)n
( 1 0- 9))
==
k
k)
- 1
k=O
I:
The
coefficient
of
Xk
in
(10-9)
gives the ways
of selectingk
objects
from
n)))
SEC. 10-3)
COUNTING
UNLABELED
TREES)
243)
(distinct)
objects
with unlimited
are
repetitions.t Note that
the
variable
x has
no
We significance. The generating
interested
function
called a
function
counting
series
only in the coefficients. is used as a counting deviceand An or an enumerator. operation
is therefore
on
the
also a generating
sequence
is
simpler
coefficients
ao'
at,
than a 2, . .
to
. . Fora
Chapter
the corresponding
detailed
operation on
in
of
treatment
of generating
[10-1].)
functions,
the reader is referred

Partitions)
2 in [3-11]
or Chapter 3
Another
that
useful
and
important
concept
When
in enumerative
a positive
of
a partition
of
as a sum
of a positiveinteger.
integers)
p ==
combinatorics is integer p is expressed
positive
At +
A 2 A3
+ >
A3 +
... +
>
Aq
Aq, 1,)
such
that)
At
> A2
>
...
>
( 1 0-1 0))
the q-tuple is called (3 1 1), (2 2 1), (2 1 1
partition
of
integer
1), and
(1 1 1 1 1) are parts
parts
p. For example, (5), (4 1),(3 2), of the the sevendifferent partitions

It is
exam
integer 5. venient to
partition
The integers, A;'S, are called represent the repeated
of the partitioned number p. by means of exponents; for
conpIe,
as (2 1 3). (2 1 1 1) is written The partitions of an integer p may be unrestricted or may have some restrictions on them, such as no repetition of any part [i.e., Ai =1= A j in (10-10)], k is allowed. or no part greater than The number of partitions of a given is obtained with the function. For often of some integer p generating help the in the coefficient of Xk example, polynomial)
(1 +
gives
page
x)(1 + x2 )(1
without
x 3)
. . . (1 +
))
( I 0-11 ))
the
111,
number
[3-11]).
of partitions,
repetition,
of an
integer k <
p (see
Partitions are important to us because many graph-enumeration can be expressed in the form of partition problems.)
problems
Rooted Unlabeled
Coming
Trees)
is one
in
which
back to counting trees, let all vertices except the

can
us recall that a rooted, unlabeled tree root are assumed alike.Let un be the)
tThe
result
be proved
as
follows:
let a specific
selection be a
list
of k
order. The a;'s are not a3 + 2, . . . , ak + k

list is distinct.
1 by
necessarily adding selection integers
Thus
every distinct
as a selection
of k
Let the n objects be labeled 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, and in nondecreasing integers at, a2, . . . , ak arranged distinct. From this list we get a new list at, a2 + 1, in the new 0 to at, 1 to a2, and so on. Each term with unlimited repetitions can be identified uniquely from integers 1, 2, . . . , n + k - 1.)))
244)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
w)
Fig.
,)
into
10-4
Rooted
tree decomposed
rooted
subtrees.) the number is exactly
of unlabeled, rooted trees of n vertices, and let un(m) those rooted trees of n vertices in which the degree of the
number
be root
of m.
Then)
nt
Un
==
m= 1)
\037
un(m).
Any
rooted
tree T
of n
m
vertices
and
with root R
in
of degreem
can
be looked
upon as composed of edge between its root
rooted
and
tree is composed of four rooted In an n-vertex tree T the

thus
subtrees, R. For example,

subtrees.
n
each attached
Fig.
to R
by
means
of an
10-4
an II-vertex,
rooted
vertices
are
distributed
subtrees, and
T defines
pose that
k j is
the number
of such subtrees(in
3k J +
an m-part partition
of the
T)
number
among the m n 1. Sup-
with
j vertices. Then)
kt + 2k 2
and)
... +
+
(n
I)k n -
== n
1)
( I 0-12) ( I 0-13))
k t + Note
k2
kJ +
... + kn - t
(0
== m.)
that Eqs.
in
(10-12) and (10-13)represent an

i appears
m-part
1,
which
integer
ki
times
< ki
<
In Fig.10-4, for
- I).
partition
of integer
example,)
==
11 ,
m == 4 ,)
k t == ],
k2
==
==
2,
ks
==
==
I,
kJ
Thus and)
==
k4
k6
==
\037
k7
==
kto
==
O.)
k j == 4
==
\037jkj
One
10.)
U distinct can construct rooted trees withj unlabeled vertices.Out of j subtrees trees we select k j trees to form of T. Since the same tree may the more than once as a subtree of T, we have the problem of finding appear number of ways of selectingkJ objects out of U j objects with unlimited repeti-)))
these
SEC.
10-3)
COUNTING
UNLABELED
TREES)
245)
tion.
According
to Eq.
(10-9),this
number
is)
( 1 0-14)) (Uj+k:j-I).) Since

distinct
each such
trees
selection can be made

this specific partition
_ -
independently,
is)
the
possible
number of
for
Un
( k I'
k 2' .
. . ,k n-
uI + k (
k l
U2
k2
k 2
I)
- 1 ...
Un- 1
knkn-I
)(
)
( 10-1
5))
where
un(k
l' k 2 , . . . , k n - I )
stands
for the number
of
n-vertex,
rooted
trees
corresponding
to the
partition)
lk12k23k3...(n_l)kn-l.)
Addition
yields
of un(k p total
k 2' . . . , k
n-
I)
over
all possible
is,)
partitions of
the
number of spanning
U n ==
n -I \037 \302\243..Jrr
trees. That
U. J +
1
k. J
k
. J)
. )
j= partitions of n - I
(10-16))
is \"a recurrence we have obtained in (10-16) relation-a solution It the number of of combinatorial rooted, gives Un' many problems. typical unlabeled trees of n vertices, in terms of Up U 2 ' . . . , Un-I' To use this relation, one builds up numerical tables in a step-by-step fashion. For example,) What
U I)
== 1
1
U2 =
+
11
(U
u 3
1)
= I,
2 + (U
1)
+
(U
1)
2.)
To
evaluate
U4 ' we first
(3),
have to
(2,
find
all
partitions
of integer
1).)
3. These are)
I),
and
(I, I,
The
sum
of the 3+
respective terms contributed by
these
partitions
is)
U4 =
(U
Similarly,
I)
+
(U
I)(U
observe
that
1)
the
Cl +:
4 has five
1)
4.)
to evaluate
Us we
integer
different)))
246)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
\037) \037)
v)
\\V)
Fig.
10-5
Rooted,
unlabeled trees of one,
two,
three,
and four
vertices.)
partitions,
and these are)

(4),
(3,1),
(2,2),
(2, 1,
1),
and
(1,
I, 1,
1).) is
The number of rooted treescorresponding to obtained using The sum yields us:) (10-15).
Us
== U 1
each
of these five partitions
3
+
Ul
1 U2 +
U2
(
==
422 )
1 +
(
1 +
+ )
U3
U4
(
9.)
1 +
2+ 4
==
And
four
vertices
so on. In Fig. 10-5, all are shown.

involved.
rooted,
unlabeled
trees of
one, two, three, and
Clearly, computation of
un
for,
say,
==
tedious and
It requires
obtaining
are 490 partitions of 19),computing 19 (there of the combinatorial product term)

U
20, using (10-16) is extremely all possible partitions of integer U 19' U 18' . . . , u 2 , U l' evaluation
j +
kj
k. J)
for
each
partition,
and then taking the sum
of all
490
such
terms.
in
some of these difficulties Counting Series for Un: To circumvent let us find its series of (i.e., the generating counting putation Un' where) u(x),
com-
function)
u(x)
==
u 1x
00
U2 X 2 +
n
U 3X 3
+)
( 1 0-1 7))
==
n=1)
I:
unx
00
== x \037 U nxn
n=1)
Substitution
of(10-16)
yields)))
in (10-17)
and
substitution
ofn
1 by
its
partition
as
in (10-12)
SEC. 10-3)
COUNTING
UNLABELED
TREES)
247)
00
u(x)
== x \037 \037. n=1) partitions of n - 1
U1 + (
k
k
l 1
I
X
k1
U2 + (
k2 k2
- l
)
k nk npositive
x2k2
...
(
Un - 1 +
( 1 0-18))
(n-l )knl. X )
a partition
1)
Observing
that every
(10-18)
U 1
sequence of
be rearranged
1 1
integers
forms
of
some integer,
U(x) ==
X
can +
as)
U2 +
k
k
I
Xkl
[ kl=O
i:
k2
k
2
- l
(
. .
)
Un-l
J[
\037 k2-0
)
]
x2kl
J (10-19))
\302\267 \037 .\302\243..J [ k n -l=O
+ knk n1)
n-l )k (n- 1) X( )
...
Substituting
the identity
(1
in (10-19)
xm)-p
==
t )=0
p+
(
])
\037
l
xmj
)
is,)
3
gives us the desired counting

U(x) == x(I
00
series. That
- x)-ul(l -
x )-u2(1
2 r
)-U3 . . .) (10-20))
== x
II (1
r=1)
xr)-u
Calculation
of
Un
from
(10-20)
substituting
involves
the
building
values
up a
table
of
u i for
first
==
I,
terms
- 1, and 2, 3, . . . , n in the series (10-20)are)

U(x) == x
in (10-20).
The
7
10
2 3 + x + 2x +
4x 4
9
9x s
+ 20x6
48x
+
The
115x
286x
719x 10 +
....)
extend
an
the
(IO-20a))
reader
should
function
verify
u(x)
(10-20a) himself and

can be of both
expansion
through
another
10 terms.
The generating
follows:
expressed
in
alternative
form
get)
as
Taking the
natural
logarithms == In
sides of Eq. (10-20), we

U r In(I
In u(x)
00 \037 r=1) 00
- xr )
== In
x +
r=1
00
\037
00 ri x U r \037 -=-
i=1
00
I)
=-=
In x
+ L
;=1 I
00
-;- L r=1)
1 -;-U(Xi).
I)))
ri
UrX
== In
x +
\037 i= 1
248)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
Therefore,)
U ( X ) == Form
xe
\037\0371
(l/i)u(x')
.)
( 1 0- 21 ))
(10-21)
is due
the
to George Polya,
whereas
(10-20)
is Arthur
Cayley's.
rooted To obtain function for (free) unlabeledtrees from generating at a tree as unlabeled one can look of rooted subtrees, trees, (free) composed vertices in the tree. For at some all other sort of central vertex distinct from this, we shall use the concept of centroid in a tree.)
Centroid)
with In a tree T, at any vertex v of degree d, there are d subtrees only as the number of each subtree at v is defined vertex v in common. The weight of as the the vertex v is defined in the subtree. Then the weight branches of of the heaviest of the subtrees at v. A vertex with the smallest weight weight of T. in the entire tree T is called a centroid it can be shown that Just as in the case of centers of a tree (Section 3-4), It either two centroids. tree has one centroid can or also be shown that every 10-6 a tree with if a tree has two centroids, the centroidsare adjacent. In Fig. tree with and a two centroids a centroid a centroidal (called a (called tree)
bicentroidal
tree)
are
shown.
The centroids
are
are shown
enclosed
in circles,
and
the numbers next
to the
vertices
the weights.)
Free UnlabeledTrees)
Let
t'(x)
be the counting
bicentroidal
series for
trees.
centroidal
trees,
and
[\"(x)
be the
all
counting series for

(unlabeled,
Then
two.
t(x),
That
the counting
is,)
series for
free)
trees,
is the sum
t(x) ==
of the
t'(x)
+ [\"(x).)
(10-22))
that an n-vertex bicentroidal tree can be regarded trees each with n/2 == m vertices, and joined at tree will always have an even number of their roots by an edge. (A bicentroidal == 2m vertices n trees with number bicentroidal is) the of Thus vertices; why?)
To obtain
[\"(x),
observe
rooted
as consisting
of two
7) 6) 6) 7) 3) 6) 7) 5)
(a) Centroidal Fig.
Tree)
(b)
Bicentroidal
Tree)
10-6
Centroid and
bicentroids.)))
SEC.
10-3)
COUNTING
UNLABELED
TREES)
249)
given
by)
t\" n
Um
+
2
=
)
um(u m +
2)
1) ,
(
and
therefore)
t\"(x) =
=
m= 1
i:
um(u
m 2)
1) x 2m
-1 L; 2 m=l
1
U mX
2m
-1 L; 2 m=l)
\037
(u
mxm)2
(10-23))
_ -2
The
2 UX ( ) +
m\037l
( Umx
m 2 ) .)
If n is tree can be odd or even. number of vertices, n, in a centroidal T his maximum the have is maximum the centroid could odd, 1). weight ten is achieved only when the tree consists of a path of n - 1 edges. On the other the centroid if n is even and the tree is centroidal, the maximum hand, weight is achieved when the degree could possiblyhave is t(n - 2). This maximum of just one edge. of the centroid is three, and one of the subtrees consists an n-vertex (free) n is it is clear that whether odd or even, Thus, regardless tree can be regarded as composed of several centroidal rooted trees, rooted at - 1)/2J the centroid, and none of these rooted trees can have more than L (n x. I n view of where than the no denotes edges, largest integer greater Lx J
this
observation,
missing
an
involved
steps
manipulation
of Eq.
=
m\037l
leads (10-21)
to
the
fol-
lowing (for
see [10-3]):)
t'(x)
= u(x)
U2
(x)
(u mx
)2.)
(10-24))
Adding
(10-23) and (10-24), we get the

t(x)
desired counting
(x)
series:)
= u(x)
\037(u
2 u(X \302\273).)
(10-25))
This
relation,
which gives the

first
tree-countingseriesin
by Richard
terms
in
of the
1948
counting
series, was
=
obtained
Otter
and
rooted-tree is known
as Otter's formula.
leX)
The
first
10 terms
+
8
of (10-25)are) 2x 4
9
x +
+
x2
23x
x3+
+
3x s
+ 6x6
Ilx
47x
it
106x 1o +
another
....)
The
first
The
reader
is encouraged
to extend
given
by
10 terms. book
26
terms
of both
By
u(x) and lex) are

now
in
Riordan's
[3-11], page
138.
is an
types
you
must
involved subject. And

of graphs-rooted
of graphs have the impression that enumeration it is. So far we have enumerated only four varieties. and free trees, both labeledand unlabeled
indeed
It
is)))
250)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
difficult
provided
to proceed further without counting by a general
some then
additional
it
enumerative
shall can
tool. This is
first
theorem due to P61ya. We

show how
state
and discuss
ing
P6lya's theorem
and
be applied
for count-
graphs.)
10-4.
POLYA'S
COUNTING
THEOREM)
in understand To theorem, we need a few additional P6lya's concepts we shall first define a permutation and combinatorial theory. In this section Then we shall show how a see how it can be represented in different ways. a P can form a group (called a permutation set of permutations under group) called we shall T hen introduce a binary operation composition. polynomial called the cycle index of a permutation group P. Finally, we shall show that D to a range R (both D and all mappingsf,.'s from a domain R being finite) are divided into equivalenceclasses by any permutation group P acting on the
domain D.
After
introducing
these
concepts
And
configuration-counting
series.
P6lya,
the celebrated
theorem of
of the
we shall define figure-counting series and will be followed by the statement of which the configuration-counting expresses
this
series in
terms
figure-counting
of the
series and the cycle index

will
of
the
permu-
tation group. two illustrative

If P6lya's
The statement
examples.
theorem
to
be
followed
by discussion and
theorem and the
buildup
it do
theorem and be able

Permutation)
you, don't worry; you

to
are not
use
alone.
What
is important
different
to not appear very intuitive is to understand the

types
it for counting
of graphs.)
On a finite from A onto
set
A of
some objects,
a permutation
a bed
( bdca)
11: is b, c,
a one-to-one d}. A
mapping
itself.
For example,
consider a set fa,

==
permutation)
11: 1
takes
a into b, b into d, c
into
c,
and
11: 1 (a) 11: 1 (b) 11: 1 (c) 11: 1 (d)
d into
== == ==
a.
Alternatively,
we
could
write)
b, d,
C,
== a.)
The
number
of elements
in
the
object
set on
which
permutation
acts
is)))
SEC.
10-4)
POLYA'S COUNTING
THEOREM)
251)
called the
degree of the
can
element
permutation.
The
degree
of
11: t
in
the
above
example is
four.
A
permutation
an
also be
of the
I
represents
.
mappIng.
represented by object set and

.
11: t
a digraph,
the
in which
edges
each vertex
the
directed
F or
examp
e, t h e
permutatIon
grammatically
by Fig.
10-7.)
b)
a bed = ( b d c a)
represent
IS
represente
d dIa-
a)
c) d)
Fig.
10-7
Digraph of a
permutation.)
that the in-degree and the out-degree of every vertex in the a permutation is one. Such a digraph must into one or decompose This suggests yet another way more vertex-disjoint of directedcircuits (why?). a permutation-as a collection of the vertex-disjoint, directed representing
Observe
digraph of
circuits
(called the cycles of the

as
permutation).
Permutation
(\037\037 \037:)
can
is called
thus the
be
written
(a b d)(c).
This compact and
popular representation
The number of edges in a permutacyclic representation of a permutation. tion cycle is called the length of the cycle in the permutation. Often the only information of interest about a permutation is the number of various A of cycles lengths. permutation 11: of degree k is said to be of type
(up
U 2'...,
u k )if11:hasu
(a b d)(c) (2, 0, 2,
i cyclesoflengthifori
1,2,...,
k. For example,
(a bf)(c)(d
permutation
is of type
is of type
(I, 0, 1,0)and
...
permutation
e h)(g)
0, 0,
0, 0, 0). Clearly,)
2u 2 + 3u 3 +
IU t +
kU
k.)
(10-26))
Another
introduce
useful method for indicating the type of a permutation is to k dummy variables, say, Y l' Y 2' . . . , Y k' and then show the type
by
of permutation
the
expression)
Y 12.\" Y
O'I
0'2
Y k')
O'Ie
(10-27))
Expression (10-27) is
structure
called the
cycle
structure
of
the
eight-degree
permutation
of 11:. For example, the cycle b (a f)(c)(d e h)(g) is) 2 Y 1
2 O 2 O o o o o Y 1 Y2 Y 3 Y4 Y S Y6 Y 7 Y8 Note
2 Y 3')
that
the dummy
variable y i
has
no
significance
except as
symbol
to)))
252)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
which
subscripts
(indicating the lengths) and

distinct have
exponents (indicating
(acting
[10-1]).
the
num-
ber of
So
permutation
cycles) are attached. Two

the
permutations
on the same
object set) may

far we
same cycle structure

the
(page 149in
and
of
have discussed only

Let
representation
properties
of a
col-
individually.
us now
examine a set
permutations
lectively.
On a
including
set A
the
example,
we have a total of k! possible permutationswhich takes every element into itself. For the following are the six permutations on a set of three elements
with
k objects,
identity
permutation,
{a, b, c}:)
(a)(b)(c), (a b)(c), (a c)(b), (a)(bc),

Their cycle structures,
respectively,
(a
b c),
(a c b).)
are)
Yl,
YIY2'
YIY2'
Y 1Y2'
Y3'
Y3')
(10-28))
Composition
Consider
of
the
Permutations)
two permutations
1t 1
1t 1
and
1t 2 on
an object
I
set {I,
.)
2, 3, 4, 5}:)
==
I 2
( 2 1
345
4 5 3)
and
1t 2
==
2 3
4 5
2 5
(3
composition
by
of these
first
two permutations
1t t
and
1t 2 1t 1
obtained
applying
then
applying
is another permutation 1t2 on the resultant. That is,)
1t 2 1t 1(1) == 1t2(2)
1t 2 1t 1 (2)
== 4,
== == ==
== 1t 2 (1) == 1t 2 (4)
3, 2, 5,
1t 21t 1 (3)
1t21t 1(4) == 1t 2 (5) 1t21t 1 (5)

Thus)
1t 2 1t 1
== 1t 2 (3) ==
== I.
.)
12345
( 43251
)
same
Thus
among
binary
a collection
operation.)
is a
of permutations on the
object
set, composition
Permutation
Group)
A collection
of m
permutations ==
P == {1tl' {aI'
1t 2 ,
. . . , 1t m J acting
on a
set)
a 2,
. , akJ))) \302\267 \302\267
SEC.
10-4)
POLYA'S COUNTING
THEOREM)
253)
forms
closure,
Such
verified
composition, if the four postulatest of a group, that is, satisfied. associativity, identity, and inverse (see Section a group is called a permutation it can be easily For example, group. that the set of four permutations)
a group under
6-1),are
{(a)(b)(c)(d), (a c)(bd),
(a b
c d),
(a deb)})
(10-29))
a permutation acting on the object set fa, b, c, d} forms group. The number of permutations m in a permutation group is calledits order,
and
the
number
of elements
degree
in
the
object
set on
which
the
permutations
are
group. In the examplejust cited, the degree and order of the permutation group is four. both It can be shown that the set of all k! permutations on a set A of k elements forms a permutation Such a group, of order k! and k, is called thefull symmetric group. degree group, Sk.)
of the
acting is called the
permutation
Cycle
Index
For
of a Permutation
Group)
a permutation
all
the
m permutations in P index cycle Z(P) of
group P, of oraer m, and divide the sum
if we
add the
metric
group
of degree
P. For example, the S3, the full comesout to be) three, according to (10-28)
=
by m, we get an index of cycle
cycle structures of expression called

sym-
Z(S3)
-i-(y? +
permutation
3YtYz
2Y3)')
(10-30))
Similarly, the cycle index

four)
of the
group
(of degree four
and order
shown
in (10-29)
is)
\037
(yt
y\037
2Y4)')
Since
the
it
cycle index is the

with
most
types
important find
concept Z(S4).
in this
section, let us
in
illustrate
Table
another
example.
different
Let us
10-1 gives the
of permutations
possible
S4,
the
full
four. symmetric group of degree 10-1 is easy to understand and Table to construct. For example, we have six permutations of type (2, 1, 0, 0) on the object set {a, b, c, d}:)
(a)(b)( cd),
(b)(c)(a d),
tIn fact,
composition,
it
(a)(
c)(b
d),
(a)(d)(b
(c)(d)(a
c),
b).) is closed with respect satisfied (Problem 10-4).)))
(b)(d)(ac),
can be shown that if a collection of permutations the remaining three postulates are automatically
to
254)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
Number
Permutation
Type)
of Such Permutations)
1
Cycle Structures)
Y1
(4, 0, 0, 0)
(2, 1,0,0)
(1,0, 1,0) (0, 2, 0, 0)

(0, 0,
6 8
YtY2
0,
1))
3 6)
Table
YIY3 YI
Y4)
10-1) 10-],
To get the
cycle index of S4 from

the
Table
we multiply the
the
corresponding
then divide
entries
in by
second
4!,
the sum
the
and third columns, add order of the group. Thus)

=
products,
and
Z(S4)
}4 (yt
6yfY2
8YtY3 +
3y\037
6Y4)')
( 1 0-
31 ))
To
display
the variables
as)
involved, the cycle index of

==
a permutation
group
P is
often written
is evident group
as
Z(P) It
that
Z(P;
Yl'
Y2'
\302\267 \302\267 \302\267 , Yk)')
computation
quite
of the
involved
cycle index
and
of an
arbitrary
permuta-
tion
can become
Sk,
laborious.
There are
in Eq.
certain
forms. For
These are related to the partitions k satisfying of integer more on methods of obtaining cycle indices, the reader
[1- 5].)
groups,such
whose
cycle indices
have been derived
closed (10-26).
should see[10-]] and
Cycle
Index of
the Pair
Group)
the n vertices of a graph G are subjected to permutation, the unordered vertex also For n(n 1)/2 get permuted. pairs example, let V = [a, b, c, d} be the set of vertices of a four-vertexgraph. The permutation)
When
==
( dbae) )
a bed
on the
paIrs:)
vertices
induces
the following
==
permutation on the
ad be bd cd . de ba be ae))
the induced
six
unordered
vertex
P' The diagrams of permutation

Fig. on
ab ae
( db da
and
permutation are shown
in
10-8.
Notice
that
a YIY3
set.)))
permutation
on the vertex
set inducesa Y\037permutation
the vertex-pair
SEC. 10-4)
POLY A'S
COUNTING
THEOREM)
255)
d)
ab)
ae)
bd)
ad)
b) e) be) de)
Permutation Fig. 10-8 on vertex-pair set.)

Similarly,
graph
on vertex
set and
the induced permutation
results
n(n
(or
can
be
induced
(Problem
n! possible permutations the n vertices of a on vertex pairs of the n(n - 1 )/2, unordered, 1) ordered vertex pairs, in the case of digraphs). Furthermore, it shown that if a set of permutations on the vertices forms a group, the set of permutations will also form a group on the pair of vertices
each
of the
in some
permutation
10-5).
For
instance,
of
the
full
symmetric
group
Let
Sn on
vertices
of a
graph induces
an R4
a group Rn
the
full
n! permutations
on the pairs
on
induced induced
group by S4,
is called the
pair group
Rn'
symmetric
group
the
of vertices.t Such us work out the pair group the vertices of a four-vertex
of a graph
A
gra ph.
The identity
identity
permutation on
on
one
four
vertices
vertices.
produces an
with
of
permutation
cycles of length
one
and
the six pairs of one cycle of length
permutation
two
per-
two
produces
two cycles
of length
induced
and
mutations
two cycles of length in S4 and the
permutations
Term
And so on. The cycle structures two. of the corresponding cycle structures on the pairs of vertices are shown in Table] 0-2.)
in Z(S4))
Induced Term
Y\037 YrY\037
in
Z(R 4 ))
No.
of Permutations)
1
Yt
YrY2
YIY3
Y\037 Y4)
YJ
YrY\037
6 8
Y2Y4)
3 6)
Table 10-2)
Therefore, the cycle index
of
the
pair
group +
R4
(induced
on
the pairs
of
verticesby
S4)
is
Z(R 4)
d4(Yf
for Z(R
9yty!
8y\037
6YZY4)'
(10-32))
For a
general
expression n = 2,
n)
see [10-2].)
tExcept for rather than 2.)))
in
which
case
the number
of possible permutations
on the pair is
1,
256)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
Equivalence
As
Classes
of
Functions)
let us introduce to describing P6lya'stheorem, concepts. Considertwo sets D and R, with the number of Let I be a mapping which (or function) I R I, respectively. D to a unique image maps each elementd from domain fed) in range R. Since can be mapped into the each of the I D I elements of the IR I elements, any
a further
preliminary
some additional elements I D I and
number of different Now let there

define
functions
from
be a permutation
and/
2
two
that
mappings/!
for
as
D to R is I R I'DI. P on the elements of set if there is some permutation P-equivalent

group
have)
D. Then
11:in
P such
every
d in D
we
11 (d)
== 12
[11:(d)].)
(10-33)) equivalence relation can

be
That the
shown
relationship
defined
by (10-33) is an
as follows:)
is
1. Since P
and
a permutation
group,
it contains
the
identity
permutation\037
thus
(10-33) is reflexive.
permutation
11:,
2. If P contains
11:- 1 . Therefore,
it
also
contains
the inverse
and
11:2 ,
permutation
the relation
if P
is symmetric permutations
makes
also.
it must also contain a transitive relation.)
3.
Furthermore,
contains
11: 111: 1..
11: 1
the permutation
This
P-equivalence
Since an equivalence relation divides a set into equivalence classes, all D to R are divided into equivalenceclasses a permutation from by let D == {a, b, c} and R == {s, t}. group P acting on set D. As an example, 2 3 = 8 mappings 11,/2' . . . ,/8 from There are D to R, as shown in Table
mappings 1 0-
3 .)
11
12
13
14
t
15
s
16
t s
/7
/8
I(a)
s
t
I(b) I(c)
s s
s
t
s s
t t 10-3)
t t
t t
t
Table
Now suppose
a permutation group P
can
==
[(a)(b)(c),
in
(a b c),
Table
D. The
reader
into four equivalenceclasses. They

[ Id
verify that the eight mappings

are)
(a c b)} is acting on 10-3 will be divided
[/2' [3'j\037} \037
j\037, .f\037 [15 \037 },
[ 18 }.)))
SEC.
10-4)
POLYA'S COUNTING
THEOREM)
257)
Palya's
Counting Theorem)
finite D and range R, together with a sets, domain P on D. To each element let us assign a quantity permutation group pER and call it the content of the element (or weight) w[p] p. The weight w[p] can A mappingffrom D to R can be described be a symbol or a real number. by a sequence of I D I elements of set R such that in the sequence the ith element is the imageof the ith element of set D underf Therefore the content W(f) of a mappingf can be defined as the product of the contents of all its images. That is,)
Let us considertwo
W(f) =
dED)
II w[f(d)].
all functions class defined Clearly, belonging to the same equivalence by we define the weight of an entire Therefore, (10-33) have identical weights. D to range R) to be the (comfrom domain equivalence class (of functions the nummon) weight of the functions in this class. Our problem is to count ber of equivalence classes with various given D, R, permutation weights, what group P on D, and weights w[p] for each pER. This is exactly P6lya's theorem gives. counting In elements p of set R are called figures, and funcP6lya's terminology, tions f from D to R are called configurations. Often the weights of the elex. In that ments of R can be expressed as powers of some common quantity of set R can be neatly to elements case the weight described assignment by means of a counting series A(x))
00
A(x)
'1=0)
:E aqX',
set
(10-34))
where
aq
is the
number
of elements
can
in
R with
weight x q . t Likewise,
the
number of configurations
configuration
be expressed
in terms
of another
series,called
counting
series
B(x), such
=
that)
00
B(x)
\".=0)
:E b \".x'\"
(10-35))
where
b m is the
number
of
different
configurations
known
having
as
can state the following powerful result

THEOREM
P6lya's
weight x counting
. Now
we
theorem.)
10-3
The
counting series
series R(x) is obtained by substituting configuration-counting i A(x ) for each Yi in the cycle index Z(P; Yh Y2, . assigned to
series figures
the figure. . , Yk)
of
the)
tIf the content then the figure-counting
cannot be expressed as powers of a single quantity will be a multinomial in different variables, rather than
x, in
just one
variable
x.)))
258)
ENUMERATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
permutation
group P. That
R(x}
is,)
= Z(P;
\037
aqx
2q 3q , \037 a qx , \037 a qx , . . . , \037 aqx kq ).)
(10-36))
The
proof
illuminating
Our interest
some
of P6lya's theorem, although not complicated, and is therefore left out. The reader can find in the application of the theorem; is mainly
is not
it in
particularly
[10-1], page
157.
with
let us
illustrate
it
examples.)
Example 1:
how
Suppose that
can the
we
are given
a cube and four

on any
many
ways
are
balls be arranged
the
corners
(identical)balls.In of the cube? Two

cube
they
arrangements
be transformed
The
answer
considered the same if by into each other. is seven, as can be seenby

set
rotation
of the
in Fig.
can
inspection
terms the domain D is the
of the
eight corners
of the
cube,
10-9. In P6lya's and the range)
Fig. 10-9
R consists
ball,\"
Attaching
four
balls to
corners of a
cube.)
of two
contents
elements (i.e., figures),

x
1
\"presence
with
and
00
x O , respectively. =
of a ball\" or \"absence of a The figure-counting series is) =
A(x)
L
q=O)
fl QqX
o QoX +
content
QtX1
1 +
x,
the
(10-37))
since
a o, the
number of figures
with
0, is
figures
with content
I, is also one.The
one, and aI'

are
number
of
configurations
28
== 256
different
The permutation balls to the corners of the cube. assign mappings that group P on D is the set of all those permutations that can be produced by with their cycle structures are) rotations of the cube. Thesepermutations
I. One identity
2.
permutation.
Its
cycle structure
is
y\037.
Three
180
rotations
around lines connecting

is yi.)))
the
centers
of opposite
faces. Its cycle structure
SEC. 10-4)
POLYA'S COUNTING
90\302\260 rotations
THEOREM)
259)
3. Six
necting
(clockwise
the
centers
and counterclockwise) of opposite faces. The cycle structure lines connecting the structure is yi.
around lines conis Y\037.
4.
Six
180\302\260 rotations The
around
midpoints of
opposite
edges.
5.
Eight
corresponding
cycle around
120\302\260 rotations
cube.
The cycle structure index
lines connecting opposite corners in the of the corresponding permutation is y\037y\037.)

consisting
The
therefore,)
cycle
of
this
group
of. these
24 permutations
is,
Z(P)
-t24 (y1
9yi -t- 6y\037
8y\037 yj).)
(10-38))
Using Polya's I + x for y l'
theorem, we now substitute the figure-counting series, that

I
is
x 2 for
Y2'
3 + x
for
Y3'
and
I +
x 4 for
4. This
yields the
configuration-counting series.)
B(x)=
x +
3x 2
3x 3 +
7x 4
3x 5 +
3x 6
x 7 + x 8 .)
( I 0-
3 9))
The coefficient of x4 of content x 4 (i.e.,

exhaustive
in B(x)
with
gives the number of P-inequivalent four balls). This verifies the
configurations
answer obtained by
inspection
total
in Fig.
of
10-9.
is
the
contents (with P-inequivalent configurations x O , x I, x 2, . . . , 8 ) is obtained which by adding all coefficients in (10-39), 23. It may be observed that this is the number of distinct ways of painting the of a cube with two colors eight vertices (one color corresponds to and the other with the \"absence of a ball\. of a ball\" \"presence number
The
Example that
2:
In example
we
were
the
are given two red balls and two blue number of distinct arrangements on the
we
given four identical balls. Now suppose balls, and are again askedto find corners of the cube. Clearly, D,
P, and
will remain the same as they in example I. Only the range R were Z(P) and the figure-counting series A(x) will change. The range will contain three elements: (I) presence of no ball, (2) presence and of a red ball, (3) presence of a blue ball. Choosing x to indicate the of a red ball and x' to presence in the range mentioned indicate the presence of a blue ball, the three elements
above
will
have
the contents
X'O,
Xl x'o,
and
x' I,
respectively.
Therefore
the figure-counting
A(x,
series
x')
is)
= xOx'o
+ xlx'o
series
XOX'l
== 1 +
x +
x'.)
configuration-)))
Substituting
this
figure-counting
in (10-38),
we get the
260)
ENUMERATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
counting
series)
B(x, x')
14[(1+
+ 8(1
X')8 +
9(1 +
X 3
X'2)4 +
6(1 +
X'4)2
+ x + x')2(l+
3x 2
X'3)2]
= 1+
x + x' +
2
3X'2 +
4
3xx' + 3x3 13x

3
3X'3)
+ 7x
x'
2 3
+
x'2 x'2
7XX'2 +
+
7x
7X'4 +
4
x'
-f- 13xx'3
+ 22x + 24x
3x s +
2 + 24x x'3
22x 3XX'6 4
+ 7xx's+
+
x'2
3x's + 13xx' + 13xx'4 + 3x6 + 3X'6 + 7x sx' 2 3 + 22x x'4 + 24x x'3 + x' +
7X SX'2
xx\"
(10-40))
x\"
3x 6x'
X 8
+
+
+ 7x
+
x's
13x 3x'4
+
4 x'3) + 13x
X'8 +
x'x' +
3x 6x'2
+ 3x2 x'6
3X SX'3
+ 3x3 x's
7x 4x'4.)
The coefficientof x r X'b in (IO-4P) is the number of distinct with arrangements r red balls, b blue balls and 8 - r - b corners with no balls. The number of with two red and two blue balls is, therefore, 22. arrangements F or some other of the applications of non-graph-theoretic examples the reader should work out Problems 10-10, 10-11, P6lya's theorem, 10-14,
and
10-15.
Let
us now
return
to
the
counting
of graphs.)
10-5.
GRAPH
ENUMERATION
WITH
PDLYA'S
THEOREM)
Enumeration
of
Simple
all unlabeled,
as a
two
simple graphs of n
(i.e., (for
mapping
pairs of vertices
elements an
sand edge
t,
is joinedby
Ing
problem of counting G can be regarded Any - I) unordered the set D all of of configuration) !n(n n(n 1)pairs of vertices). Range R consists of digraphs If a vertex pair t, with contents Xl and xo, respectively. in G, the vertex pair maps into s, an element with content
Graphs:
vertices.
Let us consider the
such graph
into Xl; . otherwise,

serIes
..
an
element
==
with content
q =
1
Xo
== 1.
Thus
the figure-count-
IS)
A(x) The tions vertices tBecause
\037
aqx
x.)
relevant
on the of
permutation group in this pairs of verticesinduced by Sn the graph). t Therefore, the
case (the
configuration-counting series is)
is Rn' the group of permutafull symmetric group on the
labeled
in an unlabeled graph, all n vertices are indistinguishable. Were we to count the permutation group would have consisted of only the identity permutation. Substitution of 1 + x in its cycle index would have yielded the simple result of expresgraphs (10-1).)))
sion
SEC.
] 0-5)
GRAPH ENUMERATION by substituting

1
WITH
POLYA'S
THEOREM)
261)
obtained
x for
Yp
2 + x
for
Y2'
1 +
x 3 for
Y3'
and
so on
in Z(R
(1) For
n ). Some n =
specific
3,)
cases are
Z(R 3)
=
i(y\037
3YIYz +
2Y3)')
Therefore,
the
configuration-counting
=
series
is)
H(x)
\037
[(I x
X)3
x 2
--1-
3(1
--1-
x)(I
XZ) +
2(1 +
x 3 )])
=-=--= 1 --4
--4-
3 -1- x .)
The
coefficient
of
Xi
in B(x)
is the
here
The content
with
of a configuration
is the
number of configurations number of edges in
with the
content correspond-
Xi.
of nonisomorphic ing graph. Thus the number simple graphs is how it should be, 0, I, 2, and 3 edges is each one.This
1 0- 1 O.
'of three vertices in Fig. as shown

Substituting
(2)
1
For
Yi
n =
in
4, the cycle index Z(R4 )

(10-32),
is given
in (10-32).
Xi for
we get)
2 X )2
B(x) =
\037[(
24
X)6 -t- 9(
+
4
x)2(1
)]
-t--
+ 8(1
)2 ( 1 0-41 ))
--4-
6( I +
x 2)( 1
2
-t--
=
In
-1- x --4- 2x
-t
3x 3 +
the
2x 4
XS +
x 6 .)
the (10-41) vertices and r

.)
coefficient of
xr
gives of
number
edges. The validity
series
of simple graphs with four (10-41) is verified in Fig. 10-11.)
.) .)
/)
.)
<
<1
\037
Fig. three
10-10. vertices.)
Simple
unlabeled graphs of
.)
.
.
.)
.)
. .)
.
.)
.)
: 7IDI2J\037
\037:J\037)
Fig.
10-11
Simple
unlabeled graphs of
four
vertices.)))
262)
ENUMERATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
(3) For n
==
5, the
cycle index
the
Z(Rs) is given
counting
in
Problem
10-9. Substituting
1+
five
Xi
for
Y i in
Z(R s), we get
series B(x)
for simplegraphs of
vertices,
as follows:)
B(x) =
I\037O
[(1
X)10 +
10(1 +
X 2
x)4(1+ x2 )3
30(1 +
+ +
20(1 + xXI X4)2
)3
15(1 +
x)2(l +
+
)4 +
x 2 )(1
+ 20(1 + xXI I + x + 2X2

+
x 3Xl + x 6 ) + 24(1 + X S )2] s 3 4 6 + 4x + 6x + 6x + 6x + 4x
(10-42)
7
2x
x9 + x
iO
.)
Again,
of
for each
five
graphs The number counted similarly.

Enumeration
multi
r the coefficient of xT in vertices and r edges.

of
(10-42)
with
gives the
n vertices
number of simple
for any n can
simple,
unlabeled
graphs
that
be
of Multigraphs: of n
Suppose
at most
we
are
interested
in counting
between
graphs
vertices,
domain
in
which
two edges
are allowed
same
pair of vertices.
In
may
this
case
the
and the permutation

range,
group are the

edges. and
vertex
as they
were for
simple graphs.
by (I)
indicates
The
however,
u, with
is different.
be joined
no edge, (2) one edge,or (3) two

contents presence
A pair
Thus
of vertices
range
R
==
contains three elements,say, s, t,

that
0,
is,
Xi
1, 2. Threfore,
xO, Xl, of i edges between a the figure-counting series becomes)

the
1
x 2 , respectively; for i pair,
x +
x 2 .)
(10-43))
Substitution
tion-counting
of 1 +
series.
xr
For
x 2r for Y r in Z(R n ) will yield the n == 4, using the cycle index from
desired configura(10-32),
we get)
l. [(1 + 24
x+
x 2
)6 +
9(1 +
x +
+ +
12
.)
x2 )2(1
x2 +
)2 +
8(1 +
x3
X6)2
+ 6(1+
== I
+ +
lO
x 4Xl
+ x 5x
9
+ 3x2
+
+ x4 5x 3 + 8x 4
Xii +
X
x 8 )] 9x s
(10-44))
+ 12x6
-f- 9x
8x
+ The
3x
of four multigraphs parallel edges between
Xi in (10-44) is the number of distinct, unlabeled, vertices and i edges (such that there are at most two coefficient of x 3 is the any vertex pair). For example. are shown in Fig. 10-12. 5, and these five multigraphs a pair of vertices,))) Instead of allowing at most two parallel edges between
coefficient
of
SEC.10-5)
GRAPH
ENUMERATION
WITH POLYA'S THEOREM)
263)
v:)
at most
r:)
\037
I)
n)
three edges, and
K)
Fig.l0-12
had
would
Unlabeled llel
multigraphs edges.)
of four vertices,
two para
we allowed any be the infinite
number
of
parallel
edges the figure-counting

I -t-)
serIes
series)
1 +
A(x) ==
x +
x2
x3
I-x)
(10-45))
we have to consider Enumeration of Digraphs: For enumerating digraphs the domain. The relevant as constituting I) ordered pairs of vertices will consist of permutations induced on all ordered pairs permutation group of vertices by Sn. The cycle index of this permutation M n , can be group, obtained in the same fashion as was done in the case of Rn' For example, for n == 4, Table 10-4 gives the terms in Z(M n) induced by each term in Z(Sn).)
all n(n
Term
yt
in Z(S 4))
Induced
Term
yl2
YrY\037
in Z(M 4))
YrY2 YIY3
Y\037 Y4)
Y1
Y\037
y1)
Table
Therefore,
10-4)
the
cycle index =
1
is)
Z(M
4)
24
(yj2
-+-
6yty\037
-+- 8yt
-+-
3y\037
-+- 6yl).)
( I 0-46))
digraph the figure-counting series A(x) == 1 + x is applicable, becausea given ordered an pair of vertices (a, b) either doesor doesnot have I + Xi for every Y i in (10-46), we edge (directed) from a to b. On substituting series for four-vertex, get the following configuration-counting simple
For
a simple
digraphs.)
B(x)
==
\037[(I + 24
X)12 +
X 2
+ 6(1 + x)2(1
6(1 + 13x 3 +
+
X 4
)S +
8(1 +
)4
+ 3(1
== I +
+
7
)6 +
2
)3]
x + 38x
+
5x
+
8
27x 4
+
38x 5 +
Xli
48x 6
X 12.)
( 1 0-47))))
27x
13x
5x 10 +
264)
ENUMERATION
OF GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
.)
r:)
r:)
Fig. 10-13
Simple
r:)
unlabeled
I)
o)
.)
digraphs
of four vertices and two
edges.)
four in
The coefficientof x j in (10-47) is the number of simple digraphs with vertices and j edges. For example, the five digraphs of two edges are shown
Fig.
10-13.
The general expression for the cycle index, Z(M n ), of the permutation group on n(n - 1) ordered pairs induced by Sn is given in [1-5], page 180. the approDigraphswith parallel edges can be enumerated by substituting in Z(M n ).) priate figure-counting series, say (10-43),
SUMMARY)
areas in graph theory Enumeration of graphs is one of the most involved we have briefly and deserves an entire to itself. In this volume chapter, most of them being some enumerative presented techniques-the important in The theorem. using P6lya's theorem is P6lya's counting major problem
finding
the
appropriate
of a
One could think
permutation a hundred
each presenting
special
group and then different types We have, in problem.
obtaining
its cycle
index. the
of graphs to be countedthis
chapter,
counted
of labeled of unlabeled graphs (enumeration graphs is multi much easier): (1)rooted free trees, trees, (3) simplegraphs,(4) graphs, (2) and (5) simple digraphs. Important as these types of graphs are, they were in as illustrations. One could, for example, be interested enumerated mainly that are n with vertices all unlabeled, simple graphs (1) connected, counting and so on. or (4) self-dual, or (2) planar, or (3) nonseparable, and reported as have been enumerated Many such types of graphs there are of research in the but literature, graphs that have many types papers to be counted.) yet
following five types
REFERENCES)
to supplement the recommended 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 of [10-1] are strongly this chapter. For see the paper by enumeration, survey of the literature in graph which contains a list of 66 solved problems Harary [10-4], as well as Chapter 15 of [1-5], The latest list of 27 with the appropriate references where the solutions are to be found. in another article by Harary in graph enumeration is discussed unsolved [10-51. problenls which For a lucid exposition of P6lya's counting see the paper by deBruijn, theorem, appears as Chapter 5 in [10-1], or see Chapter 5 of the book by Liu [8-3]. For some to graph enumeration, see[10-2], excellent of applications of P6lya's theorem illustrations [10-6], [10-7], [10-8], and Chapter 6 of [3-1 1].))) Chapters
material
in presented an exhaustive
CHAP.
10)
PROBLEMS)
265)
Many on, can

given
counting problems
be
regarded
in chemistry, as graph-enumeration
physics,
6 of [10-1] and in [10-4]. in Chapter mechanics is given in problem in statistical automata is given in [12-5]. The pioneering papers of Cayley, Redfield, and P6lya are not list. They have been referred to in most of the following: 10-1. BECKENBACH, E. F. (ed.), Applied Combinatorial Mathematics,
biology, information theory, and so of such applications is problems. A survey A detailed treatment of an application to a of distinct [10-9]. An application to counting
included John
in the
following
Wiley &
Sons,
Inc., New
10-2. 10-3.
HARARY,
Trans.
HARARY, Michigan
1964. F., \"The Number of Linear, Directed, Am. Math. Soc., Vol. 78, 1955,445--463. F., \"Note on the P6lya and Otter
York, Math
Rooted
and Connected
Graphs,\"
10-4. HARARY,
Physics
10-5.
HARARY, Enumeration
10-6.
10-7. 10-8.
PALMER,
Forn1ulas for Enumerating Trees,\" Journal, Vol. 3, 1956,109-112. Enumeration Problems,\" in Graph Theory and Theoretical F., \"Graphical (F. Harary, ed.), Academic Press,Inc.,New York, 1967, 1--41. Under Group Action: Unsolved Problems in Graphical F., \"Enumeration IV,\" J. Combinatorial Theory, Vol. 8, 1970, 1-11. E. M., \"Methods for the Enumeration of Multigraphs,\" in The Many Graph
Facets of
New
READ,
Theory
New \037'On
York,
Inc.,
York,
R. C.,
the
(G. Chartrand and S. F. Kapoor, eds.),Springer-Verlag 1969,251-261. of Self-Complementary Number Graphs and Digraphs,\"
38,
J. London
ROBINSON,
Math. Soc.,Vol.
R. W.,
1963,99-104.
J. Combinatorial \"Enumeration of Non-separable Graphs,\" Theory, Vol. 9, No.4, Dec. 1970, 327-356. 10-9. UHLENBECK, G. E., and G. W. FORD, \"Theory of Linear Graphs with Applications of the Properties of Gases,\" in Studies in to the Theory of the Virial Development NorthStatistical Mechanics, Vol. 1 (1. de Boer and G. E. Uhlenbeck, eds.), Holland Publishing Amsterdam, 1962, 123-21I.) Company,
PROBLEMS)
10-1.
Satisfy yourself that for a set of is indeed an equivalence relation. transitive.

Prove
graphs
isomorphism
(as defined
is
in
Section
2-1)
That
is, the
relation
reflexive,
symmetric,
if degree
and
of
10-2. 10-3.
that
a vertex
appears
in sequence
(I0-3) m
times
if and
only
V=M-l.
Prove
that is one
a digraph
digraph A
in
which
vertex
can be decomposed into

every of a
(Hint:
In such a
that
the in-degree as well as the out-degree one or more vertex-disjoint directed is a directed circuit.) component
of
every
circuits.
10-4.
if the subset satisfies a subgroup finite group forms the existence of the inverse of an element closure postulate. (Hint: Show a E A as follows: Elements a, a 2 , a3, . . . cannot all be distinct because the group is finite, but they must all be in A because of the closure Suppose that property. - a P = a q , where p > q. Therefore, a P q = 1 or a-I = a p q I .)
Prove
a subset
the
10-5.
P on an object set S forms a group, the set R that if a set of permutations permutations induced by P on set S x S also forms a group. [Hint: Prove on S x S induced closure by showing that the composition of two permutations by the comby any two pernlutations lll, 112 (in P) is the permutation induced
Prove
of all
d. Then position (1l2.1l
use
Problem
10-4.])))
266)
ENUMERATION OF
GRAPHS)
CHAP.
10)
10-6.
of the identity Show that the cycle index of a group consisting permutation is Y1, k being the number of elements in the object set. 10-7. Show that the cycle index of the induced pair group R 3 is the same as that That is,) = 1
only
of S 3.
Z(R3)
10-8.
Show that
the
cycle index Z(Ss)
6(Y1 + 3YtY2 + 2Y3). of Ss, the full symmetric group of degree five,
+
is
5! (YI
+
10Y?Y2 +
20Y2Y3
20YTY3
15YtY\037
30YtY4 +
+ 24ys).
(10-48)
10-9.
Show that unordered
the
pairs
cycle index of the induced by S 5) is
unordered
pair
group Rs (on
the
set
of 10
Z(Rs)
5 !(Yl
+
10yty\037
+ 20YIY\037 + +
15YTY\037
30Y2yi
Problem
20YtY3Y6
24y\037).
(Hint:
Use the
result of
10-8.)
10-10.
colors.
Find the different three of an octahedron with ways of painting the six vertices if they cannot be made to coincide Two octahedrons are coloreddistinctly First show that the cycle index of the permutation by any rotation. [Hint: group is
(y\037 + 2\037
6YfY4
-+ 3YfY\037
+
I
6y\037 +
8YJ).
Then substitute
the
figure-counting
series
values
x \037-
+ x'.]
10-11.
List six
all partitions of 5, vertices. (You may
and use them
use
the
to find U6, the number of of U t, U2, . . . , Us given
unlabeled trees of in this chapter.)
10-12.
Given a square, show that there are exactly eight distinct motions (combinations of rotations and reflections) which the square into coincidence with itself. bring D 4 ). Furthermore, form a group (called dihedral Show that these motions group
show
that
the
cycle index
Z(D 4 )
of
1
this
group
is +
3y\037 +
g(Yt
2YTY2
2Y4).
the order of Dn, the group of symmetries of a regular n-sided polygon, Find the cycle index of Dn. 10-14. with four beads-some blue and some Suppose that we are to make necklaces are considered green. How many distinct necklaces are possible? Two necklaces to the other by any combination of indistinguishable if one can be made identical Use Z(D 4) and follow the procedure of example 1.] rotation and flipping. [Hint: 10-15. Find the number of different ways of painting the four faces of a pyramid with two colors. 10-16. Find the counting series for unlabeled, connected graphs with exactly one simple, circuit. [Hint: Use'Z(Dn) and consider the graph as consisting of a single circuit with one or more trees attached to its vertices.] 10-17. Find the series for the structural of saturated alcohols isomers counting rooted tree in which 10H. CnH2n+ (Hint: Consider the compound as an n-vertex each vertex is a carbon atom. The carbon atom correcarrying the OH radical find the counting series for unlabeled, rooted trees in sponds to the root. Then which the root is at most of degree three and the nonroot vertices are at most of degree four.))))
10-13.
Show that
is 2n.
CHAP.
10)
PROBLEMS)
267)
A permutation 1l applied on the vertex set V of a graph G is called an automorphism of G is an isomorof G, if 1l preserves the adjacency. That is, an automorphism Q(G) on G forms a phism with itself. Prove that the set of all automorphisms This group will obviously be a subgroup of Sn. Use the result of (Hint: group. is also that an automorphism followed Problem 10-4, after observing by another an automorphism.) G if G is (a) a completegraph 10-19. Find the automorphism group Q(G) of a graph with n vertices. Find number a graph with minimum of n vertices, and (b) a circuit of vertices n > 1 in which Q(G) consists of only the identity permutation. is 10-20. Prove that the number of ways an unlabeled n-vertex graph can be labeled n!/I Q(G)\\, where I Q(G)\\ is the order of the automorphism group Q(G) of G. of group theory. The The problem (Hint: knowledge requires some additional proof can be found on page 180in [1-5].))))
10-18.
GRAPH-THEORETIC
11)
ALGORITHMS
AND COMPUTER PROGRAMS)
a digital computer in solving graph-theoretic problems an important part of learning graph theory, especially for those interestedin applications. Most of the practical problemswhich call for graph for hand theory involve large graphs-graphs that are virtually impossible In fact, one of the reasons for the recent computation. growth of interest in has been the arrival of the high-speed electronic computer. theory graph Problemsthat hitherto were of academic interest only are suddenly being solved by the computer, and their solutions are applied to practical situations. have been written to handle Computer programs successfully large graphs
be
To
able
to use
is undoubtedly
encountered in networks, circuit

We
fast limit
must
PERT, layouts,
flow and
problems, the like.

that
transportation
although
networks, electrical
are computers they quickly reach problems (in fact,
very their any
and
hasten to add, however, 9 operate at nanosecond (10if used as a brute force to solve
our
second)
speeds,
graph-theory
combinatorial
problem).
Consider,
for example, the
problem of
finding
circuit in a weighted complete graph of n vertices, - ])! different are traveling salesman problem. There t (n circuits. One may be tempted to use brute Hamiltonian force and generate all their Hamiltonian circuits and compare For a graph with 10 vertices, weights. the number of Hamiltonian circuits is t - 9! = 181,440, and this method may we have be all right. But for a graph of 20 vertices,
lowest-weight that is, the
Hamiltonian
t-(n
- I)! =
t-19!
\037
10 16 ,
one
and to
second would require about

6
perform t - 19!
operations
at the
rate of even = 2 years.)
operation
per nano-
x
X
10
10 16 3 X 107
268)))
SEC.
11-1)
ALGORITHMS)
269)
the aid of mathematical tools one cannot amply clear that without the desired numerical answer, regardless of the speed of the elecof the computer must be combined with the tronic computer. The power of mathematical techniques. ingenuity is the case with all combinatorial As problems, the manipulation and and subgraphs is essentially nonnumerical. That of graphs is, in analysis Thus
hope
it is
to get
the decision-making of the programs it is primarily ability graph-theoretic its ability to perform arithmetic operations. computer that is used rather than In this chapter it is assumed that the reader has some familiarity with
computer
programming.)
11-1.
An
ALGORITHMS)
algorithm
a certain mathematical is, in essence, a recipe for solving It a consistsof set of that when instructions followed problem. step by step will lead to the solutions of.the problem. be Every step in an algorithm must and must terminate after and an unambiguously defined, algorithm precisely in a finite number of steps. As pointed out having solved the given problem Knuth must have five features: 4, [11-39], page every algorithm by important and effectiveness. finiteness, definiteness,input, output, in be An algorithm can be expressed different forms: (I) the steps may in English; (2) it may be in the form of a computer written written program in complete detail in the language understandable by the machine in use; or be expressed in a form betweenthese two extremes, (3) the algorithm may such as a flow chart. Each form has certain advantages and shortcomings. in ordinary an algorithm is first expressed Usually, language, then converted into a flow chart, and finally written in the detailed and precise language so
that
a machine
can execute it.

flow
of chart is the best. It is the most popular form and It is the of language programming expressing independent of the computer the student may have at his disposal. As examples of actual at the end of this of several tested programs are provided listings programs, in is One of the APL (A Programming programs Language), and the chapter.
For our purpose the
an algorithm.
others are in
FORTRAN.
it is supnot only do what must of Algorithms: An algorithm Efficiency criteria for efficiency of posed to do, but must do it efficiently. The two main and computation-time an algorithm are the memory requirements as a funcIn our case the input and its size is is a graph, tion of the size of the input. e. Formost graph probthe number of vertices, n, and the number of edges, not the bottleneck, but the comlems the memory requirement is generally time can be (as we saw in the opening remarks of this chapter). putation In evaluating of an algorithm one n1ay seek the \"worstof merit the figure case\" execution time (i.e., the time taken for the worst possible choice of a)))
270)
GRAPH-THEORETIC of the
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
graph
case.\"
Often,
given size),
than
or
the
\"best-case\"
execution
time
or the \"average-
one algorithm is available for one graph-theoretic one algorithm can easily be seen to be more efficient than for all nontrivial graphs. In many the relative others, cases, however, efficiencies can be compared in the context of the size and structure of only the graph, detailed implementation of the algorithms, and the computer used. A detailed of the performance of a graph-theoretic is analysis algorithm in such analyses, as that involved. We will not indulge would reextremely on quire a chapter in itself. We will, however, make some grossobservations of the algorithms; namely how the computation time grows as complexities a function of n or e, as nand e become that the worstvery large, assuming case graph is provided as the input. Such an index of performance, too unrealistic to be useful in estimating the expected time of a computation
more
problem.
Sometimes
program, is often
studies.)
valuable
in classifying
algorithms
and
in
their
theoretical
11-2.
INPUT: COMPUTER REPRESENTATION

OF
A GRAPH)
has someinputs-thedata with which the algorithm begins as a for the input for (just recipe a dish calls for raw ingredients). Naturally, our algorithms here will be one or more graphs (or digraphs). A is graph and is in a in to stored the one of followgenerally presented digital computer five forms. Each has advantages and disadvantages.The choice ing depends the type of machine, and whether on the graph, the problem, the language,
An algorithm
or
not
the graph is
modified
The
during
the
course
of the
in
computation.
a graph
is fed
scribedin [11-25] and

tinct number
n by
(a) Adjacency to a computer is its

Matrix:
most popular
matrix. use
form
which
or digraph
a dis-
adjacency
For example,
algorithms deassigning
[11-47] the
to each of
n binary matrix X(G) is used for representing G during input, storage, is either a 0 or a I, the and output. Since each of the n 2 entries adjacency 2 Bits can be packed into words. matrix requires n bits of computer memory. in bits a the number of Let w be the word length (i.e., computer word) and n be the number of vertices in the graph. Then each row of the adjacencymain fn/wl machine words. of n bits trix may be written as a sequence (fxl denotes the smallest integer not less than x.) The number of words required to store
the
the adjacency matrix. After n vertices of the given graph (or
digraph) G, the
adjacency The
matrix
adjacency
is, therefore, nfn/wl. matrix of an undirected
graph is symmetric,
in it.)))
and
therefore
This requires storing only the upper triangle is sufficient. often costs bits This saving in storage, of storage. however, it is worth plexity and computation time. In some problems
only
n(n
- 1)/2
com-
increased
SEC. 11-2)
INPUT:
COMPUTER
REPRESENTATION
OF A GRAPH)
271)
It must
without
sent
be kept
parallel
parallel
in mind that the adjacency edges. As discussed in Chapter edges in an adjacency matrix.
7, it
matrix is defined for graphs is not possible to repre-
(b) Incidence
storing
Matrix:
Occasionally,
an incidence
algorithm
and
manipulation
matrix
of a
uses the incidence storage,which might

because
graph. The
A(G).
be more
An incidence matrix than the n 2 bits needed

than
the
number
occasions
n. On rare
ther
than
storage.
use the incidence ramatrix the in spite of the increased requirements in matrix, adjacency Incidence matrices are particularly favored for electrical networks
networks.
representation numbered
in
of edges e is usually greater it may be advantageous to
matrix is also used for for example, n. e bits of requires for an adjacency matrix, the number of vertices
in [11-68],
and switching
(c) EdgeListing:Another
the graph as vertex pairs, having order. For example, the digraph
Fig.
used is to n vertices in 11-1 would appear

often the
(3,
list
all
edges arbitrary
of
some
ordered pairs: (I, 2), (2, following this graph been undirected,we (5, 2). Had
each
1),(2,4),
2), (3, simply
3), (3,
ignore
in
as a set of the 4), (4, 1),(4, 1),

the ordering
representation
in
would
vertex
pai r.
self-loops
of a graph
The
and Clearly, parallel edges or digraph.
can be
included
n)
this
number
of bits
required to
label (1through
<n
each
vertex
is b, where
2
And
b- 1
< 2
.)
since
each
of the e
is)
edges requires storing

2e.
two
such
numbers,
the total
storage required
Comparing
than
b bits.)
this
this
adjacency
with
n 2 , we
see that
representation
is more
economical
the
matrix
if)
2e.b In
<
n 2.)
for a graph whoseadjacency matrix is sparset, edge listing method of storing the graph. convenient form for inputting a graph into the comEdge listing is a very but the storage, within the retrieval, and manipulation of the graph puter, For extensive search techniques computer become quite difficult. example, be required for finding out whether or not a graph is connected would
is a
other words, more efficient
(Algorithm
in
Section
1-4).
A
(d)
Two Linear
by
Arrays:
slight
variation
the graph
two
linear
arrays,
say F
= (/1,/2' . . . ,Ie) and

called
of edge
listing
is H
to represent = (h l' 11 2 , . . .
sparse
,)
t A matrix that contains many zero elements is matrix implies a small e/n ratio.)))
a sparse
matrix. A
adjacency
272)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
Fig.
11-1
A digraph.)
ith just
he)' Each entry h to vertex hi

J:. and hi\") For two arrays)
in if G
these
is a
label. The G is undirected, digraph. (If

arrays
is a vertex
in
edge e i is from vertex e i as between consider
example,
the digraph
Fig.
11-1 would
be represented
by
the
F == (5,2,1,3,2,4,4,3,3),
H
This
==
(2,
], 2,
2, 4,
the
I, 1,4,
3).)
representation,
sorting
which was
in weighted
used in
algorithm
in [II-58],
lends itself
are
to
convenient
graphs. The storage requirements

method
the
same
as in (c).
efficient
used frequently for graphs n linear means of After large arrays. the in the numbers . . . we order, ], 2, , n, vertices, assigning any represent each vertex k by a linear array, whose first element is k and whose remaining are the vertices that elements are immediate successors of k, that is, the vertices which have a directedpath of length one from k. (In an undirected graph these are simply vertices adjacent to k.) The five-vertex in Fig. 11-] digraph will in as follows this appear representation.)
in which the
is by
I
Another (e) Successor Listing: ratio e/n is not
: 2
2: 1,4
3:2,3,4
4: 1, 1
5:2)
For
an undirected
graph the neighbors (rather
than
the
successors)
of)))
SEC. 11-3)
OUTPUT)
273)
every
vertex
are listed.
Therefore, each edge appears
twice-an
obvious
red undancy.
with that let of the adjacency matrix, To compare its storage efficiency in the case of a digraph) of the vertices the average degree (out-degrees word is needed for the label of graph. Assuming that one computer each vertex, the total storage requirement for an n vertex graph is n( 1 + day) is more efficient than the adjacency matrix words. Thus the successor listing
day be in the
if)
day <
\037
l-
I,)
being
the
word
length.
neighbor
The successoror
finding
listing
form
is extremely
the
convenient for
graph
path-
algorithms,
and for
a depth-first searchon
[11-61].)
observedthat the foregoing methods of graph representaare necessarily related in that they entirely different. In fact, they one the same information. to convert convey Simple programs can be written in these representaform into another (Problem 11-2). Additional variations at hand. For instance, a weighted tions can be made to suit the requirements can be represented by an n by n weight matrix (also called cost matrix graph that instead of or distance except matrix), which is like the adjacencymatrix It should, matrix. I's the weights of the edges appear as the entries in the
You must have
are
tion
not
however, be kept
rithm
proper
may
of the algoin mind that in many problems the efficiency the graph is presented. Thus the depend on the form in which of the data structure is important.) choice
11-3.
OUTPUT)
the
has an output-the cookeddish from the recipe. Unlike will vary from problem to or more graphs, the output input, the program If we make the consists of may output subgraphs, problem. if an output the the matrices.On other is, hand, print appropriate adjacency we may of planarity of a given graph, a yes or no to the question for instance, YES or NO. In addition, if the answer is ask the program to simply print the we choose to YES, may get planar representation of the graph; or if the For a shortest-path answer is NO, we may ask for the thickness of the graph. a pair the we wish distance to (shortest) between algorithm, may simply print of edges a sequence of specified vertices x and y. Or one may desire to output a shortest describes path between x and y. And so forth. (or vertices)which are as varied as the algorithms. The outputs
Every algorithm
which
is one
Let us now
proceed
with
some
specific
algorithms.)))
274)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
11-4.
SOME
1:
BASIC ALGORITHMS)
Connectedness
Algorithm
and Components)
The
first will
questions be:
will our first algorithm ponents of G? Therefore, connectedness and components of a given graph.
graph G
Is G
one is most likely to connected? If G is not
ask
when
encountering
a new
connected\037 be
what
are the
comthe
one
that determines
the
In addition to of connectedness
being an important and components
question
in its
many
own
other
right,
question
arises in
algorithms.
For
a graph or isomorphism G for separability, planarity, example, before testing with another graph, it may be better for the sake of efficiency to determine the compopents of Gand then each component to the desired scrutiny. subject The connectedness is very basic and may serve as a subroutine in algorithm more involved here graph-theoretic algorithms. (The reader may be reminded that although a graph is connected in drawing a graph one might see whether or not, the connectedness is by no means obvious to a computer or human in other such as those discussedin Secforms, being if the graph is presented
tion
11-2.)
X of a graph, it Given the adjacency matrix is possible to determine whether or not the graph is connected by trying various permutations of rows and the corresponding of X, and then if it is in a blockcolumns checking diagonal form. (See observation 5 in Section 7-9.) This, however, is an inefficient because it may involve n! permutations. A more efficient method method, would be to use Corollary B of Theorem 7-8, and check for zeros in the matrix)
y
This
==
X +
X2 +
...+
Xn-l.)
is not very efficient, as it involves a large number The an is efficient tiplications. following algorithm:
too
of
matrix
mul-
Descriptionof the
of adjacent
Algorithm:
The
basic step
start
in
this
algorithm
is the
in
fusion
vertices
(recall Section 2-7).We

that
with
some vertex
fused
the
graph
and fuse all
vertices
it all
are
adjacent
to it.
that
Then we take the

adjacent
to
vertex
and that
again fuse
of
with
fusion
is repeated
those vertices until no more
are
to it now.
This
verticescan be fused.
a single
This process
indicates
this
a connected
every
component has been\"fused\"

in the
a different
vertex. If
exhausts
we start with graph, the graph is connected. Otherwise, and continue the fusing (in operation. component) vertex to the ith vertex is In the adjacency matrix the fusion of the jth that the row to the ith row is, jth logically adding accomplished by OR-ing, as well as thejth column to the ith column. that in logical adding (Remember
vertex
a new vertex
+0=0+
1 from
column
in
are discarded
matrix,
the
andO+O=O.)Thenthejthrowandthejth matrix. or time (If it is difficult

columns, they
consuming
to
discard the specifiedrows and

the
one are
taking
care
that
may leave these rows and not considered again in any
columns
fusion.))))
SEC.
11-4)
SOME BASIC ALGORITHMS)
275)
a self-loop resulting a fusion appears as a 1 in the main from but parallel edges are automatically by a single edge bereplaced have cause of the logical addition (or OR-ing) operation. These,of course, no effect on the connectedness of a graph. The maximum number have to be performed in this of fusions that may is n - I, n being the number of vertices. And since in each fusion algorithn1 one performs at most n logical additions, the upper bound on the execution time is proportional to n(n - 1).)
Note
that
diagonal,
Read G. Initialize:
subgraph
\037 G,
component
count c
\037 1)
Select
vertex
in
g)
Fuse
new
to i with
all vertices adjacent i, and call the

i)
vertex
No)
Delete from g, vertex i (along with all vertices fused with i) call the
remaining
subgraph
as
g)
c\037c+l)
Yes)
No)
Print
each
its
with
vertices)
Fig. 11-2
Algorithm
1: Components
of
G.)))
276)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
A in
proper
choice
of the
initial
vertex
(to which
adjacent vertices
one 11-6).
are fused)
not pay is
would improve the efficiency, component provided of a price for selecting the vertex itself (seeProblem too much A flow chart of the \"Connectednessand Components
each
did
Algorithm\"
shown
together
given
in
Fig.
11-2.
to
A complete computer program, ready with the legend identifying the

at
be executed,
variables
used
the end of the chapter. Note that program in each component. vertex as the initial To illustrate the program, an input and the resulting output is a 20 by 20 adjacency matrix follows: The input representing
the
written in APL\\360, in the program, is selects a vertex with

are
maximum
degree
shown
as
a 20-vertex
is a list of components (COMP) followed by the names graph, and the output in each Vertex i corresponds to the of vertices (VERT) included component. ith row and column in X. modified program (without vertices of maximum) A slightly selecting
INPUT N
20
o 1
101
10101
0 0 000 1 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 100
1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000
0 0 000 101
0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
100
1 0 000
000
001 001
o 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 001
1
1
o 0 000 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 000 1 100 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 000 0 0 0 0 000 1 1 000 X=)

o
1 000
001 1
0 0
0
000
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 100 1 0
o 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
000
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 001
000
000
0
000
o 000
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000
1 000
000
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0
100000000 11 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 001 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 1 000 000 o 000
o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 101
OUTPUT
000
000
001
1
0)
o 0 000
COMP
1 100 1 0
6 7
1
0 0 0 0 1
1; VERT:
VERT:
10
16
20
COMP2;
COM P
3; 4;
5
17)))
11
VERT: VERT:
VERT:
9
4
COMP
12 14 15
13
caMP 5;
COM P 6; VERT:
18)
SEC. 11-4)
SOME
BASIC ALGORITHMS)
277)
degree
after write.
as the
they The
(with
initial
are
OR-ed
execution
varying
and without with the initial row) time of this FORTRAN

vertices
took
discarding the rows and columns 35 FORTRAN statements to for a typical 50-vertex program
IBM
graph
number
of edges and
components) on the
7044
was
-to- second.)
Algorithm
2:
A Spanning
Tree
and used algorithms in graph most Perhaps the best known frequently a spanning-tree are the spanning-tree algorithms. In its simplest form tree in connected a given algorithm yields one spanning graph. If the graph is a the should disconnected, algorithm produce spanning forest containing 1 n - p edges, where is the number of p > components in the disconnected as a of such an algorithm, we can find out graph. Clearly then, by-product whether or not the graph is connected, and if the graph is disconnected, its In fact, sometimes a spanning-tree algorithm components can be identified. the given is used for testing connectedness of a graph. If, on the other hand, with each has a distance or associated weight edge (weighted graph), graph we may wish to find The a spanning 1xee with smallest possible weight. significance of an algorithm for such a tree (called minimal or shortest spanning for obtain3-10. A spanning tree is also needed tree) was discussedin Section a in A s we some fundamental set circuits. saw Section of 3-9, ing algorithms for generation difficult of all spanning trees (a much more task) in a given connected graph G alsostart by first obtaining one spanning tree. Let the given undirected self-loop-free(if Descriptionof the Algorithm: the be discarded) has graph G contain n vergraph any self-loops, they may . . . , n, and the graph be tices and e edges. Let the be labeled vertices 1, 2, described by two linear arrays F and H [Le.,in the form (d) of Section 11-2] such that h E F and hi E H are the end verticesof the ith edge in G. is tested to see if either or both each At edge stage in the algorithm a new in far. t At the kth stage, 1 < k < of its end vertices tree f(Jrmed so any appear arise: in h five different conditions the e, may examining edge (I k , k )
theory
I.
2.
3.
h k is included in any of the trees constructed so k nor edge is named asa new tree and its end verticesl k , h k are the value of c by 1. c, after incrementing given the component number == If vertexl k is in s.)me tree Ti (i I, 2, . . . , c) and h k in tree Tj (j == ], theretrees; 2, . . . , c, and i * j), the kth edge is used to join these two fore, every vertex in Tj is now given the component number of T;- The val ue of c is decremented by I. If both vertices are in the same tree, the edge (Ik' h k ) forms a fundamental circuit and is not considered any further.) If neither
in G,
vertexl
far
the kth
tlnitially
occur
algorithm
there is no tree formed. The very first edge ([1, hI) considered will always in a spanning tree (or forest). the spanning tree (or forest) Thus by this generated is very much dependent on the ordering of the edges.)))
278)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
4.
If vertexl
k is
in
a tree
to Ti
5.
by
assigning
T i and h k is in no tree, the edge (Ik' h the component number of T,. to h k also.
tree
k) is
added
If vertexlk
is in
no
to Tj by
These
assigning
the
and h k is in a tree Tj' the edge (I k , h k ) is added number of Tj to Ik also.) component

by
five
cases
are marked
circled
numbers
in the
flow
chart
of the
algorithm shown in Fig. 11-3. based on this algorithm depends The efficiency of a computer program or not the end vertices of on the speed with which we can test whether mainly have occurred in any tree formed so far. For the under consideration edge a linear array (called VERTEX in the program we maintain this listtesting, an edge (i, j) is included in the cth tree, the ith and jth ing) of size n. When when another entries in this array are set to c. Subsequently, edge (Ik' h k ) is in array examined, it is only necessary to check if thelkth and the hkth entries VERTEX are nonzero. A zero in the qth position in the array indicates that the vertex q has not so far been included in any tree. At the end of the execution,
this array VERTEX identifies the components be described Unlike a component, a tree cannot as the we must have an array of edges Therefore,
of the
graph.
by a
output.
be calledEDGE.If the
in
set of vertices alone. Let this linear array

in
kth
edge
(in the original
were placed) is
the
cth
tree, EDG
entries in
in the
uniquely
array
EDGE
correspond spanning
main
order E(k) = c; otherwise, to the chords (i.e., the

array,
which
the
edges
it is edges
zero.
not
All zero
included
spanning tree or
identifies
forest).This
loop
together
with
arrays F
and H,
of
the
tree (or
is
In this edges).
algorithm the
forest) generated by this executed e times (e being the
algorithm.
number
or not the end vertices have appearThe time required to test whether of both e and n. Thus the time bound ed in any tree is constant-independent the ratio of the algorithm is proportional to e.t In case for the execution e/n a new variable to keep is high, execution time can be reducedby introducing When this variable reaches the value count of the edges included in the tree. terminate would of n - 1, the (only if the graph is connected; program
otherwise, we must
examine
every
edge).
based on this A ready-to-be-executed program in FORTRAN language, of the For an ALGOL listing is given at the end of this chapter. algorithm, same program, see [11-58].A randomly generated graph of 50 verticestook
iu
second
on
the
IBM
7044,
using
FORTRAN
IV.
Section
Minimal-Spanning-Tree
Algorithms:
by Kruskal
use the
graph
algorithm
suggested
As discussed in to find a shortest
3-10,
we can
spanning
associated
tree
with
only
in
G in which
This can
every edge has a distance (or weight) with the be accomplished algorithm just described. The
it.
addi-)
two partial trees (Tf' Tj ) as implemented in the tThe time required for merging efficient setof n. There are, however, FORTRAN very program is not independent which almost accomplish this.))) available merging algorithms
Read
F.H,n.e
A. \037 1
se t
c\037O
In
\0370)
Yes)
Yes)
c\037c+l
start
new
tree
(fk
Tc with ' h k ))
Yes) I nelude
Inelude
)
Uk. h k in T. I)
(fk' h k in T. J)
Combine into one
tree
T;. Tj. ((k.
hk
c\037c-l)
o)
CD)
CD)
(2))
CD)
In \037In + 1)
Yes)
Pri n t
spannIng
tree/forest)
\037k
+ 1)
Fig.
11-3
Algorithm 2:
Spanning
tree/forest.)
tional
weights,
work required is to first sort the edges in a nondecreasing order of their them by F and H arrays. That is, the following) before representing
279)))
280)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
set
of inequalities
wt
must be
(J:., hJ
satisfied:)
wt
of
edge
<
of
(h+
l' h i +
1)')
for
all
<
< e
I.)
Because
of the
sorting involved,
[3-10]
Kruskal's algorithm
was
is not
as efficient
as
no
the one due to

Dijkstra
Prim
(which
also discovered
independently by
3-10, requires
successively
[11-16]).
The latter
builds
sorting of edges,but
necting
in Sec. algorithm, as outlined a minimal up spanning tree by

its
con-
For a FORTRAN neighbor. of Prim's listing implementation minimal-spanning-tree see [11-70]. The computation time of this is proportional algorithm, algorithm to n 2 , n being the number of vertices, [11-22]. Minimal tree has been found in providing a lower useful quite spanning bound on the length of the traveling salesman's route [11-28].
the partially
an
formed tree to
nearest
of
efficient
Spanning
Trees
with
Desired
Properties:
tree,
one
may wish
to
find
a longest
spanning
with
in trees with other a specified
desired
properties
can
Instead of a shortest spanning tree. Or one may be interested and constraints, such as a spanning tree
Algorithm
maximum degree or diameter.

be used
with
appro-
priate additional sorting or testing
for such
purposes also.
All Spanning Trees: As we shall see in Chapter 13, analysis of Generating electrical networks basically reducesto finding all spanning trees in graphs. a dozen different algorithms Because of this important application, more than for generation of all spanning 3-9 we trees have been proposed. In Section of cyclic interchange. Since the discussed one of these methods, the method number of spanning the efficiency of trees even in a small graph is very large, A these algorithms is of paramount of these methods was survey importance. H e the done Chase in his Ph. D. concludes that most efficient thesis [I 1-8]. by of the which consists is algorithm by Minty [11-43], essentially type suggested of deletion of an edge and of successively reducing a graph by operations of its end vertices. From the spanning trees of reduced fusion (which graphs are much smaller) the spanning trees of the original graph are obtained. To size are not ensure that the algorithm terminates, graphs below a certain instead their spanning trees are obtained A reduced any further; directly. is in ALGOL based on this method given [11-42].) compact program
Algorithm
3:
A Set
of Fundamental
Circuits)
we are required to find a set of fundamental circuits in a given The described be can used for generating graph. spanning-tree algorithm just if is fundamental the additional work circuits following performed: While examining the kth edge (Ik' h k ) in Algorithm 2, if condition 3 arises h k occur instead of simply in the same tree TJ, then (i.e., both vertices/ k and in T form the between this we must find those that edge edges path rejecting i and h and the h a circuit. . This constitute fundamental path edge (Ik' k ) Ik k a is the main here.In this [11-52]tree-felling Finding path problem procedure)))
Sometimes
SEC.
11-4)
281)
where the edge (fk' h k ) is added to Tj, and all pendant are deleted iteratively. This method, however, graph have been proposed by turns out to be inefficient. More efficient methods Welch and Corniel [11-25],and Paton these [11-47]. [11-68], Gottlieb Among to be the most efficient,and is as follows: three, Paton's algorithm appears to see if it Description of the Algorithn1: Here also each edge is tested so far; but instead of taking forms a circuit with the tree constructed the order (as was done in Algorithm 2), we edges themselves in an arbitrary on select a vertex z and examine this vertex by looking at every edge incident is the vertex added most recently to the z. (Vertex z, as we shall shortly see, of the given connected graph G == formed tree.) Let the vertices partially the graph be given by its adjacency matrix (V, E) be labeled I, 2, . . . , n, and T X. Let be the current set of vertices in the partially formed tree, and let W in T as be the set of vertices that are yet to be examined (i.e.,those vertices, on them). well have one or more unexamined edges incident as not in T, which Initially, T == 0 and W == V, the entire set of vertices. We the algorithm start by setting T == I, the first vertex, and W == V. 1 will be regarded as the root of the tree to be formed. After initializaVertex tion, the following procedure is used:
has
been suggested,
verticesof the
resulting
I. 2.
If If
T n T n
W W
==
0,
then the
algorithm is terminated.
z in
* 0,
remove
choosea vertex
every z from
T n
W. on z.
3. Examine z by
edge
left,
considering
edge incident
if vertex
If there
is no
such
W, and go
to step I.
p is in
4.
If
there
is such
find
an edge
the
(z, p), test
T.
5. If pET,
with
fundamental
circuit
consisting of
the
the
unique
path from z to
the
in
tree
(formed
edge(z,p) from
graph,
and go
the
to step 3.
and
edge (z, p) together so far). Delete
6.
As
If
1:-
T, add the
edge (z,
graph,
p) to
tree
vertex p
(z,p) from
mentioned
find
and go
to step 3.
part
to set T. Deleteedge
earlier,
the an
How do we
cedure provides
We maintain
unique answer:
the only tricky path from z
in this
in
to p
the
tree?
algorithm is in step 5. The following pro-
a pushdown list (a stack) TW == T n W, which stores The most recently examined. in the tree that have not yet been those vertices added vertex is at the top of the stack. Each time a vertex is taken for examiand is removed from the stack. nation it is taken from the top of this stack, Two linear of length n are employed: LEVEL(i) being the distance of arrays vertex the root of the spanning tree (i.e.,vertex i from being I), and PRED(i) a vertex v such that (i, v) is an edge in the tree with v nearer the root. In of i in the path from the root to i. other words, PRED(i)is the predecessor =-- - I if and LEVEL(i) only if vertex i is not in set T, the current set of tree to - 1 for i == 2, 3, . . . , n.))) vertices. LEVEL( Initially, I) is set to 0 and LEVEL(i)
282)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
In
step
5 vertex
z is under examination and an
edge (z, p) has

formed
by
been
found
such that
the tree,
ing
we trace the
vertex pET.
To find
unique
the
fundamental
circuit
(z, p)
with
the
PRED(p),
to p in the tree by successively findtill we encounter predecessors PRED(z), PRED(PRED(z\302\273,..., as shown in Fig. 11-4, the) the predecessor of p. In other words,
path
from z
(Root))
(Unexamined
vertex in
T))
(Examined
vertices))
p)
PRED
(PRED
(z))
(z)))
PRED
(Vertex
being examined))
(Unexamined
vertex))
Fig.
11-4
Generation
is)
of a
fundamental
circuit.)
fundamental
circuit
z,
generated
PRED(z),
PRED(PRED(z\302\273,.
. . , PRED(p), p, z.)
the
The
most
k every vertex examined. That
important thing in T is a vertex is, if k E T n

PRED(k)
to note is
which W,
that
predecessor
is either then)
already
PR ED(k) of examined or is being
t- W
but
PRED(k)
T.)
flow
chart
executedFORTRAN
The pends
of the algorithm is
program
given
is provided
execution time is bounded by and on the structure of the graph
in Fig. 11-5, and a ready-to-beat the end of the chapter. V n , 2 < v < 3, and the value of v dealso on the labeling of vertices [11-47].)))
Read
n, X)
Initialize:
TW\037 1
LEVEL
\037-1
LEVEL (1) +-0)
Yes)
\037
top
of TW
TW)
pop
Yes)
Pick an edge
(i.e.Xzp
(z, p)
= 1 ))
No)
Output
circui t
the
fundamental
Add
push
(z, p) to tree p in TW
\037z \037LEVEL
(z), PRED (PRED (z \302\273,)

. . . ,)
z, PRED
PRED (p)
LEVEL (p)
(z) +
PRED
1)
(p), p,
z)
zp
\0370 \0370)
pz
Fig.
t 1-5
Algorithm 3:
Fundamental
circuits.)
283)))
284)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
Although
for
will
algorithm
fundamental
After
LEVEL(y)
work
we assumed that simplicity for disconnected graphs

component
first with
the
graph
is connected,
it
the
all
I.
that
also. First, of a spanning

is no
will
produce
vertex
circuits in the having exhausted the

=
component, y as
the containing we select a

there
starting
vertex y such
tree
-),
and start
the root
till
in the
with
continues component. This procedure
vertex
left
second - I as
(using
its
LEVEL.
Typically for FOR TRAN IV)

All Circuits
in
graph
of
50 vertices
took an
second
and 132 edges the IBM to generate a set of fundamental
7044
circuits.
Graph: All circuits of an undirected graph be found by first forming the set of all linear combinations (i.e., ring of the fundamental circuits and then discarding from this set all those circuit sets that contain other circuits. (This is becausea linear combination of circuits can be either a circuit or a union of edge-disjoint circuits. And a
Undirected
might sums)
union
of edge-disjoint
combinations
every
circuits contains
inefficient.
other J.l
circuits.) fundamental
Such circuits
however, would be very

linear
From
an algorithm, 2 JJ - J.l - 1
must be
other
pairwise with
approach
may
to test
made, and then each of these mu.st be compared a different for containment. Therefore,
has to
the
be taken.
To reduce
be
tempted
soon as it is that a genuine

another
storage requirement to suggest discarding This approach, generated.
circuit was
generated
one and the number of comparisons, of circuits as every edge-disjointunion we might find For however, is faulty. of some discarded circuit set and combination
circuit
later.
that
the fundamental circuits so of ordering before of edge-disjoint circuits as it is produced discard a union and then make pairwise comparigenerating all 2JJ - J.l - I combinations sons. In a more recent paper [11-24], Gibbs has pointed out an error in for Gibbs's Welch's algorithm and has proposeda modification. algorithm
one
Welch [11-68]proposeda scheme

could
of fundamental circuits is essentiallyan storage proportional to 2JJ . Finding an efficient for identifying all circuits in a graph is an open problem. For algorithm see Prabhaker [II-50].) a survey of circuit-generation algorithms
generation
of all circuits from
a set
exhaustive
method
and requires
Algorithm
4:
Cut-Vertices
that
and Separability)
a graph
Having found out
most likely
cut-vertices
to in
ask G?
connected, the next question one is is: Is the graph G separable? That is, is there one or more like to find the cut-vertices If the answer is yes, one would
G is
of G. and the blocks (maximal subgraphs) nonseparable are important in the study of As pointed out in Section 4-5, cut-vertices this algorithm may serve network. Moreover, vulnerability of a communication and as a subroutine such as for planarity for other isomorphism.))) algorithms,
SEC.
11-4)
285)
Preliminary
Simplification: disconnected,
to
In
this
algorithm,
as in
perform
ity
some preliminary
being
of
simplification. If the given we could a pply Algorithm

all the
graph
most others, it pays to has the possibil1 and consider each
component as a connectedgraph.It will
execution time
be a waste of computer memory and components of a disconnected graph. if the graph all the selfis not simple, we can immediately discard Similarly, or absence has no effect on loops and parallel edges,since their presence we can prune the Third, if the graph has any pendant vertices, separability. vertices. (In the pruning we graph by repeatedly deleting pendant process must keep in mind that every vertex adjacent to a pendant vertex is a cutvertex, except in the trivial case where the graph consists of just one edge.)
drag
along
Usually
these
simplifications method of a
will have
substantially
reduced
the
size of the
original graph. t
A testing
straightforward separability
(which was used graph would be to remove
in
[5-8], each
for vertex
for example) in turn (by
deleting the correspondingrow
and column from then to test the resulting for connectedness, graph is an inefficient method, and we can do better
its adjacency matrix X) and using Algorithm I. But this a different using approach,
the
suggested
Let us
by
Read
[11-53].
result
recall a
if
from
Chapter
4: Two
edges are in
contains
same
block
if
and
only
there
exists
first
at least
one circuit
that
(Problem 4-10).At of a blockwe would

storage-consuming
to use sight it may a ppear that have to generate all circuits-an
these edges this characterization

both
obviously timethat
and
The following two results, however, reveal would suffice to generate only a set of fundamental circuits:)
affair.
LEMMA I)
it
nonempty
intersection
of
two
fundamental
circuits
in a graph is
always
path.)
Prool:
chords
forming
With respect to fundamental

and
some specified tree spanning circuits 11 and 12, respectively.

connected
this in
T, let
path
eland
e2 be two
Then
tains
two edges, x
(that
y, not
j'1
n 12,
end
there is a
vertices
if 11 n j\037 conPI in 11 between
x and y
the
is,
end-vertices
a path of edge
inj\037
between one y); and

between
of the
of edge
path
does
not contain
there
is a
path P 2
x and y
that does
contain chorde2 . Then
x and one of chord e l' Similarly,

the
subgraph)
PI U P 2
contains a circuit
without
{x,y})
containing
any chord,
performed
which is
only
impossible. .)
produces a
net
tA
running
preliminary
time.)))
simplification
is to be
if it
saving
in
286)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
II)
LEMMA 2
band
then
In a graph G if edges a and b belong to a fundamental circuit /;, and c belong to another fundamental circuit fj such that a t- fj and a and c both are in r.) r in G such that there exists some circuit The proof
follows
if
edges
c t-
.f\"
Proof: b but not

containing
from E9 fj
a or c. Therefore,j; a and c. .)
as each
the
Lemma 1, because /; n Ii is a circuit (not an edge-disjoint
is a
path
containing
union
of circuits)
Descriptionof the
one,
and
If we generate fundamental circuitsone by Algorithm: fundamental circuit is generated we labelt (or relabel) all its
the
edges identically, using

blocks
in
following
procedure,
we
will
have
identified
the
graph:
Each edge in the first fundamental circuit is labeled with 2's. When the second fundamental circuit is found, it will have either all its edges unlabeled, or some of its edges would be labeled 2. In the former case, label every edge of the second fundamental circuit with 3's, and in the latter case with 2's. When this process reaches the mth (I <\037 m < e - n + I) fundamental cirof three conditions:) cuit, we may find anyone
l. If every
them
others
3.
with
edge
in the
mth fundamental q + I.
fundamental
the
circuit is unmarked,
label
all of
a new
integer
the
2. If some edgesin
Suppose
others
mth
are unmarked,
labeleach of
unlabeled
circuit are marked u ones as u also.
and
all
that some edges in the mth fundamental circuit are marked . and others . . are and some unmarked. Let u < v < w, u, v, , w < . . . . Then relabel all edges marked v, w, . . . , in G as u, and label all unmarked edges in the mth fundamental circuit as u also.)
When this process terminates, after having fundamental circuits generated and labeled the edges in each of them, the following has been accomplished: that belongs to a circuit has been labeled. two Moreover, Every edge any edges have the same label if and only if they are together in some circuit (not In other words, each set of edges necessarily a fundamental circuit). carrying is more identical labels constitutes a block.If there than one block in the the graph is separable. Any vertex on edges with incident different graph, labels is a cut-vertex. An edge that has not acquired any label is a bridge. (A bridge is an edge whose removal disconnects the graph.)
In
this
algorithm
an edge
belonging to a
circuit
gets
relabeled
many)
can be conveniently performed using the adjacency matrix X and by tThis labeling writing over it. The edge between the ith and jth vertices is labeled q (q = 2, 3, . . . , e - n + I), simply by replacing Xij and Xji with q (Xij only, if the upper triangle is used). Entries that are still l's correspond to unlabeled edges. Others will have labels 2, 3, . . . ,
and
so on.)))
SEC.
11-4)
SOME
BASIC ALGORITHMS)
287)
An obvious source of inefficiency. improvement suggested by Paton [I I -48] reduces the relabeling of edges by the following devices: Instead of relabelingthe edges in a fundamental circuit as soonas it is generated, we wait till a vertex z in Algorithm 3 has been completely and then examined,
times-an
assign identical
generated.
labels to
the
fundamental
circuits
(passing
through
z)
thus
be performed n times and not J.l only times. we need not label every edge in the graph (Problem Moreover, 11-11). It is left for the reader to construct a flow chart for the block-identification 3 is completely embedded. Remaining details algorithm in which Algorithm
Therefore,
labeling
has to
can
be found in [11-48]. an entirely different approach, Hopcroft and Tarjan an algorithm the which is faster than Tarjan [I 1-61] have given here for certain types of graphs.Their described uses algorithm
Using
[11-31]
and
algorithm
depth-first
search on the graph (to
be discussed later
< }' <
in
this
chapter),
and the graph is to
be input
in
the
the
e, whereas
proportional Analysis
time
form. Its execution time successor-listing bound for the Read-Paton algorithm
1
is proportional to described here is

of the
n
to nY, where and
2, depending on the
that
structure
graph.
and
extensive
tests show
for
a typical
of
graph of
(on
vertices
edges, Hopcroft
algorithm I I
as
and Tarjan'salgorithm long as e < 5n. For graphs

algorithm
an
outperforms
IBM 7044)
graphs
much
higher
for
Paton's densities (Problem

(since
7 se-
-I)
e<
conds
Paton's 3/1
performed
400-edge
with
better. Thus
algorithm
planar
6), Hopcroft
80-vertex
and Tarjan's
will
in
general
be faster.
Typically, for
5:
for block identification

Directed
either
graph, the IBM 7044 took about of the two algorithms.)
Algorithm
Circuits)
important
One of the most

(also called
things
about
a digraph
is
its
directed
circuits
of directed circuits in many applications cycles). The significance was discussedin Chapter 9. Unlike the case of undirected graphs,no techis known circuits such nique by which we can obtain a basicset of directed that the directed circuit in is as a linear of obtained combination every digraph this basic set. Therefore, Algorithm 3 is of little help in obtaining all directed circuits of a digraph. We must generate every directed circuit individually. For this we must examine each edge (unless the edge is known a priori to times. belong to no directed circuit) many
Preliminary Simplification: Although prior application of the following
it is
not necessary,
will
in
most
cases
the
two
steps
simplify
a given
digraph.
slight
First, if the digraph is likely

modification
to
be disconnected,
use Algorithm
identify
1 [with
for a digraph
(Problem 11-7)]to
one
the
connected
com-
ponents,
delete
and
then
consider
component
at a
them)
time. Second,successively
that
in
all vertices
(and the edges

such
identify
incident on
a vertex
because
have zero
any
or zero out-degree. Clearly, These vertices are easy to
in-degree
circuit.
rows)))
cannot lie
they
directed
correspond
to entire
288)
GRAPH-THEORETIC == d+(v) 0] For example,
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
[for X.
h
would
deleted, hand, 9-2 I.
or columns [for d-(v) == 0] of zeros in the adjacency matrix if the digraph given was the one in Fig. 9-16, edges G, b, and be eliminated. Then in the next go-round edges e and c would be three d, f, and g. On the other leaving us a digraph of only edges, this method of simplification will not reduce the digraph shown in Fig.
This algorithm, first proposed by Roberts Description of the Algorithm: Flores [11-56] and subsequently systematizedby Tiernan uses an [11-63], exhaustive search to find all directed circuits in a given digraph G. As usual, the vertices of G are assigned I, 2, . . . , n as their names. The algointegers rithm a directed on starting from a vertex Pl and building path P == depends no further until vertices (satisfying certain conditions) are (p l' P2' . . . , Pk) \"available\" at vertex it is not possible to extend the directed Pk. At Pk' when is a directed edge from path any further, the algorithm checks to seeif there a directed circuit (PI' P2' . . . , Pk' Pl) has edge, Pk to Pl. If there is such an been found and is duly If there is no such edgein the digraphs, recorded. we move back one vertex the path again from Pk-l to Pk- 1 and try extending a directed circuit is found or (if there is one). Whether along a different edge makes vertex Pk forbidden for the next extension from not, the algorithm avoiding going over the same path). Pk- 1 (thus This for directed .circuitsand then moving back a verof looking process tex is continued till we finally backtrack to the vertex P 1 itself. Thus all directed paths starting recorded. from Pl have been examined and directed circuits The iteration with the next vertex, the entire processis repeated. Starting starts with vertex P 1 == I and ends with P 1 == n. In this exhaustive search for directed we must take the following paths and
precautions:)
I.
In the process of extending a directed circuit must any vertex

available\"
that
each
be avoided.
has
already
path, going round and round This is achieved by insisting that been included in the directed path is \"not
directed
for
extending
the path.
of q
2. Generating a directed circuit

in
vertices
q times-once
at each vertex
insisting
the
circuit-must
be avoided.
is available
This is accomplished by
that
no vertex i
vertex
circuit
< P1
This
Pl.
commences
extension, if the path beginswith for a particular directed the search rule assures that only when its lowest-numbered vertex is at the path
for path
initiation.)
3.
than once during the path The same path must not be considered more an updated list offorbidden This is accomplished by keeping extension. vertices in a binary n by n matrix H == [hij]. The I entries in the ith row that are forbidden from vertex i(i.e., if vertex correspond to the vertices that the vertex is forbidden from i, set hij +-- I). A 0 entry indicates j vertex is not forbidden (i.e., if h ij == 0, then vertex j is not forbidden)))
SEC. 11-4)
SOME
BASIC ALGORITHMS)
289)
from
vertex
i). Matrix
starting
is
reset
to zero
each time a
new
vertex
is
chosen
The
as the
vertex.)
as its adjacency matrix [see Section I digraph is inputted with are labeled as usual 1, 2, . . . , n. The directed integers consideration is represented by a linear array)
-2(a)].
The
vertices
path
under
p =
of
(Pl'P2'... of every
,Pk-l'Pk' 0, 0,...,0,0))
path
order
n. The
first vertex
is P
and
the
last one is
P k.)
Fig.
11-6
Digraph.
example.
be
The algorithm can be best explained with the digraph of Fig. I 1-6, the following steps
Path P
an
will
When
applied to
performed:
PI P2 P3
1 1
P4 ps
Action on P
0 2
1
1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0
0 0 4 4 4 4 4 0 5 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 3 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Report circuit: set h 4 , 3 +No circuit: set h 4 , 5 No circuit: h4, I \037

+h4,2
1
\037 h4,3
+- h4,4 \037
h 4 ,s
+- 0;
h2,4
+-
1 No circuit: h2,S \302\253No circuit: h2, I \037 h2,2 +- h2,3 \037 No circuit: PI +-PI + 1; H \037o
h2,4
+-
h 2 ,s +-
0;
h l
,2 \037 1
2 2 2
2
0 4 4 4
Report circuit:
Report
h 4,
3 \037 1
2
2 2
4
4 0 5
5 0 0
circuit:
h 4, I
No circuit:
h 4 ,s +- 1 +- h 4 ,2 \037 h 4 ,3 \037 h 4 ,4 \037 h 4 ,s +h2,S
0; h2,4 +-
2 2
Report circuit:
No
+-
1
\037o)))
0 0 0
circuit:
PI +-PI
+ 1; H
290)
GRAPH-THEORETIC P (Cont.)
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
Path
PI P2 P3 P4 Ps
3
4
4
Action
on P
0 0
0
5
0 0 0
0
0
Report
circuit:
PI
\037
pt
+ 1;
H \037
0 0
0
No
No
circuit:
4 5
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
h4,S
\037 1
circuit:
PI \037PI stop)
+ 1; H
\037O
No
circuit:
The flow rithm given
chart of this
in
algorithm,
[11-63],
is shown
in Fig.
You must have observed that a systematic and exhaustivesearch for directed circuits. As shown in the example, the same directed path is traversed many times. Even a directed circuit is examined and its several times before turn to be accepted usually rejected arrives. Consequently,the algorithm is very slow, and there is room for considerable improvement. To quote Tiernan this \"would be [11-63], algorithm to a utilize on 50 arcs 7 more than or vertices\"-a costly graph containing small graph indeed. The could be easily modified to generate all directed Hamilalgorithm tonian circuits. This, in fact, was the original purpose of the algorithm as and Roberts Flores reported by [II-56]. A random directed and 434 directed cirgraph of 20 vertices, 55 edges, 17 seconds cuits took about that this method, on the IBM 7044.This indicates a but exhaustive is in terms of inefficient search, quite involving systematic execution time. A similar but somewhat more involved, considerably faster, algorithm but more See also requiring storage was proposed by Weinblatt [11-67]. [11-50].)
is a modified version of the 11-7. this algorithm is nothing more than

which
algo-
11-5.
SHORTEST-PATH
ALGORITHMS)
number of optimization problems are mathematically equivalent shortest paths in a graph. Consequently, shortest-path algorithms have been worked over more thoroughly than any other algorithm in graph More than 100 papers have been and dozens of algorithms theory. published have been proposed. are better than others, some Some of these algorithms are more suited for a particular structure than others, and some are only of earlier algorithms. For a good comparative of minor variations study the various shortest-path 1968, a survey paper by year algorithms through [11-17] is highly recommended.))) Dreyfus
A large to finding
SEC.
11-5)
SHORTEST-PATH
ALGORITHMS)
291)
Read n,
P+-O k +-1
+- I)
PI
Yes)
Clear the list of forbidden
P I +- PI + I P +k PI)
vertices
from
P k)
=)
Make Pk forbidden
from
>
Pk - I)
I k+-k+ +- i) Pk
P k +- 0
k+-k-I)
Fig. 11-7
Algorithm
5: Directed
circuits.)
There are
encountered
first
different
types
among
these
of shortest-path problems. are the following five, of which
Most
we
frequently
shall
solve the
three:)
].
Shortest
path between two

paths
specifiedvertices.
of
vertices.)))
2. Shortest
between
all pairs
292)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
specifiedvertex 4. Shortest path between specifiedvertices

3.
Shortest
paths
from a
to
all others.
that
passes
through
specified
vertices.
5.
In
The
second,
third,
and so
on, shortest paths.)

becomes the
a worst-case
situation,
type
identical shortest
to 3,
because (as we
shall
vertex
see shortly) to another
in the specified
process of finding
path from a
the
specified
all other
Algorithm
vertices. Let
Specified
vertex, we may have us deal with type 1

Path
to
determine
shortest
paths
to
first.)
6: Shortest
from
to
a Specified
Vertex
Another
Vertex)
the can
The another
A
problem of finding specified vertex t,

D
== ==
shortest be stated
path from a as follows:

n
specified vertex
by an
n
to
simple
matrix dij
weighted digrapht where) [dij]' (or
G of
vertices
is described
by
length
distance
or weight) of the
directed edgefrom
vertex
i to
vertex j,
do > 0,
no edge from i to j (in carrying out a program 00 a large number, say 9999999).)
is
d..
II)
==
0,
do
== 00,
if there is by
replaced
the triangle need not be satisfied.That is, inequality n if is satisbe than . the less d d fact, [I triangle inequality may ik jk dij + would be trivial because the direct edge fied, for every i, j, and k, the problem be x to vertex y.] The distance of a would the vertex shortest from (x,y) path directed path P is defined to be the sum of the lengths of the edges in P. The a starting from possible path and its length problem is to find the shortest
In general, do *- dji' and
vertex s to a
terminal
vertex
t.
have been proposed for the shortest path Among several algorithms that efficient one is an algorithm between a specified vertex pair, perhaps the most
due to
Dijkstra[11-16].
Dijkstra's
in the
labels.
of the Algorithm: Description the given digraph. At each stage nent labels and others temporary
of algorithm labels the vertices vertices have some algorithm permaThe
algorithm
begins
by
assigning)
all self-loops, is not simple, it can be simplified by discarding tlf the given digraph them. and replacing every set of parallel edges by the shortest (least-weight) edge among = d ji , and effectively For an undirected graph Also, the graph need not be directed. dij directed edges of the same weight. each undirected edge is replaced by two oppositely the disIf the graph is not weighted, assume dij = ], and the adjacency matrix becomes
tance
matrix.)))
SEC. 11-5)
SHORTEST-PATH
ALGORITHMS)
293)
a permanent n remaining
label 0 to
I
the
starting
vertices. label,
From according
gets a
permanent
vertex s, and a then on, in each to the following

permanently
by)
temporary label 00
iteration
to
the
another
vertex
rules:)
gets a new
I.
Every
vertexj
that
is not
is given
yet
labeled
temporary
label whose value

min
[old
label of
j, (old label of
i +
dij)]')
(11-1))
tion, not
where i is the latest vertex permanently and di} is the direct distance between
joined
labeled,
vertices
in the previous iterai and j. If i and j are
by an
edge,
then
dij
== 00. the
2. The
smallest value among all

the
temporary
labels
is found, and
vertex.
this
becomes
permanent
label of the
the
corresponding
for permanent
the
In
case
of
a tie, select
anyone
of
candidates
labeling.) vertex
t
Steps 1 and 2 are repeated alternately

permanent
until
destination
gets
label.
The first vertex to be permanently labeled is at a distance of zero from s. The second vertex to get a permanent I n label (out of the remaining is 2 n the the vertex closest s. the to From vertices, vertices) remaining next one to be permanently so is the second closest vertex to s. And labeled on. The permanent label of each vertex distance of that vertex is the shortest from s. This statement can be proved (Problem 11-13). As an by induction illustration of Dijkstra's us find the vertex B to let distance from procedure, G in the digraph shown in Fig. 11-8. We shall use a vector of length seven to show the temporary and permanent labels of the vertices as we go through the solution. The permanent labels will be shown enclosed in a square, and the most is indicated by a recently assigned permanent label in the vector
tick
o!
The labeling
B../
(Q]
[Q]
proceeds
as follows:)
A
00
C
00
1./
D
00
E
00
00
F
00
00
G
00
Starting
Vertex
B is
labeled
O.
7 7
00
00
00
00
[ill
ill] [Q]
[JJ
OJ OJ
00
00
All successors of B get labeled. Smallest label becomes permanent.
4
4
4../ @]
@]
00 00 14
5 5 5
4./
[1J [1J
00
00 I 1
of C get Successors
labeled.
(Q] [Q] (Q] [Q] (Q]

(Q]
[JJ IT] IT] OJ IT]

[JJ
14 12
12
5 5,/
rn
[1]
@]
11
I 1
@] @]
@]
@]
]1
7./
12
12
rn
rn
@]
@]
[1]:
Destination labeled.)))
vertex
gets permanently
294)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
AND
COMPUTER
PROGRAMS)
CHAP.
11)
2)
B)
10)
c)
Fig.
F)
11-8
Simple weighted digraph.)
for the job of distinguishing the programmed except the vertices from labeled which is ones, permanently temporarily An efficient of method this is to associate slightly tricky. accomplishing indices I, 2, . . . , n with the vertices, and keep a binary of vector VECT order n. When the ith vertex becomes the ith element labeled, permanently 0 to I. in this binary vector changes from A flow chart of this algorithm is given in Fig. 11-9, and a FORTRAN is provided at the end of the chapter. of the program listing The algorithm described does not actually list the shortest path from the vertex to the terminal vertex; it only gives the shortest distance. The starting shortest path can be easily constructed by working backward from the terminal vertex such that we go to that whose label differs exactly predecessor the length of the connecting edge. (A tie indicates more than one shortest by the shortest a record path.)Alternatively, path can be determined by keeping of the vertices from which was labeled permanently. This record each vertex can be maintained linear array of length that whenever n, such by another a new permanent label is assigned to vertex j, the vertex from which j is directly reached is recorded in the jth position of this array.)
All steps
are easily
labeled
Remarks)
I. In this a permanent
destination
algorithm,
had
we continued
than
the labeling
at the
algorithm
until
every
vertex the
got
the
label (rather
vertex
stopping
permanent labeling of
for computer
paths from
starting
t), we would have gotten an s to all other vertices. A vertex

in
program
shortest for this

the
purpose,
2.
written
ALGOL,
is given
from s),
in
[11-6].
If we
take a shortest path
the then
vertices
(which are accessiblefrom arborescence T rooted at vertex
starting vertex the union of
s to each of these paths

s is the be). Such
other be an
will
s.
Every
path
(and
in
from may
shortest path
in
the
digraph
called the
(or graph,
arborescence
as the
case
shortest-distance
shortest-distance
(unique) a tree is tree in an)))
Read D, n, s, t; LABEL \03700 LABEL (s) \0370
VECT
i\037s
\0370, \037 1)
VECT (s)
j\037l)
In \03700)
No)
No)
z \037d
ij
+ LABEL
(i))
LABEL j\037j+
1) No)
(j)
\037z)
Yes) VECT
(p)
\037 1
i\037p)
m \037LABEL
No)
(j)
\037j)
PRINT)
Fig.11-9
Algorithm
6: Shortest
295)))
distance
from
s to
t.)
296)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
AND
COMPUTER
PROGRAMS)
CHAP.
11)
undirected
graph-not
in
to be
3). This
confused
with
the
shortest
duced
in
Chapter
arborescence
may be
constructed as a by-product
spanning
tree intro-
Algorithm
label, and
is added
of
if each
6, if the labeling time a vertex

arborescence.
in
to the
11-8
is continued till every vertex gets a permanent the corresponding is labeledpermanently, edge the shortest-distance arborescence For example,
Fig.
is given
Fig.
11-10.)
2)
(7)
G)
3)
(4) F)
Fig. 11-10 3. In
of Fig. Shortest-distance arborescence
11-8.)
this algorithm,
and
as more vertices
needed In
acquire
permanent
vertex
ber of additions
continues
comparisons
to modify
to
decrease.
the case
additions
where every
and
beled, we need n(n

computation 4. Notice
1 )/2
2n(n
- I) comparisons.
labels the numthe temporary labels lagets permanently

Thus
the
time is proportional to n 2 . n the computation time is independent of the that for a given assumed have. This is because it is tacitly number of edges the digraph may that the digraph is complete-each missing edgeis simply given a very large is also borne out by the following typical data: On weight. This observation the IBM 7044,for a random digraph of 80 verticesand 3200 edges, it took tS secondto find the shortest distance from a given vertex to all others. Another random graph with 80 vertices but only 1000 edgesalsotook is second for the
same computation.
n(n
This can be computation. labels of the temporary alters test which another achieved by incorporating labeled that are successors of the most recent permanently those vertices only for testing taken a trade off here betweenthe time vertex. There is, of course,
it is
5. If the - 1 )],
digraph
is sparse
[i.e., the number

the
of edgese is
of
much
smaller
than
possible
to reduce
time
and the time

given
that
is
saved
which
as a result
takes
another
of
this
test.
An
ALGOL
that
program
graph,
of
is
Dijkstra's algorithm,
in [11-38],
advantage
of the sparseness
technique
of the
pages 43-44. For
reduces
computa-
7. see remark 3 in Algorithm tion time in sparse graphs, of 6. If the given digraph G is not weighted, every edge in G has a weight Then the problem is matrix. one, and matrix D is the same as the adjacency rather than real arithmetic. logical operations simpler. We perform If some))) 7. We have assumed the distances dij are all nonnegative numbers.
SEC. 11-5)
SHORTEST-PATH
ALGORITHMS)
297)
6 will not work. (Negative distances Algorithm The costs and the positive ones profits.) reason 6 is that once a vertex is permanently labeled its for the failure of Algorithm be altered. label cannot been proShortest-path algorithms have, however, will solve this problem, provided the sum of all dij posed (see [11-17]) that is positive. around every directed circuit (The problem has no solution if a s to t exists, from circuit having a vertex on a directedpath negative-weight because then one could continue minimizing the distance to - 00 by going The computation round and round this circuit.) time of the existing algo-
of the
distances are negative,
in
a network
may represent
rithms
that
can
handle
negative
by
di}
is n
3 and
not
that t
8. It
was suggested
T.
A. J.
Nicholson
that
carrying would
the improve
algorithm
simultaneously from both ends sand

shown in
shortest-path the speed.
has, however, Dreyfus [11-17] improve the efficiencyonly

nearly
the double-ended
procedure would
certain
types
actually
of digraphs. In the
either
case where
end or the
all n
other, the double-ended procedureis one-ended procedure. For an ALGOL
vertices must be permanently
labeled from
less
one
efficient
than
Dijkstra's
listing
of Nicholson's
double-ended
program seeAlgorithm
Algorithm 7: of Vertices)
22
in [11-6].)
Between
Shortest Path
All Pairs
n(n
Sometimesone is interested in - I) ordered pairs of vertices available that

being
finding in
the
shortest
paths between all

1 )/2
digraph
(or
n(n
unordered
6 for
pairs of vertices in an undirected this purpose, the computation
were to use Algorithm time would be proportional to n 4 .

graph).
If we
There
are
sideredbest,
improved
on
several algorithms
both
can
do
better.
Among these, two
are con-
time
as [11-15] equally efficient. One is due to Dantzig based [11-60]; the other one is due to Floyd [11-21], require procedure by Warshall [11-65]. Both algorithms computation 3 proportional to n . We shall describe the Warshall-Floyd algorithm.
by Tabourier
Description
of
the
Algorithm:
The algorithm
it is
works by
to do
inserting
one
or
more vertices into

Starting
paths, whenever
the
advantageous
so.
different
with
n by n matrix
Matrix Dk , I < k < . . . , Dn are constructed sequentially. of the of as the matrix whose (i, j)th entry gives the length n, may shortest directed path among all directed paths from i to j, with vertices I, 2, . . . , k allowed as the intermediate vertices. Matrix Dk == [d\037j)] is constructed from Dk- 1 according to the following rule:)
matrices
D == [dij] of
direct distances, n
Dp D 2, be thought
== d\037\037)
Ii
min
[d\037\037 Ii'
- 1)
Ik ( d\037k
- 1)
(k. d ki')
- 1 \302\273 )]
( 11-2))
for
and)
k
d\037J)
== 1,
2, .
. . , n,
== d '))) u
298)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
That do
is, in >
iteration
for 3.
dn +
1, vertex d lj' In iteration 2,

example, The
Suppose,
is 7 4
19 5
following
in the path from vertex i to j if inserted, and so on. that the shortest directed path 7 to 3 vertex from replacements occur:)
1
is
inserted
vertex
2 is
Iteration 1: d\037oJ is
Iteration
Iteration Iteration
replaced
by
(d\037Ol)
d\\oJ).
di\037\302\273.
4:
5: 9:
d\0373J
is replaced
by (d<Jl by by
(d\0374l
+
+ +
d\03743) is d\03783) is
replaced replaced
d\03743\302\273.
(d\0378J
dk
i).)
the shortest distance is obtained in d\03793)' the value of this entry will be altered in subsequent operations. The flow chart of the algorithm is given in Fig. 11-11 and a FORTRAN
Once
listing
not
is given
at the end
of the
chapter.
Its ALGOL not

path
n(n
listing can
be found
in
[11-21].
The algorithm described so far does the shortest distances. Obtaining the
Algorithm
actually list the path; it only gives in is slightly more involved than -
6, because now
there are
the
I) paths
==
required, not
vertices
just
one.
An efficient
method of
obtaining
intermediate
[zij] vertex
a matrix Z shortest paths is by constructing such that entry zij is the first policy matrix), matrix path from i to j. The optimal-policy
Initially
(referred from i
of the to as the optima/along the shortest

in each
Z can
be constructedas follows:
we
set)
==
Zij
J,)
,)
if d.. I)
* 00,
00.
=0
In the
== if d.. I))
kth iteration if vertex k is inserted between i and j, element zij is reof the Z by the current value of Zik' for all i and j. This updating matrix is done during each iteration k, where k == 1, 2, . . . , n. At the end, the shortest path (i, v I' V 2 , . . . , vq,j) from i to j is derived as a sequence of vertex numbers from matrix Z as follows (seeProblem 11-15):)
placed
VI == zij') V2 ==
V3 ==
ZV1,j') ZV2,j')
==
ZVq,r)))
Read
n,
0)
k\037l)
k\037k+
1)
j\037l)
Prin t 0
(=
On ))
No)
s \037d i k + d k j)
No)
d.
IJ)
\037s
No)
j + 1) j \037
Fig.
11-11
Algorithm 7:
Shortest
path
299)))
between
eVery vertex-pair.)
300)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
Remarks)
I.
only this
Notice
one
n by n
that for computational purposes we matrix. Other constructed matrices

we
matrix
need can
memory space be overwritten
for on
matrix.
2. trices
ments
j
of (n =1=
To estimate the execution time, note that D l' D 2 , . . . , Dn' sequentially. For each - 2), because to be is -
have
computed
.
d\037Z-1)
(n
l)(n
in
to construct n manumber of eleEq. (11-2) i =1= j, i =1= k,

D k the
k (although,
this
slight
n 2) :::= 3
for simplicity, in the flow chart saving). Thus the execution time
=
we have not taken

is
advantage
proportional
to n(n
- 1)
00 in Eq. (11-2), it is possible to circumvent n - 1 is a trade additions and comparisons in exchange for an additional test. This 7 is off just as in Algorithm 6, but since the execution time for Algorithm 3 n to it include extra test for almost to this , every digraph. proportional pays (Note that the test is not included in the flow chart.) 4. If the graph is sparse, that is, the number of edges are far fewer than - I), it is possible to take advantage of the special structure and reduce n(n
3. Whenever
the labor
and subgraph graph. As an

vertices
putations
Torres
5. As
with
in each Shortest paths are obtained the graph. these are put together to obtain the shortest paths in the entire extreme example, considerthe case in which a digraph of n each. The number of comconsists of the two digraphs of nl2 vertices of 75 per cent. See H u and reduces from n 3 to 2(nI2)3, a reduction [11-33] for decomposition algorithms.
by
decomposing
in
Algorithm
6, if the digraph
is
unweighted,
that
is,
D =
X,
the
computational
logical
time
operations.
can be
reduced by
replacing
the
arithmetic
operations
Transitive
us construct
Add path transitive
an (of
Let G be a simple, n-vertex digraph. Let Closure of a Digraph: edges to G as follows: simple n-vertex digraph by adding edge (i,j) directed from vertex i to j if and only if there is a directed H is called the 1) from i to j in G. Digraph any length 2, 3, . . . , n of G. In other words,) closure
another
X(H)
==
R(G),) Hand
where
X(H) is the adjacency

matrix
matrix
of
R( G) is the
reachability (or
G can
X(G),
accessibility)
It is
of
G.
the
easy to
by
see that
transitive
obtained
applying
ALGORITHM
closure 7 to the
of a
given
digraph
matrix
be
adjacency
i.e. by
closure setting D +- X. The time taken by this method of obtaining transitive 3 more o f better. For discussions n We do . to is proportional can, however, see for closure efficient transitive [I 1-45].))) algorithms
SEC. 11-6)
DEPTH-FIRST
SEARCH
ON A GRAPH)
301)
of Sometimes, notably in critical path analysis 14), one needs the longest (rather than paths the shortest) from a specified vertex to all others. One would that expect maximization minimization in procedures analogous to the procedures Algorithms 6 and 7 would yield the desired paths.But for an arbitrary digraph this will not work. For in the process of maximization, one could go round and a directed circuit and the length round would be made arbitrarily large. Another is the following: In the shortest-path problem, if (s, t, difficulty s to t, then the subpath (t, u, . . . ,f) from U, . . . ,f) is a shortest directed path is a shortest path from t to fIt is this property on which the shortest-path are based. On the other hand, if (s, t, u, . . . , f) is a longest directed algorithms s to f, there may from well exist a directed path from t to fvia s that is path longer than the subpath (t, u, . . . ,f). Both these difficulties if the given digraph is acyclic (which is disappear
Longest-Path
networks
Analysis:
(see
activity
Chapter
the case for activity longest paths from
networks).
given
vertex
Dijkstra's algorithm to all others in
can
an
then
be
used
to find
acyclic
digraph.
in
The
details are left

6 and
may
as
an exercise
In addition to the 7, there are several

be
(Problem I] -16). three shortest-path problems

other
dealt with
Algorithms
shortest-path
problems.
For example,
one
second-shortest path from s to f Or one may be interested in certain path from s to fthat passes through more, specified vertices. For these and [I 1 1 7] and [I 1-3] are recommended, while we move on to an altogether different problem.)
interested
in finding the a shortest finding
11-6.
DEPTH-FIRST
SEARCH ON
GRAPH)
In this section we shall discuss a powerful of systematically tech\037ique such that every edge is traversed exactly traversing the edges of a given graph once and each vertex is visited at least once.This the depthcalled technique, on a graph and used was first formalized first search (DFS)or backtracking by Hopcroft and Tarjan [I 1 -3 I] and was subsequently studied in some depth by Tarjan [I 1-61]. It is evident that for answering almost any nontrivial about a question given graph G we must examine every edge (and in the process every vertex) of G at least once. For example, before declaring a graph Gto be disconnected we must have looked at every edge in G; for otherwise, it might happen that the one edge we had decided to ignore could have made the graph connected.
The same can be said There are two natural
as we
incident
move on
from v and
of separability, planarity, and the like. or searching the edges of a graph v we scan all edges vertex to vertex: (i) once at a vertex then move to an adjacent vertex w. At w we scan all edges)))
for questions
ways
of scanning
302)
incident
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
This process is continued till all edges in the graph are scanned. out at each vertex is referred to as the breadth-jirst fanning in Algorithm 3. I t was also search of the graph. This was the method used 1 and 6. (ii) An opposite approach is employed implicitly in Algorithms on vertex v, we move to an adjainstead of scanning every edge incident w (a vertex v with cent vertex not visited before) as soonas possible, leaving possibly unexplored edges for the time being. In other words, we trace a walk possible. This method of through the graph going on to a new vertex whenever to be the graph, called the depth-jirst search (DFS), has beenfound traversing algorithms, because of the very useful in simplifying many graph-theoretic on the edges. of the vertices and orientations imposed numbering resulting
on w.
This method
of
Nunzbering
Vertices a vertex
and
graph,
serial
whenever
Orienting v is visited
that
Edges
in
DFS:
During
a DFS on
it
for the
first
time
we assign
a distinct
number
during
NUM(v), so
the
visited
along its
traversal.
traversal.
the route
of the
the
== i if v was the ith vertex to be each on an orientation is Also imposed edge When the search terminates the undirected NUM(v)
graph G on which
best described
DFS
vertices numbered 1, 2, . . . , n.
by
was being
The
performed, becomesa digraph of the DFS algorithm details
G with can
be
the
following
steps:
undirected Let G be the given Description of the DFS Algorithm: graph, as neighbor listings (i.e., representation 11-2). Let (e) in Section and FRON be the specified vertex from which the search is to begin.PALM are two disjoint subsets into which the edges of G are to be partitioned.
inputted
\037 0, FRON \037 0 1: Set v \037 x, i \037 0, PALM Step Step 2: Set i \037 i + 1, NUM(v) \037 i on v. Step 3: Look for an untraversed edgeincident
Step
4:
Step 5:
incident on v has If there is no such edge (i.e.,every edge go to Step 5; otherwise, already been traversed), edge at v, say (v, \",'), and traverse (b) Pick the first untraversed this edge. Orient the edge (v, w) from v to \",'. Now you are at vertex w. before this during (a) [f w is a vertex which has not been visited is undefined), add edge (v, w) to search (that is, if NUM(w) the set PALM. Set v \037 wand go to Step 2. earlier (that is, NUM (b) If w is a vertex which has been visited (w) < NUM(v\302\273, add edge (v, w) to the set FRON. Go to are back at vertex v. 3. You Step Checkto seeif there exists some traversed edge (u, v) in set PALM oriented toward v. (a) If there is such an edge move back to vertex u. (Note that II v was visited for the first time.) Set is the vertex from which v \037 u and go to Step 2.)))
(a)
SEC. 11-6)
DEPTH-FIRST
SEARCH
ON A GRAPH)
303)
(b) If
there is no such edge(u, v),

traversed
stop
(we
are back at
root x,
con-
having
every
edge
and visited
every vertex
nected
to x).
in Fig. The DFS algorithm described is illustrated by an example just vertex 11-12.In the given graph G of five vertices and eight edges, the starting 11-12 in Fig. the edges are explored is given x is specified. The orderin which \037 G is given in Fig. 11-12(c).) and for this order of traversal (b),
4
I
5 \\ \\ \\ \\ I
I' ,
(x , a): (a, b): (b, x):
(b, c): (c,a): (b, d):
Branch Branch Frond Branch

Frond
I ' \\ 1 \\
{
\\ \\ \\ \\
\"'\\ \" I
,
J
(c,x):
(d,x):
Frond Branch
Frond
,
\\ \".......
/ / //)
I /
....
Graph G
before DFS)
Order
were
in which
scanned.)
(b))
edges
Graph G after
DFS)
(a))
(c))
Fig. Palm
11-12
Depth-first search on a
graph.)
Tree
and
Fronds:)
It is not
bering
resulting which
undirected
to any connected, to see that if this DFS procedure is applied after numn vertices and e edges), it will terminate graph G (with \037 the vertices I, 2, . . n and orienting every edge in G. Let G be the - 1 oriented each of Consider PALM, the set of n edges, digraph. led to a new vertex during DFS. the This subdigraph (defined by the
difficult
.,
set PALM) is a spanning arborescencein G, because every vertex in this to one, and the inequal except the root x, has an in-degree and its properties.) degreeof x is zero. (Review Sec. 9-6, to recall arborescence not in the tree. This spanning arborescence is referred to as a palm Edges
edge subdigraph,
to the palm tree (i.e.,edgesbelonging frond every (a, b) vertex b was visited
set FRON)
before
a,
are calledfronds.Sincefor < NUM(a). In NUM(b)

to
other words,every
lower-numbered
frond
is oriented
from a
higher-numbered vertex
given
vertex.
itself
The DFS by
whether or not
does
not reveal
properties of a
it
graph
G (except
vertices in
G is connected). What
manner
does,
however,
is to number the
a systematic
and partition
the edges into two
sets PALM)))
304)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
DFS a makes just discussed. It is this which of efficient algorithms for solving a surnumber of graph-theory problems. The following are some of prisingly large the problems for which have been constructed employing DFS. algorithms of blocks and cutof components. (2) Identification (1) Identification of connectivity three vertices, subgraphs [11-61]. (3) Identification of maximal
and
FRON,
with
in
properties
powerful tool
the
construction
or more [11-32]. (4)Planarity

graphs
[11-31],
[11-32].
ed subgraphs)
(6) Identification of in a digraph [11-61].

the
and [11-62]. (5) Isomorphism of planar connectfragments (i.e., maximal strongly
It has
time of all
the
been shown (see these six algorithms

is given
in
appropriate
is proportional
graph
the
neighbor-listing
every these
We
edge must algorithms,

shall
be examined at least once, disregarding multiplicative constants, of course.

sketch
reference) that the computation to e, the number of edges,if form of Sec. 11-2( e). And since this is also the lower bound on
a problem
now
with
the
planarity
algorithm,
to
which
DFS
has
in
been
applied
spectacular
success,
resulting
in drastic
improvements
computation
time
over earlier Testing)
methods.)
Algorithm
8:
Planarity
The problem
of determining
pointed
whether
or not
a given graph is planar is an

planarity
important one. As
of
out
in Chapter
5, the
characterizations
are Kuratowski, Whitney, theoretically elegant) are difficult to unsuitable for testing by a computer. and, They implement; besides, if a graph is planar, these methods do not yield a plane representafor example, what is needed. It has been shown, that if is often tion, which is used to test planarity of an n-vertex characterization Kuratowski's graph time is at least proportional to n 6 (see [5-8]). (n > 5), the computation In recent years many for planarity testing have been proposed algorithms for a Most of these methods and on (see [5-8] survey). computers programmed as which works follows: A planar the employ map-construction approach, a the G is first of is most g circuit) given graph algorithms subgraph g (in the and mapped on a plane. Then selected gradually remaining edges are added to g, such that no crossings occur. If we succeedin the reconstruction, a plane representationof graph G is obviously planar, and we have obtained
or MacLane (although
fail, G is nonplanar. The only difficult part of such an algorithm is that in the early stages of of adding edgesto g we have choices available (i.e., ambiguity) in placement us from an A earlier later choice made adding may prevent wrong edges. edge, even if the graph is planar. For example, in Fig. 11-13(a), suppose that the starting subgraph g was the circuit {e p e 2, e 3 , e 4 , e s }. Then we add edges crossover. Now we find that the last edge e tO e and e without e , , g any eo, 7 , g this we might erroneously con-))) be added without a crossing. From cannot
G.
If we
SEC. 11-6)
DEPTH-FIRST
SEARCH ON A
GRAPH)
305)
v)
(a))
(b))
Fig.
11-13
Two mappings of a
graph.)
for
planar. On the other hand, had we selected a different vertex v, we would have obtained a planar representation, placing shown in Fig. 11-13(b). This essentially is the problem in the map-construction method of
elude
that
G is non
face
as
plan-
arity
testing,
and
different
procedures
have been devisedto solve out

in
it.
Preliminary
graph can,
tain
in
As pointed Simplification: be reduced to a much general,

steps.
simplifying
These
steps do not
5-5, an arbitrary if subjected to cergraph affect the planarity (or the nonSection smaller
planarity) of a graph.)
I.
Apply
Algorithm
to
check
one
nected, consider only 2.

Remove
component
for connectedness. at a time.
If the graph is disconedges
all
self-loops,
and replace
each set of
parallel
by a
single
edge.
3. Eliminate
on the
graph 4. Apply
every vertex.
vertex Apply
of degree two by merging steps 2 and 3 alternately

any
the two
edges incident
the
and repeatedly, till

blocks (i.e., maximal
till
cannot
be reduced
further. the
Algorithm 4 to
subgraphs).
partition
graph
into its
nonseparable
5. Subject reduction
each block to reduction is possible.

block
steps
3 and
2 alternately e edges
no
further
6. Each simplified
tested for)
thus
obtained,
with
and
vertices,
is
n>
5, (11-3))))
-
e > 9,
e<
3n
6.)
306)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS AND
COMPUTER
PROGRAMS)
CHAP.
11)
If and
is
any of these three inequalities is not we move on to the next block. Every
planar,
satisfied, graph e >
our with
and
every simple graph
with
3n
- 6 is nonplanar.)
Steiglitz,
job is n < 5
finished,
or e
<9
One
planarity down
testing
in
algorithm
simplification.
due to Bruno,
Each
and
Weinberg
[5-2] goes
broken
a step further
into Then
nonseparable
graph is further
its maximum 3-connectedsubgraphs 3-connected (called the following result, due to W. T. Tutte, is used: A graph is planar if and only if all of its 3-connected components are planar. This is not as efficient as the one due to Hopcroft and Tarjan however, algorithm, [11-31],which will be described next.
components). The planarity-testing algorithm is quite Description of the Algorithm: the main involved. We shall sketch only its essential features. To understand to let us consider the following decompositionprocedure applied algorithm, and e edges: a given simple, nonseparable graph G with n vertices
Step 1: Find of g as VI V 2 , . .
Step
Circuit-Path Decomposition:
some . , and
circuit
Kin
G. Set g
\037
K.
Label
\037
the vertices
1.
and edges begins and Pi. If there
e t, e2,
. . . , respectively.
Set i
find
2: If
labeled
there is an unlabeled edgein G,

vertices
a path
ends at
is
but consists
in
only
of
unlabeled
Pi that edges. Store
no
unlabeled
in g.
4:
Step 3: Set g \037

vertices
Step
edge left
g
G,
go to
\037
step 4.
i +
U Pi.
Set i
1. Label the
Return to
Print
step 2.
'Pm.
unlabeled edges and
Stop.
be shown ([5-8]) that the procedure just outlined decomposes the Since G into one circuit and m == e - n paths. simple, nonseparable graph as two edge-disjoint the circuit may be lookedupon paths, G is thus decomsuch a decompointo e - n + 2 paths. It may be noted that although posed
It can
G is which G may not be unique, the number of paths into graph For example, and e - n paths. decomposed is constant and equalsonecircuit each with one circuit and in Fig. 11-13 consider two distinct decompositions,
g,PI,P2'.'.
sition of a four (10 -
==
4)
paths:)
tel' e 2 , e 3, e 4, and In this
e s}, {e6 },
{e7 ,
fe lo }' e g }, [e 9 },
[e 7 ,
e 9 },
reg}, [eto}.)
[el' e 2 ;
e 3 , e 4 , e s }'
[e 6 },
circuit-path decomposition, we can map the circuit K on a plane, A new path are generated. to add new paths P t' P2' . . . , as they will new or make two face into an will either divide faces, g U Pi existing Pi addmethod of arbitrarily added to the planar map g. This nonplanar, when lead to a situation shown in Fig. as they are generated may 11-13, ing paths To solve this problem, one can either))) which has already been discussed.
and continue
SEC. 11-6)
DEPTH-FIRST
SEARCH
ON A GRAPH)
307)
1. Continue
adding paths
alternative
till
no
path
explorethe 2. Continue
found
choices
can be added. Then backtrackto he could have made earlier, or

till
at different paths but not add them to K, to look must be placed in, or it is ascertained which face a path face the path is placed in.) does not matter which
it
is
that
it
and Tarjan (see [II-53]) use approach I, but Hopcroft algorithms 2 have and have that their used shown [11-31] algorithm is more approach efficient of it. They use list processing and have an elaborate program because in lines The gist of their technique of resolving of ALGOL). (985 ambiguity is as follows: adding paths, at any stage we have a path that Suppose Pi (on top of a pushdown list of we whose are resolve. Let a and b be the end to paths) trying ambiguity vertices in Fig. 11-14 shows the different of Pi. The flow chart cases that may arise and what action is taken for each. These stepsare explained by means of Fig. 11-15. In Fig. 11-15(a) path Pi can be swiveled at vertices a and b, and therefore can divide either the face \"above\" the path P r This or \"below\" of ambiguity must be resolved.To this verresolve from some path Pi starting ambiguity, tex x on path Pi a new of un(The path Pk consists path Pk is constructed. labeled edges and it terminates a labeled vertex.) as soon as it touches If both end vertices x and y of Pk are on path Pi' as shown in Fig. 11-15(b), can be either of the two facesswiveled at divides vertices x and y and thus Pk one \"above\" Thus not only did we not resolve the Pi and the other \"below.\" in placement of path Pi' but we have a new path Pk whose ambiguambiguity must be resolved first. Path Pk is put above Pi in the stack, and we begin ity its ambiguity just as we were doing for Pi. resolving Another is that the end vertex y is neither on path Pi nor on possi bility but on a In this case Pi cannot be different as shown in Fig. 11-15(c). path, Pj as to which face Pi divides. and there is no ambiguity therefore swiveled, As in Fig. ll-15( d), if path Pi ends on a vertex in path P j between a and b, then with Pk) can stiJl be swiveled about a and b. Therefore, the Pi (together in Pi remains. The path Pk' however, divides the face a x b y a ambiguity a from we shall have to generate another Therefore, path unambiguously. vertex on Pi for resolving ambiguity in the placement of Pi. on P j but not between in the case where path Pk ends on a vertex Finally be a and b, we have the situation in Fig. 11-15(e). The path Pi can still shown in path Pk with is no ambiguity swiveled. But, unlike Fig. 11-15(b),there to resolve ambiguity be generated to Pi. Therefore, a new path must respect in Pi' and that path can be generated starting from any vertex in path y a x b, which is path Pi extended up to vertex y on Pj. In summary, of routines (a) for finding the planarity consists algorithm each block))) blocks (i.e., maximal nonseparable subgraphs), (b) for partitioning
Some
No)
Store p., and I ambiguity of the next path in the stack)))

resolve
another Pi in the list. Build at some vertex x path Pk starting between a and b on Pi. (suppose Pk ends at vertex y)) Retain
Add p. to g. I Resolve ambiguity
of the next in the stack)
path
/
7
Yes
I
Fig.
11-14
(b)
in p. I
path Pk above the stack, and resolve the

Put
ambiguity
of Pk)
Fig. 11-14 (c)

Pa
\037 No
Remove p. from I stack.
th Pi is resolved the
Resolve ambiguity of the next path in the stack)
Store
Pk
Continue
Yes
resolving
of p. I
ambiguity by
generating
another
path between
b
Fig. 11-14 (e))
and
\\J
Fig.
Store Pk. Can tinue resolving ambiguity Pi by generating path between y and b)
11- I 4 (d))
of
Fig. 11-14
Resolution of ambiguity
308)
of path Pi.)
SEC.
11-6)
DEPTH-FIRST
SEARCH
ON A GRAPH)
309)
a)
b)
(a))
(b))
(c))
(d))
(e))
Fig. 11-15
into
Resolution
of ambiguity
of path
paths,
Pi.)
paths,
planar
(c) for deciding where to add these The DFS is used in both representation.
and
(d) for
building
(a) and
ed from
(b). The paths generatproperties (d), representaexcept
the resulting several palm tree and fronds have important which are made use of in (c) and (d). The time required for each, of edges, e. The building is proportional to the number of planar n tion requires time to n the number n, proportional being log
of
vertices.)))
310)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
AND
COMPUTER
PROGRAMS)
CHAP.
11)
for the entire algorithm is proportional to Euler's equation e is proportional to n, in graphs subjected algorithm.) been improved and was reported in This algorithm has subsequently Ph.D. version is Thesis [11-61]. The time taken by the improved Tarjan's form of the improved version simplified proportional to just n. A somewhat
Thus
n
the
theoretical
time bound
log
n.
of (Because to planarity
appearedas a Cornell
ALGORITHM
University
technical
report
[11-61].)
11-7.
9:
ISOMORPHISM)
if there exists a one-to The graph isomorphism problem is to determine vertices of two graphs G1 and G 2 that prebetween the one correspondence of graph isomorphism arises in serves the adjacency of vertices.The problem many
fields,
For
such as
a survey
it
chemistry,
the
switching
theory,
information
retrieval,
[11-9],
and
and
linguistics. Consequently,
sively.
isomorphism
and references,
is always
see Corneil's Ph.D.thesis

to determine whether
fixed
problem
has been
studied exten-
[11-]2].
Theoretically,
G1
and
possible by
or not
two
graphs
G2 This reidentical. become matrices process may adjacency Such n being the number of vertices. quire all n! reordering and comparisons, with time an inefficient in which the n, factorially grows running procedure, a An solution is of limited use for practical algorithm guaranteeing problems. in running time proportional to a constant power of n is desirable, but no such
G 2 are isomorphic
keeping G 1
and
reordering
vertices of
to
check
if their
algorithm
h;ts
been
discovered
efficient
for determining if two

isomorphism
arbitrary
graphs
are
isomorphic.
tain
t
however,
There are,
types
algorithms
available
for cer-
of graphs.
Some of
in
these are
V-44-V-52.
no k-strongly regular subgraphs a k-strongly regular graph. with special
book.))
I.
Isomorphism
trees:
planar graphs
[11-9], pages
graphs: containing
definition
2. Isomorphism in
3. Isomorphism
for in
[11-32].
of
large
k: see
[11-9] for
partially
in 4. Isomorphism and
labeled
graphs
structure: [II-59]
[11-64].
(See
also Chapter
15 in
this
Heuristic
Procedure)
given
If two
to
try
graphs
Gland
G 2 are arbitrary,
not
to
show
if Gland
problems
G2
are
isomorphic.
the usual approach This is done by asking
is first ques-)
tThere are
exist,
for
and
inefficient
ones may never and use it algorithm

better
which only factorially or exponentially growing algorithms be found. In such cases, one doeshave to live with an for small graphs.)))
SEC. 11-7)
ALGORITHM
9:
ISOMORPHISM)
311)
tions
of the
1. Do
following
type:)
Gland
1
G2
have
the the
same same nj
number of number of
degree
vertices? edges?
same
in
2. Do G 3. Is the
and
G 2 have
number
of vertices
with
i the
both,
for
==
1,
2, . . . ?
4. Do both
mative?)
graphs have 5. For each component
the are
same
number
of components?
questions
1, 2,
and 3 answered in
the
affir-
6. Are the
and on.
characteristic polynomialst
same (taken
in
of the
X(G 2) the
field
matrices their adjacency of real numbers)?)
X( G 1 )
And
so
is no, Gland G2 are nonquestions an isomorphism. not guarantee An is the same for all graphs of a graph G is a number that invariant number of vertices n, are to G. Some examples of invariants isomorphic number of edges e, rank R, nullity of components p, connectivity, J.l, number A matrix. in the characteristic and coefficients polynomial of the adjacency
Clearly, isomorphic. if the
answer to
any
of
these
A yes
answer, however,
does
complete set graph within

The
of invariants
isomorphism.
is
a set
of invariants
that
completely
describes
of graph isomorphism is solved if we can find a complete G 2 and then check to see if they are identical. Gland The problem of finding a complete set of invariants can also be thought we of as the coding of a graph. If we could find a complete set of invariants, would This sequence would contain all the essential place them in a sequence. a graph. Two graphs would be isomorphic if and information about only if their codes were the same. The problem of coding trees and some other types no method of But there exists of graphs has been solved, [11-54], [11-66]. with a large number of vertices. coding an arbitrary graph have been proposed (and programmed) Numerous heuristic procedures
problem
set of
invariants
for
basedon
the both
idea
same for
Gland
approaches work n < 7 which have shown that two simple, connected graphs with But these heuristic answers for questions 3 and 6 are isomorphic.
fail
and if they are the if you compute many invariants, Heuristic G 2' it is likely that Gland G2 are isomorphic. For example, it can be well for graphs of small orders.
that
affirmative
algorithms the
for
large
arbitrary
Sometimes heuristic proceduresare resort method involving vertex-by-vertex

tit
graphs.
also used
for
simplifying
last-
correspondence
between
AI),
Gland)
is indepen-
is not difficult order
to show that
the
characteristic
in
dent of the
in which the
vertices appear
the adjacency
polynomial, det(X matrix X.)))
312)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
G 2.
to)
For example, the
number of comparisons can

k \037 n i = 1)
always
be reduced
from n!
i !,
k where)
\037
i-I)
n i === n.
This
vertices age
than
is because
with of its
n!.)
in
reordering
the
vertices degree,
in G 2
that
it
suffices
the same
with
degree. For a graph

the
does
to permute only not have a large percent\037
vertices
same
the number
n i ! is
much
smaller
11-8.
OTHER
GRAPH-THEORETIC ALGORITHMS) and basic,

available
all.
The algorithms described so far, although very important a few samples out of scores of graph-theoretic algorithms only the literature. Obviously, it is not possible to include them are) for graphs other commonly used algorithms
I.
are
Some
in of the
(i.e., maximal G given digraph [11-61].

Find
Find all fragments

a Hamiltonian
strongly
connected
subgraphs) undirected
in a
2.
3. 4.
path (if Hamiltonian
there is one) in
circuits
in
a given
graph.
See [11-49].
Find
all
directed
a given
digraph.
See [11-13],
graph
pages 35-37.
Find
a maximal
complete
subgraph
in a
(clique)
in
a given
G. See
[11-1]and [11-44].
5.
known bipartite graph. An algorithm, used this is often for method, solving assignment subroutine problem. The Hungarian method is availableas a standard See [9-4], in most operations research computer program packages. for time the 265-269. The computation Hungarian method, for pages to e. n. Recently a of n vertices and e edges, is proportional a graph
Find
maximal
matching
as the Hungarian
more
efficient it
algorithm takes
has
been
[11- 30];
time
proportional weighted
rate
proposed by Hopcroft to (e + n).\037.
and
Karp
6.
Given
connected
the
digraph
in
which
through
the
weight
that
of an
find
the y in G.
edge represents the maximum possible flow from This is the well-known maximum-flow
maximum
of flow a vertex x
in
edge,
to another vertex
and 4-6
problem Sections
Ford-Fulkerson
algorithm
algorithm
(discussed
is also
is solved by and 14-1).

in
The
see
Ford-Fulkerson
research.
a standard
program
improved
operations
See [9-4].
For a more recent and

[11-19].)))
algorithm
Edmonds
and Karp
SEC. 11-8)
OTHER
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS)
313)
7.
Find the chromatic

Given
number
of
a given
graph. See [11-26].

its
8.
an
acyclic
digraph,
definition,
perform a
an
topologicalsorting of
vertices.
See Section
14-8 for
algorithm,
and references.
9. Given a connected weighted the vertices of G into G, partition graph size so as to minimize the total weight subsets no larger than a given of edges cut in the process. For a heuristic to solve this algorithm see [11-36]. Also, see [11-35]. important but difficult problem,
10.
Given
a connected
weighted
has
graph G, find
traveling-salesman
a Hamiltonian
smallest weight. This is the
problem,
circuit with for which no

algorithms
satisfactorysolution
see [211.
I
been
found
so far.
For
heuristic
].
In a given
minimum
graph G ==
cardinality)
(V,
E),
of edges
E ' c E such
in E
Section
find a
smallest subset (i.e., subset ' . This

8-5.
that
of
every
vertex
of G is
a
incident on at least one of the edges smallest was discussed in covering efficient algorithm.
problem of finding
See [11-18]
for an
V'
12. In a
such
given
that
one vertex
G == (V, E), vertex of G not every in V'. This problem

graph
in
find
sn1allest in
subset V'is
of vertices
dominating
this
included
adjacent to at least set

problem
of
finding
a smallest
was discussed is much more

13.
Section
8-2.
Superficially
similar to 1I,
difficult.)
In a given digraph G, find from G would destroy all
a smallest
set of
directed circuits.A
edges
which
when
deleted
method
of finding
this
minimum decyclizationedge set (or feedback are set) was outlined in Section 9-1 I, but the computation time grew exponentially with n, the number of vertices.)
14. in
now
the
wish
previous problem instead of finding to find a smallest set of vertices

in
a smallest in G
whose
set of edges we removal destroys

is known
all directed circuits

for
15.
this
G. Just
as for
13no efficient
algorithm
problem.
G == (V, E), and a subset V' of weighted graph tree in G which spans the vertices in V' (and as a Steiner tree, is much possibly some more). Such a tree, known more difficult to obtain than a minimal spanning tree for G. The of extra vertices may lead inclusion difficulty arises from the fact that to a different tree with a smaller total weight. Although no efficient of this problem, an has been found for an exact solution algorithm can be obtained approximate solution by an efficient algorithm given with a Steiner Trees by S. K. Chang (in \"The Generation of Minimal Topology,\" J. ACM, Vol. 19, No.4, October 1972,699-711).)))
Given a connected V. Find a minimal
314)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
AND
COMPUTER
PROGRAMS)
CHAP.
11)
11-9.
PERFORMANCE
OF GRAPH-THEORETIC ALGORITHMS)
As observed in Section 11-7, for a given graph-theory problem it would in an execution a solution to have an algorithm which guarantees time proportional to someconstant nand e are the of n or e (as usual, power number of vertices and in the given graph). In other edges, respectively, time t (for the worst possible graph) can be expressed as) words,the execution
be desirable t
and
<
rxn
or
< pe q ,)
value of k and q the better. Such an algorithm (whosecomby a polynomial in n or e) is called a polynomial bounded For example, Algorithm I (connectedness and compoalgorithm. k == 2. Algorithms since 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8 nents) is polynomial-bounded, are also polynomial-bounded, 5 and 9 are not. Someimporbut Algorithms tant polynomial-bounded graph-theoretic algorithms along with their bounds)
the
lower the
time
putation
is bounded
Problems Connectedness
components
Run-Time Bounds and

n 2
Relevant
References
or e
[11-29], [11-61]
Spanning
Minimal
tree
spanning
e
tree 2 <
n 2
[11-58]
[11-22], <
n2
n v, v
[11-70]
Fundamental
circuit-set
[11-47]
Cut-vertices and blocks

Bridges Shortest
or e
n 2 or path
[11-48], [11-61] [11-10],[11-61]

[11-16],
between
between
two
vertices
n 2
[11-73]
Shortest
all
paths
n3
nfX.
vertex-pairs
[11-21], [11-73]
[11-45]
Transitive
closure
2<tX<3
n 2
Strong connectedness
and
or e
fragments
[11-29], [11-61]
Planarity
e
e
in
[11-62]
[11-39]
[11-30]
Topological sorting
Maximal matching a bipartite graph
Minimal Minimal
n 5/ 2
cut edge
nP
[11-19] [11-18], [11-46])

Algorithms)))
2<P<3
cover n3
Table 11-1
Polynomial-Bounded
SEC. 11-9)
PERFORMANCE
OF GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS)
315)
and
graph e <
into
relevant
n(n
references are shown

-
in
Table
I I-I.
Note that
that since
n
1)/2 <
for a simple
convertible
/2,
bounds
in terms
in
of e and
are
each other. It
the
should also be kept
bounded by
computer
time
take same power of n may (for the same graph) becauseof their
different algorithms very different amounts of actual

mind
different
multiplicative
constants.
for which it is On the other hand, there are graph-theoretic problems Take, for examalgorithm. simply not possible to have a polynomial-bounded as disof generating all spanning trees of a given graph, ple, the problem 11-4. The number of spanning trees in an n-vertex cussed in Section simple, if each spanning tree were labeled graph can be as high as nn-2. Therefore, trees would generatedin c -units of time, the algorithm to generate all spanning can consume c_n n 2 units of time. Thus no polynomial-bounded algorithm hold for problems of generating be found for this problem. Similar arguments and so forth, all cliques, all circuits/directed circuits, all paths, all cut-sets,
for a given
There
graph.
is a
third
category
of graph-theoretic
problems, for which
so far
no
polynomial-bounded
algorithms
that
have been
discovered, nor has it
been
pos-
sible
problems.
to show
of important
time
polynomial-bounded
algorithms
Detection
of isomorphism
(Algorithm
list
tion
present,
limited
in problems of this type is given these problems (using the best and the worst possible graph) grows exponentially for
do not exist for these 9) is one such problem.A 11-2. The computaTable
available
solving
algorithm or
at
factorially
(but
very
not polynomially) with n. Such inefficient algorithms are obviously of use for practical problems. Heuristic techniques are the mainstay their solutions.
of
Based on a remarkable result of

showed the following all other problems problem, is, if a polynomial-bounded
[11-34]
in
Richard StephenCook (1971),
Karp
surprising
Table
result: Except for

are polynomially
one,
the
isomorphism
that
11-2
equivalent,
algorithm exists for
polynomial-bounded)
Problems)
Chromatic
Relevant References)
number
[11-26], [11-41]
[11-44]
Smallest
Maximal
dominating set
clique
[11-20]
Hamiltonian Traveling
Minimal
circuit
circuit
[11-56]
Directed hamiltonian
feedback
[11-56]
salesman problem
edge-set
set
Chang
[11-28]
[9-6]
Minimal feedback vertex Steiner tree
[9-6]
in Section
11-8
Isomorphism)
Table
[11-64]) (11-9],[11-12],
11-2
Nonpolynomial
Algorithms)))
316)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
algorithms
can
be found
for the others.
involved and is not very relevant for us here.(The lems includes a number of other combinatorial and lems in addition to the top nine in Table 11-2.))
The proof of
this
equivalence
class
is prob-
Cook-Karp
of
graph-theoretic
prob-
11-10.
The development
GRAPH-THEORETIC COMPUTER LANGUAGES)

interest in graph-theoretic increasing computations of several programming languages for the sole
such
has led to
the
purposeof
he
han-
The major goal of on graphs in operations with another communicating

dling
graphs.
a language
is to enable the
user to forwere
mulate
a compact
and natural
manner, as if
language [I I -37], the statement for a spanning tree and would statement IF (G, PLANAR) G is planar, otherwise to statement 3. Once such a language is developed and implemented, its advantages are enormous. It makes the writing of graph-theory and programs compact. easy It frees the user from having to concern himself with many unnecessary on the essential features of his program. details and allows him to concentrate The disadvantage of \037uch a language, as of all special-purpose languages,is that a great deal of time, and expense to develop such a it takes trouble, of which can be used for the in only purpose writing programs language, graph
graph theorist. For example, in one such SP ANTREE @ G would call the subroutine find a spanning tree of the graph G. Another 3 would transfer control to statement 17 if 17,
theory.
F or such a graph-theoretic to be useful to many users, computer language a large numwith different problems in graph the must have theory, language ber of primitives (i.e., basic graph-theoretic such as \"remove statements) the shortest vertex k of G\", \"add an edge between vertices x and y\", or \"find distance from vertex u to vertex v in G\". Moreover, the graph-theoretic lansymbolic language must have all the computing facilities of an existing functions that the can as so such FORTRAN, perform programmer guage
which
are
not covered
by
primitives.
Since
there is
little
to
be gained
by devel-
all graph-theoretic languages oping an entirely new language from scratch, available and being developed are extensions of some well-known programmi ng language. available at present are) Some graph-theoretic computer languages
I.
Graph-Theoretic
Language
(GTPL) at the
University
of
West
Indies,
Jamaica [II-52]. It is an
2.
extension of
FORTRAN.
Graph
Algorithm Software Package Illinois [11-7]. It is an extension ofPLjl.)))
(GASP)at
the
University
of
CHAP.
11)
SUMMARY)
317)
3. HINT at 4. G RASPE
extension
Michigan State University

LISP
University
[11-27]
is an
extension of the list-
processinglanguage
at the
of LISP
1.5.
of
Houston,
[11-23] and
[11-51], is also an
1.5.
is an 5. Directed Graph Processor (DIP)at Carnegie-Mellon University a report by Terry C. Gleason, 1969.) extension of PL/ 1.(See 6. An Interactive Graph Theory System at the University of Pennsylvania is an extension of FORTRAN [11-71]. 7. Graphic
Extended ALGOL di Elettronica del Politecnico
(GEA) at
Milano,
Instituto
di
Elettrotecnica
ed
Italy is an
extension of ALGOL: of digraphs,
[11-13]
and
[11-14].
8. AMBIT/G,
developed
by
C.
Christensen
for manipulation
is an
extension
of AMBIT
[11-57].
Language
9. GIRL-Graph Information Retrieval 10. FORTRAN Extended Graph Algorithmic the University of Maryland [11-2].)
The
[11-4].
(FGRAAL)
Language
at
interested
reader
should
consult the cited
referencesfor
the
details
of
these languages.)
SUMMARY)
presented in this chapter. applying graph theory physical problems as flow (such problems, assignment problems, identification of a chemical network, compound, topological analysis of an electrical layout of a printedcircuit it is the essential to be able to enlist board, etc.), help of the digital Without the of electronic computer. help high-speed computers,he cannot in solving a nontrivial of to handle a a size encountered hope graph generally
Computational
aspects
in
of graph
theory were
For anyone
interested
to solve
practical
problem.
A computer that has been \"taught\" elementary graph theory (such as, if graph G is separable, or pick out find a spanning tree in G) can be of out immense aid even to a \"pure\" It relievehim theorist. for can, instance, graph
of the and
drudgery
of
finding
graphs
with
special
properties
to serve as examples
counterexamples.
to a computer, one must know obviously find and In one must addition, programming graph theory. The efficient most of useful graphalgorithms. important prerequisite any theoretic algorithm is that the running time of its program on the computer with n. It should be propormust not rise factorially or even exponentially k tional k is some fixed number-preferably a low number.))) to n , where To be able both computer
graph
to teach
theory
318)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
AND
COMPUTER
PROGRAMS)
CHAP.
11)
REFERENCES)
As yet, there is no one reference where all or most of the graph-theoretic algorithms available. Each algorithm has to be looked up individually in a published paper, thesis, or report. Consequently, this chapter contains a long list of references. It is unlikely that student would be interested in all of them. anyone For a general introduction to the nature of graph-theoretic two computer algorithms, and papers of Read [11-52] [11-53] are recommended. Lehmer's paper [11-40] is an excellent treatise on the use of computers for solving combinatorial problems. Among the few books that do discuss some aspects are of using to solve graph-theoretic problems computers Even [11-20],Berztiss 3, 6, and 8, Knuth [11-39], which is at an advanced [11-5], Chapters which is in German, and Bellman, Cooke, and Lockett level, Knoedel [11-38], [11-3]. A related book on combinatorial It develops computing by Wells [11-69]is also recommended. and uses a special programming language for combinatorial applications. developed 11-1. AUGUSTON, J. G., and J. MINKER, \"An Analysis of Some Graph-Theoretical Cluster J. ACM, Vol. 17,No.4, 1970,571-588. J. ACM, Techniques,\" (Correction:
are
Vol. 19, April

11-2.
BASILI,
1972,
244-247).
V.
R., C.
K.
MESZTENYI,
and Language,\"
W. C.
REINBOLDT,
\"FGRAAL:
Fortran
Extended 1973 on
11-3.
11-4.
TR-179, March 1972. See also Report TR-225, January of FG RAAL. and Computers, BELLMAN, R., K. L. COOKE and J. A. LoCKETT, Algorithms, Graphs Academic Press,Inc.,New York, 1970.
ScienceCenter
Graph
Algorithmic
University
of Maryland,
Computer
Report
implementation
BERKOWITZ, Syntax,\" New
S., \"GIRL-Graph in Software Engineering,
Information
Retrieval
ed.),
Vol. 2 (J. T. Tou,

Theory
Language-Design of Academic Press, Inc.,

Academic Press,
York, York,
1971, 119-139.
A. T.,
11-5.
11-6.
BERZTISS, New
Data Structures;
and
Practice,
Between
Inc.,
1971. Start
BOOTHROYD,
Nodes 11-7.
CHASE,
23: Shortest Path J., \"Algorithm of a Network,\" The Computer Journal,
Node and
Nov.
All
Other
Vol. 10,
No.3,
1967,
307-308.
Also see Algorithm 22. S. M., \"GASP-Graph Technical Algorithm Software Package,\" Quarterly UniDec. 1969, Department of Computer Science, Progress Report, Oct., Nov., Urbana. versity of Illinois, All Spanning Trees of a 11-8. S. M., \"Analysis of Algorithms for Finding CHASE, of Illinois, No. 401, Department of Computer Science, University Graph,\" Report Urbana, Oct. 1970. of Computer 11-9. CORNElL, D. G., \"Graph Isomorphism,\" Ph.D. Thesis,Department Tech. version of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 1968.Updated Science, University 1970. Rep. No. 18,April D. G., \"An n 2 Algorithm 11-10. for Determining the Bridges of a Graph,\" CORNElL, Information Processing Letters, Vol. 1, No.2, 1971,51-55. the Automorphism Partitioning D. G., \"An Algorithm for Determining CORNElL, of an Undirected Graph,\" BIT, Vol. 1972, 161-171. 12, No.2, 11-12. CORNElL, D. G., and C. C. GOTLIEB, \"An Efficient Algorithm for Graph Isomorphism,\" J. ACM, Vol. 17, No.1, Jan. 1970,51-64. \"A Graph-Theory Oriented Extension 11-13. CRESPI-REGHIZZI, S., and R. MORPURGO, 1-43. to Algol,\" Calcolo, Vol. 5, No.4, 1968, \"A Language for Treating Graphs,\" S., and R. MORPURGO, CRESPI-REGHIZZI, Comm. ACM,Vol. 13, No.5, May 1970,319-323.)))
11-11.
11-14.
CHAP.
11)
REFERENCES)
319)
11-15.
11-16.
11-17.
G. B., \"All Shortest Routes in a Graph,\" Proceedingsof the International DANTZIG, Published by Dunod Symposium on Graph Theory, Rome, Italy, July 1966,91-92. Editeur, Paris. in Connection with E. W., \"A Note on Two Problems DIJKSTRA, Graphs,\" Numerische Math, Vol. 1, 1959, 269-271. J. Operations of Some Shortest-Path Algorithms,\" DREYFUS, S. E., \"An Appraisal
11-18.EDMONDS,
11-19.
Efficiency
Research, Vol. 17, No.3, 1969,395-412. J., \"Paths, Trees, and Flowers,\" Canadian J.
EDMONDS,
of Math.,
Vol.
17, 1965,
449-467.
J., for
and R. Network
M.
KARP,
\"Theoretical
ACM,
248-264.
Flow Problems,\" J.
in Improvements Vol. 9, No.2,

Company,
Algorithmic April 1972, 1973.
11-20. EVEN,
11-21.
FLOYD,
11-22. FRAZER,
S., Algorithmic Combinatorics, R. W.. \"Algorithm 97: Shortest
The
Macmillan
New York,
Path,\"
Comm.
ACM, Vol.
5,1962,345.
W. D., \"Analysis of Combinatory Algorithms-A Sample of Current 1972 S.J.C.C., 483-491. Methodology,\" Proc. AFIPS 1.5 11-23. FRIEDMAN, D. P., D. C. DICKSON, \"GRASPE J. J. FRASER, and T. W. PRATT, -A RS Report Graph Processor and Its Application,\" University of Houston, 1-69, August, 1969. 11-24. GIBBS, N. E., \"A Cyclic Generation Algorithm for Finite Undirected Linear J. ACM, Vol. 16, No.4, Oct. 1969, 564-568. Graphs,\" 11-25. C. C., and D. G. CORNElL, for Finding a Fundamental GOTLIEB, \"Algorithms Set of Cycles for an Undirected Linear Graph,\" Comm. ACM, Vol. 10, No. 12, Dec. 1967,780-783. 11-26.GRAHAM, G. D., \"An Algorithm to Determine Number of a the Chromatic Technical of Computer Graph,\" Science, University Report No. 47, Department of Toronto, Canada, Nov. 1972. 11-27. HART, R., \"HINT: A Graph Processing Research Report, Computer Language,\" Institute for Social Science Research, Michigan State East Lansing, University,
11-28.HELD,
11-29.
Feb. 1969.
M.
Spanning
and R. M. KARP, \"The Trees: Part II,\" Mathematical
Problem and Minimum Traveling-Salesman Vol. 1, 197 I, North-Holland Programming,

\"On
Publishing Company, R. C., and E. HOLT,
6-25.
M. REINGOLD,
the Time
Required
to
Detect 6,
Connectivity
in
Graphs,\"
Mathematical
Systems Theory, Vol.
Cycles and No.2, 1972,
103-106.
11-30.
HOPCROFT, in
Bipartite
Switching
11-31. HOPCROFT,
J. E., and R. TARJAN, \"Planarity Testing in Vlog V Steps,\" Computer Science Technical Report No. 201, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif., March 1971.Also in Proc. IFIP Congress, Ljubljana, Booklet Ta-2, August 1971,18-23. 11-32. HOPCROFT,.1. E. and R. E. TARJAN, of Planar Graphs,\" in Com\"Isomorphism (R. E. Miller and J. W. Thatcher, plexity of Computer Computation, eds.) Plenum Press, New York, 1972, 131-152. 11-33. Hu, T. C., and W. T. TORRES, \"Shortcut in Decomposition Algorithm for Shortest Paths in a Network,\" IBM J. of Res. Vol. 13, No.4, July 1969,387-390. Develop., 11-34. Combinatorial Problems,\" in Complexity Among of KARP, R. M., \"Reducibility and J. W. Thatcher, eds.) Plenum Press, Computer Computation, (R. E. Miller New York, 1972, 85-103. 11-35. KERNIGHAN, B. W., \"Optimal Sequential Partitions of Graphs,\" J. ACM, Vol. 18, No. I, 1971, 34-40.)))
\"A n 5 / 2 . Algorithm and R. M. Karp, for Maximum IEEE Conf. Record of the Twelfth Annual Graphs,\" and Automata Theory, 1971, 122-125. J. E.,
Matchings Symp. on
320)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
11-36.
Graphs,\"
11-37.
11-38.
11-39.
B. W., and S. LIN, \"An Efficient Heuristic Procedure for Partitioning Bell System Tech. J., Vol. 49, Feb. 1970, 291-307. C. A., \"A Graph-Theoretic in Graph Theory and KING, Programming Language,\" Computing,(R. C. Read, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1972, 63-74. See also doctoral 1970. King's Indies, thesis, University of West Methoden und ihre Anwendungen, SpringerKNOEDEL, W., Graphentheoretische
KERNIGHAN,
Verlag, Berlin,
KNUTH,
1969.
D. E., D.
1 79-
11-40. LEHMER,
1 960,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Appl. Math.,

I 93.
Vol. 1, Fundamental Algorithms, Reading, Mass., 1968. Proc. Symp. H., \"Teaching Combinatorial Tricks to a Computer,\" Vol. 10, Combinatorial Analysis, American Mathematical Society,
Programming, Company,
The Art 01 Computer
Inc.,
11-41.
MATULA, in
Graph
and W., G. MARBLE, Theory and Computing D. M. D.
J. D.
ISAACSON, Read,
\"Graph
(R. C.
ed.),
Coloring Algorithms,\" Academic Press, New York,
1972, 109-122.
11-42.
McILROY, Vol.
\"Algorithm 354:
Generator
of Spanning
All
Trees,\" Comm. ACM,

of a Graph,\"
11-43.
11-44.
12, No.9, Sept. 1969,511. G. J., \"A Simple Algorithm MINTY, Circuit
for Listing
the
Trees
IEEE
Trans.
1965, 120. Theory, Vol. CT-12, No.1, March G. D., \"Algorithms for Finding of a Graph,\" MULLIGAN, Cliques No. 41, Department of Computer Science, of Toronto, Report University
May
Technical
Canada,
1972. J. I., \"Efficient
of the Transitive Closure of a Directed Letters , Vol. 1, 1971,56-58. R. Z., and M. O. RABIN, \"An Algorithm for a Minimal Cover of a NORMAN, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., Vol. 10, 1959, 315-319. Graph,\" 11-47. PATON, K., \"An Algorithm for Finding a Fundamental Set of Cycles of a Graph,\" A C M , Vol. Comm. 12, No.9, Sept. 1969, 514-518. 11-48. PATON, K., \"An Algorithm for the Blocks and Cutnodes of a Graph,\" Comm. ACM, Vol. 14, No.7, July 1971, 468-476. 11-49. POHL, I., \"A Method for Finding Hamilton Paths and Knight's Tour,\" Comm.
11-45.
MUNRO,
Determination
11-46.
Graph,\"
Information
Processing
ACM, 11-50.
Vol. 10, No.7,

M.,
July
1967,446-449.
PRABHAKER,
\"Analysis
Department
August 1972. India, \"A Language and D. P. FRIEDMAN, Extension for Graph Processing and Its Formal Semantics,\" Comm. ACM, Vol. 14, No.7, 1971,460-467. 11-52. READ, R. C., \"Teaching Graph Theory to a Computer,\" in Recent Progress in Combinatorics (W. T. Tutte, Press, Inc., New York, 1969,161-173. ed.), Academic 11-53. READ, R. C., \"Graph Theory Algorithms,\" in Graph Theory and Its Applications (B. Harris, ed.), Academic Press, Inc.,New York, 1970, 51-78. 11-54. READ, R. C., \"The Coding of Various Kinds of Unlabeled Trees,\"in Graph Theory and Computing (R. C. Read, ed.) Academic New York, 1972, 153-182. Press, 11-55. REINGOLD, E. M., \"Establishing Lower Bounds on Algorithms-A Survey,\"
Master's Thesis, nology, Kanpur,

PRATT,
of Algorithms of Electrical
for
Finding
all
Circuits
Engineering,
Indian
Institute
of a Graph,\" of Tech-
11-51.
T. W.,
11-56.ROBERTS,
Proc. AFIPS, S.J.C.C., 1972,471-481. S. M., and B. FLORES, of Hamiltonian Circuits,\" Generation \"Systematic Comm. ACM, Vol. 9, No.9, 1966,690-694. 11-57. ROVNER, P. D., and D. A. HENDERSON, JR., \"On the Implementation of AMBIT/G: A Joint Graphical Programming Language,\" Proc. Intern. Coni. on Artificial Intelligence, 1969,9-20. 11-58.SEPPANEN, J. J., \"Algorithm 399: Spanning Comm. ACM, Vol. 13, No. Tree,\"
10,1970,621-622.)))
CHAP.
11)
PROBLEMS)
321)
11-59.
Chemical E. H., JR., HA Graph Theoretic Algorithm for Matching J. Chern. Doc., Vol. 5, No.1, Feb. 1965, 36-43. 11-60. TABOURIER, Y., HAll Shortest Distances in a Graph. An Improvement to Dantzig's Inductive Algorithnl,\" Discrete Mathematics, Vol. 4, No. I, Jan. 1973,83-87. 11-61.TARJAN, R., HDepth-First Search and Linear Graph Algorithms,\" SIAM J. Comput., Vol. 1, No.2, June 1972,146-160. Science Department, 11-62. TARJAN, R., \"An Efficient Planarity Algorithm,\" Computer 1971. (A simplified Stanford November version Report No. CS-244-71, University, of this report was published as Cornell Univ\037rsity Science Technical Computer in April 1973 by Hopcroft and Tarjan.) Report No. TR73-165, 11-63. TIERNAN, J. C., HAn Efficient Search to Find the Elementary Circuits Algorithm Comm. of a Graph,\" ACM, Vol. 13, No. 12, Dec.1970,722-726. 11-64. -A Heuristic for Testing Pairs of Directed Line UNGER, S. H., \"GIT Program for Isomorphism,\" Comm. ACM, Vol. 7, 1964,26-34. Graphs 11-65. WARSHALL, J. ACM, Vol. 9, Jan. 1962, on Boolean Matrices,\" S., HA Theorem
SUSSENGUTH,
Structures,\"
11-66.
1112.
Planar
WEINBERG,
L., Triply
HA Simple
of
Connected
\"\"A
the Simple Cycles of a Algorithm for Finding Vol. 43-56. 19, No. I, Jan. 1972, 11-68.WELCH, J. T., JR., \"A Mechanical Analysis of the Cyclic Structure of Undirected Linear Graphs,\" J. ACM, Vol. 13, No.2, April 1966, 205-210. 11-69. WELLS, M. B., Elements of Combinatorial Press, Inc., Computing, Pergamon H., New
11-67.WEINBLATT,
Finite
142-148. No.2, 1966,

Directed
and Efficient for Determining Isomorphism Algorithm Circuit Graphs,\" IEEE Trans. Theory, Vol. CT-13,
Search
Graph,\"
J. ACM,
Elmsford,
11-70.
WHITNEY,
1971. N.Y., V. K. M., HAlgorithm

M.
422:
Minimal
Theory
Spanning Tree,\"
Comm.ACM,
Vol.
15, No.4,
11-71.
WOLFBERG,
April 1972,273. S., HAn Interactive

Engineering,
Graph
MooreSchoolof Electrical
1969. Also
Moore
University
System,\" Ph.D. Thesis, The of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
11-72. YEN,
11-73.
School Report No. 69-125. HFinding the K-Shortest LooplessPaths in a Network,\" Management Sci., Vol. 17, No. 11, 1971,712-716. J. Y., \"Finding the Lengths of all Shortest Paths in N-Node Nonnegative YEN, Distance and N 3 Comparisons,\" J. Network Using !N 3 Additions Complete Vol. 19, July 1972, 423-424.) ACM,
J. Y.,
PROBLEMS)
11-1.For
the behavior of an algorithm, random A used. studying graphs are often at random from the set of all distinct graph is random if its edges are drawn pairs of vertices. Write a subroutine for generating simple random graphs of a given n and density, where density is defined as the ratio e/n(n 1) for a directed graph - I) for an undirected and 2e/n(n graph. (Hint: Use an appropriate pseudorandom-number generator, and obtain the adjacency matrix.) for converting the following subroutines matrix. (a) Adjacency matrix to incidence to adjacency matrix. (b) Incidence matrix matrix to edge listing. (c) Adjacency (d) Edge listing to successor listing.
Write
11-2.
graph
representations:
(e) Successor listing
to adjacency
matrix.)))
322)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
11-3.
Write a program in the assembly language of the machine you may have to pack a given adjacency matrix the given matrix uses full words for X(n, n). Assume that it is 0 or 1. each entry whether
a FUNCTION
gives
11-4. Write
(i,j)
subprogram ADJ,
which
when
supplied
with the subscripts

its
the
ijth entry
adjacency
of
that the packed
(packed) adjacency matrix is in a COMMON

the
matrix as
value.
Assume
area.
11-5. The algorithm

How will
is getting
you
for connectedness restore it? (Hint: a time.)
given
in
the
Observethat
only
text modifies the adjacency matrix. one row of the adjacency matrix
the vertex of I. Assume the
changed at
to
11-6.
when it would be profitable to determine maximum degree in each component before fusion in Algorithm matrix. graph is given in the form of an adjacency
Analyze
determine
11-7.
Will
Also 11-8.
In
1 require Algorithm a program write for
any modification to find identifying all fragments
the
components of a digraph.
Xp,z are
of a digraph?
the
What
Algorithm
3, after an
in
edge (z,p)
has
been
considered
and X?
graph;
could
that is, be done
matrix X entries Xz,p adjacency if one wanted to avoid modifying
it is deleted from made zero.
11-9.
While considering the edge (z, p) if we found that p was already in the tree, we circuit. Let L = LEVEL(z) - LEVEL(p). went ahead to discover the fundamental circuit will contain all and only edges on the path of that the fundamental Prove the two edges (z, p) and from length L from z to the root of the tree, apart
(p,
PRED(p\302\273. following
11-10.
Use the
below
convention
downward
Draw the tree

left
in
from
the root. When vertex z is being examined, the edges (z, p) are added from to right. If z is the vertex under examination, define the trunk as the path the tree T from z to the root. Then show that the vertices in T fall into four
in drawing the tree developed by Algorithm 3. the root, and add vertex p at depth LEVEL(p)
classes:)
1. 3.
Vertex
z that below
is being
examined.
and added
during
2. Vertices
Vertices
z-unexamined
the
the examination
of z.
to the \"left of\"
trunk-unexamined
and at a distance of one from
the
trunk.
on
4. Vertices
and
\"to the
right
of\"
the trunk-examined.)
circuit
11-11.
In
Algorithn1
4 let
fundamental
11 be a
fundamental
found
while
and 12 be a
circuit
found
later
while
examining
show that the tree edge (z l' PRED(z 1)) is in both 11 and not necessary to label the chords? 11-12. In Algorithm 5 suggest a quick way of testing whether a vertex v, which is being in the path array P. [Getting every p(i) for considered for extension, is already i = 1, . . . , k, where k is the length of the path built so far, and comparing with v is obviously bad.] Give a flow chart for the algorithm incorporating this. In Algorithm 6 suppose you suspect 11-13. that the graph is disconnected and the starting and the terminal vertex may not be in the same component. The flow chart given in Fig. 11-9 works it is inefficient. for this case also, but Suggest a method of will have to add a test box at speeding up the detection in this case. (Hint : You an appropriate placein the flow chart, on the outcome of which you would decide whether or not to continue.) 11-14. Modify Algorithm 6 so that it lists all shortest paths from s to t.)))
vertex Zh Z2. If 11 n 12 *- 0, it was 12. Is this why

examining
CHAP.
11)
APPENDIX
OF PROGRAMS)
323)
11-15.
Z as mentioned in Algorithm Given the optimal-policy matrix 7, write a subroutine a specified i and j, as a sequenceof for the shortest path (i, . . . returns that
,j)
vertex
numbers.
11-16.
11-17.
11-18.
11-19.
11-20.
6 to obtain the longest to Algorithm distance from a Write a program similar vertex s to all vertices accessible from s in a given acyclic digraph. 7 can also be used for detecting whether or not a given graph is conAlgorithm D k represents nonexistence of a path.) As presented, n\037cted. (An 00 in matrix Rewrite Algorithm 7 solely for the is inefficient for this purpose. the algorithm in a graph. (Hint: Use X rather than purpose of identifying various components D and logical operations rather than arithmetic ones.) Compare its efficiency with I. that of Algorithm Give an algorithm to find a cut-set with respect to a given pair of vertices a, b. You are allowed Assume that the graph is given in terms of its F-H representation. to scan the F-H arrays only twice. [Hint: If there is no edge (a, b), add one. Choose an edge e in G not parallel to (a, b) by fusing its end vertices. the edge (a, b). Shrink Someedgesmight now become parallel; continue shrinking.] if e* is a bridge. (Hint: Given an edge e*, write an efficient algorithm to determine e* is a bridge if and only if {e*J is a cut-set. Use the result of Problem 11-18.) Edge Write a program for generating all spanning method trees, based on Minty's described in Section I 1-4.)
APPENDIX
OF PROGRAMS)
listings
following
of the algorithms described are given in the of some in APL\\360; the rest are in Program 11-1 is written IV in the form of subroutines. The variables in the subroutines FORTRAN a graph 100 vertices are dimensioned such that with no more than can be given as input.)
Program
pages.
Program
11-1:
Connectedness
and Components)
SL+-R+-1N
[1]
[2]
[3]
C+-1
[4]
LOOP1 : I+-Dlf VA+-X[I ;]
/D+-+/X
[5]
[6]
VA[I]+-1
VN+LOOP2:
'\" VA
[7]
VA+-VAv(v/X[
\037(OF+
;VA/SL])
[8]
/VN\" VA)/LOOP2
[9]
VN+- '\" VA
';C;';
[10] 'COM P
VERT:'
;VA/R
[11]
\037(O=
+ /VN)/HAL T
[12] R+-VN/R [13] NA+- VN/S L [14] X+-X[NA ;NA] [15] SL+-lpR [16] C+-C+1 [17] \037LOOP1
[18])
HALT:
'HALT')))
324)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
X
N
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
Adjacency matrix of 9 Number of vertices in G

Label
C
I
of a
component
Vertex
with maximum
X
degree in
VA
VA VN
R
Ith row of
Logical complement of List of vertices in 9
NA SL
Vertices not adjacent to I Relabeled list of vertices in
9)
Program
11-2:
Spanning
Tree/Forest)
SPTREE ( F , H , N , E , EDGE,
SUBROUTINE
INTEGER DO 4
C,
L L) L
, EDGE(E)
F(E)
, H(E)
, VERTEX(100)
V1,
V2
= = =
1 , N
VERTEX(
0
1 , E
DO
6
EDGE(L)
6 0
0 0
K
= 0
C =
M K
= = = = =
10
V1
I IF
F(K)
GO
(I
VERTEX(V1) .EO. 0)
VERTEX(V2)
TO
39
J =
IF
IF
V2 = H(K) (J (I
= J
= I
.EO. 0)
GO
TO
36
- J)
21, 50, 18
18
21 23
IJ I
J
I
IJI
L
DO 26
IF
VERTEX(L)
1 , N
(VERTEX(L)
=
I
J)
26, 23,
1
25
GO
TO 26
VERTEX(L) =
25
26
VERTEX(L) CONTINUE
DO IF
32
1 , E
(EDGE(L)
=
I
J)
32, 29,
- 1
31
29
EDGE(L)
GO
TO 32
=
31 32
EDGE(L) CONTINUE
EDGE(L)
C =
C -
1
=
EDGE(K)
GO TO
49)))
CHAP.
11)
APPENDIX
OF PROGRAMS)
325)
36
EDGE(K)
VERTEX(V2)
GO TO 49
39
V2
=
=
H(K)
VERTEX(V2)
J
IF
(J
EDGE(K) VERTEX(V1)
.EO. 0) = J
= J
GO
TO
45
GO TO
49
=
45 C
C + 1
EDGE(K) VERTEX(V1) VERTEX(V2)
C
= =
C C
-
49
50
M IF
1
(N
(M .EO.
1)
.OR.
.EO.
E)
RETURN
GO TO
END)
10
Program
11-3:
Fundamental
FCRKTS CIRKIT(100), , TW(100) = 0
L
Circuits)
( X , N , NULTY)
SUBROUTINE INTEGER
LEVEL(100)
,Z
, P , PRED(100)
PREDOP
1 NULTY
, X(N,N)
DO
5
NROOT
1 , N
LEVEL(L) =
= = 1 1
ITW
TW(1)
= NROOT
= 0
LEVEL(NROOT)
10
IF
(ITW
TW(ITW)
.EO. 0)
=
P
GO
TO
38
Z =
LVLSUC
LEVEL(Z) + 1
= 1 , N 3 5, +
DO
IF
35
(X
(Z, P\302\273
35,
0)
15 GO
15
(LEVEL(P) = P TW(ITW)
IF
1 .NE.
TO 21
ITW = ITW + 1
PRED(P)
LEVEL(P)
= LVLSUC
GO TO
33
= =
21
NULTY PREDOP M
NULTY + 1 PRED(P) = Z
CIRKIT(1)
Z)))
326)
GRAPH-THEORETIC
26
ALGORITHMS
CHAP.
11)
J = PRED(J)
M=M+1
CIRKIT(M) IF
= J
.NE.
(J
PREDOP) =
GO
TO
26
M=M+1
CIRKIT(M)
PRINT
1000,
=
NULTY, (
CIRKIT(J)
, J
1,
, CIRKIT(1)
33
X(Z,P)
X(P,Z)
= 0
ITW
35
38
39
CONTINUE
ITW
1 =
GO
IF
TO
10
NROOT
DO 39
RETURN
NROOT
N \302\273
(LEVEL(N
ROOT)
.Eo. ( - 1
4 , 24H
GO
TO
40
1000
FORMAT
END)
(4H
THE I
FUNDAMENTAL CIRCUITIS (
20
) )
Program
11-4:
Shortest
Distance from
s to t)
D
SU BROUTINE C
DYSTRA (
OUR
, N
, S , T , LABELT
))
C
C)
9999999 IS
DIMENSION
INTEGER
INFINITY
LABEL(100)
P , S , T ,
DO
D(N,N), L = 1 , N
VECT(100) ,
LABEL(L)
= 9999999
= 0
VECT(L)
LABEL(S) VECT(S)
I
= 0 = 1
10M
= 9999999 DO 18 J = 1 , IF (V E CT (J ) . Ea.
Z IF IF M
1)
GOT 0
18
Z
D(I,J) (Z. (LA

LT. BEL
+
(J)
LABEL(I)
LA BEL ( J \302\273 LA BEL ( J ) . G T.
M)
GOT 0
18
LABEL(J)
P = J
18
CONTINUE
VECT(P) IF
I
(P
= P
.Eo. T) 10
=
GO TO 23
GO
TO
23
LABELT R
LABEL(T)
ET URN
END)))
CHAP.
11)
APPENDIX
OF PROGRAMS)
327)
Program
11-5:
Pair)
Shortest
Path
Between
Every
Vertex
SUBROUTINE C
FLOYD
(D,
))
C
C)
9999999
INTEGER
IS
OUR
INFINITY
DATA
DO
IN
FNTY
K I
D(N,N), /
= =
9999999 /
12
1 , N 1 , N
IN N ) GO
DO
IF
12 (D
(
I, K) . Ea.
F N TY
GO
TO
TO
12
11
DO
IF S
IF
11
(D(K,J)
J = 1 ,
.Eo. INFNTY + D(I,K) D(K,J)

.LT. D(I,J\302\273
(S
D(I,J)
S)))
11
12
CONTINUE
CONTINUE
RETURN
END)
GRAPHS
12)
IN SWITCHING
THEORY)
AND
CODING
concepts
in the previous chapters has been on introducing more but to make theory. Some applications were given, mainly the concepts clearer. In the remaining we shall discuss in detail some chapters
The
emphasis
of graph
applications.
inside
in
In Section 7-5 we saw how the a black box could be determined 8-5 a minimal cover of Section
function. networks
configuration
with a
of a
switching
network
the
graph
help of graph theory. Again, led to the minimization of

will
switching switching
In
this
chapter
graph theory
be
applied
to study
further.
of Paul Ehrenfest's theory came into being with the publication could be applied paper in ] 910, in which he suggested that Boolean algebra to automatic The first mathematical formulation of the telephone exchanges. of a contact network behavior was network) (a particular type of switching given by C. Shannon in 1938. Since 1938, switching theory has developed it was intended to provide the communicationsengineer rapidly. Originally, with tools for analysis and synthesis of large-scale networks, relay switching such as a telephone exchange. In recent years, however, the enormous growth of switching motivated of theory has been mainly by its use in the design Switching
digital computers.
Unlike the
switching
Switching
signals
in a are
classical electrical network

only
(say, in
a radio
receiver),
network signals have

networks
two
values-designated
as 0 and
signals.
I.
designed
A depends
to process
as
and store such binary

either
A switching
network can
network. time
be classified
combinational
a combinational
network
network
one
or a
switching
sequential given
switching
input
is
whose
output at a
only on the
at
that
time.
at
network, input
on the
function of the
at that
other hand, is one time and during

328)))
whose output
its
A sequential given time is a

In
entire
past history.
other)
SEC. 12-1)
CONTACT
NETWORKS)
329)
words,
does
not.
the smallest deskcalculator,

A
a sequential network All digital systems,

and
has
from
memory, largest constructed

the
are
whereas a combinational network multimillion-dollar computer from these two basic types
to
of
circuitry-combinational
combinational
sequential.
contact network,
be classified as (1) a switching network can further gate network (see [12-5],page 77).It is in the study as the most natural of contact networks that graphs of representation appear the switching network, as we shall see in the next section. Although attempts have been made, use of graph theory in little has been accomplished the by We shall therefore networks confine ourselves (see Section 9-3 of [ 1-13]). gate to the contact-type networks in this chapter.) or
(2) a
12-1.
CONTACT
NETWORKS)
A relay household
having
two
contact (or a contact, for brevity) switch used for controlling the in the open state there states;
closed
in
can
light. is no
path
be thought of as an ordinary It is a two-terminal device conductive

that
terminals; in the current to flow

Usually,
state there either direction.

by
exists a
one
will
allow
path between the the electric

bilateral in
Thus a
contact is a
device. Fig. ] 2-1.)
a contact
is represented
\037
X. I)
of the
symbols shown --or
.-/
X.,)
e>----.
.)
II)
Xi)
.)
x.I) represent
Fig. A contact an
12-1
Symbols used to
a switch
contact.)
is a network of interconnected contacts (see Fig. 12-2 a graph, in contact be network can example). Every by represented which the edges are the contacts and the vertices are the terminals. In fact, for our purpose, the following is the definition of a contact network:A contact network is an undirected, connected graph G (with no self-loops) in which each edge has a binary variable assume associated with can it, which only Xi two val ues, I or O. The binary variable Xi assigned the to a contact is I when contact is closed and is 0 when the contact is open. The input-output behavior of a contact network is usually in expressed the form of functions,)
network
for
f(x of
p X 2'
. . . , xk ),)
f
of
the
binary
function
variables. Such a function and must itself assume a value here,

two is
is called 0 or I.
a switching (or Booleant (or
Boolean)
switching))
tSwitching However,
algebra, as defined in switching theory these
actually
terms
a special case of are often used interchangeably,
Booleanalgebra.
as it
causes
no confusion.)))
330)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
algebra, which is used in defined as follows:

A
expressing
and
manipulating
switching functions, is of a
finite
Boolean
algebra
set
Xl'
X 2,
(called
. . .,Xk
Boolean
and
(like rings and fields in Chapter 6) consists two binary operations + (called Boolean
addition)
and
\302\267
multiplication) Xi
==
satisfying the following postulates:)
1. Either
2.
Xi'
Xi
== 1 or
Xi
O.
For every
such
there
exists
==
another
X\037
variable
if
Xi
x\037, called
the
complement
of
that
if
+
Xi
0, a,
{
==
1, and
Xi
==
1, x\037== o.
3. (a) Sum Xi
xj
if
==
== X == j
0,
1,
otherwise;)
if Xi
==
(b) Product
With these
XiX j
==
I,
{0,)
X j == 1,
otherwise.)
number
simple postulates a
are
of
interesting
results
can be
== Xi. that it can be easily shown Xi + xix j networks one encounters two types of problems-the problem In contact we are given a contact and the problem of synthesis. In analysis of analysis under which there will be an are asked to find conditions network G and electrically conducting path between a pair of vertices (Vi' Vj ) in G. In syntheas possible) a sis, on the other hand, we are asked to design (as cheaply with the We shall deal network that can meet the given requirements. problem
For
derived, which
example,
very
useful
in the
simplification of switching
expressions.
of analysis
12-2.
first
and
then with that
of
synthesis.)
ANALYSIS
Consider
OF CONTACT two vertices

by
in
NETWORKS)
any one
a contact
network
G. Since
G is connected,
there
are
can be identified
edges
in
Each of these paths paths betweenthese two vertices. with the Boolean product of the variables associated between 12-2 distinct the eight the path. For example, in Fig. paths
or more
the
verticesa and
bare)
(X I X 5 ),
( X I X'3 X I ),
( X 2 X 3 X I ),
( X 2 X 3 X; X 5)' ( X 3X
4
( 12- I))
(X 2 X'I
Each
X I j,
( X 2 X'I X'3 X 5 ),
( X 3 X 4 X I ),
product
X; X 5) .)
of these
contact
network
products is called G.
;
a path
product
between
vertices
a and b in
the
Clearly, the value of a path has a value of I path product an of the existence implies
is
if and
only if each
1
variable
in
the
otherwise,
it is O.
The value
of a
path product
electrically
conducting
path between
and
b)))
SEC. 12-2)
ANALYSIS
OF CONTACT NETWORKS)
331)
c)
b)
a)
f)
Contact network Fig. 12-2 vertices and nine contacts.)
with
SIX
through
tion
between
path
the
and
For an electrical conducthe corresponding contacts in the network. the two vertices, it is necessary and sufficient that at least one of n 1. I be other the of all Boolean sum words, path products products
specified
between a
of vertices (Vi' V j ) is 1 if and only if the terminals Vi in connected the contact network. Therefore, the electrically Boolean sum of path products is referred to as the transmission of the contact network between the two specifiedvertices. For example, the transmission
pair
v j are
between
vertices
Fab
a and b
Xl Xs +
-t
Xl
in
Fig.
12-2
is)
X') Xl
X 2 X)X
I +
X2X)X )X S + X 2 X
X 5 .)
'
'
1 Xl
X 2 X'I
(12-2)) X') X 5 +
X) X 4 X I + X) X 4 X')
Finding
the transmission
between specified vertices

all
network
finding
consists of
the
enumerating
paths
between
in a given contact the two vertices, and
Boolean based
sum on the
path
of the path products.

Boolean
in
plifications
postulates of the
products
I
Furthermore, possiblesimare also performed. algebra the following identities are
For example,in
evident:)
the
listed
(12-1),
XIX)X
I)
X I X),)
0,) ,)
X 2 X) X; Xs
X 2 X'I X I) and)
=
=0
= X) X4 X') X 5
Therefore,
o.)
the =
switching
function between
verticesa and
X'I
b in
Fig. 12-2
is)
Fab
X I X 5 + X I X') + X I X 2 X) +
all
x 2 X;
X5 +
which
X I
X) X 4.)
( 12-3))
Clearly,
Fab
gives
different
b.)))
conditions
under
conductive
path
exists between
a and
332)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND
CODING
THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
Normal
forms.
Form: A For example,

FOb ==
switching
function of
can expressing
another way
XI(X s +
X'3
be expressed (12-3) is)
in
many
different
X 3(X2 +
X 4 \302\273 + X'I
X2X\037XS.)
( 12-4))
A Boolean
when
function
expressed
the
as a
(12-4)
said to be in form, but in
F(x p X 2, . . . , xm ) of m binary variables x p X 2 , . . . , X m of course) of the variables is sum of products(Boolean, normal or natural form. Function FOb in (12-3) is in normal
it is
not
in
normal
form.
the transmissions one is interested in finding between all result is best expressed as in a given contact network G. The pairs of vertices an n by n matrix called the transmission matrix T == [tij] of G, where n is the number of vertices, and tij is the transmission between vertices i and.i in G. T is a symmetric matrix with every diagonal entry t u == I.) Clearly,
Occasionally,
X4) 4)
2)
Fig. for
12-3
Contact network.)
in
The transmission
1
matrix
the
2
contact
network shown
3
Fig.
12-3
is)
4
tX3
X\037(X2 x\037(x 3
XI
3
+
1
X 2X
X 2 +X
+ + X4
I
x IX3) X I X 2)
2
3 4
The
XI X 2 x\037(x 2
+ X 2X +X
IX
X 3 --t- X I X 2
X tX
X3 +
-i- x I x 3)
x \037 (x
3 -t-
IX
2)
I X4)
of all enumeration involves of a transmission matrix determination A method of better a network. in vertex between determining pair every paths defined as connection matrix is from the primitive a transmission matrix, follows: matrix Q = [qij] of an n-vertex contact network Theprimitive connection as) G is an n by n matrix, whose elements qij are defined
qu ==
I,
for
all i,
= 0, qij
WIse,)
if vertices i and
j are not
directly
joined
by a
contact;
edges
other-)
qij
== Boolean
sum of the variables joining vertices i and j.) connecti{)T} matrices
associated with
all
directly
The
primitive
for the contact networks
in
Figs.
12-3
and)))
SEC. 12-2
ANALYSIS
OF CONTACT NETWORKS
333
12-2,
respectively,
are
1 1
1
Xl
Xl
1
X2
X3
1 I
0
0
I
2
3 4
a b
0
1
X2
X3
X4
1
0
c
Xl
Xs
0
d
0
Xl
I X3
X4
e
X 2
f
X3
a
b
0
Xl
0
0 X'I
X 3
0
0
C
d e
Xs
I Xl
0 X2
X 3
X3
+
1
X3
X4 0
1)
0 0
0 0
X'I +
f
The
X4
the connection matrix is also symmetric, and it contains information a about contact network. complete Let Qk be the kth Boolean of Q (i.e., Q multiplied power by itself k times, the rules of Boolean as defined in Section 12-1) for some using algebra, k. let each in be Qk Furthermore, positiveinteger entry simplified, such as) primitive
X + and)
1 X
== X == xx
+ x' ==
== X
1,)
XX'
== 0 ,)
X +
+ xy == x.)
Then examinethe ijth entry in the simplified Qk.What we have done amounts to tracing all edge sequences i and of length the vertices 1, 2, . . . , k between the simplification }; and by employing process, we have eliminated all that of going over the same redundancies, including edge more than once (xx == x) and going over the same vertex more than once (x + xy == x). Thus the in matrix Qk represents all paths of length k or less between ijth entry vertices i and}. Since in an n-vertex n ], graph the longest path is of length we have)
THEOREM
12-1)
T
by)
The transmission matrix connection matrix Q, is given
of
an n-vertex
contact
network,
with
primitive
T =
Qn-
.)
In case
one is
interested
in
evaluating
the
12-1,
switching
which
function
computes
only
between
switching)))
a specified
pair of
vertices, Theorem
the
334)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
functions
efficien
between
t
:)
all n(n
)/2
pairs,
is wasteful.
Theorem 12-2 is
more
THEOREM
12-2)
Qjj
Let
Boolean
be
the
algebra
equals
ljth minor of the and simplified using
primitive Boolean
connection identities).
matrix Q (computed in funcThen the switching
tion
F ij
Qij.)
12-2 can be proved using led to similar to those which arguments 12-1. The details of the proof are left as an exercise. the evaluation Even of the minor Qu is quite laborious and cumbersome. A simpler method, called the node-removal is often employed in method, for 315-323, evaluating pages Fu' The interested reader is referredto [12-10], details on node-removal techniques.)
Theorem
Theorem
12-3.
network
SYNTHESIS
OF
CONTACT
NETWORKS)
requirements
that
Designing a network from given We can assume synthesis.

in any
is the requirements
the
general problem of of the contact

functions.
network to be designed are given

are given in We can further (i.e., as
just
the
form
of
switching
(If they
other
assume
form,
that
of
a Booleansum
switching
of
into they can be converted the switching functions are
switching
given
in
functions.) normal form
products).
In
Two-Terminal
one
Contact Networks: function F(x p x 2 '

network
a two-terminal
. . . , x m ) of
and
we are
to design a
realizing
this
synthesis we are given m variables, in normal form, as the transmission function
between two
number
its vertices.
if we are not concerned with the This problem is trivial economizing function in a natural can be of contacts, because any switching form an extravagant realized by a sufficiently large number of contacts. But such A realization to be useful should contain not realization is usually acceptable. It is this requirement that makes the synthesis as few contacts as possible. In Fig. three of many possible 12-4, for example, are shown problem difficult.
The simplest if this is the
realizations of a very simple switching among the three networks

most
is the
economic
Are there any methods that contact network for a given

The
switching
realization will guarantee

function?
function (with only four variables). one in Fig. 12-4(c). We may ask possible. If so, how can we be sure?
our
arriving
at
a most
efficient
problem
function
by
of
exhaustive
finding
with a
a contact network that realizes an arbitrary minimum number of contacts has not been solved
yet (except
enumeration)
and is not
likely
to
be solved
in
the)))
SEC.
12-3)
SYNTHESIS
335)
a)
b)
b)
(a) Realization
with
Nine
Contacts)
(b) Realization
wi
th Seven
Con tacts)
a)
b)
(c) Realization
with
Five
Contacts)
FOb
Fig. 12-4
Three
different
realizations
of
wx +
wy
wz
xyz.)
of switching near future. if we consider a restricted type However, called single-contact networks, the problem becomes manageable. Single-Contact
network,
Network:
A contact
able Xi
only an
(either
in uncomplemented
edge is called a single-contact network can be opened or closedindependently. network in Fig. 12-3 is an SC network, but those in Figs.
one SC
Any
contact only
network in which binary varievery or complemented form) is associated with Thus each contact in (or SC) network.
For
example,
the
12-2 and 12-4 are
not.
transmission
function
(or SC function).
once,
it is
further
[the
type
be realizedby an SC network is called a singleSince in an SC network a variable appears the sum of its path products any not possible to simplify of simplification performed on expression (12-2) to produce
that can
other
expression (12-3)].In terms. Every product

terminals,
the
path.
no redundant an SC function contains the specified a distinct between path represents a distinct in to and literal a term edge in corresponds every product is not function F == X 1 X 2 + x 2x; + X'tX2X4 For example, switching words,
term
an SC function.
Realization of an
function
FOb is an
SC
Function:
SC function,
Once we are assured that a given switching we know unambiguously every path between)))
336)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND
CODING
THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
a and b in the network we intend to design. The how to design an SC network for an SC switching work is unique up to 2-isomorphism. This is because
vertices
following function.
shows
procedure The net-
the set
within
of all paths
between a pair
(see Section
Procedure
of
vertices
specifies
a graph
uniquely
2-isomorphism
4-8 and Problem 7-25).

for
Realizing
Fab
a Given
the
SC
Function
of m
Variables
respect
xp
X 2'
. . . , Xm :
Step
1 : From
obtain
path matrix
P (a,b)
with
to the
vertex
pair (a,b).
a column of all l's to P(a,b). 2: Append This Step implies of an edge (with associated between a and variable, say, xo) a into Let the circuit. circuit matrix verting every path resulting
Step
the addition conb, thus
be denoted
eliminate
as B.
3:
dependent
Use Jordan's method of elimination (mod rows in B. Rearrange the resulting fundamental
2) to
all
circuit
matrix
into the standard form (review
Section 7-4, if
Bf ==
[I :
Bf
necessary):)
Bt].)
Step
4: From
Bf obtain the
C f ==
fundamental
cut-set
matrix
- t ].)
C f , given
by)
[C c :
In
- t] ==
[B; :
In
Step
5: From
performing nonsingular
C f obtain Af' the reduced incidence matrix, modulo 2 sums of rows in Cf. This corresponds matrix R such that) transformation
Af
==
by
appropriately
to
obtaining
R.
Cf
,)
where
taking
sets
entire
In step 5 we are essentially cut-sets so that they produce ring of edges incident at each vertex. This is the most laborious stepin the and becomes prohibitive for large on this (more procedure, graphs
Af
has at
most two l's

sums
in
each
column.
different
of fundamental
later).
Step 6: Form
that
the
incidence
matrix
I's).
by
adding
the
each column
has exactly two

us apply
this
From
matrix
missing row to Af (so A draw the graph, and
remove edge Xo.

Example:
Let
procedure
to obtain
a graph
that
realizes
the
SC function)
Fab
==
XtX2X3XSX7 +
X t
X 3 X4 X 6 +
Xt
X S
X 6 XS + 6 X 7 .)
X2X 4
( 12-5))))
X2X
XSXS +
X3X4X6X7XS +
X SX
SEC. 12-3
SYNTHESIS
OF CONTACT NETWORKS
337
Step
1: The
path
matrix
is
Xl
I 1
X 2 I
X3
I 1
X 4 Xs
0
1 1
X 6 X 7 Xg
0
1 1
I 0 0
0 0
1
0
1
1
P(a,b)
0
I 1
0
0
1 1
0
1
0
1
0
0 I
I
0
0
I
I
0
1
0
0
0
I
0
1
I
0)
0
at
Step
2: Appending
a column
variable
of l's
the
end
of matrix
B:)
P (a,b)
and
iden-
tifying
the column
by
xO' we get
circuit
X6
0
1 1 X 7 1
matrix
Xl
1 1 1
X2
1
X 3 I 1
X 4 Xs 0
I
Xg 0
Xo
1
1 1 1 1 I I)
1 0
1
0 0
1 1
0 0
0
1
0
0
I 1
0
1
B=
0
0 0 0
0 I 0
1
0 0
1 I
0 0
1 I
0
I 1
0
I
0 0
Step
consists
submatrix. third
in
of elimination step is somewhat involved. Jordan's method of adding (mod 2) rows to other so as to form an identity rows For example, adding the first row to the second as well as to B we get)
3: This
the
Xl
I
X 2 X 3 X 4 Xs
1 1 I 1 1
X 6 X 7 Xg Xo
0
1
0
1
1 1
I
1 I
0
0
1
1 0
0
0 0
B
0
I
0
1
0
0
1
1 0
0
1
1-
0
0 0
0
1 1
0
0
I 1
0
1 1
1 .
1 1
1)))
0 1
0 0
0
1
0
1
338)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
In
BI
adding
the
second
row to the
Xl
1
fourth
and
sixth
rows, we
get)
X 2 X)
1 1 1 1
X 4 Xs
0 1 0 1
1
X 6 X 7 Xg Xo 0
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
0
0
1 0
1 1
1 0
0
1 1 1
0 0
B2
==
0
I
0
I 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0
1 1
0
1 1
0
0 0
0 0
1
0 0
1
0
but
0
one
In this each
column
attempt to eliminateall occurs in a different

Xl 1
0
in a
column
(making sure the

get)
in
row), we
X 4
ultimately
X 2 X)
1
Xs
1
X 6 X 7 Xg Xo
0 I
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
B) ==
0 1
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 From this
matrix
we get
Xl 1
the fundamental
X 4 Xg 0
1
circuit matrix
Xs X7 Xo
1 1
in
standard
form:)
X6 0
0
0
1
X 2 1 1 1
X)
1
0
0
1
1
1 1 1
Bf
==
0 0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
==
[1 4 : B 1].
Now
we have the following rank number
information about
matrix
the
desired
network:)
n
of circuit
(including
B == J.l == e xo)
==
4,
of edges
e == 9,
Therefore)
number of vertices
rank
n == 6, == n
of the cut-set
matrix
== 5.)))
SEC. 12-3)
SYNTHESIS
339)
Step
4: The fundamental 3) is
8f
in
step
cut-set matrix immediately obtained as)

Xl
1 1
(with
respect
to the
same tree as
X 4 Xg
1 I 1
X6
0 0 I
1 I
X2
1
X 3 Xs
0
I
X 7
Xo
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
o .
0 0 0
1
0 0
0 0
Cf == [8; :
In-d
==
I I 1
0
0 0
0
I
0 0
0
1)
Step
5: After
many trials we
C f
find
that
if we
elementary row operations on The l's per column. operations
we get
matrix
perform the following three at most two that contains
are)
Add (mod
Add
Add
(mod
(mod
2) row 5 to row 1, 2) row 3 to row 5, 2) row 4 to row 3.)

Af is)
The
resulting
reduced
incidence matrix
Xl
X 4 Xg
X 6 X 2 X 3 Xs
1 1
X 7
Xo
0
1 1
0
1
0
0
0
0
I0
I Af == 0
1
0 0
1
0 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1 0
1
1 1
0
o . 0
1)
0
0
0
Step
that
6: We
every
column
A by adding get the incidence matrix now has exactly two 1 's.)
a row at the bottom
such
Xl 0
1
X4 Xs 0
0
X 6 I
X 2 X3
I
Xs
0
0
1
X 7
Xo
0
I
1
0
1
0
0
1
1 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
A== 1
0
0
0
0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
1
0
Finally,
0)
the
required
A,
contact network is constructed (seeFig.12-5)

and
from
the
incidence
matrix
then
edge
Xo
is deleted.)))
340)
GRAPHS IN
SWITCHING
AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
X7)
a
I \\ \\ \\ \\ I '
b : Fig.
,,
\"
..................._----\"\
,,/
//
//
Xo
12-5 Realization of sion (12-5).)
Fab
in expres-
we see that steps of an SC switching function, require no conditions on Fab for their completion. Step 3 involves some labor, but it is also guaranteed to terminate. Any matrix of rank k can be reducedby Jordan's of elimination to one of the process forms (see [7-3]):) following
In
this
six-step
synthesis
I, 2, 4, and
6 are
easy and
\037
[Ik ! 0],)
or
tJ+\037}
I k .)
O [OJ
whether or not be performed 1,2, 3, and 4 can always Realizability: Steps the given switching will fail at F is an SC function. The procedure function 5 if a F is an in not SC and we will succeed not function, obtaining step This leads us to an reduced incidence matrix by elementary row operations. in graph theory: When a given (0, 1)can extremely important question be a cut-set M may matrix matrix of some graph?An arbitrary (0, I)-matrix or may not be a cut-set matrix. For example, the matrix)
o
L =
1
I 1 0)
0
I
010
[:)
cannot
001)
This can be verified by considering matrix of any graph. (mod 2) sums of the three rows, and observing that this into a matrix row operations transformed by elementary no incidence matrix can be at most two l's per column. In other with words, with L as a cut-set matrix. found to correspond L is unique. It can be shown that this is the smallest (0, 1)The matrix It is also clear that any be a cut-set matrix of any graph. matrix which cannot be a cut-set matrix either. matrix cannot M, if it contains L as a submatrix, matrix of a graph Let us look at another facet of the situation. A cut-set G is also the circuit matrix of its dual G* if and only if G is planar. Suppose a submatrix which we know to be the))) that matrix M = [M 1 : I k ] contains
be a cut-set seven possible cannot be matrix
all
SEC. 12-3)
SYNTHESIS
OF CONTACT NElWORKS)
341)
circuit
M cannot be a cut-set matrix; of some nonplanar graph H; then where a nonplanar a situation subgraph has a dual, which is impossible. Thus we have a secondnecessary if a matrix M == condition: it must of any not contain the circuit matrix [M 1 : I k ] is to be a cut-set matrix, that a graph is nonplanar if nonplanar graph. From Theorem 5-9, we know and only if it has as a subgraph either of the two Kuratowski graphs or any if M is to be a cut-set to either of them. Therefore, graph homeomorphic it must not contain a circuit matrix of either Kuratowski matrix, graph, or to either of them. any homeomorphic graph in a remarkable paper that It has been shown the two necessary by Tutte is conditions discussed so far are also sufficient. The proof of sufficiency realizability extremely long and is based on the theory of matroids.The are stated in Theorem 12-3 (for a conditions for a cut-set matrix precisely matrix
otherwise,
we have
or [12-14]).) proof see[12-11]

12-3
THEOREM
Necessary
and
sufficient
conditions
for
the (0, 1)-matrix
to
be
a cut-set
matrix are
1.
that)
M does
not
contain
L or
LT
as
a submatrix.
matrix
2.
M does not contain the circuit graph homeomorphic to either
of either
Kuratowski
graph,
or
any
of them.)
Realizability
of M as a that
Circuit
Matrix)
Suppose
we want
to
find
whether
or not
cut-set
fundamental
following
result,
circuit matrix (rather than the analog of Theorem

answer.)
12-3and
a matrix M == [Ik M 2] is the of some graph. The matrix) by Tutte in the same proved
paper, has the

THEOREM
12-4
and
Necessary
matrix
sufficient
conditions
for the
(0, 1 )-matrix
M, to
be a
circuit
are that)
not
1. M does
contain
L or
LT
as
a submatrix.
of
2.
does
not
contain
graph Note
homeomorphic that
the cut-set matrix to either of them.)
either
Kuratowski
graph, or
any
an arbitrary
fundamental
(0,
cut-set
1 )-matrix
M falls
into one
of four
G*
categories:)
1. M
is a
matrix
of some graph
G and a fundamental
are
circuit
matrix
of another
cut-set graph
graph G*
matrix
(graphs G and
planar). a circuit
2. M is a fundamental matrix of any
of some graph
G, but
is not
(G is
nonplanar).)))
342)
3.
GRAPHS
IN SWITCHING AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
M is
graph
a circuit matrix
(G is
of
some
graph
G,
but
is not
a cut-set matrix
of any
nonplanar).
a cut-set
4. 12-4.
is neither
matrix nor a circuit
matrix
of any
graph.)
SEQUENTIAL
SWITCHING
NETWORKS)
combinational
networks. Let switching as sequential networks (better known As pointed out earlier in the chapter, the output of a sequential machinest). network but also on their past history. not only on the present inputs depends A sequential machine the information about must, therefore, be able to retain of \"state\" of a sequential network, past inputs. This introduces the concept So far,
we have considered only

the
us now
study
sequential
switching
where
the
\"state\" corresponds
machine
to the
is defined
memory
of
the
past inputs.
Mathematiof\037)
cally, a
A
sequential
as follows:
consists
sequential'
machine
is a [v P
V2'
mathematical system M, which

. . . , V n} of . . . , xm}
1.
A finite
set
internal
states (or
simply input output
states). alphabet. alphabet.
2. 3. 4.
A finite set X A finite set A function

state
= [x l' x2 ,
==
of inputs
called the
called the combination
v k
[z l' Z 2'
..
. , Z p}
assigns
(Vi'
of outputs to every
or mapping
function
that
and
transition
the present
input
Xj)
a next
state
. This
of the present function is called

an output Z s to present input.)
the
of M.
5. Another function, every combination There are two
called the
(Vi'
output
function,
assigns
the
Xj)
of the
present state and

describing
equivalent methods of
the state
a sequential
weighted,
machine: (1)
directed
tabular
form,
called
table, and (2) a
graph,
called
the state graph (or state diagram). in the state graph corresponds to a state Each vertex of the sequential a transition from the present state machine, and each directed edgerepresents to the next. Every edge (Vi' V j ) has an ordered pair of weights X k , Zq assigned if the present state of the to it. This weight the fact that pair represents machineis Vi and if the present input is x k an output Zq results, and the next state will be v r The state table and the state graph of a sequential machine)
tSequential
switching
sequential nets, or
used
sequential
for
sequential
employed
commonly
networks are also called sequential networks, sequential machines, circuits. The terms finite-state machines and automata are also machine is perhaps the most switching networks. The form sequential term and we shall use this term.
of a sequential machine is somewhat restricted. completely specified sequential machine.)))
It is the
\037This definition
Mealy model
of a
deterministic
and
SEC.
12-4)
SEQUENTIAL
SWITCHING
NElWORKS)
343)
with)
states
==
[A,
B, C,
D},
in puts
X == [1, 2},
outputs)
are
==
[a,
b,
c})
shown
A
in Fig.
B, for
12-6. In
the
state
graph
the edge
the
output
with
weight
pair
state
from verA and
tex
input
to
I
is
example, indicates that when the machine produces an applied
machine
a and
is
in
the
B.)
will go into
state
2.h)
D)
, c)
e)
Next state/output
Presen t
state
A
2
B/a
Inputs
A/b
e/c
D/c
B/b
C
D
D/e
B/a
graph
A/c)
Fig. 12-6
State
and state
table for
a sequential
machine.)
Properties of
The
State Graphs)
observations
following
can be
made
the
about
the
properties
of state
graphs:)
]. In response to eachspecified
input
machine
in a given
present state
each
goesinto
is m,
a specific
next state.
one for each input; and there is no similar restrictionon the
Therefore, the out-degree of the state graph has nm edges.

in-degrees.)))
vertex
Note
that
344)
GRAPHS IN 2. Since an
SWITCHING
AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
input
may
leave
a sequential graph. parallel
machine
but
in
its
present
state,
self-loops may 3. A state graph

weight
occur in
also
a state
may
have
edges,
they
will have
different
pairs.
4.
a starting
the states of a sequential machineis designatedas the machine is required to be in this state before of a machine with a designated any input is applied. The state graph state is regarded as a rooted digraph, the root being the starting
In
most cases
state,
one of
and
starting state.
5.
state no matter which input (if any) that the machine cannot leave, is applied, is called a persistent state. If a sequential machine has a will have no directed edge persistent state, the corresponding vertex
it
going from
6. A sequential
strongly
to
another
vertex.
strongly
machineis saidto be
Thus
connected
if its
other
state graph is
connected
co.nnected.
a sequential
to
machine M is strongly
state from
any
if and
only if M
input
can be brought
sequence.)
any
state
by an
appropriate
The
the
state graph
of a sequential
it is
its state
machines
machine
contains
all the
the
information about
of a given arise in the
machine.
Therefore,
machine by studying theory of sequential be interested in

machine
possible to study graph. Some of the

are
properties that problems
1. Analysis: In analyzing the

determining
the
sequence.
response
to a
conclusion
inputs
certain input about the internal

observing
behavior of a machine, we may, for instance, (next states and outputs) of a given Or we may be interestedin drawing some
of a
behavior
machine
has
by
applying
a series
of
and
state, the application

sequence.
with
the outputs. If a given of input
machine
a designated
in
starting
output
sequence results
a desired
and
unique
2. Synthesis: To design a machine having the statement of the desired response Consider the following example:
behavior,
a state
we start graph.
input
construct
Problem:Design
a sequential
machine
to respond
to
an
arbitrary
machine of 1 whenshould produce an output sequence of O's and 1's..The bits of value greater than 9 ever there appears a set of four consecutive input in a serial 8-4-2-1 BCD code (the bit comes to the machine least significant is 9 or less (i.e., 0000, 0001, Whenever the value of a four-bit sequence first). the be O. should 0010, output
. . . , 1001),
bits and Solution: The machine should store the last three consecutive with to the next bit. Therefore, we should start should examine and respond an eight-state (2 3 == 8) sequential machine. Let the eight states 000, 001,010,)))
SEC. 12-4)
SEQUENTIAL
SWITCHING
NETWORKS)
345)
011, 100,
respectively.
101, 110, and

The
111be designated
alphabet
by
A, B,
C, D,
the
E, F, G, and H,
output
input
consists of
also consists
of [0, I}.
[0, I}, and
alphabet
bit and When a new bit arrives at the left, the machine drops the rightmost stores the new bit together with the two old ones. For example, if the machine the next state is 101 (i.e., F) and the is in state C (i.e., 010)and a 1 arrives, is 1 (corresponding to 1010).The state table and the state graph of output constructed and are shown in Fig. 12-7.) such a sequential machine can be easily
Presen t
state')
Next 0
State/Output
I I I I I I I
A)
A/O A/O B/O
\302\243/0
B)
\302\243/0
C)
F/l
F/I
D)
B/O
C/O
\302\243)
G/I
F)
G)
C/O
D/O
G/I
H/I
H)
D/O
H/l)
B)
0,0)
D)
0,)
1,
I)
\302\243)
I, 1)
G)
Fig.
12-7
State table and state
graph.)
we just machine 3. State and reduction: The eight-state equivalence to perform the specified task. obtained is not necessarily the \"simplest\" one the state The next graph and see step, and a very important step, isto examine The reduction can be accomif it can be reduced to a \"simpler\" machine. plishedif we can determine whether or not two states in a given machine (i.e.,)))
346)
a pair
GRAPHS
IN SWITCHING AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
state graph) are equivalent. If two states produce the next states for every input, go to a pair of equivalent considered as one state and they given the same label whereverthey in the state table. occur ]n the state graphs we can fuse the two equivalent verticesand remove any that may result from redundant weights) edges (parallel edges with identical the fusion. In Fig. ] 2-7 vertices A and B are equivalent, and therefore they can be fused. This fusing results in the seven-state machineshown in Fig. 12-8(a). The process of reduction in Fig. ] 2-8. When it yields is shown completed A in Fig. 12-8(e) is the replacement of A the state graph of Fig. 12-8(e). State E is for E, B in the original state graph, state state and C is for C and D, and F, G, and H. The three-state machine in Fig. 12-8(e) performs the same task sequential ] 2-7 did. This simple example as the original eight-state machine in Fig. illustrates the importance of the state-reduction process. 4. State assignment: The next step is the implementation of a sequential that machine from the reduced state graph. Assuming binary memory devices are used, an or switches) (i.e., two-state devices such as flip-flops toggle will n-state machine require q such devices, where)
of vertices
in
the
same
outputs can be
and also
2q-l The
<n
<
2q.)
these
q binary 2q states
memory devices to the n vertices
allow 2q
of the of
possible
states.
How
that
to assign
we
of
economical machine is the

I
problem
state graph such state assignment.
get the
same (
most
terms the state assignment problem is the of labeling the vertices of an n-vertex digraph with available 2q
n graph
theoretic
as that
> n)
labels,
with
certain
optimizing
criteria.)
the is an \"best\" Finding an efficient algorithm to obtain assignment important unsolved problem in the theory of sequential machines. Listing all for and then picking out the best is impractical even possible assignments with ] 0 states. However, for a very small machine, such as the machines in Fig. 12-8(e), it is possible three-state machine to look at all distinct and compare them. For n = 3 and q = 2, the number of distinct assignments table shows three distinct assignments (Y 1 and assignments is 3. The following Y 2 are the two memory devices).)
Assignmen
t I
Assignment II
Yl Y2
Assignment III
Yl 0
1 1 Y2
States
}'l
A
Y2
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1 0)))
C
E
0
1
0,0)
1, I)
E)
I,
(a))
G)
D)
0,0)
1, 1)
1,
(b))
0,0)
I, I)))
E)
(c)
0,0) 0,0)
I,
I)
(d))
0,0)
c)
(e)
Fig. 12-8
Reduction
of a
state graph.)
347)
348)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
If you
using
are familar
with
logical
devices,
design
will
these machines
notice
completely,
flip-flops
(or delay
lines) and gates. You

but
that
one assignment
in
is decidedly superior to the other two. There are a number of very important
machine
difficult
problems
solving
sequential
theory.
Graph theory may have
potential for
many
of these
outstanding
problems.)
CUBE
12-5.
UNIT
AND
ITS GRAPH) x p X 2 ' . . . , Xm. Each Xi can take a m we can form 2 distinct Each of m-tuples. a vertex of the m-dimensional unit cube. by 3 are shown in Fig. 12-9. Th\037 extension to is to visualize.) difficult, simple enough
variables
10
11)
Consider a set of m switching value of either 0 or 1. Therefore,
these m-tuplescan be represented Unit cubes for m == 1, 2, and m > 4, although geometrically
.
o)
.
1)
QI)
00
Q2)
01
110
III)
010)
100)
101)
000)
Q))
001)
Fig. 12-9
The edges and vertices vertices. Each vertex is two
One-, two-,
and
three-dimensional
cubes.)
of an m-dimensionalunit labeled as a distinct binary

if and
is called
only
cube
form
sequence
a graph with of m bits such

in
that
vertices
are adjacent
exactly
by Qm. Once again, how we draw the m-cube is immaterial as long as we preserve the adjacency relationshipsof its vertices. For example, Q 3 is drawn in another in Fig. 12-10(a). The 4-cube is sketched in Fig. The m-cube is of 12-10(b). way
graph
one bit.
Such a
if they (i.e., their labels) differ an m-cube and will be designated
interest
in
studying
switching
functions
of m
binary
variables.
The
state-)))
SEC.
12-5)
UNIT
CUBE
AND ITS GRAPH)
349)
(a))
(b))
Fig. 12-10
Graphs of 3-cube and
4-cube.)
assignment
problem
discussed in the last section, can be looked upon problem, of selecting and labeling vertices of an m-cube. See Chapter
that
as
13 of
[12-2]. Someobservations
Q m' are)
can
be made
about the properties of
an
m-cube,
I. There
are exactly m
one
distinct
labels =
bits)
in
position.
Therefore,
n
Qm
2. The
is a
regular
graph of
\037(Vi'
that differ (rom a given label (of m each vertex in Qm is of degree m. Thus 2 m vertices and e = m. 2m 1 edges.
the number of edgesin a shortest path) v j in an m-cube is equal to the number of in in which the labels and v differ. For of Q3 positions example, Vi j in Fig. 12-9 the distance between (011) and is 2. This distance is (101) It is as the Hamming words. known distance between the two binary distance between two
v ) j
(i.e.,
vertices
Vi and
easy to
\037(Vi'
see that)
= number
j)
of
's in
mod 2
vector
sum
of the
labels of
in an
V,.
and
V j.)
3.
The
maximum
distance possible
m-bit
between two
can differ at
vertices
nz-cube is
m, becausetwo
sequences
most
in
m positions.)
A k-dimensional cube can be looked Subcubes: as a subcube of upon cubes.Similarly, higher-dimensional graph Qk may be regarded as a subgraph of of the 2k vertices (of Qm)' whose labels Qm (k < m) such that Qk consists k corresponding have identical m bits. For example, the vertices (011), a (001), (Ill), and (101) in Fig. 12-9 have the same last bit, and constitute subcube is a O-cube, and any is a I-cube. Q 2 in Q 3. Each vertex edge Minterms: A Boolean each of m variables x p x 2, . . . , product containing xm exactly once, either complemented or uncomplemented, is called a minterm of m variables. For example,the minterms of))) (or canonic product)
350)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND CODING THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
three
variables
and
==
a,
b, c
are (a' b' c'),

minterms
(a'b'
c),
(a' bc'),
(a' bc),
they
(ab' c'),
be put
(ab'c),
into a
(abc'),
There
(x'tX\037
(abc).
are 2 m
distinct
with one-to-one correspondence
the
of m variables, and vertices of an

the
can
m-cube. The
(x
1X
minterm
to (0 0 . . . 0 I) vertex, sponds to vertex (I

x
m)
. . . x\037) corresponds and

1
to (00. so on;
. .0) vertex, (X'lX\037

finally,
. . . x\037_ lX m )
corresponds
minterm
2 . . . X m ) corre-
. . . I)
of Qm.
2m
function J(x t' X 2 , . . . , Switching Functions on the m-Cube: Any switching as a Boolean sum of a subsetof of rn variables can be expresseduniquely minterms. This is termed as the canonic form off Clearly, the functionf
1
and only those vertices whose corresponding those minterms are in the canonic form At all other vertices the functionJ is O. The off 1 are to function of Qm at whichfis called true vertices with respect of Q m with vertices f, and the vertices at which f is 0 are called the false the function to function.,!: For example, consider of three following respect
at
is
present verticest
variables:)
J( xl'
The
X 2
' x 3
== X 1 X 2 X3
function
' , ,+
\" ' , X t X2 X 3 + X 1 X 2 X 3
X 1 X 2 X 3.)
in
'
true
vertices
for
this
on Q 3
are shown encircled
Fig.
12-11.)
x-i x
2 X\
\\ I
\\;x))
Fig. 12-11
x-jx-2X))
True
vertices
on
a Q3
for
given
function.)
the Thus function of nl variables uniquely every switching partItIons vertices of the graph Qm into two sets, one consistingof the true vertices and the other consisting of the false vertices. There are 22111such partitions,\037 each function of m variables. Thus the propcorresponding to a distinct switching the properties of erties of switching functions can be determined by studying the subgraph of Qm defined the true vertices with the to given by respect
function.)
tThose
familiar
in
with Karnaugh map

map. two extrenle
will
recognize
that a vertex
In
Qm corresponds
to
a square
\037This
Karnaugh
includes
false
cases
when
all
vertices are
have
(i.e.,
f = 0).
Usually,
partitions
2 m vertices are true (i.e., f do not have empty subsets,
=-
I), and all but here we
called these two
cases also partitions.)))
SEC.
12-6)
GRAPHS IN
CODING
THEORY)
351)
12-6.
GRAPHS Gray Codes:
IN
CODING
THEORY)
information
Often,
when
is converted
of
its
digital
equivalent,
one requires
list
distinct
one precedingit in just of a rotating the angles in adjacent shaft, angular position intervals are encoded into m-tuples (using m brushes on a comquantum that differ in just one place. Taking m == 3, for mutator) of binary digits 0 to 360\302\260, the code for angles from instance, as the angle increases binary
each
differs
from the
from analog form to m-tuples such that one coordinate. For example, to
binary
determine
the
might
go
through
the succession)
000 for
001
011
0-45\302\260 , 45-90\302\260,
for
for
90-1
35\302\260 ,
010,
110 111 101 100 and
for
for for for for
135-180\302\260, 180-225\302\260, 225-270\302\260, 270-315\302\260, 315-360\302\260,
back
to
000
Such
for
0-45\302\260 .)
called the
contrast when from
four
bit at a time, is which requires the changing of only one the or circuit code, code, code, Gray reflected binary cyclic code. In to the Gray code, other codes may of several bits changing require from one number the to next number. For going higher example,going 7 to 8 in 8-4-2-1 BCD (i.e., from 0 III to 1000) involves a change in all bits simultaneously. Because of variations in the construction of the a code,
multiple
equipment, such
during
changes
may
not
register simultaneously.
Thus,
code
the
change,
in
false code
in
combinations are
supplied.
Such
false
words
important An
are eliminated
m-bit
is why code, and this Gray Gray conversion of information. analog-to-digital in an m-cube. Gray code corresponds to a circuit a code
codes are
so
the 3-bit Gray

rotating
just
illustrated
by
shaft
is defined
the
in heavy
from
lines. The reason for

figure.
For instance, for measuring the angular position of the circuit in Q3 in Fig. 12-12 shown Hamiltonian the term cyclic or circuit code should be clear
this
An m-bit code that is called a uses all 2 m vertices code need not be a completecode.For example, when
complete code. A
4-bit
circuit
words
are used
to
represent decimal
digits,
we use
only 10 out
of 16vertices.)))
352)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND
CODING
THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
110
\037
111
010
1
100
101)
000)
.)
Fig. 12-12 In selecting an
Gray
code
on
Q3.)
m incomplete code from 2 available words, one would like to selecta code that has certain error-checking properties. One such codehas the desirable property that a singlebinary error (caused by malfunctioning of the equipment)in a word results in either (I) the next word, (2) the preceding or (3) a word that does not appear in the word, code at all. The last case indicates a detected error, and the first two cases introduce errors of relatively small magnitude. Such a code is calleda snakein-the-box code, or unit-distance error-checking code. (SIB) An SIB code corresponds to a circuit in Qm such that no two nonsuccessive vertices SIB code in Q 3 is shown on the circuit are adjacent. A 6-word, in Fig. 12-13.) Snake-in-the-Box
Codes:
110
oC)
I 1 1)
#)
010)
t)
101)
1)
f/)
000)
.)
Fig. 12-13
Q3.)
Snake-in-the-box
code
on
001)
The SIB codes can be generalized with additional error-checking to codes In graph properties, as follows: Qm' a circuit Cs is saidto be of spread s if a find a shortcut (i.e., a path with no edge from C s cannot person going around s edges of Qm. With Cs) between two vertices of C s consisting of fewer than this definition, every circuit in Qm is of spread I, and an SIB codecorresponds to a circuit of spread 2. For a given m and a specified s, one would like to find as large a circuit C s as possible. At present no relationship is known that gives the size of the on C s in a Qm for arbitrary m and s. For a survey of such problems largest in Qm' the reader is referred to a paper by Klee codes [12-8].
Huffman
Graph-Theoretic
entirely
Codes:
different
We
shall
now
briefly discuss the

A
applicacode is
a)))
tion of graphs to an
type of
coding.
binary
group
SEC. 12-6)
GRAPHS IN
CODING
THEORY)
353)
the property set of binary code words with that the modulo 2 sum of arty two code words in the set is also a code word in the set. t Binary group codesare of in information both for analytic and practical transmission, importance as well as reasons. The group structure facilitates their mathematical study details on group codes see [12-12]. their implementation. For more Sincethe ring sum of two cut-sets in a graph is another cut-set or an edgeand edgethat the set of all cut-sets union of cut-sets, it is evident disjoint a binary can be used to define of cut-sets group code. In other disjoint union words, the vectors (2 r of them, r being the rank of the graph) in the cut-set code. group subspace W s , over GF(2), constitute a binary cut-set matrix can be used to generate this The rows of a fundamental a Huffman graph-theoretic code. binary group code. Such a code is called C consider a graph and its fundamental cut-set matrix For example, f in the Fig. 12-14. The rows of C f , their modulo 2 sums, and the zero vector yield 5-bit, 8-word code shown in Fig. 12-14.)
B)
E)
o)
0
0)
10100) 11010) 01001)
\037=) o)
o
o
0)
01110)
(5.3.2)
Lode')
I
00 I I)
11101)
00111) 00000)
Fig. 12-14
Graph
and
its cut-set matrix
code.)
Analogously, the
binary
fundamental
circuit
of a graph
group
code.
Thus
we have two
graph-theoretic codesassociated
also generates a
with
every
graph.)
that
tNote
codes
we are
and
have
been
each code word consists a uniform binary code or a binary block examples of binary block codes.)))
in which
codes and only those binary discussing only binary of the same number of bits. Such a code is called code. Gray codes and binary group codes are
354)
GRAPHS
IN
SWITCHING
AND
CODING
THEORY)
CHAP.
12)
graph-theoretic
number
W
s or
zero code word.

the graph
Now in
of edges e W r (i.e., rank

Fig.
in
the r or
code is generally specified by the dimension of the graph,

nullity graph-theoretic
three
numbers-the l's in
Thus ] 2-14
the
is a
that
we know
graph, we can investigate
(5, 3, 2) code. how to generate a code (in fact

codes
p,), and the smallest number code generated
associated subspace,
of
by
a nonof
the
cut-sets
two
codes)
from any
corresponding
such as complete
to important
generate
kinds of graphs-
graphs, we
bipartite
graphs,
that
regular graphs, and

group
planar graphs.
with certain
Conversely,
can
look
and This is specified properties, such as efficiency error-correcting capability. an area of current research. Some relationshi ps between the properties of and the properties of the associated codeshave been graphs investigated by Huffman [12-7], Frazer [12-3],Hakimi and Bredeson [12-4], and Saltzer
for graphs
codes
[12-13].)
SUMMARY)
In this chapter automata circuits, graph theory was applied to switching of graphs to digital and theory, and coding theory. The applicability systems signals is not surprising, because both operate in G F(2). For lack of space, only in switching theory were selected applications discussed. Many related such as the study of series-parallel contact topics,
and regular expressions, networks, planar and nonplanar contact networks, were not even mentioned. Several other topics, such as the graphs of gate-type SIB codes, and properties of Huffman were also networks, codes, generalized left out. These are someof the areas of current research in switching theory. It is hoped that the serious reader will go to the references cited for a fuller account of this fascinating application of graph theory.)
REFERENCES)
with switching theory was assumed in this chapter. For introductory is still Caldwell [12-2], one of the earliest books in switching theory, one of the best, and Chapters 5, 8, 10, 12,and 13 are particularly relevant to the subject of this chapter. For a more abstract and formal treatment of switching theory, Harrison [12-5] is recommended. Chapter 5 of Miller [12-10] is excellent for graph-theoretic treatment the of contact networks. Chapter lOin Hill and Peterson [12-6] is good for understanding the classic book of Peterson of sequential circuits. For coding problems in synthesis theory, is recommended. be read for an appreciation of Birkhoff and Bartee [12-1] [12-12] may to switching theory and coding. Other why theory should be so readily graph applicable sources referred to in the text are included in the following list of references. 12-1. BIRKHOFF, G., and T. C. BARTEE, Modern Applied Algebra, McGraw-Hill Book
Certain
familiarity
switching
theory,
Company,
New
York,
1968.)))
CHAP.
12)
REFERENCES)
355)
12-2.
CALDWELL,
S.. H., York, W. D., S. L.,
Switching Circuits
and
Logical
to
Design,
Linear 1964,
John
Wiley
&
Sons,
Inc., 12-3. 12-4.

Annual
New
FRAZER,
1958. \"A Graph-Theoretic Coni
Approach
\"Graph
Allerton Trans.
on Circuit and System Theory,
Codes,\" Proc. 888-898.
Second Codes,\"
HAKIMI, IEEE
and J.
G. BREDESON,
Theoretic
Error-Correcting
1968, 584-591. Inform. Theory, Vol. IT-14,No.4, July and Automata M. A., Introduction to Switching 12-5. HARRISON, Theory, McGraw-Hili New York, 1965. BookCompany, to Switching Theory and Logical Introduction 12-6. HILL, F. J., and G. R. PETERSON, & Sons, Inc., New York, 1968. Design, John Wiley 12-7. HUFFMAN, D. A., \"A Graph-Theoretic Formulation of Binary Group Codes,\" at 1964 ICMCI, pt. 3, 29-30. summaries of papers presented 12-8. KLEE, V., \"The Use of Circuit Codes in Analog-to-Digital Conversion,\" in Graph
Theory and Its 1970, 121-131.
Applications
(B.
Harris,
ed.), Academic
Press, Inc., New
York,
of Switching Functions by Linear Graph Theory,\" \"Synthesis , Vol. 4, July 1960, 320--328. 12-10. MILLER, R. E., Switching Theory. Volume I: Combinational Circuits, John Wiley 1965. & Sons, Inc., New York, 12-11. MINTY, G. J., \"On the Axiomatic Foundations of the Theories of DirectedLinear J. Math. Mech., Vol. Electrical Networks, and Network Programming,\" Graphs,
12-9.
MAYEDA,
W.,
IBM J.
Res. Develop.
485-520. 15, 1966,
12-12.
PETERSON,
W. W., C.,
Error Correcting Codes,The M.I.T.Press, Codes,\"

York,
in
Cambridge,
Mass.,
ed.),
1961.
12-13.
12-14.
SALTZER,
\"Topological
Error
Correcting
Codes (H.
B. Mann,
John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New
1968.
American
to the Theory of Matroids, TUITE,W. T., Introduction Company, Inc., New York, 1971. 12-15. WELSH, D. J. A., \"Matroids and Their Applications,\" of Michigan
Elsevier
Publishing
University
Seminar Notes,
(to
appear).)))
ELECTRICAL
13)
NETWORK
THEORY)
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH
One
of the
reasons for the
recent revival
is the
of interest
in graph theory
graph
among
to
students of
electrical
engineering
idea
application of
(more
theory
the
analysis and design of electrical networks
commonly
known
as elec-
trical circuits). The

an
of using
graph theory for predicting the
behavior of
is not new. It originated with G. Kirchhoff in 1847 and was improved upon by J. C. Maxwell in 1892. However, for hand computations (which were limited to small networks), the application of necessarily to network real offered little over the more graph theory analysis advantage
electrical
network
elementary methods of node or The picture has changed and

digital
computer.
milestone
by
loop analysis. since the arrival in graph-theoretic analysis

is changing
of the high-speed
net-
works
was achieved
W.
S. Percival,
with
when he networks
of electrical extended the Kirchhoff

Computer
and
Maxwell
methods to networks
of
active
elements.
programs are
analysis [13-2] based on the graphlarge theoretic approach. More efficient and lessuser-orientedcomputer programs for analyzing In are in the offing. larger and more generaltypes of networks this chapter we shall present the underlying of principle graph-theoretic analysis of networks-whichis how to use spanning trees (or chord sets)for evaluating
now available for
determinants
of a
matrix.
disciplines
Reminder on Terminology:Different
using
graph
theory have
term
developed
branch
somewhat
different
terminology.
In electrical
engineering, the
is used
network
consistency,
throughout
for edge, node for vertex, and loop for circuit. An electrical is more commonly known as an electrical circuit. For the sake of the same however, graph theory terminology has been used
this
book.)
356)))
SEC. 13-1)
WHAT IS AN
ELECTRICAL
NElWORK?)
357)
13-1.
WHAT IS
AN
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK?)
network is a collection of interconnected electrical elements as such resistors, inductors, diodes, transistors, (or devices) capacitors, vacuum tubes, switches,storage batteries, transformers, lines, delay power as the response to a unit of sources, and the like. The behavior (such impulse) an electrical network is a function of two factors: the of characteristics (1) each of the electrical and (2) how they are connected that elements, together,
An electrical
is, their picture.

An
topology.
It is
the latter factor

can be)
that
brings
graph
theory
into the
electrical
element
1. Lumped
or distributed.
(i.e.,
2.
4. 5.
One-port
two-terminal)
or multiport.
3. Linear or
Time Passive
nonlinear.
invariant
or time
varying.
or active.
nonbilateral.)
6. Bilateralor
To
avoid
using
partial
differential
equations,
a distributed
element, such
as a transmission is either approximated elements or is conline, by lumped sidered separately.Thus an electrical network almost by definition a implies network consisting of lumped a device such as elements Also, only. multiport a transformer or a pentode can be replaced by a set of interconnected twoterminal such as resistors, inductors, and dependent power sources elements, of lumped, two(seeFig.13-7). Thus we can confine ourselves to a network
terminal elements.
A with
two-terminal each
edge
edge
two
calledthe
across the
edge
through
current
electrical element is represented by an edge eke Associated are two edge variables, vk(t) and ik(t). The variable vk(t) is it exists because variable, voltage and may be regardedasa cross end is vertices called the of the edge. The other variable ik(t) and it flows because variable, may be thought of as a through
variables are directional, every edge is assigned element The characteristics of each Fig. 13-1). are completely described in terms of these two variables. (The physics of an electrical element and its mathematical form another subject in description electrical and little us are of concern to engineering here.) Thus an electricalnetwork G in which for us is a connected directed graph each edge ek is assigned two variables vk(t) and ik(t). The edge variables of each a relationship edge satisfy imposed by the nature of the corresponding element. Let the directed 1, 2, 3, . . . , nand e edges))) graph G have n vertices
the
edge.
Since the
an
arbitrary
orientation
(see
358)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
. k th electrical branch
.
+
i k (t)
Vk(t)
Edge k
(a)
Fig.
(b))
13-1
a bl ,
given
directed
graph
Electrical element and its representation as an edge of at tail of current arrow).) (the voltage + is always
b 2 , . . . , be. Let the time be represented
values of currents these edges at a flowing through by a column vector (called the edge-current vector)
i 1(1 r
'2(t))
i(t), where)
i(t)
=)
fe(t))
Similarly,
vector
the edge voltages across the e (called the edge-voltage vector) vet),
-
edgesare represented
where)
by
another
V I (t)
v 2(t))
vet)
==)
ve(t))
13-2.
KIRCHHOFF'S
VOLTAGE
CURRENT
AND
LAWS)
mentioned that each element in an electrical network is governed its two specific relationship imposedupon edge variables. When the a network, is there any elements are interconnected to form additional The answer, as on these edge variables relationship imposed collectively? must also obey the every electricalengineer knows, is yes.The edge variables two laws of Kirchhoff's:
It was by a
Kirchhoff's
Current
Law
(KCL):
For
any
lumped orientations)
electrical
time
the
net sum
any
leaving
node
(taking into account the (or vertex) is zero. That

G,
is, at
0,
the
rth
at any the currents vertex of the correnetwork,

of all
sponding directed graph
we must
have)
( 13-1 ))))
arkik(t) = L: - I)
SEC. 13-3)
LOOP
CURRENTS
AND NODE
VOLTAGES)
359)
where
ark is the
rkth
entry flowing
in the through
amount of current
simultaneously
for r
= I,
2,
incidence matrix A of G, and ;k(t) is the the kth edge of G. SinceEq. (13-1) holds . . . , n, it can also be written in the matrix form) Ai(t) =
O.)
(13-2))
any
Kirchho.ff's time the
Voltage net sum
La\\v
(KVL):
into
For
account
any
the
(taking
have)
lumped electrical network, at of the voltages orientations)
around a loop (i.e.,circuit)

for
is zero.
In
terms of the
corresponding digraph,
the
rth
circuit
we must
l' k = 1)
L:
brkVk(t)
= 0,
(13-3))
where
b rk is
the
rkth
entry kth
in the edge.
circuit matrix B of G, and vk(t)
is the
amount
for
of voltage across the circuit in G, it can
Since Eq. (13-3) holds simultaneously be represented in the matrix form as)
Bv(t)
every
O.)
( I 3 -4 ))
13-3.
LOOP
Consider the
CURRENTS
the
AND NODE
VOLTAGES)
space WG (over the field of real numbers) associated G. of e edges and Here Gis a connecteddirected graph graph w n vertices, an electrical From network. Eq. (13-2),e see that the representing each of the row vectors in the vector is to orthogonal edge-current i{t) matrix A. Since the row vectors in A span the entire cut-set subspace incidence n - I), i(t) is orthogonal to Ws . Therefore, W s (of dimension i(t) lies in the circuit subspace W r (of dimension J.l = e - n + I) of G. Sincei(t) is contained in Wr , there must be a set of J.l vectors in W r whose linear combination will produce set of J.l i(t). An obvious choice for this W in is the rows of the fundamental circuit vectors r independent linearly in B.) to some spanning tree. (Clearly, Bf is contained matrix Bf with respect of i(t) in this basis formed by the rows Let the coordinates (or coefficients) In other b 1 , b 2 , . . ., b JJ of Bf be i L1 (t), i L2 (t), . .., words,) iLJJ(t).
vector
with
directed
i1(t);2(t))
i L1 (t)
;L2(t))
i(t)
=)
= [b;-b \037 .
. . b\037].)
(13-5))
_ie(t)
or)
; LJJ(t))))
i(t) =
B\037 iL(t).)
360)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
Thus
each of the
they
J.l quantities
can e edge currents i . . , (t),. L2 iL1(t), iLJJ(t).
These
as be expressed are called

in
a linear combination
loop currents (or
circuits
mesh
of
currents);
represent
Eq.
current
flowing
the
J.l
independent
corre-
sponding to the
Substituting
rows of Bf.
(13-5)
into Eq.
(13-2), we get)
== o.)
(AB\037)iL(t)
( 13-6))
Similarly,
from Eq.
Ws .
(13-4)we seethat
to the
the edge voltages

cut-set
is orthogonal
the
- 1 rows of the
subspace
Thus vet)
reduced
the column vector vet) representing circuit subspace W r and is, therefore, in as a linear combination can be expressed of matrix Af. That is,) incidence
VI (t)
VN1(t)
v 2(t)) vet)
==)
V N2 (t)) ==
[a;a\037...
a\037-l].)
V e (t))
VN(n-l
)(t))
(a))
N 2)
Nt)
N 3)
N 4)
(b))
Fig.
13-2
Electrical network and
its graph.)))
SEC. 13-3)
LOOP
CURRENTS
AND NODE
VOLTAGES)
361)
That
is,)
vet)
A1fv N(t).)
(13-7))
Thus n
each
1
of e
edge voltages
v Nt (t),
V N2
can
be expressed
quantities
(t),
. . . , vN(n- o(t).
and
they represent the voltage at each of n respect to the referencevertex. Substituting Eq. (13-7) into Eq. (13-4),we
(BA\037)VN(t)
Let
as a linear combination of These are called node voltages, - I vertices with

independent get)
= o.)
( 13-8))
voltages
respec-
us
now
they
illustrate
are
and how
tively.
obtained
with an example the loop currents and node from the edge currents and edge voltages,
Figure
the
13-2(a) shows an
electricalnetwork
graph
Af
with
in
edges. The
graph
corresponding
directed f' with
is shown
with
reduced
incidence matrix
B
respect
and seven Fig. 13-2(b ). For this to vertex N s and the

five vertices
fundamental
(shown in
circuit matrix heavy lines), are)

I
respect to the spanning
tree [I, 4,
5, 7}
Nt
1 0
-1
I
-1
0
0
0
0
1
0
-1
1
0
0
-1
1
N2
Af=
N3
0
0
0
0
1
0
]
0
1
0
-1
0
1 1
0
0
-1
0
1
N4
Lt
B
0
0
0
]
L2 L3 [i
0 0 expressed
0
in
;l
vector is
The
edge-current
vector
terms
of loop-current
i(t) =
;t(t) I
1
B\037iL(t),
] 0
1 I
0 0
0
1 1 1 I))) \302\267 i
i2(t) ;3(t) i4(t)
0 0
L2 (t)
is(t)
i6(t)
;7(1)
-1
0
0
0
0
0
i L3 (t) [Ll(!)]
362)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
The
edge voltages
in
terms
of the vet)
node voltages
A\037VN(t),)
(with
respect
to N
5) are)
=
o 1
Vt
(t)
V 2 (t)
-1
V 3(t)
-1
o o 1
VNt(t)
\302\267
v 4(t)
VS(t)
V 6 (t)
o o 1 o o -1
o) o)
-1
o
VN2 (t)
o 1
VN3 (t)
V N4
o
1)
(t))
V7 (t))
-1)
13-4.
RLC NETWORKS
SOURCES:
WITH
INDEPENDENT
NODAL ANALYSIS)
we shall
In
this
section
resistors,
very
inductors,
class
current sources. In
large by
spite of its inherent

Duffin
restrict ourselves to electrical networks and capacitors (RLC) with independent

simplicity,
in
containing voltage
the
of electrical
element
networks
that
practice.
and RLC network covers a In fact, it has been shown
Brune
and Bott and

electrical
any
time-invariant,
by
passive
(with without
can
be formed
a combination further
real
values of R, L, positive loss of any generality, that

RLC these
and C). A
the
two-terminal, linear, of R, L, and C may be made, stipulation
in series with in parallel with energy

sources.)
elements
sources either
sources may only be connected voltage be connected and that current sources may only all the elements. This stipulation allows us to convert or into a set of current into a set of voltage sources
Nodal
current
rth
have been converted

sources.
be
node
Analysis: Consider an
into
RLC network
sources.
from
in
which
all energy sources
sources
these
current
At each
the
node combine all

current
vector)
Let the net current entering - 1 independent jr(t). For the n

jt (t)
into the
nodes, let the column
j2(t))
j(t)
=)
jn-t(t))
The
linearly
independent
equations
Afi(t) ==
from KCL
jet),)
as) can be expressed
( 13-9))))
SEC. 13-4)
RLC
NETWORKS
WITH
INDEPENDENT
SOURCES)
363)
where
i(t) is the e by
Taking
Af is the
the
reduced incidence matrix of the vector of currents in each of Eq. (13-9),) transform Laplace
1 column
Afl(s)
corresponding graph, and of the e passive edges.
==
J(s).) kth
(13-10)) edge,
elements,
But the voltage-current is given by)
relation in
Ik(s) ==
the
consisting
only
of
RLC
Yk(S)Vk(s),)
(13-11))
where Ik(s) is the Laplace transform of Vk(s) is the Laplace transform the admittance (or self-admittance) the edges in matrix form,)
It (s)
the
of the current through the kth edge, voltage across the kth edge, and Yk(s) is of the kth edge. Writing for all Eq. (13-11)
Yt(s)
V t
(s)
I 2 (s))
Y 2(s))
o)
V 2 (s))
o) Ie
(s))
Ye(s)
Ve(s))
More
compactly,)
I(s) ==
Y(s)V(s),)
(13-12))
of the edge where I(s) is the Laplace-transformed column vector currents, of the edge voltages, and yes) vector column V(s) is the Laplace-transformed
is
the
edge
admittance
Eq.
matrix.
(13-12)
Substituting
into (13-10),)
Af
Y(s)V(s)
==
J(s).)
(13-13))
Eq. (13-7) provideda means

the
of
expressing
node-voltage
vector.
Taking
V(s)
the edge-voltage vector in terms the Laplace transform of Eq.(13-7),)

==
A\037V
of
N(S),)
(13-14))
and substituting
Eq. (13-14)into
(13-13),) ==
[A f Y(s)A\037]V
or)
The
N(S)
J(s)
(13-15))
Y N(S)V N(S) == J(s).)

(n
1) by
as
(n
Y
N(S).
1) matrix
Note
AfY(s)A\037
is called
and
is written
that in deriving
the node admittance matrix Eq. (13-15)it was assumed that
all)))
x( t)
Curren t
source)
L() v(t ) Voltage

source)
-=-
Ground)
(a))
x(t))
3)
L(
v{t)
\037
(b))
x(t)
v (t)
d) '\ R)
b'\
/
x(t))
\037
v(t) R)
(c))
Fig.
13-3
Passive RLC
network
and
its
graph.)
364)))
SEC. 13-4)
RLC
NETWORKS
WITH
INDEPENDENT
SOURCES)
365)
too implies no loss of generality, because in capacitors or inductors at time t == 0 can always be energy source and hence incorporated into jet). replaced by an appropriate an example. An RLC network with Let us illustrate these concepts with sources-one two source-is voltage source and one current independent
the initial
any
conditions were zero. This

stored
energy
given in Fig. 13-3(a). Figure current sources. A directed The reduced incidence matrix
13-3(b)shows an
graph
Ai
equivalent
network
in
with only
Fig.
of the network (with vertex 4 as

a)
is shown
13-3(c).
reference)is)
e
-I
I
0
I
0
1)
Af
2
3)
10.
\037
0)
-I
The
edge
admittance
matrix
is)
Y a( S)
(CIS
0
Yb(s)
+
L\037J
( Yc(s)
Yd(s)
C 2S
+
L\037J
yes)
==
c
0
Y e( s )
3s
L 3s
1
R)
The
node
admittance
Ya(s)
matrix
+ Yb(s)
Yb(s)
N(S)
Af
Y(s)A\037
is)
-Yb(s)
Yb(s)
N(S)
=
[
Yc(s) + Yd(s)
Yd(s)
Yd(s)
o
this
example
is)
Yd(s))
+ Ye(s)) ]
J(s) column vector for
-Xes)
J(s)
=)
Xes)
V(s)
R)
Network
problem
formally
that
on and focus Let us pause for a moment Problem: Analysis can we are solving. The general problem of network analysis a network whose structure determines))) stated as follows: Given
the
be
366)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
matrix
A, given its
find
edge admittance matrix

node
yes),
and
given the current and (13-12).]
source
are
vector J(s),
required,
matrix
the
voltages.
Eq.
matrix
[If edge
(13-15),
(which
they can
be readily obtained using
voltages or edge currents

(13-7)
Eqs.
This clearly requires solving Y N(S). Inversion of a

of
which
must
involves inversion
be nonsingular,
its
of the
of course)
The
requires computation
tional determinant
computing
its determinant
and of all
because
cofactors.
convenin
technique is inefficient
of extra
labor involved
in that eventually cancel out. Moreover, the entries form until Y N(S) consist of polynomials in s, and must be carried in literal after the matrix inversion. Therefore, the usual methods of matrix inversion
many
terms
are computationally difficult to implement. Both these problems are circumvented

the
by
determinant
A)
and
and
(Appendix
the
cofactors. For use the fact that matrix
this
we
using graph theory to the Binet-Cauchy invoke
evaluate
theorem
a major
determinant
only
reduced
incidence
spanning tree.
Determinant
Af is nonzero if and Admittance
(or simply major) of if it corresponds to a

the
of
the
Node
Matrix: Let us denote by

Y N(S).
\037N
determinant
of the
node admittance matrix

l!N =
That
is,)
det Y N(S)
det[AfY(s)A\037].)
Using
the
Binet-Cauchy
\037N
theorem,)
pairs
A\037.)
products of all and of majors [Af yes)]

sum of
of corresponding
(13-16))
be an would Had every branch in the network been a I-ohm resistor, yes) identity matrix and det Y N(S) would equal det (AfA\037), which is equal to the for an total number of the spanning trees in the network (Chapter 9). But matrix. It is, however, diagoRLC network, in general, yes) is not an identity nal, and therefore Af yes) has the same structure as Af except that the kth column in Af is multiplied by Y k(S). Every nonzero major determinant in to a spanning tree of the network. still corresponds Af Y(s), as well as Af' 1 edges If we call the product of all n of a specific spanning tree a tree admittance product, Eq. (13-16) becomes) =
all
\037N
\037
tree
trees)
admittance
product. hence is
as
(13-17))
spanning
Equation
formula.
(13-17) was proposed by Maxwell To calculate the node admittance

find
and
known
Maxwell's
determinant
one
must
admittances
illustrate
all the spanning trees of the network, the resulting products. add of each spanning tree, and then The formula for the network of Fig. 13-3. Maxwell's spanning
formula, by Maxwell's 1 edge n the multiply
Let us
trees)))
SEC. 13-4)
RLC
NETWORKS
WITH
INDEPENDENT
SOURCES)
367)
of this edge
nant
graph are
abd, abe, aed, ace, ade,
bcd,
bee,
and bde.
we
Multiplying
the
in each spanning tree and admittances matrix \037N:) of the node admittance
==
adding them,
get the
determi-
\037N
Ya(s)Yb(S)Yd(s) +
-f-
Ya(s)Yb(s)Ye(s)
-f- Ya(s)Yc(s)Yd(s)
Yb(s)YcCs)Ye(s)
--1-
Ya(s)Yc(s)Ye(s)
Ya(s)Yd(s)Ye(s)
+ Yb(s)Yc(s)Yd(s) +
+
L\037JL\037S
Yb(S)Yd(s)Ye(s)
(CIS +
-I-
+ L1IJ(Czs
-+
-1-
(CIS
L'IS)(Czs
+
L\037J\037
(CIS
2S
L'I Ji
I
:
c 3
-+
(CIS
2S
-+
C
L1IJ
I
}/ -+ (CIS+
L'IJRLs
I
--LI
(c
L 2s )
+ L3 (c
c 3S
L 2s )
S
If
+ (c
2S
L 2s )
RL 3 s
==
S2
li(
-1-
c 1c
\037
-t- C 1 C 3 -1
-f-
C 2 C 3)
r( 3
c 1C 2
L3
-1- C 1C 3 -1- C 2C 3)
C2
(
C 3
R
s2R
L1
I 1L
C1
I
--t-
C 3
L 2
'-1I
C1 + C2
)
I
\037
C2 +
C3
sL 3(
L1
C1
-t L 2
C3
-\037
--+-+(L
to
L2L3
\037N
L3Ll
we
.
write
s3LIL2L3)
Y N(S). The
Note
terms
that
compute
in
do not
need to
Y
are canceled
this
method
of computing
\037N.
reader
Also note that is urged

it
no
to
the
compute det Y N(S)

cancel
for \037N expression in the process

independent
depend on
Cofactors
that the large number of terms det Y N(S). Also note that \037N is the trees of a graph do not of the reference vertex chosen because the reference vertex in writing Af.)
from directly obtained. just
matrix
Observe
evaluating
N(S)
and
verify
that
equals
of
directly
of Y N(S) and
of than
2- Trees)
of the Y N(S). Let
Evaluation
cofactors det
Then
more
involved
node admittance matrix the cofactor of the ijth - 2) by

its
Y N(S)
entry
is slightly in Y N(S) be
designated
.. \037 IJ ==
by -
\037ij.
by definition)
of
(
==
),
.+ J.
determinant \302\267
(n
(n
- 2)
and jth
and
submatrix
of
Y N(S\302\273
)
) ( left
Y(s)A\037,
after deleting
deleting
ith
row
column.)
thejth
SinceY N(S)
A\037
Af
will
delete
the ith row
the ith row from At andjth column from Y N(S),

A\037
column
in
from
Af'
respectively.
Moreover,
deleting the jth column

Therefore,)
\037ij
from
is equivalent
to deleting the jth row
==
(-IY+j
det [Af-iY(sXAf_j)T],)
(13-18))
its ith row
where A
deleted.)))
f -i
denotes
the submatrix
of Af
remaining
after
has been
368)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
If Af
is the reduced
incidencematrix
the reduced
of
a graph
G,
what
does of
matrix the
represent?
obtained any
Matrix
from
f - i is
incidence matrix
Af-t
graph
removing
Gj
self-loop
Let us
(13-18) is)
first
G by fusing its ith vertex with the reference vertex and resulting from the fusion (Problem 13-14). evaluate cofactors according symmetric \037u, which
==
T
to
Eq.
\037u
det[Af_tY(s)(Af-J
equation
],)
and
the
tance
side of this right-hand prod ucts for the graph

\037u
is simply
the sum
of the
tree
admit-
Gt.
Therefore,)
== sum
of tree
spanning Now
admittance products for trees of Gj .)
all (13-19))
look at
This subgraph has n

consist
of may possibly be an isolated vertex). Sucha subgraph iscalleda 2-tree of G. For example, in Fig. 13-4the subgraph that G 3 is obtained of G 3 and is a 2-tree in G. (Note tree ad is a spanning by 4 and removing the resulting vertex self-loop fusing vertex 3 to the reference
of edge
a spanning tree of G j as - 2 edges, n vertices, two components (one of which
a subgraph of the original graph G. and no circuits. Therefore, it must
e.))
b)
2)
d)
3)
b)
2)
d)
4
G)
(3,4)
G J)
(b))
G3
(a))
Fig. 13-4 in this
Spanning tree of
is a
2-tree (3, 4) of G.)
Moreover, occur
2-tree of
two (i,
G, the
vertex
i and
fusing
in different
components;
otherwise,
in
the reference vertex r must would them yield a circuit.

in
Such 2-treesin
designated
by
which 2-tree
specified
vertices occur
Fig. as)
different
components
are
(3, 4). Thus
Eq.
(13-19)
== sum
r). For example, can be rewritten of admittance
13-4
subgraph
ad is a
2-tree
\037u
products of all
the
2-trees
(i,
of
r).)
( 13-20))
Let us now
use Eq. (13-20) to evaluate
cofactor
\03733
the
network
in)))
SEC. 13-4)
RLC
NETWORKS
WITH
INDEPENDENT
SOURCES)
369)
Fig.
] 3-3.
It has
five
2-trees
of (3,
4) type, and these
are, as seenfrom
Fig.
] 3-4(b),)
ab,
Therefore,) = =
ac,
ad,
be,
and
bd.)
L\\33
Ya(s)Yb(s) + S2(C t C
+
\037
Ya(s)Yc(s)+
tC
Ya(s)Yd(s)
Yb(s)Yc(s) +
+
Yb(S)Yd(s)
2 +
3 +
1
C 2C 3 ) +
+
C1
( i
2
C3
C]
Cz
i
3
Cz
C3
i
t )
S2( LtL2 +
L\\ij' the
\037
\037
L2 L 3))
LtL3
observe that in Eq. to 2-trees (i, r), wherer is reference The nonzero majors of Af- j correspond the node. to 2-trees (j, r). that contribute The terms to L\\ij in Eq. (13-18) must be due to both 2-trees of a 2-treehas only two components and vertex r must be in (i, r) and (j, r). Since must be in the other. Such a one of the components, both i and j vertices 2-tree is designated by a 2-tree (ij, r). Thus) To
evaluate
cofactor of an
of
off-diagonalentry,
correspond
(1.3-18)the nonzero majors
Af-iY(s)
= L\\.. IJ
(
sum of
) ( all
::1:( -I)'+J
admittance products Of
(ij, r).)
about )
2-trees
(13-21))
we did (13-20) because corresponding majors,
In Eq.
sign. The
situation
in
are different
the
matrices,
Eq. we
corresponding
majors
the sign of the nonzero T and had the same A majors f i (Af-J is different. Since and Af - j A (13-21), however, f i have no assurance that the signs of the products of will be positive. In fact, it can be shown (Problem not
have
to
worry
of both
13-15) that)
product
of corresponding
nonzero majors
of A
f -i
and A f - j
= (-I)i+j.
( 13-22))
Therefore,)
L\\ij
sum of
admittance products of all
2-trees
(ij,
r).)
( 13-23))
Returning
L\\3t
to the example
= sum
of Fig. 13-3, once
more)
of admittance productsof
Cz = +
all
2-trees
(31, 4)
=
L\\32
Yb(S)Yd(s)
L3
L 21
3S
'
Ya(S)Yd(s) -t- Yb(S )Yd(S) 1 1 C t + C2 . = + + L3 L2 L 3 S2))) LIL3S2
370)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
Node
Voltages:
Now we can
node
compute any
Fig. ] 3-3 is given
+
node by)
voltage
required.
For
example, the voltage at
3 in
V 3 (S) ==)
L\\31
X(s)
L\\32X(S) -I
\037N)
L\\33
V\037S)
Network
every cofactor was originally
expressed
open-circuit
(all
driving
Now that we have formulas for the determinant and node admittance matrix, any network that function in terms of node admittance matrix can now be expressed in terms of various tree-admittance the products. For example, transfer function of a three-terminal in Fig. ] 3-5(a) network 4 as the reference, is) currents zeroed except J I)' taking
Functions:
of \037ij
the
H(s)
3(S)
_ -
\03731(S) \037II(S)
_ -
\037
2-tree
(13,
4) admittance
VI(S)
1: 2-tree (1,4) admittance

formulas
product .
product)
Formulas
like these
are called topological
for
networks.)
J( (5) -----..
R.L.C
Elements I
.
+ t
r
Vi
(s) !
V3 (5)
J 1 (5)\"\"\"-
.
4
\037
4 (a))
r--------------------------l
I I I I I I I) I I I I I I I I I I I 3)
+1
Vi
(s)
i I
l_u_____u___)
j
4)
____________.J)
V3r)
4)))
(b))
Fig.
13-5
Three-terminal RLC network.)
SEC. 13-5)
RLC
NE1WORKS
WITH
INDEPENDENT
SOURCES)
371)
Applying the
this topological formula to the network same as the network in Fig. 13-3 with its driving
Yb(S)Yd(s)
in Fig.
sources
13-5(b),
removed,
which
is
we get)
H(s) -
Yb(S)Yd(s)+
Yb(s)Ye(s)
-f-
YcCs)Yd(s)
2 1
+ Yc(s)Ye(s)
Yd(s)Ye(s))
+ C3
C 2)
S3
L3
( Rt
L3C
C2 R
\037
L 2 C2
3
1)
+ S2
+ S \037
( RC
L3
1 + L 2C
2)
L 2C 2 R )
13-5.
RLC
NETWORKS
LOOP
WITH
INDEPENDENT
SOURCES:
ANALYSIS)
we
In Section
current
13-4,had
considered
KVL instead
loop
of KCL (converting
would
any
set of
source into an = e - n + I J.l
we equivalent voltage source),
have
obtained
simultaneous
equations,)
==
BfZ(s)B\037
IL(s)
E(s),)
( 13-24))
where Bf is the
some spanning
fundamental
circuit
B\037 is its
matrix
tree, and
is,)
V 1 (S)
impedancematrix,
network;
describing
transpose. the electrical
of the network with to respect The e by e matrix Z(s) is the edge property of each of e edgesin the
that
Z I(S) Z2(S)
1 1 (s) 0
V 2 (s)
12 (s)
Ve(s)
Ze(s)
le(s))
Note that for an of its edge admittance

current
RLC network the

matrix
yes).
is the inverse edge impedancematrix Z(s) is the transform of the loop Laplace IL(s)
vector
iL(t), and E(s) is the
Laplace transform
externally
of
the
voltage
J.l
sources
(or equivalent voltage

circuits.
sources)applied
in
the
fundamental
The step-by-step
and Eq. (13-15) The
is left
J.l
J.l by
matrix
matrix
and is
usually
is similar derivation of Eq. (13-24) to the derivation of as an exercise (Problem 13-9). BfZ(s)B\037 in Eq. (13-24) is called the loop inlpedance as) denoted by ZL(S). Thus Eq. (13-24)is rewritten
ZL(S )IL(s)
= E(s).)
( 13-25))))
372)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
L2
C2 =
1
L3
+
X(s)L
2s
VI
(S)
+ L 2 C2 S 2
C 3
L(
CI
0
(a))
V(s))
h)
d)
(b))
Fig.
13-6
Network of Fig.
for I3-3(a}
loop
analysis.)
network of Fig. 13-3(a), once again. example, consider the electrical the current source x(t) with an equivalent voltage source, we get in Fig. ] 3-6(a) and its graph the network as shown as in Fig. 13-6(b).)
F or
By
replacing
ZL(S)
==)
( 1 + CI L
LIS
IS
+
(-
Ls
2
1 +
C 2L 2S2
-.L
C 3s
)
(
l c 3 J)
L 3s
I c 3J
X(S)L2S
1
( C3 s
1 + L2 C 2S 2 [ - V(s)) ]
.
R)
IL
_ -
I L1 (S)
[ I L2
(s))
,
]
and)
E(s) =
The solution of
Eq.
(13-25) for
requires
\037L'
of ZL(S).The
Binet-Cauchy
expression
the
by)
obtaining the determinant and cofactors determinant of ZL(S), according to the
theorem
== det == sum
is given
\037L
ZL(S) == det(BfZ(s)B\037) of products of all of [8 fZ(s)]
pairs of
B\037.)
corresponding
( 13-26))))
majors
and
SEC.
13-6)
GENERAL
LUMPED,
LINEAR,
FIXED
NETWORKS)
373)
Since
a major
of Bf is nonzero if
===
and
only
if it corresponds
to a chordset,
becomes) Eq. (13-26)
\037L
sum
of chord trees
spanning
impedance products of the network.)
for all
( 13-27))
Equation
(13-27)
the
was
network
network. For
be,
for a purely resistive originally given by Kirchhoff of Fig. 13-6(b), all possible chord setsare cd,
ee,
bd, be,
ae, ae, and

\037L ===
ad. Therefore,)
-j--
ZcCs)Ze(s)
ZcCS)ZdCS) +-
ZbCS)Ze(s) + ZbCS)ZdCS) + ZaCS)ZdCS) +

+
1 ZaCs)ZcCs)
+
_ -
ZbCS)ZcCs)
ZaCs)ZeCs)
CJs
+
\037 +
LJ CJ +
RL2 s
1
C 2L 2S2
+ CJ(I
L2L JS2 2 + + C 2L 2S
RL 1 s
1
1L
1S
CJCI
L 1. + C 1L
1 s2)
L2 LIL J S2 . + 1 2) + C 1 L 1S + C 2 L 2S 2)
both
The
expressions
for the
in
cofactors of ZL(S)
a fashion
symmetrical
and
asym-
metrical can be obtained 13-11 and 13-12).
similar to
those for
V NCS)
CProblems
Note the
duality
between
the nodal
and loop analyses(Problem 13-16).)
13-6.
GENERAL
LUMPED,
LINEAR,
FIXED NETWORKS)
Topological formulas for \037N'

sections were dependent on
two
\037L' \037ij'
and
important
so on, derived restrictions on the
in
the
last
two
network:)
I. Existenceof edgeadmittance
Z(s)], and
which time
implied invariant.
matrix V(s) [or edge impedance matrix that the network elements were lumped, linear,
2. The
This
edge admittance
implied
matrix
V(s) [and
mutual
that
there
or
was no
network. Thus threebetween
four-terminal
therefore also Z(s)]was diagonal. between coupling edges of the devices (which produce couplings
two
vertex
gyrators,
could
pairs), not have
such as transformers,transistors, tubes,and been included.)
In
will
this
section
we shall
still retain restriction
I,
but
do
away
with 2.
This
allow
us to
handle a
general
linear
network
containing
lumped,
linear,
as)))
devices like transformers time-invariant, r-terminal (r > 2) elements-passive are (which are bilateral also) and (which nonbilateral), as well gyrators
374)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH lHEORY)
CHAP.
13)
---)
a
\"
d)
L1
r)
L2
GL
(a))
// / I
a) b) I \\ \\ \\ \\
//
./ ./
.-------)
8 = L I L 2 - M 2)
...... \"\" \"\"\\
Cc
c)
\\ \\ \\) J I I d)
gb
\\ \\ \"\" \"
gc)
L 2 VI (5)
58)
gc
C e)
L. V2 (5)
58)
M Vi (5) __
58)
-)
./)
/ ./ /
/ G L)
+ G L \037) gm \037
Ref vertex)
(b))
a)
h)
c)
d)
Ref vertex)
(c))
Fig.
13-7
(a)
Network
with a transformer (c) Graph
equivalent
network;
and a transistor; (b) Its representation of (b).)
An example of such a network active devices,such as tubes and transistors. is in Fig. 13-7. shown In the network in Fig. 13-7 (which has six edges and five vertices), we 5 is but observe that the current through not also on V edge dependent only 5' 1 and 2 are on V 4' the voltage across edge 6. Similarly, the currents through 1 2 the on Thus and are acrosseachother. dependent mutually edges voltage coupled and so are 5 and 4. (Edges such as 3 and 6 that have no coupling with)))
SEC.
13-6)
GENERAL
LUMPED,
LINEAR,
FIXED
NETWORKS)
375)
any other
edge are called ordinary

the
edges.)
The
Y(s)V(s)
shown
in
following
equation,
Y 1
I(s)
\037
edge admittance matrix for the network:)
yes) is
(s) 11
/2(S) /3(S)
Y 12 : 0 I
0 -
VI
(s)
Y 12 - - --
o
0
0 0
- - - -- I - -
Y2
:0 I
0
-I : -1-
0
0
: I
0
0 0
V 2 (s)
0:
0
0 0
gb --
0 0 - -- ---- Y 4
V 3(s)
V 4 (s) Vs(S)
V 6 (s))
/4(S)
/ s(s)
o : I
/6(S)_ where) y
1
o : gm G L i 0 1-------- 1--0 0 0 :Y6

Y 12 =
;J
')
and
') S\037 Y 6
Y ==
_ -
L2
S\037
')
Y 4 == ge -t-
Ces,
gc +
Ccs.)
Clearly, yes) is not

Node
diagonal.)
Admittance
Matrix)
13-4,
Just as in Section form will yield) and therefore the
Kirchhoff's
current
law
in its
Laplace
transformed
AfY(s)A\037 VN(s)
node
= IN(s),)
is)
admittance
matrix Af
Y N(S) ==
Y(s)A\037.)
( 13-28))
The difference
between Eqs. (13-15) and
(13-28)
yes) was diagonal,
whereas it
and
is not
diagonal
in
is only that in in Eq. (13-28).

Fig.
(13-15)
matrix
For the
network
its graph shown

I
13-7,)
2 0
1
3 0
I
4 0
0
1
5 0
0
0
I
6 0
0
1
a
Af
\037
b 0
c 0
-1
0 0
-1
and the
node admittance matrix

Y1 Y N(S) = Y 12
Y 12
Y 2
Y N(S) \037 Af Y(s)A\037 is
0
gb gb
0
0
Y 6
-gb
0
0
-gb
0
+ gm
Y4 +
-Y
GL +
Y 6
Y 6)))
376)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
Determinant
\037N)
Again,
our
aim is to
Y
evaluate the determinant and cofactors of

Y N(S) == det
the
node
admittance
matrix
N(S
). We write)
== det Y(s)A\037.)
\037N
AI
Using
\037N
the Binet-Cauchy
== ==
\037
theorem,)
majors of
Af
products
of corresponding
[Aflx,
yes)
and
A\037
\037 det ot)
[A f Y(s)]ot. det
(13-29))
where
a set of the subscript rx denotes of A\037). Thus as a set of n - 1 rows rx
columns
of Af
yes) and
1
Af
(same
also
denotes not
a set
of n
edges
of the
corresponding
uct Af
again
yes)
the
is graph. In Eq. (13-29), yes) is not as simply relatedto Af as Binet-Cauchy theorem to evaluate
diagonal; it was in Eq.

det
therefore, the prod-
(13-15). So we
apply
[Af Y(s)]ot. And since)
[Af Y(s)]ot we
get)
Af[Y(s)]ot,) det
det
[Af Y(s)]ot
==
\037 P)
det
[Af]p.
[Y(s)]\037,
( 13-30))
where
[Af]p is a
n
set of
columns
set of
of Af
[Y(s)]\037
and
(n
[Y(s)]\037
is the (n
rows
of [Y(s)]ot.
Eq.
Thus
is an
- I) by
get)
corresponding -
1) submatrix
of yes). Substituting
AN
(13-30)
into (13-29), we
=
\037 == \037 ot,p)
det
(\037 det
[Af]fJ.det[Y(s)]\037)
det [Af ].
(13-31))
[Af]ot. det
[Af]p. det
[Y(s)]\037.
In
edges
Eq. (13-31) the of the graph, but
summation is over all

det[Af]ot the
possible
pairs
of sets
and
of
1
-I.
spond to spanning Therefore,)
trees of
det[Af]p are zero unless rx are in which case they network,

and
p correor
\037N
==
det \037 \342\202\254 otp ot,p)
[Y(rx)]ot,P
( 13-32))
summed
over all possible spanning tree pairs the signs of spanning trees rx and p. of product In general, rx and p can represent different
(rx,
P).
The
term
trees.
is the \342\202\254 otp
diagonal, det
(13-32)
But
[Y(s)]\037
==
0,
unless
rx
==
p.
But
tree
if
spanning rx ==
If yes)
and
is
Eq.
p,
= 1 \342\202\254 otp
reduces to (13-17). if yes) is not diagonal,
a spanning
rx, besides
making
a tree
pair)))
SEC. 13-6)
GENERAL
LUMPED,
LINEAR,
FIXED
NETWORKS)
377)
with itself, may be able to \"pair-up\" will be contributions terms to \037N
with due
some
to the
Pairs of Spanning
spanning
Trees:
The
which
following
det
[Y(s)]\037
trees
(ex, P)
for
trees. These between edges. method of picking out all pairs of on the fact that for =1= 0 depends
other
spanning
couplings
any
(lumped,
matrix yes)
can be expressed
linear, time-invariant)
as)
electrical network
the
edge
admittance
y :- - I(S) - - - -,
: ==)
- - --- 1
Y 2(S)
:)
o)
yes)
o)
1-----: Yh(s) , ______1) :
where
the
nonzero
submatrices
example,
Y 1 (s),
Y 2(S),
square matrices.See,for
in Fig.
the edge
. . . , Y h(S) are relatively small admittance matrix of the network
13-7.
the Assuming that we have the list of all spanning trees of the graph, a which tree with determines following principle given spanning P pairs =1= o. spanning tree ex, such that det[Y(s)]\037 The set of rows P must such that [Y(s)]\037 contains be selected no row or column zeros. if and column contains ex Therefore, entirely of p in yes) contains edge p, nonzero entries in rows x, y, . . . , then must contain one (or more) of the P . . . . if in Y column falls the submatrix x, y, Thus, edges p k(S) of yes), at least one of the rows must be in the submatrix Y k(S). also A corollary of the observation just made is that if spanning tree ex contains an ordinary must contain that also u. edge u, P ordinary edge Let us illustrate the selection principle by means of the example of the in Fig. network 13-7. The graph has eight spanning trees:)
(1,2, 3, 5), (I, 2,3,6),
(1,
2, 4,
5),
(1, 2, 4, 6), ( I, 2, 5,6),
(I, 3,
Since
4,
5),
(I,
3, 4,
6), (I, 3, 5, 6).)

five are
== 28
3 and
for possible
6 are ordinary edges,the following pairings out of the total of (8 X 7)/2

(I,
the only candidates pairs of spanning trees:)
1. r(l, 2,3,5) and
3,4,
2. r(I,2, 6) and 3. [(1,2,3,6) 4. [(1,2,3,6)

4, and and
(1,2,5,
(1,3,4,
(1,
have edge 3. 6)}: both have edge 6. 6)}: both have 3 and 6.
5)}: both
3, 5,
6)}: both
6)}:
with
3 and
6.
6.)))
5. r(I,
3,4,6)
and
(1,3,5,
both
with 3 and
378)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
not
of the same set of ordinary edges is only a necessary and condition for pairing. Let us now apply the tree-pair selection principle to nonordinary edges: I. IfY k(S) is a 2 by 2 square it corresponds to a transformer or submatrix, to \037N is) gyrator, and its contribution
The
existence
a sufficient
Yk(s) =
\037rowp
\037
c d
\037
row
(p
-t- I)
/
column
\037
column
or)
(p +
1))
or) Column
I
If
ex
Contains)
Column
I row)
p)
(p +
(p
I))
Both
p and
and
(p +
(p
I))
p must
contain
to
I I
(p
+ 1)
I I I
+ I)
Both p
+ 1)
Contribution
AN due
to
k(S) is)
I I
I I
ad
- be
or
or)
2.
If Y k(S)
vacuum
is a 2 by tube. In that
2 triangular case)
matrix,
it corresponds
to a transistor
or
o
Y
k(S)
\037rowp \037 row (p

r-\037
/
column
c d \037
p
+ 1)
column
or)
(p +
1))
or)
If
ex
Contains)
Column
I row)
p + I)
Column (p
(p +
+ 1)
Both
p and (p p and (p
+ I) + 1)
p must
contain
to
I I
(p
I)
Both
Contribution
AN due
to
k(S) is)
I I
ad
or) are light of these two tables, let us look at the five tree pairs that 13-7. network of in the candidates Fig. possible in Three of the five pairs, I, 3, and 4, do not form valid tree pairs, because 1 and both each of the three one spanning tree contains 2, while the edges In
other one contains
only
edge
I.)))
CHAP.
13)
SUMMARY)
379)
The
6)]
satisfy
two pairs [(I, 2, 5,6), remaining the tree-pair-solution criterion,

(Y t Y 2
(I, 2,
4, 6)] and [( I, 3, 5, 6), (I, 3, 4, and their contributions to \037N are)
YI2)gm
Y6
and
Y t g b g m Y 6 ,)
res pecti
vel y.
pairs
to
The criterion of selectionof 2 Y k(S) of sizes larger than
of spanning
trees can
tree
be easily extended
of ordinary
know
by 2
(see [13-7]).
Signsof Tree
edges
det
only,
Pairs:
In the
case of
a spanning
with
rx
consisting
the
1
spanning
or
tree pairs
only
itself,
and we
need not
if
= + [Af]ot
-1
because)
=
\342\202\254otot
det [Af]ot-det[Af]ot
= +1.)
edges
the
But rx in
tree pairs (rx, P) consisting of we must know the relative (not P),
for
nonordinary
(and
therefore
trees
absolute) signs of
spanning
each
pair.
According
to the method
Fig.
of sign
determination
discussed
in Chapter
9,
for the tree pair in
13-7,)
[(1,2,5,6),
and
(1,2,4,6)],)
= \342\202\254 otp
I ,)
for)
[(1,3,5,6),(1,3,4
6)],)
= \342\202\254 otp
+ I.)
rx
Thus
and
admittance products (rx, \037N as a sum of the eight spanning two additional terms due to (rx, P) pairings is expressed as)
=
pairings)
\037N
(Y t Y 2
-+-t--
Y72)gb
G L -t-
(Y
Y2
t Y 2
YI2)gb
Y6 +
(Y
Y2
Y72)Y
4G
(Y t Y 2
Yf2)Y 4 Y 6 +
(Y
YT2)GL Y 6 + Yf2)gm
Yt g b Y 4G L Y t g b g m Y 6 .)
Y t g b Y 4 Y 6 -t-
Y tgbG LY 6 +
(Y
Y2
Y6 +
Note
once The
similarly
again that there is no cancellation of terms. of cofactors \037ij for active networks derivation of the technique discussedin by a combination
pairs.)
can be
Section
carried on
the
13-4 and
use of spanning-tree
SUMMARY)
The technique developed in linear-system Roughly problem. form:) expressed in the following
this
chapter
any
can
be extended
to
solve
any
speaking,
linear-system
problem
can be
AX* == y* ,)))
380)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
where for
A is
standard
a linear operator, y* a known
vector,
and
X* an
unknown
vector
which
A
the solution is
method and
the
sought.
is to find
(assuming it exists both sides to obtain
of solving this equation is unique), the inverse vector) required
of A,
and
then
an operator A-I to premultiply
X*=A-IY*.) In an electrical network

devices,
consisting of lumped,
solving
linear,
time-invariant
the problem
consists of
set
of simultaneous,
linear, dif-
coefficients. of the Laplace ferential equations with constant Application linear transform convertsthese differential into equations algebraic equations. Thus the operator A is a matrix whose entries are functions of s, the Laplace variable, and y* is the vector of independent driving voltages (or currents). most Thus the electrical network (like linear-systemproblems) problem which is the same as finding the determinants and consists of matrix inversion,
cofactors.
And
all
that
has been
than
done
in
this
theory can be
used (rather
nonsingular
algebra)
is to show how graph chapter to evaluate determinants and
cofactors of
matrix
the
matrix
A, if A could
be expressed as
triple
product) A =
PMpT,)
reduced incidence (or fundamental where P is a unimodular (0, 1 )-matrix-a a of circuit cut-set or fundamental matrix) graph-describing the \"structure\" values the of the nonzero entries in A. of A; and M is a matrix describing of any lumped, linear, timeThe same approach can be used for solution a can be found. This has a direct invariant provided \"system graph\" system, in Section 12-5, as to when a on the discussed bearing realizability problem matrix of a graph. be the or circuit unimodular matrix P can cut-set given in Whether there is any computational using graph theory for advantage all one can on whether network analysis is totally generate dependent a and without and the of 2-trees, like, trees, rapidly large graph spanning 50 edges) could have A graph of moderate size (20 vertices and duplication. all trees in a computer Even the of the several million trees. storing spanning be such that a be The therefore can should problem. algorithm memory its and admittance trees are at a one time, spanning rapidly generated, the the cumulais on addedto or subtracted from sign) (depending product tree will be tive The that no sum. should guarantee spanning algorithm tree obtained one does not have to check every twice, so that newly generated must also the algorithm against all the trees previously generated. Moreover, tree in the graph is left out. guarantee that no spanning for generating all in Chapter of algorithms As discussed 11, a number in the literature. The best ones))) been proposed have spanning trees of a graph
CHAP.
13)
PROBLEMS)
381)
do generate
spanning
them
trees.
to
one spanning tree at a time without But the algorithms are still not
duplication
as efficient
and generate all

as one would like
be.)
REFERENCES)
The
chapter
bare
essentials
of topological
introducing
analysis of
the
networks
have
been
presented
graph
in
this
purpose of electrical network analysis.

for the
reader
to the application of
theory
to
the application for instance, was said about of graphs to the synthesis of electriNothing, cal networks. Nor did we discuss the extension of these techniques to nonlinear networks. to the frequency-domain analysis, We confined ourselves and did not consider the timedomain analysis via state-space techniques. Many other topics, such as the duality in electrical networks or stability of electrical networks, were also not covered. For these and more, the reader may go to one of several books and scores of research Seshu and Reed [1-13] is the classic and tutorial available on these specific papers subjects. is another excellent book. Chan's book and one of the best books. Kim and Chien [13-5] is not dealt with in Seshu and Reed or includes the state-space [13-3] approach, which in Kim and Chien. Some of the excellent survey papers are by Bryant [13-1], Dawson [13-4], and Kuo a large bibliography on the subject. [13-6]. These papers also include with active devices, Talbot's [13-7] For the sake of simplicity in the case of networks of dealing with two of a single graph was used rather than Mayeda's method approach different and current graphs. graphs-voltage A list of classical papers, such as those of Kirchhoff, Maxwell, Percival, Mayeda, in almost any of the references cited.) Bashkow, Bryant, and others, can be found
13-1.
BRYANT,
Graph York,
P. R., HGraph Theory Applied to Electrical (F. Harary, Theory and Theoretical Physics ed.), 1967. D. A., York,
Networks,\" Chapter 3 in Academic Press,Inc.,New

Edition\"
13-2.
CALAHAN,
Computer-Aided Network Design, Revised

N. Y.,
McGraw-Hill,
1972. 13-3. CHAN, S. P., Introductory TopologicalAnalysis of Electrical Networks, Holt, Rine1969. hart and Winston, Inc., New York, 13-4. DAWSON, to Computer-Aided D. F., uThe Topological Approach Analysis,\" Chapter 2 in Computer Oriented Circuit Design (F. F. Kuo and W. G. Magnuson,
Inc.,
New
13-5. 13-6.
eds.), Prentice-Hall, KIM, W. H., and

Networks,
1969. Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., R. T. CHIEN, Analysis and Synthesis Topological
of Communication
Vol.
Columbia
13-7. TALBOT,
Circuit
Kuo, F. F., HNetwork 1966, 820-829.,

A., Theory,
University Press, New York, 1962. by Digital Computer,\" Proc. IEEE, Analysis
Networks,\"
54, June
Linear HTopological Analysis of General Vol. CT-I2, June 1965,170-180.)
IEEE Trans.
PROBLEMS)
13-1.
Show
that
Using
Kirchhoff's
Eqs.
voltage and current
laws
imply
\037k
\"conservation
of power.\"
[Hint:
(13-5) and
(J 3-7),show
that
= 1 Vk(t )ik(t)
0.])))
382)
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
BY GRAPH THEORY)
CHAP.
13)
13-2.
13-3.
An electrical network with e edges has 2e unknowns (the current through and the 2e independent equations, and discuss the voltage acrosseach edge). Identify existence and uniqueness of the solutions. Kirchhoff's current law may be expressed in more general form as follows: The net sum (taking into account the orientations) of all currents flowing across a cut-set is zero. Using a cut-set matrix (instead of incidence and this form matrix) of KCL, develop equations parallel to Eqs. (J3-2), (J 3-7), (13-8), (13-15), and (13-17).
Fig. 13-2(b) list In Fig. 13-4(a) sketch Of Kirchhoff's and
In AN all
13-4.
13-5. 13-6.
13-7.
spanning all 2-trees
trees and (2, 4) and formulas,
all all
2-trees 2-trees
(N 3N., (23, 4).

will
s )'
Maxwell's
which one
you
prefer for evaluating
and
A L ? Why?
13-8.
13-9.
In Fig. 13-2, assume the resistance value R i or capacitance value Ci (as the case be) in the ith edge of the network. Let x(t) be the value of the independent source node. Convert x(t) into an voltage shown, and let N 5 be the reference current source in parallel with R 1. Use Maxwell's to evaluate formula equivalent evaluate the voltage at node N 3. AN and A3 1. Using these two quantities, In Problem 13-7,keep the voltage R 1. Write the loopsource in series with impedance matrix Z(s) of the network. Write ZL(S). Evaluate AL using Eq. (13-27). Evaluate the appropriate for obtaining V2(S).FinalJy, cofactor of ZL(S) required obtain 13-7. V2(S), and compare the result with that of Problen In a step-by-step fashion derive Eq. (13-24).
may an
13-10. For
RLC
network,
prove
=
\037:
that
Y\\(s) Y2(s) . .
. Ye(S).
in the
[Hint:
Yi(S)Zi(S) =
admittance impedance
1, and
therefore
product of product
spanning tree T spanning tree T chord sets with respect to T

of the
for each
network,
[Y 1(s). Y2 (s) . . . Ye(s).] 13-11. Similarly to Eq. (13-20), show that the (i, i) th cofactor of the loop impedance matrix G is equal to the sum of the chord impedance ZL(S) of an RLC network for all spanning trees of the network products G', obtained from G by deleting the ith chord. 13-12. Attempt an expression matrix ZL for the (i,j)th cofactor of the loop impedance of an RLC network. 13-13. In deriving expressions for AN and AL , we tacitly assumed the nonsingularities of YN(S) and ZL(S). Discuss the requirements imposed on an electrical network have because of the nonsingularity should [Hint: The network requirements. source (1) each voltage only in series with some passive element, (2) each current source coupled only in parallel with some passive element, and (3) no perfectly transformer; i.e., Ll L2 > MI2.] or 13-14.Let Af be the (n - 1) by e reduced incidence matrix of a connected (directed to some reference and e edges, with undirected) graph G of n vertices respect with vertex r. And let Gi be the graph obtained from G by fusing its ith vertex the reference vertex r, and removing any self-loops produced in the process. Prove
that
Af-i, the (n
incidence
- 2) by
matrix
reduced
[Hint:
In G i
the
obtained from Af by deleting its ith row, is the the fused vertex as the reference vertex) of Gi. - 2 vertices have exactly the same incidences as they had in G.)))
e matrix
(with
CHAP.
13)
PROBLEMS)
383)
13-15. 13-16.
Correspondingly, the n - 2 rows of Af are left intact in A f - i . The edges incident between rand i are gone, but the edges that were incident on either r or i but not on both have one end incident on the fused vertex.] In Problem 13-14, show that the product of any two corresponding nonzero majors of (n - 2) by e unimodular matrices Af-i and A f - j is equal to (-I)i+J, providing the rows and columns of both these matrices are arranged in the same order. a dual electrical network to the one in Fig. 13-2, and Draw then study the dual various relationship between quantities between the two networks, such as the loop in the other. equations in one being the node equation
one-port
13-17. For a
RLC
network,
\037 tree
shown
in
Fig.
13-8(a), show
that
the
driving
admittance at terminals (1, r)

\037 2-tree
is
admittance
point
product
product)
(1, r)
admittance
'. (s)
,( (s)
+
) \037 \037S
'2 (s)
RLC
+ V 2 (s )
RLC
: ,( (s)
I I
Vi
(s)
-.
(b)
--
(a)
Fig. 13-8
One-and
two-port
RLC networks.)
admittance
13-18.
two-port
network Fig.
topological formula vertex r shown in
for each
has four short-circuit in the two-port

13-8(b).)))
RLCnetwork
with
functions. Derive the common reference
GRAPH
14)
THEORY
IN
OPERATIONS
RESEARCH)
Graph
theory
tions research.In earlierchapters operations-research problems. The

finding
is a very
natural
and we
tool in combinatorial operapowerful have already applied graph theory to
traveling-salesman
in
the
shortest
spanning
vertices
tree
a weighted
an
optimal
matching
path between two

uses
of jobs and men (Chapter in a graph (Chapter
2), problem (Chapter graph (Chapter 3), obtaining 8), and locating the shortest
II) are some examplesof
the
research. of graph theory in operations This chapter will be devoted in research to using graph-theoretic entirely solving problems operations tools. We shall consider three related areas of operations research in which graph
theory
is used
networks,
most frequently
and
and
profitably.
They are
transport net-
works,activity
14-1.
TRANSPORT
the theory
of games.)
NETWORKS)
In Section 4-6 we saw how a graph can be used as a model for a network of pipelines through which is transported from one some commodity place to another. The general problem in such a transport network (also called a is to maximize the flow the cost of a prescribed flow or minimize network) This is an operations-research be solved flow. and can by linear problem but the has to be combeen found programming, graph-theoretic approach this we shall see how network-flow more efficient.In section putationally
problems
can
be formulated
and solved using

simple,
graphs.
Let us
first define some
terms.
Transport Net\302\273Jork:
transport
(or flo\037') net\302\273'ork if the
weighted, digraph G is called with associated directed edge) weight every

connected,
384)))
SEC. 14-1)
TRANSPORT
NETWORKS)
385)
in G is a nonnegative number. In a transport network this number represents the capacity of the edge and is designated as cij for the edge directed from vertex i to vertex j. A transport is shown in Fig. network 14-1, where the numbers written beside the edge are the edge capacities.)
b)
t) s)
Fig.
14-1
Transport network.)
The capacity cij of some commodity

bits of
of
(such
an edge (i, j) can be thought of as the maximal as water, gas, electrical energy, number
amount
of
cars,
the from station i toj, along information, etc.) that can be transported a natural of time in a steady state. Then edge (i, j), per unit question is: '\\That is the maximal amount of the commodity flow from a given vertex s to another specified the question vertex t via the entire network? Let us first formulate
mathematically.
Maximal flow:
is an assignment
that
In
a given
transport
number
network
of a nonnegative
conditions
directed
fij to every
the
following
are satisfied:)
(i, j)
J r.. iJ
in
G, a flow (or a static flow) directed edge (i,j) such
I. For every
edge
G)
< -
coO. IJ)
( 14-1 ))
2.
There
is a
specified vertex s in
\037fSi
i
G, called
the source, for w,
which)
\037fiS i)
( 14-
2 ))
where
called 3. There
the summations the value of the
are taken
flow.
over all
t in
vertices
in G.
Quantity
is
is another
specifiedvertex
\037fti
i
G, called the sink, -\"'.
for
which)
\037fit i)
( 14-3))))
386)
GRAPH THEORY
4.
IN OPERATIONS RESEARCH)
CHAP.
14)
All
other vertices are mediate vertexj,)
called intermediate
-
vertices.
For
each
inter-
LljI' i
Lfij i)
==
o.
( 14-4))
(14-1) states that the flow through any edge does not exceed its the net flow out of the source other three conditions state that capacity. is w, the net flow into the sink is w, and the flow is conserved at each intermediate vertex. This is why w is called the value of the flow fron1 s to t. Conand is therefore dition (14-3)can, in fact, be derived from (14-2) and (14-4), is no edge from vertex p to q, if there not independent. It is understood that f pq == O. An edge (i, j) for which lij == cij is said to be saturated. A set offlows.t:./s for all (i, j)'s in G is called aflow pattern. A flow pattern w is called a maximal flow pattern. The first that maximizes the quantity in a network is: Given G, s, and t, find a encounters one transport problem maximal flow pattern.
Condition
The Linear
Programming
will
ming (LP)
recognize Fig.
transport network in the 10 edges. Although
Formulation: Those familiar this as an LP problem. As 14-1. The variables are the
w == Isb
with an
flows
linear example,
through
programtake the
each
+ Isd
variable. Let the
- fes' we
by
of
can
regard
flow
pattern
be denoted
fsb
a column
vector
w as f:)
another
fsd
les
Ibe
fbt f==)
leb
fet
Idt
Ide
hd)
and
let)
f'=[;])
denote the variable vector
of
the
LP problem.
Let
denote
the
row vector)
(1,0 ,0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0).)))
SEC. 14-1)
TRANSPORT
NETWORKS)
387)
Then
the problem is to
maximize
h.1'
subject
to the constraints)
A/.1'
where
==
0,
< c,
and
1'>0 - , 0
0
1 1
-1
-1
0
1
0
-1
0
0
0
0 -1
A/==
0
0
0
I
0 0
-1
1
0 0
0
-1
1
-1
0
1
0 -1
0
0
0
0
0
0
-1
4 5 1 5
I 0 0 -1 -1
and
c==
4 2 1
1)
Observe
that
t
edge from
in
to s
A' is the incidence matrix in the transport network
of
Also of Fig. 14-1.
a digraph
obtained
note
by
adding
an
that
the edges
but,
f, c,
and A' must

maximal
appear
flow
in
the
Clearly, a
as
can
same order. be obtained by
solving
this
more
LP problem,
efficient.
mentioned
earlier,
the graph-theoretic
approach is
Using
cut
the graph-theoretic concept, we shall state and prove the max-flow minnow the in of transport networks. result the theory most theorem, important
Cut and Its

network,
Capacity:Ignoring
the
directions
respect
of edges
in
a
t,
transport
that
let us consider
a cut-set with
to vertices
sand
is, a
t. Such a set of edges in a transcut-set which the source s from sink separates The is called a cut. notation network (P, P) is used to denote a cut that port P contains sand P P and the vertices into two subsets P, where partitions defined to be the sum of is t. The capacity cut denoted contains a of by c(P, P) the vertices in set P to the vertices the capacities of those edges directed from in P; that is,)
I: cij iEP
jEP)))
==
c(P,
P).
388)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
For
example,
fe,
==
d, t}
in Fig. 14-1 the cut has a capacity of 5 +
(dashed line)
5 +
separating
P == [s,
2 == 12.)
b} from
THEOREM
14-1)
network
In a given transport less than or equal to the

Proof:
G, the
value of
flow
w from s from
source s to
t.)
sink
t is
capacity
an
of any cut
write
cut
separating
Let
sink
(P, P)
in
be
arbitrary
such that the

Eq.
source s is in
vertex
set P
and
in
the
t is
vertex
set P.
Let us
-
(14-4)
for all intermediate
vertices
P and
add them to
This Eq. (14-2).
yields)
==
pEP
iEG which
\037
[Pi
\037 pEP iEG)
J;P
W,
can be
rewritten
pEP iEP
\037
as)
fpi
\037 pEP
fpi
iEP
pEP
\037
J;P
iEP
==
pEP
iEP)
\037
== W.
But)
pEP
iEP Therefore,)
\037
fpi
\037 pEP iEP)
fiP
O.
pEP
iEP
\037
[pi
\037 pEP iEP)
== W.
( 14- 5))
Since
\037 pEP
is always
a nonnegative
W <
\037 pEP
quantity,
we
==
have
c(P,
iEP) [pi
<
\037
iEP
pEP
c(p,
i)
P).
.
is possible smallest
iEP)
In
value
the
of
t.)
the
theorem we shall prove that following flow which equals the capacity of the
it
to achieve
a
s
cut separating
from
THEOREM In
14-2
(MAX-FLOW
MIN-CUT
G, the
THEOREM)
a given
the t.)
transport
minimum
network
maximum
value of a
the
equal to
from
value
of the
capacities of all
need
cuts
from s to t is flow in G that separate s
Proof:
In view
in
of Theorem
14-1we
only
s
that
that the value of the flow of some cut (Po, Po) separating the capacity in G such Let there be someflow pattern is at its maximum value possible W00 Define
pattern
G such
Wo from
to prove s to from t.
the
that t
there is equal
exists
a flow to c(P 0, Po),

from
value
of the
in
flow
s to t
a vertex
set P
G recursively
as
follows:
(a) s
(b)
P.
If vertex
i E P and either fij

P.)))
<
Cij
or fji
> 0,
then
E P.
Any
vertex
not
in P
belongs to
SEC. 14-1)
TRANSPORT
NETWORKS)
389)
Now vertex from s to t, say, flow

Vj+ 1 fV}V}+l
cannot
s, Vh < CV}V j +t , or a forward
be in P. If it were, t'2, . . . , Vh Vj+h' .

fvj+tv}
there
. , Vk, t,
an Vj)
would be a for which

directed
path in
p (see every
edge
Fig. 14-2) either

Vj
>
O. In
an
path p
(Vj+ h
edge
is called
edge and
edge
(vj, Vj+l) from
directed from
Vj+ 1
to
to Vj is called
a backward
edge (Fig.
14-2).)
Forward
edge
BaCkward
edge
/
s\037-Fig.
v,)
-vi+ I
'e)
_ ... .- --)
et
14-2
Path p in the
proof of Theorem14-2.)
In
path
p let
\0372
\037 1
edges and
are
be
minimum of all the minimum of all flows

be
the
differences [cv}Vj+t
in
J;,jVj+J
in
forward
and
\037 2
backward
positive
quantities.
increasing
Let
by
\037 =
min(\037 1, \037 2)'

in
Then forward
1 edges. Both \037 the flow in the network
G can
flow
be increased by
in each
flow.
the flow
an
each
\037.
edge and
(14-1),
that
decreasing the
backward edge
satisfied.]
amount
[Conditions
(14-4)are still
Thus
This contradicts
the
the assumption
In
(14-2), (14-3), and Wo was the maximum
from
t must be in t. Furthermore,
vertex
set P.
other (b),
according to condition
[Pi
the cut words, for each vertex

=
O.)
(P, P) separates p in P and i
in P,
we
have)
Cpt
and
Therefore,
from
Eq. (14-5) we get

wo
the
value
of the flow:)
\037
pEP
fpi
iEP
iEP)
pEP iEP
\037
=
which
As
\037 Cpi pEP
c(P,
P),
proves the
an
theorem. .)
let us
3
network
example,
again. It has eight

vertex
set P)
consider the transport that separate s from and their capacities are)
(2
) cuts
t. These
of Fig. 14-1, once cuts (identified by
Vertex {sJ
Set
P)
c(P, 9
P))
Is,
b}
12
Is, c}
Is, dJ
19 7
cJ
Is, b, Is, b,
11
Is, b, dJ Is, c, dJ
c, dJ)
10
16
8)))
390)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
The
cut with
and P is [b, c, fore 7 units.

The
minimum capacity among

t}. The maximum does
flow
these possible
is the in s
one
t
in
which
P =
to
in the
network
actual
[s, d} is thereof
proof
the maximal flow mal flow. If we

algorithm
w max .
not include an Nor does it a minimal
algorithm for
give in
finding that
the
value
this
a flow finding
pattern
W
realizes
maxi-
were interested only code to

generate
max , we
would
Plisch
take some
[14-19]
for
generating
cut (see,
all
for instance,
an efficient computer
minimal
for cuts in a given transport
its capacity. network), and then compute a maximal flow an algorithm For those wanting to construct pattern, min-cut theorem is also availbased on the foregoing proof of the max-flow able. This is an efficient algorithm, and it uses a vertex-labeling process for this algorithm flow However, the proof that constructing a maximal pattern. in a finite terminates number of steps depends on the edge capacities being and its modifications, see For more on this labeling algorithm integers.
or [14-12].) [14-7], [14-9],

EXTENSIONS
THEOREM)
14-2.
OF MAX-FLOW
MIN-CUT
The network
max-flow (simple,
min-cut weighted,
many
There are, however,

solved
these
theorem as stated is applicable to a transport connected digraph) with one source and one sink. other types of network-flow problems that can be
by extending the max-flow are straightforward extensions

in
min-cut theorem appropriately. Someof Let us involved. and others are quite
several
from
consider them
1. and
increasing
order
of di fficulty. sources S1' S2, . . . , Sk source can be sent into a oneimmediately

any
to
s with a supersource source and one-sink problem as follows:Introduce . . a t with . and directed to unlimited S s S , supersink capacity) k edges (of l' 2' . . . shown in as unlimited directed from t t t of , (also r' capacity) p 2' edges all value of the flow from the total 14-3. The problem of maximizing Fig. s the value as that of maximizing of the flow from the same sources is then to t.
are Sources and Sinks: If there Multiple sinks t l' t 2' . . . , t r and if the flow several this problem can be converted then sink, any
However, if the restriction is made that

51 52
the
flow
from
a specified source)
II
12
Super source
Sk I,)
Fig.
14-3
Multi-source
multi-sink
transport
network.)))
SEC. 14-2)
EXTENSIONS
OF MAX-FLOW MIN-CUT
THEOREM)
391)
Si must be sent cult. Such a flow,

ly
to a specified
known
sink
as the
diffimore t i , the problem becomes much multicommodity flow, will be discussed short-
as
a separate
topic.
'rt'ith
that we have a transport Specified Capacity: Suppose The some (or all) vertices also have specified capacities. total flow into a vertex v must not exceed its capacity c(v), a real positive number. This network network by can be converted into an ordinary transport v' and v\" and an edge from v' each such vertex v with vertices two replacing to v\" with capacity c( v). All edges originally incident into v are made incident into incident out of v are made incident out of v\", v', and all edges originally as illustrated in Fig. 14-4.)
2. Vertices
network
in which
Origl nal)
Converted)
c(v))
Fig. 14-4
3. problem
Replacement
of a
vertex
with
v' and
v\".)
Networks
Containing
Undirected
through
of maximizing
flow
edges are undirected. I n such p and q of capacity cpq implies
Edges: Often one encounters the in which some or all of the a network an undirected edge between vertices and) that the flow can occur in either direction,
a network fpq fqp
< cpq ' < cpq .)

in
Moreover,
since
the
flow
is assumed
simultaneous to be in
flows
only
opposite
directions
cancel
each other,
one
direction.
qp
That
is,)
fpq Thus
-f
in
== O.)
the
maximum-flow
problem
each
a
a network
containing
a
undirected
edges
can be solved by replacing directed edges,each having
undirected edge with pair of the original edge. t) capacity
of oppositely
flow through tIn the case of a multicommodity flow, where two or more commodities is not valid. The productfpq-fqp the network simultaneously, this replacement * 0, because different can flow in opposite directions without commodities canceling each other. This is one of the major difficulties in multicommodity flow problems.)))
392)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
4. Lower Bound on Edge Flows: So far we have assumed that the lower bound on a flow through an edge in a transport network is zero. Occasionally, one encountersa practical situation that requires a minimum flow bi} through an edge (for instance, an oil pipeline in Alaska may needa specified minimum flow
to keep
it
from
freezing).
That
bi}
is, conditions)
< Ii}
<
cij)
( 14-6)) than pattern,
replace
F or
real number no larger (14-1), where bi} is a nonnegative some network there may not even exist a feasible flow
satisfies
cij\"
that
is,
For exam(14-2), (14-3), (14-4),and (14-6). all Ii} == 0 is not a feasible flow unlike in the case with no lower ple, pattern, bounds on the edge flows. Therefore, we have to first determine if indeed there is a flow pattern in G that satisfies all the upper and lower and bounds, if so how do we get a flow. It can be shown using the of Theorem 14-1 that w the value arguments for any feasible flow pattern must satisfy the following simultaneous requirements for -every cut (P, P) in G separating sand t:)
one
which
the constraints
w w
< >
c(P, P) b(P, P)
- b(P,P), - c(P,P),)
b(P, P)
where)
b(P,
P) =
jEP
Furthermore,
\037
and
=
\037 jEP)
bu.
analogous
pattern
existsa flow
can
quantity)
satisfying
be achieved,
and the
to Theorem 14-2, it can be shown that if there the lower and upper bounds, a maximum flow value of the flow equals the minimum value of the
c(P,
P)
- b(P,P))
sand
of)
taken
over
all cuts
flow
(P, P) separating vertices

the
t. Similarly,
the minimum
value of a
equals
maximum
b(Q,
value
Q)
- c(Q, Q))
taken
over all cuts (Q, Q) separating vertices sand t. The problem of determining under conditions which a flow pattern exists is slightly constraints (14-2), (14-3), (14-4),and (14-6) more insatisfying volved. The readeris referred to Liu [8-3], pages 270-275, or Chapter 2 of
Ford
and
Fulkerson
[4-3] for
further
discussions.
along
5. Lossy Net}i'orks: So far we have an edge. In many practical transport
assumed that
networks,
the
flow
however,
does not the flow
vary does)))
SEC. 14-3)
MINIMAL-COST
FLOWS)
393)
suffer
Such
A
loss
lossy
during
transmission,
due
to leakage,
networks
evaporation, and
(or lossy
so forth,
Au,
networks
are called lossy transport has an additional network
networks).
as-
directed edge(i, j). Foreachedge(i,j) there are two flows: the edge. These quantities are flow fu entering the edge and flow f,\037 leaving
sociated
related
parameter, called efficiency,
with each
follows:)
as
ftj
The
during improvement
==
Au .fu,)
for each
edge (i, j)
than
in
G.)
efficiency
transmission
Au
is a
and
positive number. is more than
It is less
unity
unity
if there
of there
is a gain
is a loss (for instance,
in the signal due to repeaters in a communication line). At each intermediatevertex the total flow must still be equated outgoing to the total incoming flow. The larger of the two quantities fij and ftj must still not exceed cij ' the capacity of the edge (i, j). As in the case of ordinary transport networks (in which Au == 1, for every edge), the goal is to maximize the flow arriving at the sink t. Moreover, for the same value of the flow at the sink, we may have different values of flow leaving the source. arriving that gives the maximum flow is to find a flow Therefore,another goal pattern the source. This is called at the sink for a minimum amount leaving arriving an flow in a lossy network. optimal has been extended to lossy networks. The min-cut theorem max-flow have been obtained, and algorithms Conditions for optimality for optimal For details, see the paper by Onaga [14-18] or pages flows have been devised.
in 277-288
[14-7].)
14-3.
MINIMAL-COST
FLOWS)
with each edge (i, j) in a transport G network Suppose that associated there is an additional number of as the cost of unit d ij , which may be thought a flow pattern flow through sending a specified (i, j). It is desired to construct value w from s t to sink source constraints (14-1), (14-2), (14-3), satisfying
and
(14-4),
which
minimizes
the total
\"
(i,j)EG)
flow
cost,)
\302\243..J IJ
.., d... JrIJ
( 14- 7))
over all
This
flows
that
send
is one
of the
in
classicproblem
problem.
transportation
w units from s to t. in most practical problems programming

in
network as
flows. the
It is
also a
linear
and is
research
known
transportation
Many problems
problem. pattern from
operations
can
be formulated
with
as a
To find a flow cost directed path
that s to t
minimizes
the cost,
this
we start
(i.e.,
a minimal-
and saturate
path
assign
flow
to
the)))
394)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
least one edgein the path reaches its capacity). Then by usthe minimal-cost flow pattheorem recursivelywe obtain for a given tern of desiredvalue. Let us call a path from s to t unsaturated in G if fij < backflow edge (i, j) and fj > 0 for every cij for every forward ward edge (see Fig. 14-2).)
path
such that at
ing
the following
THEOREM
14-3
pattern
Let .f be the minimal-cost f', obtained from

unsaturated
the
minimal-cost
edges of
This
path,
is a
of value w from s to t. Then the flow 0 to the flow in forward edges of a the flow in the backward path, and subtracting \037from flow of value w +- \037.) minimal-cost
flow
pattern
by
adding
\037<
theorem
is of
formal
central importance in
proof
constructing
minimal-cost
flow
obvious result, the reader is referred to Ford and Fulkerson [4-3], pages 121-122. Theorem 14-3states unit that at every of flow is to be sent stage of construction each additional the least-cost from s to tare available path. All unsaturated paths through and in computing the cost of an available available path p one takes paths, into account not only the cost of adding the flow to the forward edges in p but also the savings due to reduction of existing flows in the backward edges patterns.
of this
For a
intuitively
the application of the theorem with an example. us illustrate written In Fig. 14-5 we have a transport network. Of the pair of numbers is the capacity cij and the second one is the next to an edge, the first number flow from s to t, we flow. To find a minimal-cost maximal cost d ij of a unit
go through
of p. Let
the following steps.)
15.4 x 14,I
t)
12,4
0.00
t)
y)
z)
12,3
(b))
z)
(a)
At Step
I)
At Step 6) 6
S
16
14
I
0
8
(c)) z)
\037
Y
Final Fig.
Flow Pa t tern)
14-5
Minin1al-cost
flow.)))
SEC.
14-4)
MUL
TICOMMODITY
FLOW)
395)
1. The minimal-cost path a maximum possible flow
is syxt, and total path cost is 4. We

of
can
send
II units
through
II
this
path,
thus
saturating
edge (y, x)
in
this
path.
by
2. We modify the network of all edges in syxt. Set
subtracting
from
the current
capacities
The
dyx
00.
3. I n the modified cost is 5. We

which
sent
network, the minimal-cost path from s to t is sxt. the maximum possible flow of 3 units through
edge
sxt,
path
saturates update
setting
(x, t)
in
the
path.
4. We further sxt and
d xt
the network = 00.
by sending the
capacities
in
the
5.
n the
capacity
network the minimal-cost path is syzt of cost 6 resulting 5. Sending 5 units of flow through syzt saturates (s, y).
updating
and
6.
Appropriate
yields
the network
in
Fig.
I4-5(b).
7. In Fig. I4-5(b) the minimal..cost is sxyzt with a cost of 4 path 2 = 7. Sending3 units along this path saturates a cut-set and thus 3 + the algorithm terminates. The desired flow pattern is given obtained in Fig. The value of the flow from s to t is II + 3 + 5 + 3 = I4-5(c). 22 units, and the cost is 4 x II 5 x 3 + 6 x 5 + 7 x 3 = 110.)
- 2+
14-4.
MULTICOMMODITY FLOW)
I n some disto deal with several practical situations it becomes necessary tinct commodities flowing a given transport network. simultaneously through has its own source and its own sink. All flows share the Each commodity and as in the single-commodity case, the sum of all therefore, edge capacity,
flows
through
an
flow
edge
let
must
not exceed the

at every
capacity of
the
edge.
For
each
commodity the
is preserved
For illustration,
which
us consider
intermediate vertex. in Fig. the transport network

1
commodities and
from S1 to t 1
For
2 are flowing. Commodity 2 from S2 to t 2. commodity

I and
is
to
14-6 through be transported

1)
a two-commodity
case, let f;tj and ffj be the
flows
of commodities
12)
I,)
SI)
Fig.
14-6
Two-commodity
transport
network.)))
396)
GRAPH THEORY
IN
OPERATIONS
RESEARCH)
CHAP.
14)
and
2, respectively,
through
an
commodity case,the
constraints
edge (i, j) in Fig. f IJ. J +f
in
G.
Then,
analogous
to the single-
14-6 are)
c.. IJ) i ===St,
\037. < I J -
and)
Wt
\037 jEG
for
flj
==
-Wt
! o
W2
for i == (1'
for all other vertices,

for
2
=== ===
S2' (2'
jEG
\037
frj
===
-W ! o)
for for
all other
vertices.)
These constraints can be easily written down for a k-commodity flow. In such flows two problems are usually raised: (1) Construct patterns all for
k-commodities
W
such
network
that
the
total
sum of the
flow
flow
values
W 2,
Wt +
W2
...
k is maximized;
(2) Given the

G,
values
WI'
. . . , W k for
flows
modity and a
simultaneously.
find
out if these
amount
can
values of
of each
be seen
can
each combe achieved

will
Simply sending the

general
maximum
commodity
in W 2 W t
not
in
maximize the total

maximum
value. This
of
w t
even
and with
how
the
simple
case of
Fig. 14-6.Ifwe maximize
W t alone,
we get
W2
W t
== 15
== o. == 5
hand, the
Thus
value
is obtained know
On the other and W 2 === 20.
to maximize
the total
value, we must
to allocate
commo-
similar to the max-flow min-cut theorem for the multiG is in flow commodity general. Only in some special cases (such as when and there are only two commodities) has it been possible to get undirected a theorem to the max-flow min-cut theorem. analogous the interin this specialized and rather involved For further topic, reading 3 of ested reader is referred to Chapter 11of Hu's book [14-12], Chapter of Sakarovitch [14-20].) and the Ph.D. dissertation Frank and Frisch [14-7],
dities to each edge.
Thereis no result
14-5.
We
ADDITIONAL
APPLICATIONS)
have been
by
discussing how various types of

of network-flow
shipping
problems
can be
are
solved
means
techniques.
as
In addition
problems
to these, there
problems.
Section
a surprisingly large number of combinatorial can be formulated that solved) (and then
in operations
research
network-flow
Take
8-4.
known with)))
problem discussed in We have p men M p M2 ,. .., Mp and q jobsJ p J 2 ,. . . ,J q , and When is it possible to fill men are qualified for which which jobs.
for
instance
the
matching
or assignment
it is
all jobs
SEC. 14-6)
MORE
ON FLOW PROBLEMS)
397)
qualified
men or
when
is it
possible
to assign
as
each man
a job
he is qualified
for?
The problem can be formulated

Fig. J k)
a network-flow
network,
problem,
such
as shown
an edge
of one
in
14-7.
exists
Construct if and only

all
a p-source
if man
q-sink flow
that
(Mp
are con-
supersources and each (s, MJ and

made
sinks
to
each
M i is qualified for job to a supersink t. Assign (J i , t). The capacities of
J k' the
Join
all sources
capacities
remaining
to a unit to
edges of
infinite. Then the optimal assignment problem becomes that with maximum value from s to t.) structing a flow pattern
M})
s) t)
Fig. 14-7
Observe
Flow
network
for an
assignment problem.)
that
in such
M t
flow
pattern)
.f:
I,
if ith
otherwise,
man is
assigned to a job, been assigned, assigned to

the
==0 ,)
fltt
== I,
if kth
,) otherwise,
job has
==0
fM1h
= =0
I,) ,)
if ith
man is
kth
job,
otherwise.)
More in
terms
complicated personnel assignment of network flow. Numerous other

problems.
problems have been formulated

have types of problems the
also
been
solved as flow in the survey
For
Fulkerson
these the
reader is referred to
bibliography
paper
by
[14-9].)
14-6.
Flow
MORE ON FLOW PROBLEMS)

problems
may
in
be looked
4. The
upon as a generalization
in
of
connectivity
problems,
for
studied
between
Chapter
paths
pairs
of vertices
study of connectivity involves a graph. A path from a vertex
a search
x
to
a)))
398)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
vertex
how
much,
y implies that we have

the
The
x, y is equal to
some amount of flow can be sent from to consider the capacities of the edges maximum number of edge-disjoint between paths minimun1
x to
in
y. To
path.
find
the
a pair
of vertices
from the)
number
of edges
that
when
removed
I-source.I-sink
I-Commodity
___________
_______
Multiple sources and
sinks
Multicommodi
ty)
Vertex
capacities
unlimited)
Vertex capacities
Only directed
limited)
edges)
Mixed
edges)
Edge capacities
with
upper
bounds
only)
Edge
capacities
with lower bounds also)
Lossless
edges)
Lossy
edges)
Flow-cost
equal
for
all edges)
Flow-costs
different
for different
edges)
Capacities
deterministically
known)
Capacities
probabilistically
known)
Static
flow)
Dynamic
Fig.
flow)
14-8
Some types of
flow
networks.)))
SEC.
14-6)
MORE ON FLOW PROBLEMS)
399)
leave no path between x and y. This number is preciselythe number of graph when to x and y. This concept, edges in the smallest cut-set with respect apbecomes the max-flow min-cut theorem. plied to a graph with edge capacities, It equates the sum of maximum capacities of paths between x and y to the
capacity of the
It is
more
minimum
cut-set
natural to
seekresults as elegant
Some
with respect
as
to x and
max-flow
y.
general
networks.
generalization6
have networks
as for
of some
the multicommodity flow, common types of flow
min-cut theorem for are easily made.Others, such not been possible so far. A summary is given in Fig. 14-8.
the
It is interesting to comparetransport with electrical networks networks, studied in Chapter of as a special 13. A transport network can be thought that current law (KCL), but not the type of resistor network obeys Kirchhoff's have no resistance for currents voltage law (K VL). Moreover, the resistors (i.e.,flows) up to a certain value cij and then have an infinite resistance for current larger than that. In such a network no voltage (potential, or pressure, tension) exists across any branch. an electrical network problem can also be formulated as a Conversely, G with flow problem. Consider a resistornetwork current sources in which we wish to find currents (i.e., flows) lij flowing through every edge (i, j). The upper and lower bounds on the currents are)
= c.. IJ)
b..IJ) = The
00 , -00.
that
flow
pattern
must satisfy KCL;

\037/Ji i
is,) == 0
\037f,.J i)
( 14-4))
for every
vertex j
J.
in
G.
The
served by
the
C. Maxwell
flow pattern in 1893 that among
must also satisfy

all flow
KVL.
satisfying
It was
ob-
patterns
(14-4)
one that
minimizes the power dissipation)

\037 for all
rij.
Itj
( 14-8))
(i, j) EG)
is the
to
one
that
satisfies
Kirchhoff's
edge
trical resistance
satisfying
of the
(i, j).
KVL,
as
sources is left
which
assuming
is the elecvoltage law also. Quantity rif is equivalent [That minimization of (14-8) with current network KCL, in a resistive
an exercise.]
as a flow problem, Thus an electrical network problem can be viewed a quadratic conminimizes flow-cost function (14-8) subject to linear straints (14-4). Obviously, then, an electrical network problem (subjectto and is not an LP problem.))) KCL KVL)
400)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
14-7.
ACTIVITY
PLANNING)
NETWORKS
IN
PROJECT
One
operations
of the most
research
two
popular
and
successful and
applications scheduling
and
is in the
best-known
planning
of networks in of large complicated
projects. The
Path
names
in this
Evaluation
connection are
Review
CPM (Critical
Technique).
individual
Method) called
and PERT
into
(Program
project is divided
jobs,
many
well-defined
and
nonoverlapping
Due to technicalrestrictions,somejobs must be finished be started (such as washing before drying, putting foundation before erecting walls, etc.). In addition to this precedence relationship a certain time, called the also among the activities, each activity requires in a project, duration of the activity. Given the list of activities the list of immediate and the dura(i.e., predecessors) for each activity, prerequisites to depict the project, as follows: tions, a weighted digraph can be drawn an activity, and its weight the duration Each edgerepresents of the represents and endings of activities and are beginnings represent activity. The vertices called events or milestones in the project. An activity (i, j) cannot be started Each in before all activities event leading to the event i have been completed. the project is a well-definedoccurrence in time (such as walls erected, shipment Such a weighted, connected digraph activiarrived, representing etc.). network. ties in a project is called an activity that we have a project Let us take an extremelysimple example. Suppose consisting of six activities A, B, C, D, E, and F, with the restriction that A must precede C and D; Band D must E; and C must precede F. The precede and Fare the activities durations for 5, 7, 6, 4, 15,and 2 days, A, B, C, D, E,
activities. before
others can
respectively.
The
activity
network
of this
project is
shown
in
Fig.
14-9.)
C 6)
Project completed
/)
Project
starts)
Fig. 14-9 Observe
Activity
network.)
have
otherwise, we would directed circuit could be initiated-avicious Also observe that the vertex denoting the start cycle. of the project must have zero in-degree, since no activity precedes this vertex. Likewise,the vertex denoting the termination of the project must have zero as no activity this vertex.))) follows out-degree,
that
an
activity
network
must
an impossible
situation
in
which
no activity
be acyclic; in the
SEC.
14-7)
AC1IVITY
NETWORKS
IN PROJECT PLANNING)
401)
Dummy
Activity:
Band
In the example
had
of
the
activity
that
network
activity
Fig. 14-9, suppose we
an additional D were
restriction
vertex
considered F could
in
not
be started before
dence
completed.
relationship
by drawing an
edge from
We can incorporate this precex to y (Fig. 14-10). Such an)

Dummy
activity)
x)
Fig.
14-10
Dummy
activity
in a
network.)
in the job edge, which represents only a precedence relationship and not any activities become necessary when project, is called a dummy actoivity. Dummy the existing all precedence activities are not enough to portray relationships shown activities are of zero duration and are usually accurately. All dummy in broken lines. Two parallel edges(i.e., activities the same immediate predecessor having and the same immediate edge, comsuccessor) may be replaced by a single the activities are both activities into one [Fig. 14-11 bining (a)].If, however, a dummy event) then a dummy activity and to be kept track of separately,
x)
max =
.
x
[rx' ty
and y)
y) (a))
\037Dummyevent
\\ \037O \\
x
=)
\037
ty) .
Dummy
activity
(b))
Fig.
14-11
Replacement of
parallel
edges.)))
402)
GRAPH THEORY be created

An
CHAP.
14)
must
[Fig. 14-11 (b)].And,

digraphs
as there
network,
we have only simple activity network can
can be for an activity
no self-loopin
network.
an
activity
be assumed to have
exactly
one
vertex
with zero
with If there is more than zero out-degree. in-degree and exactly one vertex one vertex selects one of these for the having zero in-degree, one arbitrarily start event and draws dummy activities this to the other vertices. The from vertices with zero out-degrees are handled similarly. I n brief, an activity of two aspectsof a project: network is a representation and (2) their durations. It (1) precedence relationships among the activities, is a connected, weighted, simple, acyclic digraph with exactly one vertex of zero in-degreeand exactly vertex one of zero out-degree.)
14-8.
A
circuit.
ANALYSIS
OF
AN
ACTIVITY
network
NETWORK) first be
newly
constructed
should
checked for
network,
finding
any
directed
A directed
circuit impliesinconsistency
gives an
a more
in the
which must be
whether
9-17 corrected. Although Theorem not a digraph has a directed circuit,

topological
algorithm for
efficient
or
by
sorting
of vertices,
defined as follows:
method is provided
The vertices of a digraph G are saidto be in topologiSorting: Topological n such cal order if they are labeled that every edge in G leads 1, 2, 3, . . from a smaller numbered vertex to a larger one. That is, for edge (i, j) every are in in G we have i < j. The process the vertices such that of relabeling they if a digraph contains a topological order is calledtopological sorting. Clearly, in a topological order. a directedcircuit, it is not possible to put its vertices
.,
The
following
construction
in
procedure
a topological
digraph G can be put

Start G, and in
with
shows order.
that
the
vertices
of every vertex
acyclic
1 from
a vertex
with zero digraph
in-degree and label it

(G
the
label it
every
tex
- 1) delete vertex vertex is labeled, or (2) we find

2.
remaining From (G
- I) find
1. Delete
a vertex
with zero
in-degree and
2 and
a subdigraph
with
zero in-degree.
In
view
of Theorem
we
(1) repeat the process, till either g in which there is no verif 9-15, case (2) is possible only
g contains
a directed
circuit. Thus
can
state)
THEOREM14-4
in a digraph The vertices the digraph is acyclic.)
can be arranged
in
a topological
order
if
and
only
if
in an activity functions two Topological sorting performs directed circuits, if any, in the network, and (2) it puts 1 is the start event and a topological order I, 2, 3, . . . , n, where pletion event of the project.))) it detects
network:
(I)
the events
n
in
is the
com-
SEC.
14-8)
ANALYSIS
OF AN
ACTIVITY
NETWORK)
403)
besides sorting is an important process in many problems Topological activity network analysis. For example, if we want to arrange the words in is used before it has been defined, we resort to a a glossary so that no term
topological
tant
process
sorting. We shall in a step-by-step

for Topological
l.
therefore
fashion.)
present
an algorithm
for this
impor-
Algorithm
Sorting)
l. Set i \037
2.
Find an unlabeled vertex with If no such vertex exists, go to

Set
zero
in-degree,
and
label
this
vertex
i.
3. 4. If
i \037 i
every
1;
step 4. and go to step 2.

has been
any
vertex
in G
labeled, stop. Otherwise,
go
to step
5.
5. If the out-degree of
edges
labeled so far is nonzero, remove all vertex every lab\037led vertex and go to 2. If there are some is vertices unlabeled vertices and the out-degree of each of the labeled in the network, zero, we have a directed circuit stop.)
incident
out of
Note
in have
that
there
a given more
acyclic
than
may be more than digraph, because at one vertex with zero
one
topological
the
ordering
algorithm
of the vertices
it is
step 2 in
in-degree.
the
having
possible to
Critical
Path: Having
and
made sure that

the process)
activity
placed
directed circuits
topological
(in
G network the vertices
contains no of Gin a
tion.
duraorder J, 2, . . . , n, our next task is to determine the project is equal to The minimum time required to complete the entire project of the longest directed path in the length sum of the activity (i.e., durations) 1 to n.) The longest directed G. (The longest directed path is, of course, from path (CP). The vertices and edges in a CP are called path is called a critical the critical events and the critical activities, because any delay in them will the entire project. In Fig. 14-9the critical delay path is A DE and the project duration is 5 + 4 + 15= 24 days. There may be more than one critical path in a given activity network. I to n, let us determine Instead of determining the longest path only from the longest paths frorr vertex 1 to every vertex k in G, where k == 2, 3, . . . , n. The length event time for of the longest path from 1 to k is called the earliest k can be event event k, because this is the earliest possible time at which
realized.
shortest from a Sincedigraph G is acyclic, the method of obtaining paths modified for given in Chapter II, can be easily specified vertex to all others, finding the longest paths. In fact, since the vertices are already topologically the task is even simpler. Let) ordered, tij
duration
of
activity
(i, j)
in
G,)))
404)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
and
let)
T(k) == length
(i.e.,
time)
of longest path
for
from 1 to
Clearly,
k,
==
I, 2,
from
3, .
. . , n.)
I (because
T( I)
==
O. Vertex
2 can
be reached only
vertex
of the
topological order), and therefore)

T(2) Vertex ==
T(I)
any
\037
1 12 == 1 12 .)
3 cannot
be reached from
vertex
except
13'
from
\037
and
2. Therefore,)
T(3) == max[T(I)
Similarly,
\037t
T(2)
t 23 ].)
vertex
4 can
possibly be reachedonly
\037
from
I, 2,
and 3.
Therefore,)
T(4) ==
And so
max[T(I)
t 14 ,
T(2) +
24 , T(3)
+ 134 ].)
as)
on. The
general
expression T(k)
can thus
== max[T(i)
i<k)
be written
\037
t ik ],
( 14- 9))
where
the
maximum
k.
is over all
verticesi from
Let us
which
there
is a
(i, k) to vertex
The
directed edge
and T( I),
T(2),. . . ,
solutions
T(n)
of these
obtained
equations can be performed
one
by one,
successively.
take a simpleexample:)
Fig.
14-12
Activity network.)
I dummy
An
activity
activity
network
in
is shown
circles representing the vertices.They are in topological order I, 2, 3, . . . , labels the vertices are identified and the digraph is simple, the activity (Since have been dispensed with.) The durations of activities (in some unit of time) are shown next event times T(i) for to the edges. Let us compute the earliest i == 1,2,3,...,8.)))
Fig.
of 8 events, 12 activities, and consisting 14-12. The event labels are shown inside
the
small
8.
SEC.
14-8)
ANALYSIS
OF AN ACTIVITY NETWORK)
405)
T( 1) T(2)
==
0,
== t 12 == 8,
10.)
we of Eq. (14-9),
T(3) ==
With
successive
application
T( 4)
==
get)
max[t
14' T(2)
+
9,
24]
==
max[7,
9]
==
T(5)
== max[T(2)
==
-f- t 25,
T(3) +
16.)
35 , T(4)
+ t 45]
max
[ 10, ] 6,
12] ==
Similarly,)
T(6) Thus
shown
==
21,)
T(7)
==
16,)
T(8)
== 28.)
the project duration T(8) == 28. in heavy lines in Fig. 14-12.

of
The
critical
path is I,
3, 5, 6, 8, and is
tracis
This computation
earliest
times
1
vertex ing the longest paths from referred to as forward calculation. Latest
to
of topological ordered events by vertices 2, 3, . . . , n, successively,
the project is finished at time T(n), we critical activities is delayed. There is, A a certain of latitude in scheduling noncritical activities. amount however, be save noncritical activity allowed to or nerves) may money slip (and thereby to a certain latest time extent without delaying the project completion. The an event k must be the duration which realized without by increasing project is called the latest event time T'(k). For example, in Fig. 14-12 event 7 may be realized without latest by time unit 22 (and no later) affecting the completion of the project. is given time to see that the latest event time It is not difficult by the relation)
Event
Time: To
that
ensure
that
have
to
make
sure
none
of the
T'(k)
If still
==
T(n)
- time taken
along longest path
from
vertex
k to
n.)
we reverse
2, 1.
be topologically
Starting
the direction of every in the network, the vertices will edge sorted, but the order would be reversed, n, n - 1, . . . , 1 and from vertex vertex n, one could move toward compute
longest
with
the times
reversed
taken along the

network.
paths,
relation)
using
Eq. (14-9)
successivelyin
the
Starting
T'(n)
==
T(n),)
the
we get the following
recursive relation for

T'(k) ==
latest
event
time for vertex

( 14-
k:)
min[T'(i)
kJ,)
10))))
406)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
where
the minimization
is over
in
verticesi to which
Fig.
there
is directed
from vertex k.
For example,
T'(7) == 28
T'(6) T'(5) == 28
edge (k, i)
14-12,)
22, 21,
- 6 ==
- 7 ==
== min[T'(7)
all
that
- 0, T'(6) T(i) ==
5]
== 16,)
and so network
critical
on. Table 14-1shows of Fig. 14-12.Note

path.)
earliest
and latest event times in the activity if and only if vertex i is in T'(i)
Event
1
i)
T(i)) o
T'(i))
o
2 3
12
4 5 6 7
8)
10 9
10
13
16 21 16
28)
16 21 22
28)
Table
14-1
Earliest and Latest
Event
Times)
Slacks:
activity, activity
let
As a measure of maximum us look at the following
latitude
quantity
available
called
in a slack
total
noncritical (or float) of

( 14- II
))
(i, j).)
So
Quantity is possible
==
T'(})
T(i)
ir)
So represents
when
i is
the maximum permissibledelay in activity (i, j), which realized as early as possible, and j is delayed as much
has two end vertices, to define four different
important
as
possi
ble.
Since each
activity
values,
important
it
is possible
considered
slack
only the most is the free
one,
each one of which has two time We have slacks for each activity. the total slack. The second most
as)
slack, v o '
V
defined
==
T(j)
- T(i)
Total
==
to.)
( 14- 12))
This
is- the
amount
by
which other
an activity activity.
the early start of any ities in the network
without (i, j) can be delayed slacks and free slacks for in
all
delaying activ-
of Fig.
total
14-12 are shown

0 if if (i,
Table
14-2.
Observe
whereas Vo
vij
that
the
may be
o.)))
zero even
slack So
and only if
(i, j) isa critical

Also
activity,
j) is not
a critical activity.
note
that
Sij >
>
SEC. 14-8)
ANALYSIS
OF AN ACTIVITY NETWORK)
407)
Activity)
(I, 2)
Total Slack)
4
Free
Slack)
(1, 3)
(1,4) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6) (3,5) (3, 7)

(4, 5)
o 6 4 6 4 o 8 4
o 2
6 4
o 2 4
(5, 6) (5, 7) (6, 8) (7, 8))

Table
o
6)
o o o
6)
14-2
Total and Free Slacksof Activities Network of Fig. 14-12)

a
in
In the foregoing
analysis of
network,
called
the critical path
method
(CPM),we
have
accomplished
directed
in
the following:)
circuits.
topological
1. Checked for
2. Arranged 3. Identified
events
order.
project
critical path (or paths) and computed the 4. Computed earliest event time for each event. T(k) 5. Computed latest event time T'(k) for each event.
duration.
6. Computed
Having
identified
slacks
for
each activity.) activities,

total
the
critical
we can
project
concentrate only
machines
on
these
and by expediting
them reduce the

reduce
duration.
certain
Second, the slacks

or
can be utilized
workers.)
to
the peak
demands for
we have
skilled
Project Cost Curve:

each
Although
assumed a
constant duration
for
get a job done money can usually faster. Givena fixed budget for the project, how should the money be allocated among the activities so that the project is completed at the earliest possible date?If for each activity the time-cost relation is linear, this problem can be shown to be a minimal-cost or flow (see pages 151-162 of [4-3] problem The solution of the problem will be a curve showing project cost [14-8]). versus comduration, and, depending on the budget (or the target project a point on this curve. Such a curve is known as pletion date), one would pick the project cost curve. in activity Often be))) to time and cost, there may networks, in addition
activity,
in
practice
allocation
of more
408)
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
other such as personnel required, shop facilities parameters, so forth, associated with each edge. In CPM networks activity durations were assumed to be
If
necessary,
and
preciselyknown.
the
activity
durations
are random
variables
tributions,
the network
goes by
Review Technique). Whereas cost, PERT is more concerned

requirements,
acronym CPM focuses with
the
PERT
estimates
networks
and
so forth.
Activity
disprobability (Program Evaluation and on optimizing the total project of completion dates, scheduling of these two with variations
with
given
are also encountered.)

FURTHER
NETWORKS)
14-9.
COMMENTS
ON ACTIVITY
In
this
chapter
the
vertices were
vertices
will
used to represent events

representation
represent activities.There is another ture

in
often
and the edges to used in the litera-
which
precedence activities
relationships
two
denote activities and the edges represent only the among the activities. Obviously, for a given set of
yield
activities these
of Fig.
different
in
14-9 are shown
both
For example, the project in Fig. 14-13.) representations

graphs.
c) c)
A)
F)
B)
(a) Event-Vertex
Representation)
Two
(b) Activityfor the
Vertex
Representation)
Fig. 14-13
It
representations
same activities.)
into
is not
difficult
activity-vertex
representation
we
to transform the event-vertex representation In fact, and vice versa (see[14-5]).
the
the
activity-
vertex representation is the
edge digraph
vertex representation, if is no need of dummy
disregard in activities
types of
slight
are widely representations over the other, but there is no basic difference betweenthe advantage two as far as their analyses are concerned. have been in The activity and its application in project network planning has been spectacular.))) existence only since 1957. In these few years its success
Problem 9-16) of the event(see the dummy activities in the latter. There the activity-vertex representation. Both Each has its own used in the literature.
SEC.14-10)
Computer
standard
GRAPHS
IN GAME THEORY)
409)
programs
program
for
library
analyzing
CPM
and
PERT
of almost every
computing center.Large
of
networks are part
of the
networks
consisting Generally,
of thousands of activitiesare often analyzed. the network is constructed from a list

of
activities job
and
cedence table. Generation

tion
a precedence
table is
manual
because
a preit
in the project. The construcinvolves an intimate knowledge of the processes from the preof the activity the activities, network, including dummy cedencetable can be relegated to the computer, although it is still done mostly
manually. be
Construction
of a
composite
network from subnetworkscan also
programmed
[14-22].
A typical computer program for critical-path consists of three analysis and phases: (I) cycle-checking topological-sorting phase, (2) forward-timecalculation phase,and (3) backward-time-calculation phase. Shortcuts have been suggestedthat can complete the critical-path analysis in a single phase, and save computation time in the case of large networks [14-17]. We have the bare essentials of the activity network presented analysis. Much more can be done with graph in project planning.) theory
14-10.
GRAPHS
IN
GAME
THEORY)
The theory of games has becomean important field of mathematical research since the publication of the first book on the by John von subject Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern in 1944. Game theory is applied to probin engineering, lems and war science to find the optimal economics, way of environment. performing certain tasks in a competitive The general idea of game theory is the same as the one we associate with The distinction between and checkers. parlor games such as chess,bridge, a puzzle and a game is that in a game one plays against one or more human whereas a puzzle involves a solitary effort to solve a problem. opponents, A game may be played between two persons, such as chess,or among more than two persons, such as poker. The former is called a two-person game and the latter an n-person game. Another classificationof games is basedon whether or not an element of randomnessis introduced, such as by dice or cards. A third in categorizing a game is whether or not a playelement er has complete information on the position of a game at every move. A game such as chess, in which' each player knows exactly where the game stands is called a perfect-information in which one does not know what game.Bridge, cards the other players have, is an imperfect-information A game is game. called finite if each number of choices available at each player has a finite move and the game must end after a finite number of moves. An infinite game is one in which a player chooses a move from an infinite set of moves. We shall confine ourselvesto the study of two-person, perfect-informa-)))
410)
tion, tion
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
finite games
without
chance vertices
moves.
of such a game. The the and the edges game vertex v j if and only to Vi
Vi to
V
represent
represent the
A digraph is a natural representathe positions (also called states) in moves. There is a directed edge from
let us look at
nim.)
j by a
if the game can be transformed from position (state) move permissible under the rules of the game. As an example, a very simple game. It is a simplified version of a game called
are given and players A and B take Simplified Nim: Two pilesof sticks number of sticks from turns, each taking any anyone pile.The player who takes the last stick wins, and since the finite quantity of sticks will eventually be exhusted, it is obvious that the game allows no draw. As a further simplifitwo sticks each. The complete cation, let us start with two piles containing is described by the digraph in Fig. 14-14. Each state of the game is game described by an ordered pair of labels (x, y), indicating the number of sticks in the first and the second pile, respectively.)
(2,2))
(0,
0))
(1,2)
Fig. 14-14
Let
Simplified game of nim.)
us observe
some properties
perfect-information,
of such a game
finite
digraph
(a digraph
senting
a two-person,
The
game
without
reprechance
moves) :)
1.
digraph
vertex.
has a unique vertex

starting
with
represents the
starting
position
in the
Fig. with
a zero This vertex in-degree. game and is thereforecalled the
Vertex
(2, 2) in
in the
14-14 zero
is the
starting
vertex.
2.
There
are one
closing
or more vertices
positions
out-degree. 14-14.
digraph.
indefinitely.
These correspond
closing
to the
Vertex
game, and are called the

A
vertices.
closing vertex in Fig. 3. A game digraph is a connected,acyclic

would imply that the game a game such as chess,where
could
the
(0, 0) is the
directed
(In
circuit
in
endless)))
go on
game
practice,
state,
may return
to a
SEC. 14-10)
GRAPHS IN are prevented

the means
GAME THEORY)
411)
matches
by
of repetitionsof
same
move,
of a rule that a certain after numbet the game is declared stalemated.)
4.
Each
directed
path
moves
from
sents
one complete
presentingthe
The
the starting vertex to path play of the game. This of the two players alternately.)
in
a closingvertex
consists
repre-
of edges
re-
most
important
question
question
moves
a game
can a
player choose his

this
so that
is the following: he is certain of winning

in
When
and
how
? We
shall first
answer it.
position
for
the specific
game
Fig.
14-14,
and then
generalize
this
Let us call
can
a position
\"won\" if the
game
force
brought
a victory.
the
player
ing
who
this
with
to be marked
tion
characterization as won, because
Conversely, a position is dubbed\"lost\" if the to this position can be forced to lose.In keepin Fig. 14-14 is of vertices, the closing vertex the player who brought the game to this posi-
player who brought the game to
this as won, let us use the following vertex as won vertices or lost. remaining are marked vertex won if all its successors lost, and vertex lost if at least one of its successors is marked won. an unmarked mark makes the and (This is becauseit is assumed that each player is intelligent in vertices and results best possible move at each stage.)This (0,0), (I, I), as won and the remaining as lost. And thus the player (2, 2) being marked since he can his has the winning force who makes the second move strategy, verticesmarked as move to the to opponent a winning let us the method of finding strategy, generalize foregoing introduce the concept of kernel in a digraph.
is the
winner.
Having marked
procedure to mark the Mark an unmarked
lost.
To
Kernel of a
Digraph:A
G
if) in
set
of vertices
in
a digraph
G is
called a kernel
(or nucleus)
I.
of
No
Every
two vertices
vertex
K are
2.
v not
in K
edge. has an edge directedfrom

joined
by an
v to
some
vertex
in
K.)
Conditions set and some
and
2 correspond
an
a dominating set in types of digraphs that
respectively to definitions of an independent graph (recall Chapter 8). What 14-5 characterizes have kernels? Theorem
undirected
are
one
such type.)
THEOREM
14-5)
digraph
Every acyclic
has
a unique be proved
will
kernel.)
by
Proof: The theorem

which
will
a constructive be
all vertices
forming the kernel
painted
procedure, at the end of red. Let G be the given acyclic)))
412)
GRAPH THEORY According
CHAP.
14)
to Theorem 9-15,G must have at least one vertex with zero the set of all vertices in G with Since these zero out-degree. vertices must all be in the kernel of G, paint them red. Next, let WI be the set of all those verticesin G from which there is at least one directed edge to some vertex in VI' Clearly, no vertex in WI can be included in the kernel. Delete from G all vertices in W I (together with the edges incident on them, of course), and thus obtain subgraph (G - WI)' - WI) is also acyclic. V 2 be the set of all vertices with zero Let Subgraph (G out-degree in (G - WI). Since in the original digraph G no vertex in set V 2 had a zero out-degree, every vertex in V 2 had to have at least one edge going to some in WI' Moreover, vertex in digraph G no vertex in V 2 could have been adjacent to any vertex in VI' Nor could any vertex in V2 have been adjacentto any other vertex in V 2 , because the out-degree of each vertex in set V2 of (G - WI) is zero. Thus we conclude that every vertex in V 2 must also be included in the kernel of G and therefore be painted red. till every vertex in G is either deleted or painted This procedure is continued red. The unique s\037t of vertices of the digraph. the kernel painted red constitutes .)
digraph.
out-degree.
Let
VI
be
As an illustration, is easily seen that the kernel.

It
let us
the
find
set of
the kernel in the acyclic digraph in Fig. three vertices marked (0, 0), (I, I), and
14-14.
(2,2)
is
Let
player
be
the
player
who
the
makes
player
such that
who makes the first the second move. Assuming who is able to make the
we
move that last
in the the
game and B
rule of the move in the
be the
possible
result.)
game is game is
always the
THEOREM
winner,
have
the following
important
14-6
In the is assured
game digraph of a win, and
if the
starting
win
vertex is
always
not
in the
kernel K,
in
then
player
A can
by
selecting
vertices
K.)
is not in set K, player A can move the game vertex A is the winner. If not, vertex x is a closingvertex, the second is not in the kernel K. player B will have to move to some vertex y, which In his next move A can take the game to some vertex in K. The game continues, B forced to take it out of K and A bringing it back into K. Eventually, with the to a closing vertex by A, because all closing vertices are in K. play will be brought Thus A wins the game. .)
Since the starting Proof. to a vertex x in K. If this
COROLLARY It follows from the the second player kernel, vertices in the selecting
In
that
proof
of this
theorem
that
if the
and
starting
B can
vertex is
win
by
in
the
B has
kernel.)
the winning
strategy;
always
the
the
player
analysis the rules of the game foregoing who made the last possible move
were
was
always
assumed to be such the winner. In)))
SEC. 14-1 0)
GRAPHS
IN GAME THEORY)
413)
many
resent
games
a draw
(such as chess or and others a win.
tic-tac-toe)
some
In
such
a game
of the closing vertices repthe choosing vertices from

the
kernel
will only
the if
assure a
player
a win
Thereare alsogames to make

digraph,
in which
or a draw. the rule is such that

the
player
who is
forced
be converted move. In
moves are
that
move is the loser rather than we remove all edges corresponding to the type in which the winner
last words,
winner.
last
From
moves,
such a
game
can
to the
is
the game
the
player
making the last

second-to-the-Iast
other
made. For exam

forced kernel
in
the the game is decided at the time pIe, let us modify the ni m game
of Fig.
erasing
14-14 such
the
the
player the
to take the last stick is the
loser. Then
last
win-
moves from the digraph,

constitute this
we get
digraph.
Fig.
14-15.
The three
vertices marked won

the
Even in this
game player B has
ning strategy.)
Lost)
Won)
Won)
Won)
Lost)
Fig. 14-15
Thus,
Game
digraph.)
in theory, it is possible to construct the game for digraph perfect-information, finite game with no chance moves, and, is acyclic, it is also possible to obtain since the digraph its kernel. Therefore, if each player plays according to his best strategy, the outcome is predeterwin mined. It will be either a draw or a certain for the player who makes the move if the starting vertex is not in the kernel, first or for the player who vertex makes the second move if the starting is in the kernel. In this sense,
at least
any two-person,
every game of this I n reality the

games,
in
type
situation
is either
is
\"unfair\"
or
\"futile.\"
not
so bleak
as
such game
the
as checkers digraph)
memory
the
or chess, the number is so enormous that the

any
stored in
unit of
existing
or
most nontrivial (i.e., the vertices game digraph cannot even be contemplated computer.)))
it
appears.
In
of positions
414)
This
GRAPH
THEORY
CHAP.
14)
is precisely
why
in
real
games provides an
graph
approach
only
rather
to
problems in operations research the theory than a complete analysis. Moreover,

a very
of
theory
is applicable
special
but
important
class
of games.)
SUMMARY)
We
have
considered
three important
classesof
problems
in combinatorial
and game operations research: transportation problems, networks, activity and solved as graphtheory. These problems can be expressed elegantly connected and weighted theory problems involving (mostly acyclic) digraphs. From a practical of view, all these problems are trivial so is any point (and combinatorial real-life situations, problem) if the network is small. Many consist of huge networks, and therefore it is important to look at however, these network in terms of them on problems solving computers.)
REFERENCES)
literature on the subject of flows in networks. Several books are to network-flow problems. Ford and Fulkerson's book [4-3], the first one to be written on the subject, is a classic. Following the publication of this book, a good deal of work has been reported in the literature, particularly on the problems of twoimpressive entirely
with and flows, probabilistic multicommodity and synthesis of flow networks. Hu queues, of these areas. Other on the subject
There is an
devoted
through lossy network, [14-12] and Frank and Frisch [14-7] covermuch books are Berge and Ghouila-Houri [14-4] and Iri [14-14].Of several and BeckenHu [14-13], excellent survey papers, Fulkerson [14-9], bach [14-2] referare particularly These papers provide a list of important recommended. ences. Chapters on flow problems in Berge [1-1], Busacker and Saaty [1-2], and Li u [8-3] are also recommended. for a typical flow As an example of a good computer program see [14-3], which the least-cost flow for a network with both upper determines problem and lower bounds on edge capacities. methods. books and hundreds of articles have been written on critical-path Many Some of the books recommended are by Battersby [14-1], Elmaghraby [14-6],and Moder and Phillips [14-16].Papers by Klein [14-15], Montalbano [14-17],and Schurmann [14-22] discuss computer algorithms and programs for activity networks. Busacker and Saaty [1-2] also contains a section (pages 128-135) on acti vi ty networks. or For a brief and succinct historical of nim-like games (also calleddisjunctive survey A lucid general article on games is [14-23].Two take-away games), see Gardner [14-10]. other Busacker and are also recommended. Berge [1-1], papers on games, [14-11] [14-21], and Saaty [1-2], Kaufmann a section dealing with graph [9-4], and Iri [14-14]each contain of games. representation 14-1. BATTERSBY, A., Network Analysis/or Planning and Scheduling, 2nd ed., St. Martins Press, Inc., New York, 1967. 14-2. BECKENBACH, E. F., \"Network Flow Problems,\" Chapter 12 in Applied Combinatorial Mathematics (E. F. Beckenbach, York, ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
commodity
flows, flows
flows
1964.
14-3.
BRAY,
T. A.,
11, Sept.
336: Netflow,\" Comm. ACM, and C. WITZGALL, \"Algorithm 1968,631-632; corrected in Vol. 12, 1969.)))
Vol.
CHAP.
14) and
New
REFERENCES)
415)
14-4.
BERGE, Networks
C.,
A.
GHOUILA-HoURI,
(translated
& Sons,
Inc.,
B.,
by M. Merrington 1965. York,
Games and Programming, and C. Ramanujacharyula),
Transportation
John
Wiley
IBM Construction of Minimal Networks,\" Project 1963, 24-36. S. E., Some Network Models in Management 14-6. ELMAGHRABY, Science, SpringerNew York, Inc., New York, 1970. Also appeared as articles in Management Verlag Sci. , Vol. 17, Sept. and Oct. 1970. and Transportation 14-7. FRANK, H., and I. T. FRISCH, Communications, Transmission, 1971. Mass., Networks, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, D. R., \"A Network Flow for Project Cost Curves,\" 14-8. FULKERSON, Computation Sci., Vol. 7, 1961,167-178. Management 14-9. FULKERSON, D. R., \"Flow Networks and Combinatorial Operations Research,\" Vol. 73,1966,115-138. Am. Math. Monthly, 14-10. GARDNER, Games,\" Sci. Am., Vol. 226, No. I, Jan. 1972, M., \"Mathematical 14-5.
DIMSDALE,
Systems J.,
Vol.
\"Computer 2, March
14-11.GRUNDIG,
14-12.
104-107.
P. M.,
and C. A.
Phil. Programming
SMITH,
Losing,\" Proc.
Cambridge
Hu, T. C., Integer
Games with the Last Player \"Disjunctive Soc., Vol. 52, part 2, 1956,527-533. and Network Flows, Addison-Wesley Publishing
14-13.
Inc., Reading, Mass., Company, T. C., \"The Development of Network Hu, M.R.C. ming,\" University of Wisconsin
1969.
also in the Proceedings of the at the Hague, Sept. 1970. sium 14-14. IRI, M., Network Flow, Transportation and 1969. York,
Flow and Related Areas in ProgramTechnical Report No. 1096,Aug. 1970; 7th International Mathematical Programming SympoScheduling,
Academic
Conlm.
Press, Inc., Vol. 10,

and
New
14-15.
KLEIN,
14-16.MODER,
14-17.
225-231.
MONTALBANO,
M. M.,
\"Scheduling Project
Networks,\"
ACM,
1967,
J. J., and C. R. PHILLIPS, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, IBM
Management Project New York, 1970.
with CPM
PERT,
14-18.
14-19.
works,\"
Calculation of the Critical Paths of Large NetM., \"High-Speed Systems J., Vol. 6, 1967,163-191. Communication Networks,\" J. Franklin ONAGA, K., \"Optimal Flows in General 1967, 308-327. Inst., Vol. 283, No.4, April D. C., \"New Results Concerning Theory of Graphs,\" Ph.D. PLISCH, Separation
14-20. SAKAROvITCH,
Thesis, University
M.,
of Wisconsin,
Madison Wise.,
1970.
\"The Multicommodity Flow Ph.D. Dissertation, Problem,\" of California, Berkeley, 1966. Centre, University Operations Research 14-21. SMITH, C. A., \"Graphs and Composite Games,\" J. Combinatorial Theory, Vol. 1,
51-81. 1966,
14-22.
SCHURMANN,
14-23. WANG,
1965,
works,\"
and Analyzing Activity A., \"GAN, a System for Generating Comm. ACM, Vol. 11, No. 10, Oct. 1968,675-679. Sci. Am., Vol. 213, No.5, H., \"Games, Logic and Computers,'\037
I 06.)))
Net-
Nov.
98-
SURVEY
15)
OF OTHER
APPLICATIONS)
]n
the
last
three
chapters
we have
explored in
considerable
detail
the
application
of graph theory to three
disciplines,
electrical networks, and operations research. briefly describe how graph theory is used in are somewhat related. They all deal with representation first three sections of a system structure by means of a weighted, connected digraph and subsequent In Section of the system through an appropriate study of the digraph. analysis 15-1a Ii near system is modeled as a weighted digra ph, which has proved to be of a a convenient tool for analysis. Section 15-2 deals with representation Markov stochastic process (a discrete by a digraph and makes use of process) 15-1 for its analysis. Section 15-3uses for the analySection weighted digraphs A discrete sis of computer programs. Markov process is an appropriate model 15-3. and thus Section 15-2is made use of in Section for many programs, of for identification Section 15-4, in which theory is used as a tool graph an important chemical compounds, is an isolated section.It is, however, 15-5 lists some miscellaneous Section of graph theory. Finally, application
and coding theory, In this final we shall chapter a number of other areas. The
switching
applications, with
15-1.
Most
relevant
references.)
SIGNAL-FLOW
problems
solved
GRAPHS)
in analysis
simultaneous,
of a
linear
linear
system
are
eventually
via
solving a set of
usually
algebraic and,
equations. more
by matrix
methods,
can also be solved

faster,
416)))
reduced to This problem, theory. The graph

it
graph-theoretic approach is often
importantly,
displays)
SEC.
1 5-1)
SIGNAL-FLOW
GRAPHS)
417)
cause-effect in
relationships
two
between the variables-something
totally
obscured
the
matrix approach.
parts:
This
graph-theoretic
analysis
of
a linear variable
system
the
consists of
(I) constructing
a labeled, weighted
required
digraph
called
signal-flow graph, and (2) solving signal-flow graph.
for the
dependent
from the
so.
Xi
In a signal-flow
A directed
(but
weights
graph
each
vertex
represents a
that
variable and
x j depends
is labeled
edge from
Xi to x j
implies
the
variable the
on variable
the
not
the reverse). The of the edges such

where \302\273'ikXi' W ik is
coefficientsin
that
equations
are assigned
sum
as the
of
Xi. by
variable
products
the weight
Xk is equal to of the edge coming into

graph
all
As the
X k from
an example, set of three
let us construct
a signal-flow
+ + +
12 X 2 +
for
the system given
equations,)
C11X 1 1 1 C C
13 X 3
== ==
==
Y1' Y2'
Y3')
C21X C31X
which
C 22 C
X2 +
C 23 X 3
( 15-1 ))
32 X 2 +. C 33X 3
can
be rewritten
(C 11 +
C 21 X
as)
I)x
+ +
12 X 2 +
13 X 3
Y 1 Y2 Y3
==
Xl'
( 15-2))
t +
(C22
C
I)X 2 + C23 X 3
(C 33
== x ' 2 == x .) 3
C 31 X 1 +
32 X 2 +
+ l)x 3
The signal-flow graph
is given in Fig. 15-1. representing Eqs. (15-2) Clearly, the in-degree of a vertex v in a signal-flow graph is zero if
and)
Y2)
Y3)
C23)
Fig.
15-1
Signal-flow graph
for
Eqs.
(15-2).)))
418)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
note that a signal-flow only if v represents an independent variable. Also we have two uncoupled (unrelated) systems graph is connected;otherwise,
thrown
together.
to a signal graph can be compared which the vertices corresponding to the independent
A signal-flow
transmission
network,
in
variables
act
are
sources, and the

and
transmitting
other devices.
vertices The
are repeaters, signals
which
as receiving,
signal summing,
or attenuated) by the (amplified Xi of a vertex equals the sum of all incoming signals, and is the strength of the that the name signal in each outgoing edge from analogy Xi' It is from this For the same reason the edge weights are called comes. \"signal-flow graph\" are referred to as source vertices. vertices edge gains, and independentvariable that a signal-flow graph contains the Note same as the information it is derived; but there does not exist a one-to-one equations from which
From the correspondence between the system of equations and the digraph. same set of n equations we can obtain n! different (some of signal-flow graphs which be isomorphic), the variables may depending on the order in which on the right-hand side, say, in Eqs. (15-2). x/s are written Now, given a set of algebraic equations)
Cx ==
travel along the edgesand are multiplied of the edges traversed. The label weights
y,)
( 15-3))
how
having
do we obtain the weight to draw the digraph?

described
matrix by its
of the signal-flow
weighted
graph
without
first
(Like any
digraph,
the signal-flow
graph is completely
THEOREM
weight matrix.))
15-1
The
weight
matrix
by)
[wij] of
the
signal-flow
graph
corresponding
to Eqs.
(15-3) is given
(15-4))
W=[C;I where
the I
-\037T')
is the
identity
matrix.)
matrix of the
same
order
as C, and
the
superscript
T denotes
transposed
the
to prove The theorem is not difficult of all zeros in W correspond columns
and is left as an exercise.Note to the y vertices (i.e., independent

a
that
variables).
Although
signal-flow
in
equations,
signal-flow
many
graphs can always be constructed from particularly in electrical problems, physical

without
set
of
systems, are
graphs
signal-flow
are drawn directly

graph
writing
first
writing
the
the equations.
equations
Usually, a
formulated.
matter,
can
equations
X
be drawn
from
as easily as
a signal-flow
Also,
each
graph is a
simple
which)))
because
vertex
k represents
one equation
of the system in
SEC. 15-1)
SIGNAL-FLOW
GRAPHS)
419)
f)
YI)
Xs)
d)
g)
Fig. k is
15-2
Signal-flow graph.)
labels
equal to the of the initial
sum of the
vertices
products
of these
tions for the signal-flow gra ph of

as)
of all incoming .edgesand the For example, the system of equaed.ges.

of weights can
Fig. ] 5-2
+ax
1 2
be immediately
3,
written
down
Xl =YI X 2 = bX
X 3 X 4 Xs
+dx
+ Ix 2,
eX 2
= = =
eXt +
gx 4,
hX3 +jxs lX 4
.)
+Y4')
These
can
be rewritten
in
the
same
1
form
as Eq. -d
(15-3),where)
0
-a
-b
c==
1-1
-e
0
1
0
-g
1
0
0 ,
-J
1
-e
( 15-5))
0
0
Xl
0
0
-h
0
-I
Yl
X2
0
,
x=
X 3
and
y=
0
Y4 0)
x4
XS
Reduction
The
of Signal-Flow
signal-flow one only
Graphs)
solvefor
graph method of analysis is most unknown variable, say x j ' asa function
useful of
when one
we want
to
independent)))
420)
variable,
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
say
this
k' We
care that weights

exactly
elimination
of directed
to
solve by eliminating all other verticesone by one, taking does not alter the net product of the edge process paths from Yk to x r This graph reduction corresponds
all
the algebraic
substitution.
a .)
method of eliminating Some elementary reductions of

b)
other
variables
a signal-flow
by systematic graph are shown)

ab
.
XI)
. X2)
.)
.
X3)
=)
.
XI)
..)
.
X3)
a a+b
xl
: =>
b
X2
.
XI
..
.
X2
X2
X2
XI
X3
XI
X3
e
X4 X4)
.
xl
x2
.
X3
I 1 =
.
XI
- a
. X
0
.
xl
..
X
a
.
2\037
aed
d
3
.
X4
I =
.
XI
- ab ..
.
X4
: \037X
b
Fig.
15-3
Reductions of signal-flow
graphs.)))
SEC. 1 5-1)
SIGNAL-FLOW
GRAPHS)
421)
in Fig.
will
15-3. Repeated
lead
application of
to elimination
to
such
reduction
all
steps,
selected
vertices.
visually,
eventually
3 .)
of
intermediate
(Apply
t
these reduction
andx
steps successively
to
Fig.
15-2 to
eliminate all verticesexcept Y

by
our ability Although much to the power and
reduce
of
the
digraph
simple
inspection
adds
flexibility
signal-flow
graphs,
it is often
better to
that does not depend on visual technique inspection. method is provided by Mason's gain formula. Mason's Gain Formula: Let p be a directed path from a vertexa to b in a of all edges in this path signal-flow graph G. Then the product of the weights is called the path gain of p (same as path in Section 12-2 for defined product undirected the product of the weights of all edges in a graphs). Similarly, directed circuit (or cycle)r is called the cycle gain of r . Forexam pIe, a list of all directed circuits and their gains in Fig. 15-2 is)
methodical
use a more
And
such a
Directed
Circuit)
Cycle
f ab
Gain)
X2X2 (self-loop
XtX2Xt
at X2)
XtX3Xt
X3X4X3
X4XSX4
cd gh
ij
XtX2X3Xt)
bed)
Furthermore, t t == sum
for a given signal-flow graph
G let us define the
following:)
t2
==
sum
of cycle gains of all directed of cycle gains taken two at a time

of products
circuits
of all
all
vertex-disjoint
directed
circuits
t 3 == sum
of products
of cyclegains of
vertex-disjoint
directed
circuits
taken three at
tk
==
a time)
sum
of products
time.)
of cycle gains of all
vertex-disjoint
directed
circuits
taken k at a
Thus,
for t t == f
t 2 t 3
the signal-flow graph
of Fig.
ij +
+
15-2we
have)
+ ab
+ cd +
+ fij
gh
+
abgh
bed,
abij +
== ==
fcd fcdij,)
+ fgh
cdij + bedij,
and)
t4
==
t 5 ==
...
==
0,)))
422)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
as the
only
maximum
number of
vertex-disjoint
directed
circuits
in Fig.
which
15-2 is
three.
Now constitute THEOREM
we are ready to state the most important 15-2

signal-flow
and
illustrate
two theorems,
together
result concerning signal-flow
graphs.)
Let a
determinant
graph
G characterize
by)
a set
of equations
Cx
y; then
\037,
the
of matrix
\037
C, is given
= 1
- t1
t2 -
t 3 -t-
... + (- 1 )q t q,)
directed circuits
in G.)
(15-6))
where
q is
the
maximum
number
of vertex-disjoint
THEOREM
15-3
graph
Let a signal-flow cofactor of C, C ih is
G characterize
by)
a set
of equations Cx =
y;
then
the
ijth
given
Cij
\037 k)
Pk\037k'
(15-7))
where
P k is
Eq.
the
path
gain
of the
part
the
kth
directed
of
the
\037 in
(15-6) for that kth directed path, and
of the
summation
digraph
from vertex i to j, \037k is the value no vertices in common with is over all directed paths from i to j.)
path
having
Combining
gives
the
response
Theorems 15-2and 15-3, x j due to the forcing

X'J
Yi I all
we get function
Mason's gain formula,

Yi
')
which
as)
other y's= 0
CoO l)
\037
where
(15-6)
Cij and \037 and (15-7).
are
computed
from
the signal-flow
graph G,
using
Eqs.
of Besides the original proofs given by S. J. Mason, many different proofs 15-2 and 15-3 have been published. All are involved-some more in [13-5], is given than others. A particularly elegant proof, due to R. Ash, the of Mason's 102-109. We shall illustrate gain application pages simply formula by means of an example.
Theorems
For Fig. 15-2,)

\037==1-tl+t2-t3
ab
cd
gh
cdij
ij
+ fi}
That in
+ abgh +
abij +
- bed+ fcd + fgh - fcdij.) + bedij

corresponding
this
indeed
Eq.
(15-5) can
is the determinant of the be easily verified by direct
matrix
C as
given
computation.)))
SEC.15-1)
There
SIGNAL-FLOW
GRAPHS)
423)
are two directed

PI
\037 \037
paths from
Y I to with with
x 3 :) weight weight
Y IX I X 3 YI X t X 2X 3)
path path
PI P2
\037 C \037
and)
P2
be.)
Correspondingly,)
\037t \037 \037
1 1
and) according
\0372
- f - ij.)
ij + fij
cofactor
is)
Therefore,
to Theorem
C l3 \037 \037IPI
\037
(15-3), the (1, 3)th

\0372P2
(1
- f
- ij + fij)c + (1directly gain)
ij)be.)
This the
too matrix
can easily be verified by in Eq. (15-5). Thus the
computing
the (1,
3)th cofactor of
X3 Y I / Y2= 0
is obtained
verified
\037
C13
\037)
purely
inverting
by
by graph-theoretic the corresponding
computation. The result can be easily in Eq. (15-5).) matrix C as given
Remarks and References)

method signal-flow graphs (over substitution to highlight the cause-effect relationare indeed the shipsin the system. For example, the feedback edges shown feedbacks in the actual system. A signal-flow graph can also be used very for simplifying the system of equations before solving effectively through matrix reductions. methods. The simplification is accomplishedby flow-graph As can be seen from the literature cited in the next section, signal-flowgraphs have been of Markov widely systems. applied in the study For a computerized solution a general of problem, perhaps matrix be faster. For in using methods would Mason's gain formula, an important of all directed circuits in the signal-flow step is the generation graph; and as advantage
The chief
of using
their
or matrix
method)
lies
in
ability
we saw
this
in
Chapter
11, the
algorithms
(suitable for
available computers)
for
are not very
efficient.
of
graphs have been proposed and studied and Mason's pioneering papers, [15-4] [ 15-5]. For a survey of different see [15-1]. Some of these variations offer variations, may slight computational advantage, but they do so by sacrificing the cause-effect as presented))) relationship,which is so nicely brought out in signal-flow graphs,
Severalvariations
literature,
signal-flow
in
the
following
424)
here.
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
Consequently,
not much
Mason's
network
has come out
of
these
other
types of graph
used
representations, and
theory, electrical
original widely graphs electrical machine theory, analysis, structures. treatment of the
are
in
control
heat transfer,
and analysis of
mechanical
An elementary but thorough can be found in applications
[15-3],
Mason,
and
[15-6].
without
graphs with many three any following monographs: [15-1], All three use the original signal-flow graphs as proposed by the later variations.)
J. R.
of signal-flow
15-1. ABRAHAMS,
Inc.,Elmsford,
and G.
1965.
P.
COVERLEY,
Signal
Flow Analysis,
Pergamon Press,
N.Y., S. N.,
and P. K. GHOSH, \"Flow J. Graphs and Linear Systems,\"Intern. Vol. 14 No.5, Nov. 1971,961-975. 15-3. C. S., Flowgraphs: For the Modeling and Analysis of Linear LORENS, Systems, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1964. 15-4. MASON, S. J., \"Feedback Theory: Some Properties of Signal Flow Graphs,\" Proc. I.R.E., Vol. 41, No.9, Sept. 1953, ] 144-1156. 15-5. MASON, S. J., \"Feedback Theory: Further of Signal Flow Properties Graphs,\" Proc. I.R.E., Vol. 44, No.7, July 1956,920-926. 15-6. L. P. A., M. BOISVERT, and J. ROBERT, Flow Graphs and ROBICHAUD, Signal 15-2.
GHOSH,
Control,
Applications,Prentice-Hall, GRAPHS
Inc.,
Englewood
Cliffs,
N.J.,
1962.)
15-2.
IN
MARKOV
PROCESSES)
The simplest random process is one in which the outcomes of successive trials are independent of each other. In a coin-tossing experiment, for the outcome of the kth tossing is independent of the outcome of all example, M be described this cannot previous tossings. any phenomena, however, by model. There are in in random nature which the outcome simple processes of depends on the outcome of previous trials. For example, the probability an offspring inheriting a genetic feature does depend on the presence (or of this in his ancestors. feature absence) A Markov is the simplest generalizationthat permits the outcome process of any trial to be dependent on the outcome of the trial immediately preceding but powerful it, and on no other.t This simple generalization gives the Markov process an to describe random processes in such diverse areas ability as statistical information control control, theory, theory, genetics, inventory of computer proprams, and the study of social analysis mobility of different
classes, tThis
to name model
few.)
Andreivich Markov (in 1907) is a landmark in originated by Andrei who had modeled a random process theory. Unlike previous mathematicians, as a sequence of independent Markov saw the advantage of introducing trials, dependence of each trial on the outcome of its predecessor. have of course been made to Attempts study nlodels with more involved dependency of the present trial on the outcome of the have led to intractable results.))) past trials, but such studies generally probability
SEC. 15-2)
GRAPHS IN
MARKOV
PROCESSES)
425)
A Markov
states
depends only on the state of the (k - 1 )th instant and not on any of the previous states. In other words, in a successive sequence of trials the outcome of the kth trial depends only on the outcome of the - I )th trial, and not on any of the ones. t (k preceding
s l'
S2' . . . , Sn'
kth
process is a
and
stochastic system
states change
only
capable at
of assuming
one of
the
discrete
points
in time.
The
state at
the
instant
Transition
Probabilities:
To
describe
a Markov
the
process, we must
transition
specify
for each
n states.
state, Si' the probability The transition probability
of
making
next
to each
of the
Po
is the
state of the
must
process is Si' the

o
next
state
if the present probability that will be s r These probabilities, Po'

n
satisfy)
< Po
<
1)
and
j=l)
Pi)
==
1,
( 15-8))
sum of probabilities of transitions to all possible states must be unity. that we have assumed that the (Note are constants, and do not vary with time. Such a transition probabilities or a time-invariant process. t). process is called a stationary process
the latter
a
because the
state
from
given
Transition
Matrix:
The
n 2 transition
probabilities describing a
in
Markov
process
can
most
conveniently
be
given
the
form
of an
by
n transition
matrix P == [Pi}]' subject, of course, to the two conditions in Eq. (15-8). Any elements in which the sum of each row square matrix with real, nonnegative is 1 is called a stochastic matrix. Thus every matrix is the transition stochastic matrix of some Markov and vice versa. Let us look at some process, proP.) perties of a stochastic matrix
I.
If P is
for
k == 0,
rows
a stochastic matrix, ], 2, . . . (matrix

of P
its
kth
po
== I,
matrix, power pk is also a stochastic the identity matrix).
2. If all
are identical,
P == p2
then)
== p3
==
p4
==)
3.
Since
each row
of a stochastic matrix
the
adds
up to
1, only
1 columns
them.)
need be given:
In
remaining
column
matrix,
can be
we
derived from
addition
to the
transition
also
need to know the
initial
probabilities)
x(O)
==
[71 1 (0),
7l 2 (0),
. . . , 7l n (0)],)
is often called a Markov chain if the number of states is countable. t A Markov process A finite Markov chain is one in which the number of states is finite. In this book we are chains in which the time also changes in disconsidering only stationary, finite Markov crete steps (and not continuously). of confusion, such a process As there is no possibility will be referred to as a Markov hereafterwards.))) simply process
426)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
where
n j(O) is the
that
probability of the
the time
. . . ,
o
n,) instant
Markov
process
start,
satisfy
is,
at
o.
Clearly,
being in state s j at the the probabilities in x(O) must
the following conditions:

1, 2,
n \037 nlO) i= 0)
For i ==
< nlO)
< 1 and
== I.
( 15-9))
Any real-valued
the conditions in Eq. (15-9) vector whosecomponents satisfy the transivector. The initial probability vector x(O)and is called a probability are sufficient tion matrix completely determine a Markov process. They state at any time of the process being in any to predict the probability
instant
k.
an n-state Markov Graph: An alternative means of describing G. The vertices of G is an connected n-vertex, weighted, digraph process a and an with to the nonzero S states, weight Pu edge (Si' j) correspond a state Si to Sj\" Such from probability represents the nonzero transition a a not of value in called is transition visualizing only great graph, digraph, the process. Markov process, but is also a powerful analytic tool in studying in G must the the of the transition the satisfy edges graph weights Clearly, are in Eqs. (15-8). A digraph in which the edge weights conditions positive of edges and the sum of weights from a vertex is unity is emanating quantities Stochastic called
a stochastic
graph.)
Left
wall
1
Right
1/2
wall
(reflecting)
1/2
1/2
(absorbing)
1
C\037X\037\037X\037c\03751\0372s0
1/2
1/2
1/2
]/2)
5.
51
52
53
54
55
56
0 0 1/2 0 0 0
matrix
52
1/2 0
1/2
0
0
1/2
0 0 1/2 0
0
0 0 0 1/2
p=
5)
54
1/2
0 0
0
1/2
0
55
56
Fig. 15-4
Transition
and diagram for a
Markov process.)))
SEC. 15-2)
GRAPHS IN
MARKOV
PROCESSES)
427)
As an example of a Markov process, let us consider the following version of the classic problem of random walk: Suppose that a particle moves, according to a probabilistic mechanism, a straight line 11 = 2m units long between two walls. At each transition along the particle moves either one unit left or one unit right, each with the proba-
particle hits the left wall, it gets reflected; but if it hits the right absorbed into the wall. At a given time the process is in one of n = 2m states (i.e.,the particle is at one of the n points to what along the line). Only the present state is relevant the next state may be and not any of the previous states. This is an n-state Markov process. For n = 6, the transition matrix and the transition diagram
bility
t.
If the
wall,
it is
for
this
process
are given
in
Fig.
] 5-4.
similarities betweena Markov and a sequential machine, process discussedin Section 12-8. Both have a finite number the of states, and in both state transitions occur at discrete points in time. The main difference between the two is that in Markov we deal with are which processes probabilities, real-valued quantities instead of a set of symbols, as in the case of sequential machines. in a Markov process do not depend Transitions on any (externally but are governed distributions. Moreover, controlled) inputs, by probability
Note the
there
are
no
outputs
associated
with
a Markov
process.)
Multistep Transition Probabilities)

An
important
Given
that the
state
transition
being in
k-step
THEOREM
a Markov process is the following: question regarding in state process was initially Si' what is the probability of its called the S j after exactly k transitions? This probability cpij(k), from state Si to Sj' is given probability by)
15-4
In a
S j is
Markov processthe
the
k-step
transition
pk,
equal to
ljth
entry
in matrix
the
kth
The
probability cpij(k) from state Si matrix power of the transition

weight product)
to
P.)
Consider the transition digraph. Proof: probability of going from vertex Si to s} in at each step are stochasticaIly independent,
one
step.
the
Pi} of edge Since the transition
(SI,
s})
is the
probabilities
Pir.Prj)
gives
then going
the
probability
Sr
that
the process
will
go
from
state Si to
Sr
in the
first step and
from from
product of in exactly k
given
the probability of this argument, s} in the second step. Continuing of vertex Si to s} along a directed by the edgesequence length k is given of going from Si to Sj of these edges. But the probability the weights
to
steps is
the
sum
of the
length matrix
directed edge
by
sequencesof
ijth entry
.))) in
k in
the
from Si to Sj along all probabilities of going That this sum is the transition digraph. pk can be easily seen by used in arguments
Theorem 9-10.
428)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
0.6)
Fig. 15-5 To illustrate
Three-state
Markov
Process.)
Theorem 15-4,let
digraph
us
whose transition
of its powers
are)
is given in
consider a three-state Fig. 15-5. The transition
Markov process
matrix
and
some
.5
p =
.\037 .\037 \037 , p2
.5
.36
0
.4,
==
.24
[ .5
.5
O]
[ .2
.3
.3700
.5]
.4300
.2
P 3
.3
.416
.5
.24,
.2000
.344
p4 == .2864
.3696 .3440,
.3700
[ .37
pl0 ==
.43
.3841
.2 ]
.3038
[ .2720 .3580
.3076
]
.3076
.3099.3863
.3069
.3848
.3846
.3090,
P 15 ==
[
.3076
.3078
[ .3064 .3837 .3099 ]

.3077
.3076
.3845
.3079)]
.3846 .3077
pI7
== pI8
==
p19
== p20
==
.3077
[.3077)
.3846 .3077. .3846 .3077) ]
The ljth entry in p4, for example, is the probability that the process will go all from state Si to S j in exactly four steps. Let us, for instance, examine directed edge sequencesof length four from S3 to S 2 in Fig. 15-5. These are)
S3 S 2 S 2 S 2 S 2)
S3 S 2 S I S 3 S 2) S3 S I S 3 S 2 S 2) with
probability
of traversing
(.5)(.6)3 ==
.108,
with with
probability probability
(.5)2(.4)(1)== .1, == of traversing (.5)(1 )(.5)(.6)

the
of traversing
.15.)
The
sum
of their
example, Pk.)
probabilities, .358, is exactly

let us
entry
in the
(3, 2) position
properties
of P4.
For this
of
matrix
make some
further
observations
on the
I.
Beyond
a certain value
there
of k,
pk
contains
only
nonzero
entries. This
of every
implies that
is at
least one
of (and therefore a directed path every other vertex in Fig. 15-5.)))
directed edge sequence

length
k or
less) from
length vertex
k to
SEC.
15-2)
GRAPHS
IN MARKOV PROCESSES)
429)
2.
All rows of pk tend the k-step transition

large
to become
probability
identical as
cp;j(k)
increases.
This
means
the
that
of
becomes
independent
of i for
effect
k.
starting
This
result
state
the
3. As
s;
because should not come as a surprise, should wear off after sufficiently many
transitions.
P
a direct consequence of
that
item
2, the
higher
powers of
become
identical;
is,)
pk
p. pk
= p.
pk+
=)
because
P is
of
a stochastic matrix
Markov and try to
and
pk has
identical rows.)
Does
example stochastic
pk
every
process exhibit these

question,
them.)
a special digraphs,
case? To
answer this
classify
let us
properties, or is this take a closer look at
Classification
of States)
A set S of states if no state is said to be closed, trapping, or absorbing outside S can be reached from any state s; in S. In other words, there is no directed edgefrom any vertex s; in S to any vertex outside S. For example, [S4'sS, s 3} in Fig. 15-6 is a closedset of states. So is {s 4}' A single state Sk is an if and only if it has a self-loop state with weight one, absorbing or trapping such as S4 in Fig. 15-6. Clearly, the entire set of states in a Markov process a closed set. If there existsno other constitutes set of states closed trivially the entire set of of the Markov states the except process, process is called n a or irreducible.I other words, ergodic process is ergodic if and only if its)
A closed
but not
ergodic
set of
states
\037
52) I I I)
,-------------------,
0.3)
L___
I I I 1
___)
_______J)
,------I I I 1
157
: I
58
\"I I I I 1\"'---I :
\037 Closed sets
of states)
L_______\037
\037
Fig.
Ergodicset of states)
15-6
Nonergodic Markov
processshowing
closed
sets.)))
430)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
transition
of
going
graph is strongly from any state
connected;
that state.
to
any
other
is, there is a nonzero probability For example, in Fig. 15-5 the

con-
process is ergodic, but the process shown in Fig. ] 5-6 is not. A strongly nected closed set of states is calledan ergodic or irreducible set.
interest Markov processes are Regular Process: Of special among ergodic those in which there exists a directed edge sequence k (for of length exactly in G. Such a some positive integer k) from every vertex to every other vertex Markov process is called a regular process. Clearly, every regular process is ergodic, but the converse is not true. For example, in Fig. 15-7( a) the process is ergodic but not regular. of even For there is no directed edge sequence from s 1 to s 2 and no directed sequence of odd length from s 1 to s 3 ; thus length there exists no k for which there is a directed edge sequence from of k edges other vertex.) every vertex to every
0.5) 52) 53) \\\" J) S 4)
0.3) 0.5)
\\'2) 51) 54) (c))
S I)
(a))
(b)
Regular)
0.8)
0.7)
(d)
Regular)
(e) Regular)
(f)
Regular)
Fig. 15-7
Some ergodic stochastic

process
digraphs.)
The
integer
state
we
of a significance k there is a nonzero
regular Markov
probability
of going
can
in exactly k steps. In terms of the make the following statement: A some integer k
if for
every
entry
in
the
lies in the fact that for some from each state to every other k-step transition matrix pk == <I\302\273(k), Markov is regular if and only process is posik-step transition matrix <I\302\273(k) ergodic
tive.
Given the transition
digraph G of
an
process
(i.e., G is
strongly)))
SEC. 15-2)
GRAPHS IN
MARKOV
PROCESSES)
431)
connected),
let us
in
how can we tell if the process is regular ? To answer this question, introduce the following definition: A strongly connected g subdigraph if g has no proper subdigraph of two G is said to be a minimal or digraph vertices
15-5)
more
that is
strongly
connected.)
THEOREM
Let G be a strongly stochastic connected digraph, and let gl, g2, . gr be its n 1, n2, . . . , n r vertices, minimal strongly connected subdigraphs, having respecG represents a regular Markov processif and only if the greatest Then tively. common divisor of n h n2, . . . , n r is 1.) (g.c.d.)
..,
of this theorem, see Rosenblatt's paper [15-14]. Let us simply in Fig. some examples. The digraph 15-7(c) has two minimal with vertex sets {S3' connected strongly subdigraphs, S4}and {Sl'S2'S3'S4}. Since the g.c.d. (4, 2) == 2, the process is not regular. On the other hand, Fig. connected 15-7(f) also has two minimal, strongly subdigraphs, one with five and the other with Since the g.c.d. (5, 3) == I, the process vertices three. is
For illustrate
a proof it with
regular.
the
connected transition digraph contains a self-loop, The reader therefore, the process is regular [e.g.,Fig.15-7(d)]. the transition matrix P for each of the six is encouraged to write down in Fig. 15-7, and verify 15-5 by directly computing pk Theorem digraphs
Clearly,
if
a strongly
g.c.d.
is I;
(for
appropriate
k).
Periodic Markov
state
of
Process: An
certain two
ergodic
process
can
a cyclic
\037
only be entered at process is one with

are)
periodic states s 1 and
if every is said to be periodic The intervals. simplest example
in which
s1
for
\037 S \037 S2 1 S2 . . . are
possible.
The transition
only the transitions matrix P and its powers
this
process
p =
[\037 \037 J)
p2 ==
1 [o
p3 =
[\037 \037 J
\302\267) \302\267 \302\267 \302\267
l') J
in
As
trix
another
is
example,
consider the process
Fig.
15-7(c).
Its transition
ma-
0
p==
0
pk
0 0 1 0
0
1 \"2
1
==
0
t
! 0
0 0
0
0
0
1
1
0
t
0
0
1
! 0
!
for
k odd and very
large.)))
432
SURVEY
OF OTHER APPLICATIONS
CHAP.
15
0
pk
t 0
A
into
!
0)
for k even and
very
large.
Markov
process (q > I) transitions.

that
is periodic if and
only
q subsets consecutive q
such that
every
the
process
if its states dwells in each
can be partitioned of these q subsets in
It can
].) [15-11
be shown
Processes
ergodic
process is either
regular or periodic
Markov
with Transient
States: So far
in
ergodic Markov processes (i.e.,those

strongly
which
Let us now examine the connected). tion digraph is weakly connected. A weakly connected digraph G consists of two or more maximal connected fragments (i.e., strongly subdigraphs). Let us consider a fragment g of G (remember fragment g could be a single If there at least is no edge directed out of g, then g has to have one vertex). n we into and the can delete vertices in are that closed.I it, case, g edge going all edgesgoing into g, and then study g independentlyas an ergodic process [the edge weights will satisfy Eqs. (15-8)]. On the other hand, if there is an out of g, the vertices of g cannot constitute an ergodic process, edge going be because(g being maximal once exited, g cannot strongly connected) be entered and which reentered. once left cannot Such a set of states,which is called a transient set of are accessible from each other, themselves among states.Sets [s l' S2' S6} and [S3' S5}in Fig. 15-6 are transient sets. The vertices of a weakly connected stochastic digraph can be uniquely V V that T is the set of all transient into sets , T, t 2 , . . . , V q such partitioned that is, there is no edge(a, b) for a E Vi' states and each Vi is irreducible, For example, in Fig. 15-6) connected. b Ef. Vi' and the vertex set Vi is strongly
we have been considering the transition digraphs are processesfor which the transi-
T Clearly,
==
[Sp
S2' S6'
S3' S5}'
V t
==
[S7' S8}'
V 2
==
[S4}.)
a (weakly
must
digraph connected) stochastic
cannot
alone-there
all
ing
be
at least
one set
Vi.
In
other
words,
states
finite
of a
Markov process are transient

processes).
number
(remember
of set T consist it is not possible that we are only consider-
Markov
After a
states
large
will eventually
system has two or both: (1) the
transient a Markov process with of transitions, subsets. Such a settle down into one of its irreducible in either be interested of distinct behavior, and one may types set of an irreducible of the system before it enters behavior
states, and (2) the behavior Behavior 2 is no different
of the
from
system after
of an
it
enters
an
irreducible
set.
that
ergodic system. For once the
system)))
SEC.
15-2)
GRAPHS
433)
enters
outside this 15-3 while
an irreducible set, it can set is immaterial.

analyzing
never
leave it,
and
be
thus
the
existence
Behavior
programs.
will
studied
briefly
of states in Section
computer
Thus as far
as the asymptotic behavior

only
of
Markov
processes
in
is concerned,
we needto study
the
ergodic
processes.
Among ergodic
Therefore,
regular
processes
the
are of
importance.t
behavior
processes,also,only
rest of this
process.)
the
section
we shall study
Asymptotic
asymptotic
of a
regular Markov
Behavior
of a Regular Markov
Process)
One of the most important questions about a Markov is what process the transients die happens to it after many many transitions? That is, after down, does the system reach a steady state, independent of the initial probabilities? If so, what is the steady-state probability vector x(00) and how do we of pk as k tends to infinity, and compute it? The answerlies in the behavior 15-6 provides it for a regular Markov process:) Theorem
THEOREM 15\0376)
If P
is a transition
infinity,
matrix
of a
regular
k tends to
and
approach
a stochastic
each
row w
of the
of
<I\302\273 is a
probability
first
Markov process, then its powers, = matrix <I\302\273 identical [cPij] having vector.)
that
pk, as
rows,
Outline
Proof:
We
note
since the
contains
some positive
integer
r such
that
vector y by on the elements of y. This averaging effect applied again and that may again would eventually smooth out differences have existed among of y. That the elements is, all components of vector Mhy = prhy = will have identical Pky elements, as h (and therefore k) becomes very let us observe that this condition is equivalent to pk approaching Finally, large. a limit <I\302\273 as k tends to infinity, and <I\302\273 a the rows of matrix are identical-each is encouraged to fill in the details. probability vector. The reader .)
premultiplying only
we observethat
positive
pr = M any column
process is regular
only
there
exists
positive entries. Second, a stochastic matrix having
entries has
an
averaging
effect
Theorem 15-6is perhaps the most important result in the Markov processes. Many and useful results for a regular interesting on the of this for as k \037 00. existence limit pk, process depend Since p= (which is a shorthand notation for lim pk as k \037 00) can express the steady-state probability)
x( 00)
theory
Markov
of
exists,
we
= x(O)Poo =
x(O)<I\302\273.)
(15-10))
whereas
It An
classification into persistent and transient states is fundamental, tTo quote Feller, ....The states concerns a technical detail. the classification into periodic and aperiodic to trivialities;\" W. Feller, a nuisance in that it requires constant reference represents Volume I, 3rd ed., John Wiley Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications,
& Sons, Inc., New
York,
1968,
387.)))
434)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
Writing
this equation
7l j(
in
terms
n
of its
elements,)
j == 1,
00)
==
i = I)
\037
7l i (O)4Jo'
2, .
. . , n.)
CPo is
( 1 5-11
))
Now,
W
since
all rows
J that
depends
of ware identical, each element only on the column indexj. Thus)

n
equal to
a value
7l j(
00)
==
\037 i = I)
7l,.{ 0) W j
n
== W j I: =
1)
7li(O)
(15-12))
==
wi\
the same limiting probability this final probability Moreover, as rows of matrix w.
Thus a regular Markov distribution w regardless vector, x( 00) == w, is the
processapproaches
of where one that
it started. appears
vector
this fixed how does one compute is also equal that makes up all the rows of wand matrix P to are available. to x( oo)? Several methods Raising the transition A a is but is method. it not obviously good higher and higher powers one, is the most used method following: frequently
given
For a
w,
regular
Markov
process,
that
is,
the
vector
Successivestate probability
vectors
must
satisfy)
(15-13))
x(k +
If the
then
1) ==
attained
x(k)P.)
state probability vector
has
its limiting
value x(00), it
must
satisfy)
x( 00)
and
==
x( 00 )P,)
(15-14
can
))
since
x(oo)
===
w,
according
to Eq.
(15-12), it
be rewritten
as)
w == wP.)
Equation
( 15-15))
which
(15-15)
implies
n simultaneous
equations,
can
be rewritten
as)
w(1
But
- P) === o.)
( 1 5-16))
zero. Therefore, I
- P is I the sum of rows of matrix a stochastic matrix, - P is a n the that is, equations in Eq. singular matrix; that It can be are not however, shown, any linearly independent. (15-16) we need one thus and n - 1 of these equations are linearly only independent, w. This is in vector n the row unknowns the solve for to more equation readily since P is provided by the
relation)
WI
W2
...
Wn
== 1.)
( 15-17))))
SEC.
15-2)
GRAPHS
IN
MARKOV
PROCESSES)
435)
Thus
I
in Eq.
we
P on the left-hand
side\037
hand
(15-16) if we replaceanyonecolumn\037 say the jth, of the matrix side and change the jth entry from 0 to 1 in the rightwould Let this new incorporate Eq. (15- 17) into Eq. (15-16).
w(1
equation be denoted by)

-
P)j =
j ') jth, the ] 5-
( 15-18))
where v j is
a row vector of
can
length be
n with all
I. Equation (15-] 8) (I P)j or by using

illustration,
solved
let
signal-flow us consider the

Eqs.
zero entries exceptthe either by directly inverting as shown in Section graphs,
which matrix
is
Fig. 15-5. Applying
(15-15)
three-state regular \037Iarkov process and (15-]7) directly, we get)

= (WI
I. For in given
(WI
M-'2
w 3)
.\037
.\037
\037 0) ]
W2
w 3 ),
[ .5
which
is) \\1' 1
.5
=
=
.4w 2 +
.6w
WI.) w 3 2
.5w3 ,
.5w 3,)
\"\"2
W3 = Hence)
= WI
combined
.8w 2,)
which
with)
WI
w2 +
W 3
I,)
immediately
yields
result
indeed is the of P.
Solving
the limiting probability we had obtained earlier problem
vector
by
= 17th
trying
(13 n !3-). This and higher powers
the
same
using the form

o
of Eq. (15-18) gives)

-I
P =
-.\037
.4
O.
1)
r -.5)
Replacing
-.5
]
all 1 's
anyone
of the
columns, say the second, with
we get)
(I
which
- P)! =
-.\037
:
I
-\037 1)]
[ -.5
on
inverting
yields
-2 (I
- P)!-I
/3
.\037
.5
4.
1.4)))
.1)
-1.5
436)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
Finally,)
==
(I
P)Tn
(0
0)
=
checks
Instead often
(11
-fJ))
of matrix (I to solve Eq. (15-20),
which
with
of
the value
of w obtained earlier.
by
solving
matrix
Eq. (15-18)
P is
algebraic
signal-flow
inveroon
graph
it
is more
when
efficient to
graph
use a
P)j,
particularly
from
The signal-flow
the
transition
graph
relatively sparse. to Eq. (15-18) is directly of the process by a simple modification:)

corresponding
w,.'s.
obtained
1. Replace the vertex

2.
3. 4.
labels s,.'swith
Remove
Put
all edges
edges
of
weight
s j\" incoming into the specifiedvertex - 1 from every other vertex to Sj\"
Reverse
the direction
of every edge. [Inverting

matrix-as
the
edge
direction
corre-
sponds to transposing the
required the
by Eq.
(15-4).]
5.
In will
Add unit
a new weight
vertex
from
with label 1 to this new vertex
digraph
and draw an edge
of
to Sj\
gain
this
give
signal-flow graph we the elements of w.)

WI)
can obtain the
from
v to
every vertex,which
v W3) -1)
W2)
Fig. 15-8
Signal-flow
graph
for
Markov system.)
Fig.
in
Fig.
Once again, modifying 15-8. For this

by)
15-5 we graph +1
signal-flow
get the appropriate digraph, as shown [using Eq. (15-5)] the determinant
2
is
given
L\\==
1-1 -
1 1
-1
3 +
...
==
=1-1
== 1
(.5
- .4 -
.4)
1.3,) are)
and the
three relevant cofactors neededin

L\\
Eq.
(15-6)
12
== =
.4, .5,
L\\22 L\\32
== .4,)
which
again
checks
with
the
results
obtained
earlier.)))
SEC.15-2)
GRAPHS
437)
Medvedev method of obtaining vector w from the [15-12] has a different are he has shown that there some signal-flow graph, and through examples cases when graph-theoretic methods are superiorto algebraic ones. Another
computational
formula
using via
transition transition
digraphs graphs,
on computing
vector w
of
is given see [15-8].)
in
[15-7].
For
more
Transient
Analysis
a Markov
Process)
steady-state
distribution,
poo for a regular Markov process gives us the but it does not reveal the transient behavior of the does not tell us how fast pk converges to the limit W, nor does frequencies with which various states in the system were visited
Matrix
process.
before
It it give the
the
in
steady-state
the
behavior
closed-form
obtained
lies condition was reached. The answer to these questions of the sequence P, p2, P3, p4, . . . . The problem is then to find for matrix pk (as a function of k). This can expression
z-transforms:
know
be
using
From
Eq. (15- 13) we
that)
'It(k +
Taking
I) =
'It(k)P.)
the
z-transform
of both sides
n(z)
of this
==
equation,
we get)
z)
'It(0)
TI(z)P,
(15-19))
where
n(z)
is the z-transform
of 'It(k).Rearranging
'It(0)
Eq.
(15-19),
we get)
n(z) =
Application
(I
- ZP)-I.)
(15-20))
of
inverse
==
z-transform
to both sides
of Eq. (15-20) gives)

(I
'It(k)
Thus)
'It(0) [inverse
z-transform
of
matrix
- ZP)-I].
(15-21))
(15-22))
pk
inverse
z-transform
of
matrix
(I
- zP)-
1.)
have taken (15-21) gives the probability vector after k transitions = k . for and the value of as a func.,., I, 2, pk, place, Eq. (15-22) provides tion of k, in a closed form for any Markov (not process necessarily regular). - zp can be inverted Matrix 1 matrix direct but the flowmethods, by - P)* in Eq. (15-18), is often found to (I graph method, as used for inverting be more efficient. The weight of each edge Pu is now multiplied by z. Inforz is the transform of the unit and multiplying each mally speaking, delay,
Equation
transition
probability
by
z corresponds
transition.
For
via
a thorough
graphs,
process
signal-flow
to the delay associatedwith each treatment of transient of a Markov analysis see Chapters 3 and 4 of [15-9].)))
438)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
For
illustration,
let us consider the
Markov process depicted
in
Fig.
15-5.
we
have)
zp ==
-.:z
[ -.5z)
o 1 - .6z
-z
o 1)
-.5z)
\037
]
1
.6z
.4z
1
.5z
2)
z(1
2
= (I - Zp)-1
-
.6Z)
(I _ (1 z
Z)(1
.4z
.5z)
.5z
.IZ2)
[
.4z2
I
z( .5 -
.1
1
z)
- .6z) ] (15-23))
z)(l
0 I .174zXI + .574z) 1[ 0 0
\037]
-.6
+
0
0
I
0 +
Z2
0
0
.5
-.5
0)
.4
[
than in
.5
.5
-.6
inverse
]
(I
[ -.1
- ZP)-l
z,
by
:\037]!.) graph transition
Let us now compute the

algebraically. which
a signal-flow but
rather graph
The
signal-flow
graph is
by
nothing
the
each
reversed. SeeFig.15-9, which

51)
edge
is multiplied
and
the direction
is obtained
directly
of every edge is from Fig. 15-5.)
0.5z)
0.6z
Fig. 15-9 Signal-flow sponding to Fig. 15-5.) the cycle
graph
corre-
we From Fig. 15-9
immediately
obtain
product terms [as usedin
Eqs.
(15-6)
and (15-7)]
as follows:)
t 1
== .6z
==
2 + .5z + .2z3,
t2
determinant
\037
.3z3, I I
==
==
t 1
t2
2 - .5z
- .6z
.lz3.)
A cofactor)
\03713
== .5z(1 ==
- .6z) + - .Iz),)
entry
.2Z2
z(.5
which
is in
agreement
with the 3,1
in
Eq.
(15-23).)))
SEC.
15-3)
GRAPHS IN
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING)
439)
Now taking the

iJ
pk
inverse z-transform of
n TI
5
both
sides
of Eq.
.500
(15-23), we get)
tJ TI
4
.673
(-.574)k-2 +
- 1.1
74
_ [
TI
cL
3.57
- .223
.426
.074)
- .170
.400
iJ n iJ]
(.174)k
20.35
- 2
.074
[ -.387 -.287)
.673) ]
- .500
- .070
.470 .400.
]
[ .013 -.087
Remarks and References)

As
the
brief
exposition
the
Markov
naturally into behavior of a
study
deal more
introductory
z-transforms
on
Markov
enter very in this section shows, weighted digraphs the asymptotic of finite Markov chains; in particular, A great its digraph. can be derived swiftly from chain Recommended chains remains unsaid in this section.
readings on Markov chains are and applications of signal-flow graphs

an
[15-11]and
to the study
list
[15-13].
For
of Markov
reading
is chains, [15-9]
excellent
source.
The following is a
processes
S. RINALDI, Graphs,\"
of
selected
for more on the
interaction of
Markov
and graph theory.) \"On the Analysis of Markovian Automation and Remote Control, in Markov
15-7.
BIONDI,
E.,
Discrete Vol.
G. GUARDABASSI, Systems by Means

G.,
and
of Stochastic
\"Two
15-8. GUARDABASSI,
28, No.2,
Feb. 1967,275-277.
and S.
RINALDI,
Problems
Chains:A
Topolo-
gical Approach,\" Operations Res., Vol. 18, No.2, March-April 1970, 324-333. 15-9. HOWARD, R. A., Dynamic Probabilistic Systems, Vol. I: Markov Models, John & Sons, Inc., New York, 1971. Wiley 15-10. HUGGINS, W. H., \"Signal Flow and Random Signals,\" Proc. I.R.E., Vol. Graphs
45,
15-11.
1957, 74-86. J. G. and J. New York, Company,

KEMENY, MEDVEDEV,
L. SNELL,
1960.
Finite
Markov
Chains,Van Nostrand
Systems
Reinhold
15-12.
15-13. PARZEN,
6.
Graphs,\"
G. A., \"Analysis of DiscreteMarkov Automation and Remote Control, Vol. E., Stochastic Processes, Holden-Day, D.,
by Means
Francisco,
26, No.3,
of Stochastic March 1965,481-485.

1965, Chapter
Inc., San
15-14.
ROSENBLATT, tion
Matrices
15-15.SITTLER,
4, 1957,151-161.
\"On the Graphs and Asymptotic Forms of Finite Boolean and Stochastic Matrices,\" Naval Research Logistics Quarterly,
Processes,\"
RelaVol.
R. W., \"System Analysis of Discrete Markov Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-3, No. I, 1956, 257.)
I.R.E.
Trans.
15-3.
GRAPHS
IN
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING)
program
Analysis of
from
given
computer
has been an
purpose
the
early
days of computer
the
programming.The
time or
important problem of such an analy-
siscould be to estimate
running
storage requirement of a program,)))
440)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
a large program into a number of subprograms, to detect certain errors in the program, to document a program, or simply to a program written understand else. For all these purposes it is by someone to represent a program as a digraph. Each vertex represents very convenient a program that instructions the block, is, a sequence of computer having that each time in instruction the is executed all are property any sequence executed.Each program has one entry point (the first block instruction in the Each edge sequence) and one exit point (the last instruction in the sequence). V a transfer of control from the last instruction in the ) possible (Vi' j represents to block the first in instruction the block Such a program Vi program vj\" is a A called can be also digraph program digraph. program digraph thought of as an abstraction of a flow chart in which the boxes are shrunk to vertices and arrows become the edges. For example, Fig. 15-10 shows the program 11-9. of the chart in flow dashed line digraph Fig. [Ignore (v t4 , Vt) for now.])
to subdivide
types
of structural
// /
/ I I \037 I \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\
//
/'
./)
\\ \\ \" '\"
+V\\3
\"',,____
--1
Stop)
v,. 11-9.)
for a given Also observe
in
Fig.
15-10
Program digraph of Fig.

one be
Note
program,
that
that
there
because that
be more than may one progran1 block may modify

formats
program split and

in
digraph into several.

fashion.
programs
their
and
own
control
processing
this
instructions
(Declarative
in
the
course
of execution
cannot be
statements,
gram
digraphs.))))
such as
represented
dimension
statements,
are ignored
pro-
SEC. 15-3)
GRAPHS IN
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING)
441)
Some
valid
obvious
but
important
properties
of a digraph
representing
any
computer
program
digraph
are)
must
vertex
I.
program
be connected.
of
2. It has precisely one

sponds
edges
zero
in-degree,
the
and
this
vertex
corre-
to the start of the

can be
drawn
program. (If
vertex
program
has
several
which
starting
directed
points, an additional start

to
can
be introduced
and out-degree,
from
this
all of
these vertices.)
vertex
3.
There
is precisely
the
. sponds to
care
end
one vertex of zero of the program.

one
corre-
(Existence of more than of as in item 2.)

Every
stopping
We shall caB it the stop vertex. point in the program can betaken
must
4. 5.
vertex
in the
program digraph
be
accessible
from the start
vertex.
The
stop
vertex
must
be accessible from every
vertex in
the
program
digraph.)
Detection of
To detect
Programming
Errors)
is an essential be checked by
in the
never
stop
and report certain types of structural in a source program errors most common of these errors can part of a compiler's job. The directed tracing paths from the start vertex to the stop vertex
Path
program digraph.
tracing
will
which
subroutine
detect
there
entered, or program blocks from or disjoint parts, such as a vertex,

of
are program blocks that is no exit leading to the is never called [15-33].) that
Estimation
Program
Running
Time)
Given a computer and the execution time for each of the program program we are often required to estimate time of the program. the running The situation a weight is represented ti by a program digraph having associated with each vertex Vi' where execution time of the corret,. is the If we can estimate the number of times block. each vertex sponding program is entered (i.e., the program blockis executed), time of the prothe running can be determined gram (for a particular computer, of course). In the program digraph let each directed edgeei be assigned a nonnegative is the number of times edge ei is traversed. The number of integer 1:.,where.l:. times a vertex is entered must equal the number of times it is exited, except for the start vertex and the stop vertex. These two exceptions can also be taken care of by adding an edge of unit weight directed from the stop vertex V n to the start vertex V I (see the dashed edge in Fig. Now the edge weights 15-10). in this modified digraph satisfy the Kirchhoff current law (KCL) at every vertex. (Quantity be looked upon as a flow the ith edge ei .))) through Ii may
blocks,
442)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
Recall
the electrical
networks
in
Chapter
13 and
the
flow
networks
in Chapter
14.)
If we apply and e KCL to a weighted, connected digraph of n vertices n in we 1 e the unknowns, edges, get linearly independent equations unknowns being the weights of (i.e., the flows through) the edges. Thus we can choose to independently only a set of J.l == e - n + 1 flows, corresponding the chords with respect to any spanning tree in the digraph. The remaining n 1 flows through the tree branches can be expressed in terms of these J.l For example, in the program digraph of Fig. 15-10, J.l == 18 - 14 + 1 flows. == 5. of five the flow through Therefore, every edge can be expressedin terms 14 boxes in the flow chart are unknowns. Thus the iteration counts through in be five can also terms of five These unknowns unknowns. expressed only 11-9 in we chosenconveniently tree. For a example, Fig. by picking spanning N is the numknow that the iteration count of the edge (v 4 , v 7 ) is N - 1,where ber of vertices 6 in the original was on which being Algorithm applied. graph in a more The flows through the remaining four chords are data dependent times of involved fashion. The minimum, and average running maximum, values of the program can be estimated probable appropriate by assuming the these four unknowns. At this point the problem of estimating running time becomes quite difficult. For some simple examples, the reader is referred to [15-25], and 95-102 and 364-369 of [11-39]. [15-26], pages In this connection an interesting question is as follows:
Given
a connected
program digraph such that and v n is the stop vertex? Some necessaryconditionsare of v I == 0 == obvious:Each f. must be a nonnegative integer. The in-degree vertex KCL at each V . must of the except at v I Also, out-degree satisfy n f.'s be equal v should and V n ' Moreover, out of the sum of weights of edges going I Are to V both to the sum of weights into of edges ' unity. being equal going n the following these conditions sufficient also? The answer, as given by construction, is yes. an unweighted From the given, weighted digraph G let us construct H e as follows: edges, digraph every edge Replace wherefj is j withfj parallel H will be the the G. of the e in the digraph Clearly, weight edge j digraph == is if KCL if and in vertex v balanced for only H] d-(v) every [i.e., d+(v) is balanced satisfied at every vertex in G. Now, from Theorem 9-1, a digraph exists a directed Euler walk if and only if it is an Euler digraph; that is, there if there exists a directed edge in if and V H. to This is from only possible n VI in it exactly in G V that vertex to such from every edge ek appears sequence n VI in directed this not and the does edge sequence. appear edge (v n , VI) fk times, v I as with The last statement to G being a program is equivalent digraph
that
having sufficient conditions v I is the start vertex
weights!l ,!2, . . . ,fe
digraph
with
vertices
1'-
V 2 ' . . . , Vn and
what
e edges,
associated
with
the edges,
are
necessary
and
G corresponds
to some
start
vertex
and
Vn
as
stop
vertex.
Thus we
have.)))
SEC. 15-3)
GRAPHS IN
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING)
443)
THEOREM 15-7) with n vertices and e edges.Let all digraph connected, weighted and such that they satisfy integers, weights 11,/2, . . . ,Ie be nonnegative of VI = 0 let the in-degree KCL at each vertex, except v 1 and t'n. Furthermore, = out-degree of V m and the sum of the weights out of VI = the of the edges going Vn = 1. Then G corresponds to a prointo of the edges going sum of the weights in which v 1 is the start vertex, V n is the stop vertex, and the weight gram digraph that edge is traversed in the program.) J; of the ith edge is the number of times
the edge
Let G be a
Program
Segmentation)
so large that it cannot be accominto the working memory of the available computer. the In such a case the program must be segmented before execution. Then the slow bulk memory from segments (pieces) of the program are brought The size of each segment or tape) and executed one at a time. disk, (drum, the working must be small enough to be accommodatedinto memory and yet be large enough so that transfers between there not be too many must would Thus we have a problem the fast working memory and the slowbulk memory. of finding an optimal of the program digraph into subdigraphs partitioning such that the sum of weights of vertices (here the weight Si of vertex Vi is the amount of storage spacerequired by the ith program block) does not exceeda enviA similar problem arises in a multiaccess, value. time-sharing specified ronment, where each user is given a burst of service of fixed duration. The have to be chosen judiciously, not so large that its execuprogram segments tion will exceed the allotted time and yet not too short to require inefficient
modated
Sometimes one comesacrossa program

in
its entirety
transfers
between
memories.
If the program digraph is acyclic(i.e.,the program is has no loops, which rare for any nontrivial computer program), the partitioning is solved problem the first from easily. We sort the vertices in a topological order, and starting the into largest possible (topologically sorted) vertex, we partition sequence exceeds the that the total vertex weight such of no subsequence subsequences
specified value.
The
difficulty
in segmentation
the
arises because
program).
program
circuit
digraphs (i.e.., loops in

implies
fast causes
and
between interchanges slow memory. Thus one would vertices of one directed circuit to
in the of directedcircuits made across a directed the two segments, and hence between
A cut
like
to
avoid
belongto more than

is
a segmentation
one
that
segment.
The
maximal
simplest method
strongly
to accomplish this
requirement
largest
connected
subdigraphs)
compute
the
memory
of
then
all fragments (i.e., to identify in the program digraph. Then the weights of each fragment by adding
the
all its vertices.If the

the
of these
size of the working
memory,
memory requirements does not exceed is solved. For we need not))) problem
444)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
cut
a segment
any directed circuit, of reasonable

practice,
and small
size.
fragments
can
always
be combined is
usually
to yield
too
In
large
however,
in
it is found
that
the
largest
fragment
Fig.
to
fit
the
working
memory.
For example, in
] 5-10
almost
the
entire program digraph forms a fragment. In such a case, cutting across is unavoidable. The simplest approach suggested directed circuits in the a parti tion literature is to find that severs the least number of directed This is a difficult all strongly connected circuits. To enumerate problem. and then consider each as a possible subdigraphs in the program digraph as a solution in the literature segment, although suggested [15-32], is a horrendoustask. Even generation is extremely of all directed circuits in a digraph time consuming, as we observed in Chapter 11. Another method suggested for program segmentation is by first ordering the vertices in a certain fashion all involves more labor than finding [15-20]. This method of segmentation but less labor than all strongly connected subdigraphs fragments, generating
of the
We this
program
digraph.
of a Segmentation are quite far from

important
program is a very
having
difficult
found
a procedure
a partitioning
to say the least. problem, for an efficient solution for
and
interesting
obtain
graph-theoretic
solution
number
problem.
that minimized
Even if we were able to
the number
directed
of severeddirected circuits,
circuit
the
might
of
not be
times.
optimal. Every
Obviously,
is not
traversed the same

with
cutting
one with count is worse than cutting have the iteration count of each looplower iteration count. We must A information available ab initio, because of its data rarely dependence. it behaves as a Markov stochastic that analysis of the program, assuming system, is often the answer to this problem.) higher
directed circuit
iteration
Stochastic Modelof
One
different
a Program)
method
edges
used to
vertices
the
estimate
the
yelative
program V j)
frequencies
digraph
of traversal
to be
of
and
is to
digraph, in
that
which
the
program
weight execution
assumethe Po of edge (Vi'

will
is
a stochastic the conditional probabilityt

block
V
go
to
program
executed the program blockVi. Once the program reaches V n' the stop vertex, the the probability of its branching to any other vertex is zero. To satisfy in Eq. (15-8), we add a self-loop of weight conditions one at vertex V\". Thus V n is an absorbing in the system, and the state state, the only absorbing A very simple stochastic states. remaining vertices correspondto transient
J given
that
it has
program digraph and its

tNote
that
transition
matrix
P are shown
in
Fig.
] 5-11.)
these
weights
the
previous
Eq.
analysis of
program
Po's have nothing to do with weights f/s assigned in the digraph. While fk'S obey KCL at each vertex, Po's obey
(15-8).)))
SEC.
15-3
GRAPHS IN
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING
445
vI
......- Start
vertex
Vs
vI
V2
V3
V4
VI
0 0 0 0
2/3 0 1/5 0
1/3
0 0
0
1/2 2/5
0 1/2 2/5
V2
p=
1/2
v3
v4
3/7
0
0
0
I I I
4/7
1
----------------,--Vs
0
/
I \\
Vs
\" \" Stop

\\
vertex
./
.......\037 1)
Fig. The
15-11
Stochastic progranl matrix P of

any
digraph
and
its transition program
matrix.)
transition
the
stochastic
digraph
can be
expressedin
form) p =
[\037+\037l)
(15-24))
where
Q is an (n
(n
states, T is an
zeros.
- I) by
I)
by I
(n
I)
submatrix
corresponding
to the
transient
1
col umn
vector,
and 0 is the row

the k-step
vector of n
transition
Let
us look at
matrix
pk,
which
represents
prob-
abilities.Clearly,)
pk
=
[\037k_
( 15-25))
:_\037})
(T' is a
The
matrix
that
(jth
k
entry
transitions
exactly
show
In
we need not com pute here.) in Qk is the probability of being in transient the starting state Vi (also from transient).
state
v j after Let us first
that
the
Qk becomes
stochastic
let Pi be the probain v n stop vertex reach bility starting program I n steps (or less). Since n there exists at least one directed path (of length or less) with a nonzero path product from I. V < Let be to ' p Vi n quantity Pi the Vn in n steps is less than of all p;'s. The probability of not reaching largest tend))) P, in 2n steps it is less than p2, and so on. Since P < 1,these probabilities
n vertices, that
0 as k becomes large. program digraph G with

Vi the
from vertex
will not
446)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
to zero.
zero,
write)
That is, the sum of the entries in the ith for i == ], 2, . . . , n - 1. Now since Qk
1
row == 0
of Qk as k \037 00 becomes for some large k, we can
Q +
Q2 +
by
... +
Qk-l
==
(I
Q)-l,)
1
( 15-26))
-
which
can
be easily
verified
I
multiplying
both
sides with
us denote brevity, (15-26) says that matrix == matrix (I Q)-l by R [ro]. v j from Vi in 1 step, 2 steps, 3 steps, The sum of probabilities of reaching ] the in (I - Q)-l,according is to to . . . , and k ijth entry steps equal rij' v number of times vertex Eq. (15-26). This is precisely the average j appears in a since we In the random always start from program, paths starting from Vi. us the iteration v the first counts of all V 1 and end at n ' row of R gives average ] That vertices. n transient is,)
let
- Q is
Q. Equation
nonsingular. For
r 1 j == the
typical
average number run.)

==
of times program blockV j
will be
executed
in
Matrix
(I
- Q)-l,
is a
besidesgiving
of a lot
stochastic
the of
of different
hij
vertices,
storehouse
the
number of occurences average other useful information about digraph.

will
the transient behavior of

denote
Vi.
program
the
probability
that the program
ever
For example, let v j having execute
executed
rij ==
Clearly,)
hij. (average
number of
times
vj
occurs,
given
that the system
started in
V j)
== h O \302\267 . '. Iii) J r
Therefore,)
h
ij
-\037. - r..
r.. ii)
from
( 15-27))
To extract
probability
another piece of
that
information starting
matrix
R, let
return
Pj denote the
to vi\" Now,
the program
through
from
v j will
never
to
then
pass r jj times
return
a vertex
I
there
it
r jj
times.
by)
Vj' the process must the probability Therefore,
reach
v j once
returning
and
to
of
v j after
leaving
once
is given
r..JJ
r.. iJ)
== 1 r. iJ).
Hence
the
probability,
P j'
of never
P
returning
to v j
after leaving
it
once
is)
j---. r..
]j)
( 15-28))))
SEC.
15-3)
GRAPHS
IN
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING)
447)
Finally,
(starting
let
(1,
j denote
from
the
start
the probability vertex VI)' Then)

(1,j
that
viis
executed
exactly
k times
==
(h 1j )(1
- Pj)k-l(pj)')
with
(15-29))
of Fig.
For
matrix
illustration
is)
let us
continue
0
the
example
15-11. The Q
!
1 \"5
t
0
0
1 1\"
0 0 0
Q== 0 0
2
\"5
0
to
3
\"7)
and
matrix
==
(I
- Q)-1
comes out
be) 7
H
TI
\037
TI TT
7
7
R == (I
- Q)-1 ==
0 0
58 14
TT IT
TI
14
IT
0
Therefore,)
6 TI fr
14 IT
r 12 == H
is the 7
==
average number of times probability

that
vertex
V 2 gets
executed,
h 14 ==
11
TI
! is the
v 4 will
be executed,
P3
And
==
H is the probability that just been executed.)
V 3 will
never be
executed
given
that
it has
so
on.
number
Having computed the average can immediately get the expected
of executions
time
execution
n \037 . J=) 1
for
the
of each vertex Vi' one entire program as)

( 15-30))
't' ==
t J.r 1 J.,
where t j is the execution time assumes that there is no parallel
of
the
program
(i.e.,
processing
block V j\" Equation no two program
(15-30)
blocks are
executedsimultaneously).
For
the
purpose
the
can compute and check if

subfragments.
of segmenting a fragment g in the program digraph, we used in delete it the from g, edge fragment, frequently the size resulting digraph can be partitioned into appropriate If not, we remove the least frequently in the used edge
least
process
remaining digraph. This

into the required
is continued
This
till
subfragment
g is
segmented
size subfragments. proceduresuggestedin [15-33].)))
is
the
stochastic
segmentation
448)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
The
most di fficult
part
in
of stochastic
the
inaccuracies involved
the
evaluation
analysis of a program of the transition

sample
is the
labor and
matrix P,
however,
because
be
branching
probabilities
are
data
dependent. They can,

input
estimated
difficulty
by simulation methods using is that for many programs the
data
[15-33]. Another
the
being statistically
Remarks
independent is not
assumption about
weights
Pij's
valid.)
and References)
and
I n analysis are likely to

mathematics.
design
of application
theory
programs and
often
encounter graph
As
more
than
we have
just seen,
a weighted
digraph
software system you any other branch of is a natural and useful

aid
representation
of
a computer
program, and is of
immense
in
timing
certain analysis, segmentation, and in detecting I n addition, there are other errors. programming
common.
applications
types of
structural
that were not
discussed here. Someof

I. Program
these
are)
optimization, [15-16].
flow as
2. Automatic
charting,
[15-19] and
[11-4], page 245.

[15-23]. a
3.
Graphs
data
structures,
[15-34].
evaluation,
4. Parallel-processingdesign and
5. In
proving equivalence of
by transforming
program
The
utilization
of or proving validity two programs, the program digraph into canonical forms.)
following
of
list of papers in the art of graphs
is a sample
of
the
growing
literature
on
computer programming.)
Ann. Rev. Automatic Programming, C. J. SHAW (eds.), Press, Pergamon
15-16.
ALLEN, F.
Elmsford,
E., \"Program Optimization,\" M.I. HALPERN and 5, 1969,239-307.

N.Y., J. L., and
Vol. Inc.,
1969.
15-17.
15-18.
BAER,
R. CAUGHEY,
\"Segmentation
Proc. Cyclic Structure Analysis,\" BElZER, B., \"Analytic Techniques
from and Optimization of Programs 23-35. AFIPS Conf, Vol. 40, 1972,SJCC, of Program for the Statistical Evaluation
FJCC, 519-524. Running Time,\" AFIPS Conf, Vol. 37,1970, \"Directed A. T., and R. P. WATKINS, Graphs and Automatic FlowchartBERZTISS, Adelaide, 1969, 495-499. Conf ing,\" Proc. 4th Austral. Compllt. 15-20. EARNEST, C. P., K. G. BALK, and J. ANDERSON, \"Analysis of Graphs by Ordering of Nodes,\" J. ACM, Vol. 19, No. I, Jan. 1972, 23-42. 15-21. HAMBURGER, P., \"On an Automated Method of Symbolically Analyzing Times of Thompson Conference, Proceedings of the 21stACM National Computer Programs,\" Book Co., Washington, D.C., 1966, 321-330. to Digital Computer 15-22. KARP, R. M., \"\"A Note on Application of Graph Theory and Control, Vol. 3, 1960,179-190. Information Programming,\" ofa Model of Parallel 15-23. Computations: \"\"Properties KARP, R. M., and R. E. MILLER, J. Appl. Math., Vol. 14, 1966, SIAM Termination, Queueing,\" Determinancy,
15-19.
1390-1411.)))
SEC. 15-4)
GRAPHS IN
CHEMISTRY)
449)
of Graphs,\" J. ACM, Vol. B. W., \"Optimal Sequential Partitions 18, 1971, 34-40. Proc. IFIP Congress 71, 15-25. KNUTH, D. E., \"Mathematical Analysis of Algorithms,\" 1971, 1135-1143. Aug. Ljubljana, International Proc. 15-26. KNUTH, D. E., \"The Analysis of Algorithms,\" Congress of Mathematics, Nice, Sept. 1970. Comm. of Jumps in a Program,\" 15-27. KRAL, J., \"One Way of Estimating Frequencies
15-24.
KERNIGHAN,
No.1,
ACM, Vol.
15-28.
15-29.
KREIDER,
11, 1968,475-480.
L.\037\"A
Flow Analysis
Algorithm,\"
J. ACM,
Vol. 11, No.4,
Oct.1964,
Based
429-436.
LOWE,
Structures T. C., \"Automatic Segmentation of CyclicProgram Comm. ACM, Vol. 13, No.1, Connectivity and Processor Timing,\"
on
3-9.
Jan. 1970,
15--:JO.
MARl MONT,
Programming,\"
R. B., \"Applications SIAM Rev., Vol.
15-31. MARTIN,
of
15-32.
Vertex PROSSER,
and Boolean of Graphs 2, 1960,259-268.
Matrices to Computer
D., and G. ESTRIN, in Probabilities
of Computations and Systems-Evaluation \"Models J. ACM, Vol. 14, Graph Models of Computations,\"
No.2, April
Diagrams,\"
Spartan
1967, 281-299. R. T., \"Applications
of Boolean Matrices
Joint
to
the
Proceedings of the Eastern New York, 133-138. Books,
Conlputer
Conference,
Analysis of Flow Dec. 1959,
15-33.
RAMAMOORTHY,
Program
the
21st
and and Addressing Schemes,\" J. Computer A. L., \"Data Graphs Sci., Vol. 5, No.3, June 1971,193-238. of to the Analysis of Distribution 15-35. A., \"The Application of Graphs SCHURMANN, and Control, Vol. 7, 1964,275-282. Loops in a Program,\" Information 15-36. VERHOFF, E. W., '\037Automatic Program Segmentation Based on BooleanConnecSJCC Proc., Vol. 38, 1971,491-495.) tivity,\"
15-34.
1966,229-239.
and of a Dynamic Look Ahead C. V., \"The Analytic Design Proceedings of Computers,\" Segmenting Scheme for Multiprogrammed Book ACM National Conference, Thompson Co., Washington, D.C.,
ROSENBERG,
System
15-4.
GRAPHS
IN
CHEMISTRY)
of organic Arthur Cayley used trees to represent the structures Although of the early interest in the study molecules 100 years ago (and, indeed,much that graphit is only of trees was motivated by this representation), recently and identificause for characterization theoretic techniques are coming into of the electronic of chemical tion This is due to (1) the advent compounds. need computer with its a'bility to handle graphs, and (2) the ever-intensifying a mechanized retrieval system capable of of the chemist to have information with the millions of organic compounds known today. dealing Given a chemical substance and some of its properties (such as molecular
weight,
chemical
to find
this
out if
this
compound,
compound, or if
like spectrum, etc.), the chemist would known compound. If he is able to identify of the he may like to know some additional properties he would like to know its structure,))) the compound is \"new\"
composition,
substance
mass
is a
450)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
and
then
therefore,
tion.
include it to have
must
in
the
dictionary
of known compounds. I t
for
is
essential,
a standard
be
representation
compound,
and the
classifica-
representation
It was
compact,
unambiguous,
and amenable
to
3-6 how a chemical compound can be represented shown in Section of a connected graph, with the atoms as the vertices and the bonds between them as edges. For compactness the hydrogen atoms are omitted from the representation, as they are implied by every unused valence of the other atoms. For example, the structural C 3 H 7 NO, of aminoacetone graph with its H atoms strippedoff, is shown in Fig. 15-12. [Recallthat the valence for carbon (C) is 4, for nitrogen it is 2.]) (N) it is 3, and for oxygen (0)
by
means
o)
Fig. 15-12 c)
The
Structural
graph
of amino-
c) graph of
than
c)
acetone.)
in general, contains much formula does. For example, the molecular C 1oH 22 can denote the formula any of its 75 isomers (75 being number of unlabeled trees with 10 vertices five and with no vertex of degree or more), while the graph specifies the exact isomer. It must be kept in mind, conhowever, that a structural graph does not contain all the information tained in the three-dimensional model of the chemical The compound. structural graph does not specify the bond distances or the bond angles of the molecule. Since these are known for a small number of organic only molecules this is not much of a handicap.A slightly more serious anyway, to distinguish between stereoisomers shortcoming of a graph is its inability the structural graph gives [15-40].Thus, exceptfor stereochemistry purposes,
structural
a chemical
compound,
more
information
the
molecular
a reasonably adequate description of

Canonical Representation
As pointed
a chemical
compound.)
of a
Molecule)
out above,
a
a standard representation
information
a precondition for
structural
point
computerized of view, organic
molecules can
ring
be divided
is of chemical structures retrieval system. From the

into
two
classes:
of
(I) the aliphatic
compounds, and (2) the

compound
compounds.
The
structural
by
graph of an
length edges,
aliphatic
has
no circuit,
which
except possibly circuits

are represented
ring
two arising out as shown in Fig.
of
multiple
bonds,
parallel
15-] 2.
three
The graph
or more.
of a
compound
contains
at
least one circuit of length Since the graph of an
aliphatic compound is a tree (if
we
ignore
parallel)))
SEC. 15-4)
GRAPHS IN
CHEMISTRY)
451)
edges),
tree
it can
easily be
given
canonical
centroids
representation
(parallel
as follows:
edges are
Every
has a
unique centroid
or a pair of
considered
as singleedgesfor the purposes of locating the centroid). The centroid can be used as the root of the tree (recall Section 10-3), and each subtree attached to the root is a radical. The subtrees can be ordered by the number of vertices is further contain in a nondecreasing order. Each radical subdivided into they in the same fashion. This process a are ordered subradicals, which produces linear code for each tree-a string. For example, the code for the tree unique 15-12 is C(C) (=O)(C(N\302\273. in details on coding of aliphatic For more Fig.
compounds,
see [15-42].
because no unique centroid (or pair Cyclic compounds are lesstractable, of centroids) with circuits. Fortunately, the chemist can be defined in a graph need not be concerned with the general problem of codinga graph (a very difficult problem, as discussed in Chapter 11). The structural graph of
almost every
and
ring
compound
is (I)
pl\037nar,
(2)
a regular
very
graph of
difficult
degree three,
a unique linear code for such a graph. There an n-sided polygon in such a graph exists of n vertices, and a description of the graph requires only for notation some the remaining nl2 edges. These edgesmay be represented by a sequence of n scheme numbers of their end vertices. For details on this coding consisting for most ring compounds, see [15-42].)
(3)
contains
a Hamiltonian
circuit. It is not
to find
Matching of
The
(having
ChemicalStructure)
of determining whether chemical formula) are
problem the same
or not two chemical compounds identical is the same as the graph
of the vertices. isomorphism problem, considerably simplified by the labels a code for a the the solution of Finding unique graph implies isomorphism two graphs would be isomorphic if and only if their problem as well, because easier codes were the same. For chemical structures, however, it is generally than a to perform a direct vertex-by-vertex to first find code matching unique describe one such algorithm for matching of for each graph. We shall chemical structures based on Sussenguth's paper [11-59]. The this algorithm is to use various idea behind underlying properties in the two graphs to as labels, degrees, adjacencies, etc.) of vertices (such must if the graphs are to be of vertex subsets, which match generate pairs An number are of used to partition vertices increasing properties isomorphic. either vertex in one into smaller and smaller subsets. Eventually, every graph is uniquely off with a vertex in the other paired graph, or two subsets of vertices characterized by identical properties in the two graphs do not have than the same number of vertices. more one (A third case arises when the two The can be best exists between isomorphism graphs.) process
explained
with
an example:)))
452)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
C @) c
CD)
0)
G)) Fig. 15-13

Structural
graphs
of two
molecules.)
Let us determine whether or not the two molecules in Fig. 15-13 are identical (H atoms are not shown, as usual). The vertices are arbitrarily named (1), (2), . . . , (8) in G and (a), (b), . . . , (h) in J. The process of generating matching subsets with common properties is ] 5-] . For instance, in outlined in Table vertices representing carbon atoms G must correspond in J. Of these, the to those representing carbon atoms in J, and so in G must correspond to pendant C vertices pendant C vertices on. (Note that Table 15-1 shows only a part of the subsets that are actually G and J are) and matched.) From Table ]5-1, we conclude that generated
Criteria
for
Corresponding
Subsets
in
Subset
Subset
Formation
Vertex
G C
0
N
Number
label:
1, 2, 4, 7
3, 6, 8
5
b,e,f,h
a, c, g d
2
3
4
Degree:
One
Two
1,3,5,6
8
a,d,g,h
c
5
6
Three
Four
2,4
7
e,f
b
Bond:
Intersection
Single Double
of
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 7,8 1
2
a,b,d,e,f,g,h
b,c
h
9
10
subsets 1 and 4 Vertices adjacent to

11h
I 1
51d
71b Intersection
4
4,6,8 of
e
a, c,
12 13 14 15
subsets
Remaining
4 and
vertex
13
6
3
a
g
of Chemical
Structures)))
Table 15-1
Matching
SEC.
15-4)
GRAPHS IN
CHEMISTRY)
453)
isomorphic
and the vertex

1 ( h
correspondenceis)
2
6 7 8
C)
dab)
one
similar
procedure
can be
used to identify
given
graph
as a
subgraph of
another.)
Computerized
Chemical
Identification)
Given the chemical formula
one can generate

graph
the
list
and the valence rules, of a \"new\" substance of all distinct chemical structures possible, using
course,
structural
perform
that
techniques. Computer this operation. (It is necessary, of a unique representation for a provides
enumeration
to programs have been written to have a coding scheme graph.)
This
method
of
as the producing an exhaustive list of all possible isomers gets out of hand number of atoms in the molecule. are over increases. For example, there t million structures possible for C2o H 41 OH. It is therefore necessaryto provide additional chemical information (such as the type of radicals ruled out as to a the list size. A computer program can be to unstable) keep manageable written to compare each of the structures in the list against various sets of
mass spectra. data, particularly As a part of the continuing identificaeffort toward a system of automated tion of chemical compounds, a computer language, has called DENDRAL, been developed at Stanford Uni versity. See [15-38] and [15-39]. One of the in DENDRAL programs generates the list of all tree-type potential isomers from an input The written of molecular formula and mass spectrum. program, in LISP language, consists of 40,000 run a PDP-6 timeis and on words, at Stanford. One such an is to of the of effort sharing system goals long-term a tool for of the automated chemical develop exploration planets [15-42].)
analytical Remarks
and
References)
and Feigenbaum and their Lederberg done the pioneering work in computerized of technical theory. A number reports and [15-44]) describe various aspects of the
team at
chemical
Stanford
University them
have in
identification
of
via graph
referenced
papers (four
DENDRAL
program.
paper
See also
[15-37].For a very
paper
readable
description
of the
see essentials of DENDRAL,

by Lederberg of
the
by Feigenbaum
and Lederberg
Another [15-38].
used for
ring
[15-40] is recommended
representing
as a well-written
and
exposition
how
graphs can
be
structures
of organic thesis
in
molecules-both
a subsequent
tree type
[11-59]
and
type.
Sussenguth
in
his
doctoral
paper
has)))
454)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
structures. He reports that the comof only as the square of the number his computer program when run on an IBM 7090 took 6 to 7 secondsfor matching a few thousandths 50-vertex of a graphs and only second to detect if the graphs were not matched. A survey is available of computer chemical structures methods in handling in which 1966. includes most of the relevant references through [15-44], Other The search for a and [11-59]. papers recommended are [15-38], [15-43], is far from over. Papers proposing alternative notational good codingsystem continue to appear in the Journal of Chemical Documentation.) systems given
chemical
an algorithm
for matching
time in vertices; and that

putation
his
algorithm
varies
15-37. BUCHANAN,
E. A. FEIGENBAUM, G. L. SUTHERLAND, and \"HEURISTIC A Program for Generating Hypotheses in Organic Explanatory Chemistry,\" Machine Intelligence, Vol. 4 (Meltzer and D. Michie, eds.), Edinburgh 1969. Press, Edinburgh, University of Inductive Inference 15-38. FEIGENBAUM, E. A., and J. LEDERBERG, \"Mechanization in Organic in Formal Representationof Human Judgement (B. KleinChemistry,\" muntz, ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1968, 187-218. and Search System Developed at 15-39. GLUCK, D. J., \"A Chemical Structure Storage Du Pont,\" J. Chem. Doc., Vol. 5, No. I, Feb. 1965,43-51. 15-40. LEDERBERG, J., \"Topology of Molecules,\" in The Mathematical Sciences, The
B. G.,
DENDRAL:
M.I.T. Press, Cambridge,

15-41.
LYNCH,
Mass.,
1969,37-51.
and
Publishing
M. F.,
of
Chemical
W. G. TOWN, J. M. HARRISON, Structure Information, Elsevier
J. E. ASH, Computer Handling Amsterdam, Company, and
1971.
15-42.
15-43. 15-44.
MEETHAM, in
A. R.,
Tree-Line
PENNY,
1968. Organic Molecules,\" Proc. IFIP Congress, R. H., \"A Connectivity Code for Use in Describing Chemical Structures,\"
\"Partial Isomorphisms
in
Graphs
Structural
Similarities
J.
TATE,
Doc., Vol. 5, No.2, May 1965,113-117. Systems,\" Ann. \"llandling Chemical Compounds in Information 2 (C. A. Cuadra, ed.), John & Sons, Inc., New Rev. Inf, Sci. Tech. Vol. Wiley
Chem.
F. A.,
York,
1967,285-309.)
15-5.
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS)
virtually
There is
graph
no
end
to the
list
of
problems
that
the
can be
last
solved with
theory. trees
5),
In addition for
file
to applications covered in
in
many applications were mentioned

search
(Chapter problem
earlier
dimers
(Chapter
3), design of printed-circuitboard (Chapter in crystal physics (Chapter 8), teleprinter's problem are following 9), and ranking problem (Chapter 9). The
organization
chapters,
chapters, for example.. binary
four
examples of applications. In a modern information retrieval system each Retrieval: Information The index of index terms (also called descriptors). document carries a number terms are represented as vertices,and if two index terms Vi and V j are closely an edge and related (such as \"graph\" \"tree\,") they are joined with (Vi' v j ).)))
some additional
SEC. 15-5)
MISCELLANEOUS
APPLICATIONS)
455)
The simple,
undirected (and possibly disconnected)

similarity
large
graph
thus produced
is called the
graph.
Components
(i.e., some
maximally
connected subof documents
graphs) of
this
graph
retrieval,
produce
one
a very
specifies
natural
classification
in
terms, and the maximal that includes the corresponding vertices will complete subgraph terms which specify the needed documents. give the complete list of index is needed in a situation such as an informaEstablishing graph isomorphism tion retrieval for chemical compounds. The reader is referred to system Reference Salton [15-60] for more on the subject. [11-1] is also recommended. a system o.f Lumped Analysis Physical Systems: In Chapter 13we saw how of two-terminal electrical componentswas (and consisting represented analyzed) by means of a graph. In that case the graph looked very much like the network This approach can be generalized a so that schematic diagram. built graph (called the system graph) is used to model any physical system from a finite number of interconnected components, given the model of each of of course. The system graph is a convenienttool in analysis component, the entire physical system. SeeTrent or Koenig, Tokad, and Kesavan [15-61]
the system. relevant index
for-more [IS-57]
For
details. a large
Matrix
by
a computer,
Inversion: For inverting the straightforward

inefficient,
(say, 100
by
100)
sparse
matrix
elimination
application of the
to poor
Gaussian
method
problems.
is
is
susceptible
The
following
graph-theoretic
accuracy, and method has been found
causes storage
to
be better:)
I. Replace each nonzero in the given matrix M with aI, and permute entry the rows and the correspondingcolumns the of resulting binary matrix
to make all diagonal entries as 1 's.

matrix
2. The
is now regarded as the adjacency X so obtained to l's along the G (the self-loopscorresponding digraph
matrix diagonal
of a are
deleted).
3. The resulting
digraph
is partitioned
into its fragments.

further
4.
fragment,
if too
removing
an appropriate
matrices
large, is \"torn\" edge.

are
into
smaller
fragments
inverse
by
5. The smaller
-1 original matrix M is
details of
inverted,
and from
them
the
of the
obtained.)
[IS-54] and Iyer showed
that
For further
Graphs
see Harary
[IS-56].
of order n group of n vertices, in which carry the
different can
Groups:
strongly
Cayley
every
be each
represented by a vertex corresponds

of
connected
digraph
the
group
(originally,
and to a group element edges Cayley used edgesof graph
label of a generator
colors
to show difis a directed)))
ferent generators).
Thus the
of a
cyclic group
of order n
456)
SURVEY
CHAP.
15)
circuit
of n vertices
uniquely
in
which
group
defines
of a every edge has the same label. The digraph the group by specifying how every product of elements
corresponds
to a
useful
diagram, is
details
Linguistics:
directed edge sequence. This

in
visualizing
and
on graphs
of groups,
Graphs
see [15-52].
been used words and between
forming
as the Cayley known abstract studying groups. For more

digraph,
in to depict parsing dialinguistics word strings and the edgesrepresent them. A set of words (vocabulary)
have
grams. The
certain
vertices
represent relationships
syntactical
and
a set
of rules (grammar) for
strings
(sentences)
characterize
then is a set of all legal so language. In other words,the language strings have defied generated. (Natural languages, becauseof their complexity, One in computational attempts at such complete specifications.) problem whether or not a given string to a language, linguistics is to identify belongs whose vocabulary and grammar are given. For more on graphs in computationallinguistics,
see [15-55].
name
the Sociological Structures: Digraphsunder used to representrelationships individuals among

Members
sociograms in a society
have been
(or group).
are
represented
etc.)
association, influence,
given
size complete subdigraphs,
immediate
significance.
and the relationship (admiration, by directed edges. Connectedness, separability, of fragments, and so forth, in a sociogram can be A number of tribes have been studied by
by
according
vertices
anthropologists
more
and are
topic,
has
classified
to their
kinship structures.
and
For
8 of
on
this
see Flament
also
[15-51],Harary
used
in
[15-53],
Chapter
Anderson [15-45].
Graph theory
fault
been
economics
[15-46], genetics,
netics, artificial intelligence,pattern

diagnosis
recognition,
logistics, cyberreliability theory,

model
in computers,
studying the structure

mathematical with
of computer memory,
of disarma-
and
the
study
of Martian
structure of Mozart'sopera, Cosi fan tutte [15-53]. And thus goes the ever-increasing list of applications of graph theory. Admittedly, in some of these applications a graph is used only as a means of visual itself. representation, and no more than a trivial use is made of graph theory and not-so-obvious results There are many cases, however, where important are obtained through a deeper use of graph theory.
the
ment [1-2]has beenattempted

Middle
A canals [15-63].
graph
theory
and so have the
conflictin
East and the
Further Reading: Although throughout the text we have selected readings, the number of published paperson graph theory available, larger (over 3000). There are several good bibliographies where most of the published material on the subject is listed. The best known Turner and Kautz [15-63], Turner [15-62], and among these are Zykov [15-64], An informative article containing a systematic Deo list of definitions [15-49]. and a bibliography of graph as applied to physics is [15-50]. Some))) theory
Bibliographies an\037
provided is much
SEC. 15-5)
MISCELLANEOUS
APPLICATIONS)
457)
additional
books recommended
Behzad
are
[IS-58], and
and
Chartrand
sufficiently
has been aroused theory literature on your own.)

15-45.
ANDERSON,
Chen [IS-59], [15-48], Marshall [15-47]. I hope your interest in graph so that in the cited you will go exploring
Mayeda
S.,
Company, Chicago,1970.
15-46.
Graph
Theory and
Finite
Combinatorics,
Markham of Graphs,
Publishing
AVONDO-BoDINO, Breach,
15-47.
15-48.
BEHZAD,
G., Economic Applicationsof the Theory Science Publishers, Inc., New York, 1962. Introduction to the M., and G. CHARTRAND,
Gordon
and
Theory of
Graphs,
Allyn
and Bacon,
CHEN,
Inc.,
Boston,
1972.
dam, 1971.
N.,
W.,
Applied
Graph
Theory, North-Holland
Publishing
Company,
Amster-
15-49.
DEo,
Its Applications,\"
Institute
April
HAn Extensive English Language Bibliography on Graph Theory and National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationjJPL (California of Technology) Technical Report October 1969; Supplement 1, 32-1413,
1971. J. W.,
\"Some Basic Definitions in Graph FISHER, Theory,\" 42, No.2, April 1970, 272-288. 15-51. FLAMENT, C., Applications of Graph Theory to Group Structure, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1963. 15-52. GROSSMAN, and Their Graphs, The Random I., and W. MAGNUS, Groups Housel 1964. Singer School Division, New York, 15-53. HARARY, in the Social Sciences,\" Model in F., HGraph Theory as a Structural
15-50.
ESSAM,
and M. E.
Vol.
Rev. Mod. Phys.,
15-59.
15-60.
ed.), Academic Press, Inc., New (B. Harris, Theory and Its Applications 1970, 1-16. 15-54. HARARY, Matrices and Graph Theory,\" in Large F., \"Sparse Sparse Sets of Linear 139-150. (J. K. Reid, ed.),Academic Equations Press, Inc., New York, 1971, 15-55. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (InterHARRIS, Z., Mathematical Structure of Language, science New York, 1968. Division), 15-56. IYER, C., \"Computer Analysis of Large-Scale Ph.D. Thesis, Department Systen1s,\" of Electrical Engineering, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, May 197 I. 15-57. KOENIG, H. E., Y. TOKAD, and H. K. KESAVAN, of Discrete Physical Analysis McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1967. Systems, 15-58. MARSHALL, C. W., Applied Graph John Wiley & Sons, Inc., (Interscience Theory, New York, 1971. Division),
Graph
York,
MAYEDA,
W., G.,
Graph
Theory, John
Wiley
& Sons,
Inc., (Interscience
Division),
New
York,
1972.
Automatic
New
Information Organization and Retrieval, McGraw-Hill 1968. 15-61. TRENT, H. M., \"Isomorphism Between Oriented and Lumped Linear Graphs J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 27, 1955, 500-527. Physical Systems,\" 15-62. TURNER, J., \"Key-Word Indexed Bibliography of Graph Theory,\" in Proof Techin Graph Theory (F. Harary, niques Press, Inc., 1969,189-330. ed.), Academic 15-63. \"A Survey of Progress in Graph TURNER, J., and W. H. KAUTZ, Theory in the Soviet Union,\" SIAM Rev., Supplement Issue, Vol. 12, 1970, 1-68. 15-64. ZYKOV, A. A., \"Bibliography of Graph in Theory of Graphs and Its Theory,\" Applications (M. Fiedler, ed.), Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1964.)))
SALTON,
Book Company,
York,
Appendix)
A)
BINET-CAUCHY
THEOREM)
The in
following
classical the
calculating
by
result, known as of the product determinant respectively,

with
the
Binet-Cauchy
theorem,
is useful
Rare
of two
k <
by m and m
k matrices,
matrices: If Q and m, then the determinant
of the
product)
det(QR) =
the major
sum
of the
determinants
products of corresponding of Q and R.)

major)
The largest
out
term
major
determinant
(or
simply
means
the determinant
k columns
of
the
submatrix of Q (or R) formed by taking any square if columns; that of m. The term corresponding implies
particular
h ;2, .
chosen for a
i 10i 2,
major,
the corresponding
major of
product
with
Q must
. . , ;k
consist
(or rows) of Q are of rows
. . . , ik
of
Q. Clearly,
the
there are
(k)
such
terms.
an
Before proving
Let)
theorem,
let us
illustrate
-
example:
Q =
G
and R =
-\037
= \037
-\037
\037l
; ]
-2
det(QR)=de{\037 =\037ldet[_\037
_det
-\037J+de{\037
-\037J
l [3
-I
-2
-3
det
-2
-det \302\260
-2
= 2-(-2)
+ 4-1 +
(-2)-4 = -8.)
458)))
-1
-2 J
APP.
A)
BINET-CAUCHY
THEOREM)
459)
To evaluate det(QR),let us devise and Proof: partitioned matrices:)

Ik
multiply
two (m
+ k) by
(m
+ k)
Q [ -1m
=
[
1m. J [ \302\260 where

1m
RJ
-1m)
and
\037R})
and
I k are
identity
matrices of
=
[\037m \037J
order m
k, respectively.
Therefore,)
det
That
is,) ==
de{_\037m
QRR})
Q
det
O R)J
det(QR)
(A-I))
[ -1m Let us
and
now
observe
principal
of R
these together.
side of Eq. (A-I), method to the right-hand expansion in matrix -1m are its the only nonzero minors of any order of that order. We thus find that the Cauchy expansion consists minors minors of order m - k multiplied of order k in Q and by their cofactors
apply
Cauchy's
that
.)))
Appendix)
NULLITY
B)
OF A MATRIX
LAW)
AND
SYLVESTER'S
solution x * 0 if and x that satisfy Qx = 0 forms a vector null Q. rank of the null space called the of matrix The space space is called the nullity of Q. Furthermore, it can be shown that)
If Q only if 0
is an n by is singular;
n matrix,
that
then Qx =
0 has
a nontrivial all
is, det Q =
O.Theset of
vectors
rank
of Q
nullity
of
Q =
n.)
(B-1 )) a k
These
definitions
and Eq.
result
(B-1) alsohold
nullity
when
Q is matrices
not square but
by n matrix,
of nullity,
k < n.
An
important
involving
of
is Sylvester's
law
which can
Sylvester's
nullity
be statedas follows:
Law: If Q the product
of
is a k by n matrix and R is an n by p matrix, then the that is,) cannot exceed the sum of the nullities of the factors;
of QR
nullity
<
nullity
of
Q +
nullity
of
R.)
(B-2))
Proof:
Since every
vector x
nullity
that
satisfies
Rx =
0 must
R >
certainly
satisfy
QRx =
0,
we have)
of QR
>
nullity
of
O.)
(B-3))
Let s be vectors)
the
nullity
of matrix
R. Then there
exists a set of
s linearly
independent
{Xl,
X2, . . . , xs})
forming
a basis
of
the
null
space
= 0,)
of R. Thus)
for
RXi
i =
1, 2, . . . , s.)
(B-4 ))
460)))
APP.
B)
NULLITY
OF A MATRIX AND SYLVESTER'S
LAW)
461)
Now let
linearly
s+
be
the
nullity
of
matrix
QR.
Then
there must exist
a set of
independent
vectors)
{X S +l,
x s +2,
. . . , x s + t })
Xs+2,. .
such
that
the set)
[XI,
X2,'
. . , Xs, Xs+h
. , X S + t })
forms
a basis
for
the
null
space
for
of matrix
i =
QR. Thus)
QRx;
0,)
1, 2, . . . , s, s +
1,s + 2,. . . ,
t.)
(B- 5))
In other
the
first
(i =
s + 1,s + 2,. . . , s +
s vectors
words, of the are
s +
sent
t vectors
to t)
zero
a basis of the null space of QR, Xi forming by matrix R and the remaining nonzero Rx;'s Q. Vectors) are sent to zero by matrix
s + h RXs+2' . . . , RX s + t)
Rx
are
linearly
independent;
o = =
for
if)
alRxs+l
R(alX s +
1
+
+
a2Rxs+2
...
+ atRx s+ t
atx
a2 x s+2 +
atx
... +
s + t ),)
null
then
vector
(alX s+ 1
a2xs+2
= o. is possible only if at that Thus we have found there are at least t are sent to zero by matrix Q, and therefore) nullity But
al = a2
... =
... +
s + t ) must
be the
space
of
R, which
linearly
independent
vectors which
of Q
>
t.)
since)
t =
(s +
nullity
t)
of
s
QR
=
Eq.
nullity
of
R,)
(B-2) follows.
Substituting Eq.
(B-1)into
Eq.
(B-2),
rank
we
of
find
that)
rank Furthermore,
of QR >
the
Q +
rank of
QR is
R <
n.)
(B-6))
in Eq.
(B-6) if
rank
matrix
product
rank
zero, .)
then)
of Q
of
7)))) (B-
SUBJECT
INDEX)
A)
Algorithms,
268-327
number, and
Abelian
Abelian
group,
monoid, 113
114, 116
114
bridge-finding, 323
chromatic
313 components, 284
Abelian semigroup:
definition,
circuit generation, 287

connectedness
274
with identity
Absorbing
element, 114
429
cu t-verticesand definition, 269

efficiency
blocks,
state, 203
Abstract graph, 88-89

Accessible,
of, 269 vertex-set, 304
feedback edge-set, 313

feedback
313
Activities:
critical, 403
defini
fundamental circuits, 280

fragment-finding,
tion,
400
of, 400 representation,
dummy, 401
duration
generating
Hamiltonian
all directed circuits, 287 313 circuit,
Activity network, 400

Activity-vertex
isomorphism, 310 minimal cu t, 312

408
minimal minimal shortest
Acyclic digraph, 230, 410

Acyclic
edge
spanning
cover, 313 tree (see tree)
network,
400
Algorithms,
spanning
Adjacency matrix, 157-161,220-227 as data structure in algorithms, 270 of, 159, 222 powers
maximal clique, 312 ma tching, 312 maximal

planarity-testing,
304
properties of,
relationship
158,
with
220
other
matrices,
161
shortest-path,
290
between
shortest path
shortest
all pairs of
Adjacent:
definition,
vertices, 297
7
edges, 177
Algebra (see Algebraic Algebraic system:

definition,
system)
113
with one
with
operation, 114
operations,
118)
specified vertex to 292 shortest pa th from specified vertex to all others, 292 shortest spanning tree, 62, 279
path from another vertex,
smallest dominating
spanning-tree, 277) 463)))
set,
313
two
464
SUBJECT
INDEX)
Steiner
transitive
tree, 313
closure,
c)
300
313
Canonic Canonic
traveling salesmanproblem, topological sorting, 403
form form
of switching Junction, 350 of program digraph, 448
AMBIT/G,317
Arbitrarily
Canonical representation of molecules 29

Cayley diagram,
Cayley's
456
54, 164
' 450
traceable of, 223, point (see
graphs,
Arborescence, 206
number
theorem, 45
238
(see Cut-vertex)
Center of tree,
root of, 206

Articulation
Assignment problem,
Automata
178, 396
448
Central tree, 60 Centroidal tree, 248 Chain (see Walk)

Characteristic
polynomial,
311
451,
Sequential
charting,
machines)
Automatic flow
Automorphism, 267)
Chemical identification, Chord, 56,212,278

Chord-set,
453
56
Chromatic
Chromatic B)
number, 166, 171,313 169, 171 partitioning,

174,
Chromatic polynomial, Circuit, 20

288, 301
197
directed,
177
Backtrack,
202
Balanced digraph,
Bases of circuit
fundamental,
Hamiltonian,
57
30
Bases of cut-set
344 BCDcode,
subspace, 126
subspace,
127
cut-sets)
subspace,
Circuit
126, 130
between graphs, 84
Basic cut-set (see Basis vectors, 124

Bicen ters,
Fundamental
correspondence matrix,
Circuit-generation algorithms, 284

Circuit
141-145,216-217,337,
47
248
Bicentroidal trees,
Bichromatic
Binary
359,380 Circuit-path decomposition, 306

Circuit
graph,
166
113
vector,
125
according
Binary
Binary
group code, 352

matrix, tree,
operation,
Classification of graphs connectivity, 85

Clique,
to
138 49
458
32,
312
Cut-set)
Binary relation, 198

Binary
Closed state, 429

(see Cocycle
Binet-cauchy theorem, 219, 366,373, Bipartite, complete, 192

Bipartite
Coding a graph,
311
stability
Coefficient of internal
Coloring
(see
graph,
168
form,
Independence number)
problem, dual,
Block, 80,
Block-diagonal
284
274 328 329
330
165 104, 106 (see Abstract

graph)
Combina to rial
Combinatorial
Commutative
Boolean
Boolean
addition, 330
algebra,
Combinatorial graph
Commutative group,
Commutative
Boolean arithmetic, 170, 173

Boolean
optimization field, 117
problem, 396
function,
multiplication,
114
Boolean
Branch,
Branch
Breadth-first
ring, graph,
matching,
117
3 (see also Edge) of tree, 56

search,
Commutative semigroup, 113

Complete
32
178
302
Complete
Completely
Completely
Bridge, 286)
regular graph, 111

specified
machine,
342)))
SUBJECT
INDEX
465)
Component,
Computation Computer
21,55,202,274, 275, 278 time of algorithms, 270

of, partitioning programs as digraphs, 203, 230
D)
logic,
165
Data
Decan
structure
ting
Computer
Condensation,
194, 439
problem,
232
in graph algorithms, 270-273 13
Decision tree, 41
Decyclization,
Configura tions:
counting
series,
257
Deficiency,
181
definition, 257 Connectedness:

definition,
Degree:
139, 164 of a permutation,
matrix,
21
251
shortest
spanning
in digraph,
minimal,
202, 221
42
of a vertex,
7 tree,
strong,
Connectedness
202
and
Degree-constrained 63 components
weak, 202 274)

Connection
Deletion of edge, 27 algorithm,

Deletion
of vertex,
27
matrix
(see Adjacency matrix)

329 316
DENDRAL,453 Depth-first search, 301-304

Deterministic Diameter:)
Contact network,
sequential
machine,
342
Cook-Karp class of algorithms, Cotree (see Chord-set)

Counting
of a graph,
163
series,
243, 257
of a tree, 48)
Digraph,
of trees) Counting trees (see Enumeration, Covering (see Edge-covering) Covering subgraph (see Edge-covering)
Covering
194-237
acyclic, 301,410
adjacency
number, variable,
183
matrix 1 97 194
Critical path method (CPM), 400-408

Cross
of, 220
asymmetric, 197
balanced,
357
Cut, 387
Cut-node
complete, 197
(see Cut-vertex)
definition,
Cut-set, 68-71
capaci
disconnected,
202
ty, 80 68
of,
edge, 236
Euler,
minimal, 68
proper,
203
game, 410
69-71
properties simple, 68
irreflexive, 199
kernel
of, 411
subspace, 130
Cut-set
pseudosymmetric,
reflexive,
197
199
matrix,
151, 153,220,380
125
Cut-set vector,
Cut-vertex,
regular, simple,
197
251
76, 284
Directed
representation of permutations,
197
connected, tive, ted,
Cycle (seeCircuit,
Cycle
gain,
circuits)
strongly
202
421
Cycle index,
253-254
252
symmetric, 197, 199

transi
200 400
of vector
Cycle structure,
Cyclic code,
351
59
weakly connected, 202

weigh
Cyclicexchange,
Cyclic
Cyclic interchange representation

number
(seeCyclic exchange)
of permutation, (see Nullity))
Dihedral group, 266

Dimension
251
space, 124
Dimer
problem,
317)))
185-186
Cyclomatic
DIP,
466
SUBJECT
INDEX)
Directed
circuits,
202, 212, 230, 232,287,
Edge isomorphism, 87 Edge train, 20 (seealsoWalk) Edge variables, 357
291,421,443
Directed
graph (see Digraph)

circuits
Edge listing,
271
Directed Hamiltonian
Directed path,
Disconnected
, 312
423
231, 288,403,
graph, 21, Distance matrix, 61, 273 ma trix)
139, 159, 161 (see also Weight

trees
Edge voltage,
Edge-curren
Edge-disjoint
357
t vector,
358
circuits,
17 115,
Hamiltonian
32
212
Distance between two spanning Distinct representatives, 179

Division
' 59
Edge-disjointsubgraphs,
Edge-disjoint
union of circuits,
union
ring,
117 173
Edge-disjoint
Electrical
Dominating set, 172-173

Domination
Edge-voltagevector,
network: application of graph
of cut-sets, 358
71
Dummy
number, 401 activity,
theory
to, 356-383
Dual of graph,
103, 105, 190)
as flow problems, use of computers use of incidence

Elementary
399 in, 268

matrices
in, 271
(see Cyclic
E)
reduction,
99
Eccentricity 1 Edge,
of vertex,
46
Elementary tree transformation exchange)
adjacent,
capacity
177
of, 79, 357
backward, 389
385
Embedding: of graph, 90 on sphere, 94

Enumeration:
covering, 182-183
current,
of digraphs,
263
directed,
195
358
of multigraphs, 262 of simple graphs, 260
edge-current vector,
edge digraph,
forward,
of trees,
Equivalence
52,
240-250
236, 408
En umera tor,
243
classes,
389
201
gain, 418
Equivalence relation, 239

Ergodic
incident into a vertex, 195 out of a vertex, 195 initial vertex of, 195
incident
Error-checking code, 352, 354 Euler 23, 115, 210 graph,

Euler
process,
429
isomorphism, 87
listing,
lines:
271
directed,
number in
parallel,
of, 205,
pendant, 183
spanning
203, 210, 225, 227 226, 238 210 arborescence,

96
sequencesof, 160,222,333
series,
Euler's formula,
Events:
train,
terminal vertex of, 195 20 (see also Walk)

357
of, 61)
critical, 403
in
projects,
400
variables,
voltage, 357
weight
Event-vertex representation, 408 Execution time (see Computation time)
Exterior region,
94)
Edge
Edge, connectivity, 75 182-183 covering,
F)
Edge current,
Edge
357
408
Faces (see Regions) False veJtices, 350)))
Edge gain,
digraph, 236, 418)
SUBJECT
INDEX
467)
Fary's
Field,
theorem,
11 7
93
258 (see Sequential
G)
Figure counting series, Finite fields, 119

Finite-state
\"Galois field:
modulo m,
modulo
118-119
with
machines
2, 138
machines)
First
Game, 409-413
comparison digraph
Betti of
Five-color
Float Flow,
(see Nullity) theorem, 188 activity, 406
number
puzzle, 409
of, 410 409 409
finite, 409
perfect-information,
385
Flow chart,
Flow Flow
269
384, 398 384-399
states in,
two-person,
410
functions, 241
graph,
network, problem,
matching problem, as, 182,396

use
Generating
of computers Extended
Language
in, 268
Graph Theoretic 317 10, 187-190
Geometric dual of a Geometric representation
103
of a graph, Language
89
Forest, 55
Fortran
(FGRAAL), conjecture, 202
Graph Information Retrieval (GIRL), 317 Software Graph Algorithm
Package
(GASP);
Forward calculation, 405

Four-color Graph Graphs:
316
Extended
Algol (GEA),
317
Fragments:
definition,
arbitrarily
traceable,
structures, 166
29
448
finding all, 312

in
as data
443
bichromatic,
program
segmentation,
48
bipartite, 168
circuit-free, 55 in coding theory,
complement
Free trees:
definition,
number
Fronds,
of unlabeled,
303
248
351-353
76
192
of, 56,
Full symmetric
Function:
group, 253
256
complete, 32
complete
bipartite,
definition,
256 circuits:)
connected, 21
tion decomposi
equivalence classesof,
Fundamental
of, 26
definition, 1
algorithm, 280-284
and
directed (seeDigraph)
disconnected,
cut-sets, digraph,
73 212
in electrical of,
21
200
definition, 57, 71
for
drawing of, 2
equivalence,
matrix, 144
application deriving for
Euler, 23,
28
networks , 359
finite,
digraph,
144 219
in game
general,
theory, 409-413
2
Fundamental cut-sets:
definition,
infinite,
Kuratowski,
isomorphic, 14,
90,
139
93
71
for digraph,
212
with other matrices, 153 of contact networks, 336-
matrix, 153
relationship in
labeled,53 linear, 1 nonplanar, 90

nonseparable,
339
Fusion
synthesis
151
null, 9
of vertices,
28, 274)
nullity of, 57, 60)))
468
SUBJECT
INDEX)
HI NT, 31 7
opera
oriented,
tions on,
195
26
(see also
Digraph)
Homeomorphicgraphs,
Huffman
100
planar,
90
8 Identification
Identity Identity
graph-theoretic codes, 352)
rank of, 57
regular,
\"rigid\", 209 sum of, 26 ring
of chemical I} 3,
separable, 142
element, permutation, matrix,
compounds, 449 116
selfdual,
similari
107
252 371
137-140
signal-flow,
416-423
Immedia te successors,272
Impedance
ty, 455 426

of,
simple, 2
stochastic,
Incidence, 7
Incidence matrix,
133
subspaces transition,
for digraph,
in
214
networks,
426
83
electrical
tree, 60
two-connected,
as input in algorithms, rank of, 140

reduced,
359 271
union of, 26
141,214 161
unicursal, 24
uniquely
colorable, 53
172
universal, 32
unlabeled,
In-degree, 195, 287,400

Independence
with other matrices, relationship in synthesis of contact networks,

number,
336
170-171
number
of, 239
34, 61-63 270
vertex, 9
weighted,
Graph-theoretic algorithms, 269-316

performance,
Independent circuits, 144 set of vertices, 169-170 Independent set of edges, 193 Independent
Infinite
graph,
7
retrieval, 18
Infini te
Information
region, 94
449, 454
Insanity,
Graph-theoretic
GRASPE,
languages, 316-317
317
Instant
Internal
Gray codes,
Group:
351
Intermediate
states,
vertices, 386
342 set, 169
26
abelian,
114
250
Internal vertices, 49
Internally
definition, 113
permutation,
stable
Intersection of graph,
Intersection
Language
In-tree, In-valence
of subgraphs, (GTPL),316)
115
Graph Theoretic Programming
of subspaces, 131 207 (see also Arborescence) (see In-degree)
H)
311 Invariant of a graph, Inward demidegree (see In-degree) (see Balanced digraph) Isograph
Isolated vertex,
Hamiltonian
circuit,
30-34
number of,
origin
268 30-34
312
Traveling
Isomorphic
Isomorphic
graphs,
digraphs,
14, 139
196
239,
of,
10
in a graph,
Hamiltonian path,
finding,
209, Isomorphism, 14, 53, 159, 284,310,451)
274,
also shortest, 63 (see
salesman
J)
problem)
Hamming
distance,
349
Join,
Height of a tree, 50
Heuristic
132
curve method
Jordan
310)
procedure,
Jordan's
theorem, 91, 189 of elimination,
337)))
SUBJECT
INDEX
469)
K)
transient
tic
graph, graph,
analysis,
437
with transient
K-chroma 166 78
Marriage
states, 432
180 421-422
problem,
k -connected
Kernel, 411
Kirchhoff
Mason's gain formula, Matching, 177-182

in
matrix,
223
bipartite
graphs,
178
182
Kirchhoffs current law, 358, 441 Kirchhoffs voltage law, 359 Konigsberg bridge problem, 3, 23 Kruskal's algorithm, 62, 280 Kuratowski graphs, 90, 93,341
Kuratowski's
definition, 177
maximal,
perfect,
Matching
186
number,
178
Matching problem (seeAssignment

problem)
theorem,
100)
Matrix:
adjacency, 157-159
circuit, L)
142-143
cut-set,
incidence,
151, 153
137, 201
139
Labeled
graph, 53
inversion, 455
relation,
La beled trees, 240 Latin square, 193 Level of Nertex, 49 Line digraph, 236
represen ting a
stochastic,
graph, 137
425
Line:
Euler,
transition,
weight,
425
23
transmission, 332
61
(See also Edge)

Linear
Linear
unicursal,
24
Max-flow
Maximal Maximal Maximal Maximal Maximal
Linear
123 combination, 3 (see also Graphs) complex, 123 dependence,

independent,
Linear programming, 216, 386

Linearly
min-cut theorem, 86, 387-388 subgraph, 312 flow, 312, 385-386 1 78, 312 matching, planar graph, 111
complete strongly
connected
su bgraphs
123,216
456
Linguistics, graphs in, Link (see Chord)

Longest-path
(see
Meshes
Fragments)
(see
Maxwel1's formula, 366

Regions) 227
analysis, 1, 21 matrix,
301
Loop:
definition,
in electrical networks, 360
Method of paired comparisons, Minimal cost flow, 393-395 Minimal covering, 184, 328
Minimal Minimal
Loop impedance
Lower
371
decyc1ization, spanning
Lossy networks, 392 on edge capacity, bound Lumped systems, 455) physical
232, 313 tree, 61, 277-279

arcs,
392
Minimum-feedback
232 395-396 390)
Monoid, 113
MuIticommodity
flow,
Multiple sources and

M) N)
sinks,
Map
coloring,
187
304 Network
Network:
Map-constructionapproach, Markov chain, 425

Markov
analysis problem, 400-409

5, 356-381 and scheduling,
305
process, 424
424-439
activity,
asymptotic behavior, 433

definition,
contact, 329-341
electrical,
periodic,
431)
in
planning
400)))
470
SUBJECT
INDEX)
synthesis
Network
of, 334
flows,
Parallel
Parallel edges,2, 271,401 processing design, 448

(see Polish
transport, 384-389
79
Parenthesis-freenotation
notation)
Network functions, 370
p-partite, 168
Partitioning
Nim,410
Nodal
algorithm, problem, edges,
analysis,
362
Partitioning
31 3 165
Node (see Vertex)

Node
Partitions, 243 matrix, 363

334
Passive
admittance
363
Node-removal
method,
Pa th:
Node voltages, 361, 370 Nonplanar 90, 306, 341 graph,

Nonpolynomial
critical, 403 compared with

directed,
walk
and circuit,
21
algorithms,
315
201
Nonseparable graph, 76, 284 Null 9, 122 graph, of a graph, 57, 60 Nullity Number of different arborescences, 238 Number of different directed Euler lines ,
length
31 Hamiltonian, of, 20
matrix, product,
Path length, 51
Path Path
156, 336 330 281
238
Path-finding algorithm, 273

Paton's
Number Number
of free
unlabeled trees, 248

\037raphs,
algorithm,
of labeled
239
Pendant vertex, 9,43,196

Performance
Number
Number Number Number
of labeled
of rooted of
trees, 240
of graph-theoretic 250-255
algorithms,
labeled trees, 241 rooted unlabeled trees, 243

graphs,
239)
314
Permutation,
of unlabeled
degree of, 253 Permutation group, 250, Persistent state, 344
253, 256
o)
PERT, 232, 268,400-409 Planar graph, 90, 108, 165

Planarity Plane
I-connected graph, 78 I-factor (see Matching, perfect) 81 I-isomorphic, One simplex, 3 (seealso Edge) Opera tion on graphs, 26 research, Operations graphs in, 384-414
Optimal-policy
testing
and
representation,
Planning
Point
algorithm, 99, 304-310 90, \0375, 97, 273 of networks, scheduling
400-409
(see
Vertex)
Polish notation,
Polya's
208
theorem,
matrix, of graph,
298
Ordered trees, 209

Orientation
264
counting
238, 250, 257314
195-196
132
Polynomial-bounded
algorithms, 400
Orthogonal complements,
Orthogonal
Precedence matrix, 220
vectors, 130
249
Precedence relationship,
Predecessor
Preference
Otter's
formula,
matrix, 220
graph,
Ou\037degree, 195,287,343,400 Outer region (see Infinite region)
227
332
also Arborescence) Out-tree, 207 (see Out-valence (see Out-degree) Outward
Primitive connection matrix, Prim's algorithm, 62, 279

Probability
vector,
426
in, 441
demidegree
(see Out-degree))
Program:
error detection
p) segmentation
optimiza tion of, 448

of, 443 digraph,
Program block, 440

Pair
Palm
group,
tree,
255
303)
Program
440, 445
406)))
Project cost curve,
SUBJECT INDEX
Proper
definition,
471)
coloring,
165 186)
165-168
.Ring sum,
26
115,
of edges, 177
of circuits,
of cut-sets,
212
of regions,
72
362
RLC network,
Rooted
number
tree, 48,
time,
241, 243
243
of unlabeled,
Q)
Running
439,441)
Quadratic
flow-cost
function, 399)
s)
R)
s-field
Search
Scaffolding Radius
Random
of a tree,
digraph,
48
296 424
(see Skew field) (see Spanning 271 techniques,
tree)
Seating problem, 6,
Second-shortest
32
Random graph, 278, 321

Random
path, 1, 195,271 113
301
Self-dual graphs, 107

Self-Ioop,
Random
Randomly
Rando Rank:)
processes, 427 walk, m graph)
Semicircuits, 202, 212

Semigroup,
generated graph (see
Semipath,
Separable
201
graph,
Semiwalk,201
57, 60
214 matrix, Hamiltonian path, 76, 284
342
of graph,
of incidence
Ranking
Ranking Ranking Reachability by
Sequential circuits,
228
by score, 228 with minimum algorithm, vertex, matrix,
Sequential machines, Series edges, 99
165, 194,342,344
violations, 229
300
Set: of basic
empty,
circuits, 112
107
Reachability matrix, 235

Reachable
definition, 112
null, 112
with with Shift
203 341
Realizability:
of a circuit
of matrices,
162 of a single-contact function, 335, 340 Reduced incidence matrix, 153, 339 Referencevertex, 214 Reflected binary code, 351
Regions,
operation, operations, 205 register,

two tree,
one
112-116 116-119
Shortest-distance arborescence, 294

Shortest-distance
294
93
adjacent,
Regular
187
92
of planar of, 220
Shortest-path algorithms, 290 194, 416-423, 436 Signal-flow graph, transmission Signal network, 418
coloring, 187
graph,
Single-contactnetwork,
Sink, 385 graph, 189
335
Regular Markov process, 430

Regularization
Skeleton of graph Skew field, 11 7

Slack:
(see
Spanning
tree)
Relation, 198-201
digraph
free, 406
total,
equivalence, 200
matrix
406
of, 201 199
Snake-in-the-box
Sociograms,
code, 352
reflexive, 199
symmetric,
456
Source, Spanning
Spanning
385
418
transitive,
Relay
200
329
Source vertices,
forest,
contact,
arborescence, 209,
55,146,277)))
303
Ring, 117)
472
SUBJECT INDEX)
tree: Subgraph,
Spanning
all,
16,21, 141,273
408
algorithm for,
in a graph, application
to
359
277-279 55, 58, 238,277, 280,376 electrical networks, 356,

time, use
in
Submatrix,141
Subnetworks,
Subsequence,
increasing,
largest
44
monotonically
computer
running
estimating,
442
Subset, 112
Subspace,
125
definition, 55,
degree-constrained
minimal,
73, 209,277
shortest,
Successor
63
listing, 272
390
Supersink,
61,
279
number of,
root
218
spanning
Supersource,
Switching Switching
390
function, network, law,
of, 281
shortest (see Minimal sign of, 218, 376

weight
184, 329 146, 271,
328
tree)
Sylvester's System
of., 61 164 T)
graph,
146, 152, 380, 455)
460
Spanning tree matrix, Sparse graph, 300
Sparse matrix,
Star graph,
271
184
441
Teleprinter's
Terminal Thickness,
Start vertex,
Starting
vertex
problem, 204-205 of path, 20

373
state, 344
1 09
Sta
te :
absorbing (see 429 closed,
Closed state)
Three- terminal devices, 357 Through variable, Tie (see Chord-set)

Time-invariant
ergodic, 429
persistent,
344
432 state) trapping (see Closed State assignment problem, 346 State (see State graph) diagram
transient,
Topological order, 402, 443 sorting, 231, 313, 402 Topological

Tournament,
process,
425
197, function,
227-230 342
Transien t vertices, 446

Transition
State equivalence,
State graph:
345
Transition matrix, 220, 425, 444 Transition 425, 427 probabilities,
definition, 342
properties,
multistep, 427
Transitive Transitivity
343
closure (see
reduction
of, 347
342
of digraph, Relation) 332
300
State table,
Static flow,
Stationary
Transmission, 331
Transmission
385
425
matrix,
Steady-state probabilities, 434

Steiner
process,
Transport network,
Transportation
384-389
393
problem,
tree,
313
graph,
Trapping 426 445 t transition

Tree,
Stereographic projection, 95
Stochastic
Traveling 39-54
state (see Closed state) salesman problem, 34,
280, 313
Stochastic matrix, 425

Stochastic
program-digraph, independen
Stochastic system, 425

Stochastically
48 cen ters in a, 45 central, 60

binary,
decision,
41
probabilities, 427
Stopvertex,
Structural
441 439 of program, 202, 203, 222,312
diameter of, 48 in digraphs, 206-211
Storage requirement Strongly connected,

isomers,
external free, 48)))
path
length
of,
51
family, 41
53)
SUBJECT
INDEX
473)
Vertex,
height
la
1
of, 7 of, 46
of, 50 beled, 54
of, 238 51
closing, 410
degree
null, 39
number
eccen tricity end, 9
ordered, 209
pa th length of, radius of, 48
even, 22
forbidden,
288
Vertex, internal,
fusion of,
20
28
rooted, 48
intermediate,
sorting (seeDecision
shortest-distance,
tree)
49
8
294
isolated,
spanning, 55
unlabeled,54
label of, 15 level of, 49
Tree
admittance
60 379
pairs,
Treegraph,
Tree
True
product, 366
merged (see Vertex, odd, 22 9, 43, 196 pendant,
fusion
00
Tree-felling
vertices,
procedure, 280
350
, 108
reference, 141
starting,
410
Tutte's map-constructionmethod Two-connected graphs, 83
Vertex
Vertex
coloring, 165-169,187 connectivity, 75, 78

graph,
Two-chromaticgraph,
Two-isomorphic
Two-person
166-167
Vertex cover, 193

Vertex
graphs, games, 409
1'04, 143, 336

334
9 (see
also Null
17
matrix
graph)
Vertex-disjoint
subgraphs,
Two-terminal contact
Two-tree,
368)
network,
Vertex-edgeincidence
(see
Incidence matrix) Vertex-labeting process, 390 Violation in ranking, 229

Vulnerability,
u)
77,
284)
Unicursal
Unimodular Union Unique Unique
graph,
24
Unicursaltine,
24
matrix,
.w)
214, 380
Walk,
of graphs, 26 code for graph, embedding,
19-21 path and circuit, of, 35
451
closed, 20
98
compared with
different
21
172 Uniquely colorable graphs, Uniqueness of dual graphs, 103

Universal
types
graph,
32
of, 239
open,20
Weigh
directed, 201
t:
Unlabeled graphs, number Utilities problem, 4, 88)
of edge,
61
tree,
of spanning
of subtree,
61
248
248
v)
of vertex,
(see Degree)
120 120-121
in Weighted
Weight matrix, Valency

Vector:
61,273,418
61-63 98, 106
graph, theorem,
complete, 34
Whitney's
definition,
orthogonal, 130
Vector
Windows (see Regions))))

of networks
space,
application
of graph,
analysis 121-122)
, 359
AUTHOR
INDEX)
A)
Boisvert,
van Aardenne-Ehrenfest, J. R., 424 Abrahams,
T., 234
Boothroyd, J., 318

Batt,
M., 424
Aitken, A. C., 162 Al1en, F. E., 448

Amoia,
V., 64 S., 457
Brooks, R. L., 192

deBruijn, Bruno,
R., 225 Bray, T. A., 414 J. G., 354, Bredeson, N. G., J.,
355
Anderson, J., 448

Anderson,
206, 234
11 0
Ash, J.
Auguston,
E., 454
Bryant, P. R.,
Buchanan,
381
454
J. G.,
318
B. G.,
Avondo-Bodino,G.,457)
Busacker, R. G., 11,414)

c)
B)
Baer,
Balk, K. G., 448 T. C., 354 Basili, V. R., 318

Bartee, Battersby,
J. L., 448
D. A., 381 S. H., 354 Cartwright, D., 234

Calahan,
Caldwell, Caughey,
R., 448
Cayley, A.,
Chan,
10,11,52,54,164,238,248,
381 318
A., 414 M., 457 R., 318
Beckenbach, E. F., 265,414

Behzad,
449,456
S. P.,
Beizer, B., 448

Bellman,
Chartrand, G., 457

Chase,
S. M.,
Berge,C., 11,415
Berkowitz,
Bellmore, M., 36 C. P., 110 Benedict,

S., 318
Chen, W. K., 135, 457 Chen, Y. C., 234 Chien, R. T., 86,381
Collins,
448 Berztiss, A. T., 318, Biondi, E., 439 Birkhoff, G., 354)
Cook, S. A.,
Cooke,
N. L., 65 316
Corneil, D. G.,318,319
Cottafava,
K. L., 318
G., 64)))
475)
476
AUTHOR
INDEX)
C (cont.:))
G)
Coverley, G. P., 424 S., 318 Reghizzi, Crespi-
Gardner,
Ghosh,
M., 415
S. N., 424
Ghosh, P. K., 424

Ghouila-Houri, A., 415 N. E., 319 Gibbs,
Cummins, R. L., 65)
D)
Gluck, D. J., 454

Goldman,
J., 135
Dantzig,
Dawson,
G. B., 319 D. F., 381

135
Good, I. G.,204, 234 Gotlieb, C. C., 318, 319

Gould,
Dean, R. A.,
Deo,N.,
Dickson,
36,65, 110,457
D. C.,
Graham, G. D., 319

Grossman,
R.,
135
I., 457 G., 439)
319
292, 319
Dijkstra, E. W., 280, Dimsdale, B.,415

Dirac,
Grundig, P. M., 415

Guardabassi,
G. A.,
36
H)
Dreyfus, S. E., 319)
E)
Hakimi,
Halmos,
Earnest,
Edmonds,
C. P., 448 J., 319

S. E.,
Hamburger,P., 448
Hamilton, Harary,
S. L., P. R.,
36, 354, 355 135 10,30,31,63,
W. R., F.,
165,312
Elias, P. A., 86
Elmaghraby,
11,36,162,234,265,457
415
Harris, Z., 457

Harrison,
Essam, J. W., 457 Estrin, G., 449

Euler,
J. M.,
454
355
L., 3,11,23,96,115,203,210,226
Harrison, M. A., Hart, R., 319

Held,
Even, S., 319)
M., 319
F)
F ary , I.,
Feigenbaum,
93, 110
E. A., 86
454
Henderson, D. A., JI., 320 Herstein, I. N., 135 Hill, F. J., 355 A. M., 110 Hobbs, Hahn, F. E., 162 R. C., 319 Holt,
Feinstein, A.,
Fisher,
Flament,
Hopcroft, J. E., 319
M. E., 457 C., 457
Flores, B., 320 R. W., 297, 319 Floyd,

Frank,
R. A., 439 Howard, Hu, T. C., 65,319,415 D. A., 65, 352, 354, 355 Huffman,
Huggins,
W. H., 439)
H., 415
Fraser, J.
Frazer, Friedman, Frisch,
J., 319
415
265 Iri,M.,415
W. D., 319, 355 D. P., 319, 320 I. T.,
Ford, G. W.,
Ford,
Fulkerson,
L. R.,
86
86, 415)
Isaacson,
Iyer,
J. D., 320
D. R.,
C., 457)))
AUTHOR
INDEX
477)
K)
Mason,
Matula,
Karl,
J., 449
M., 316, P. W.,
S. J., 421, 422, D. W., 320
424 382
Karp, R.
Kasteleyn, Kaufmann,
319, 448 192
Maxwell, Maxwell, Mayberry,
J. C., 356, 366, L. M., 9, 135 J. P., 225
A., 234
Kautz, W. H., 457 J. G.) 439 Kendall, M. G., 234 B. W., 319, 320, 449 Kernighan, H. K., 457 Kesavan, 381 Kim, W. H., 86, 192, King, C. A., 320 Kirchhoff, G., 10, 11,58,223,356,358,
Kemeny,
Mayeda, W., 355,457 M. D., 320 McIlroy,
Medvedev,G. A., 439 Meetham, A. R., 454

Menger,
K., 86 D., 65
Mesztenyi, C. K., 318

Michie,
359,381,383,441 Klee, V., 355

Klein,
M.
Miller, K. S., 135 R. E., 355,448 Miller,
Minker, J., 318

G. J., L., 192
Minty, Mirsky,
M., 415
280, 320, 355
Konig, D., 11
Kreider,
Knoedel, W., 320 D. E., 65, 320, 449 Knuth, H. E., 457 Koenig,
L., 449
Moder, J.
Montalbano,
J., 415
M., 415
W.,
Moon, J.
Morpurgo,
Mulligan,
65,
234
Kruskal, J.
Kuo,
B.J r.,
381
62, 65,
280
341)
R., 318 G. D., 320
Munro, J. I., 320)

N)
F. F.,
Kuratowski,K., 90, 93,100,304,
L)
Lederberg,
J., 454
A., 234
G. L., 36 Norman, R. Z., 234, 320)

Nemhauser,
Lehmer, D. H., 320

Lempel,
o)
Lietzmann, W., 11 Lin, S., 36, 320 C. L., 192 Liu,
Onaga, K., 415
Ore, 0.,
Otter,
Lockett, J. A.,
11,36
249)
318
R.,
Lorens, C. S., 424 T. C., 449 Lowe,

Lynch,
Lukasiewicz,J., 208
M. F., 454)
p)
Palmer,
E. M., 265
E., 439
Parson, T.
M) Parzen,
D., 110
MacLane,
Magnus,
S., 107, W., 457
110, 304
Paton, K., 281,287, 320 R. H., 454 Penny, W. S., 356 Percival,
Marble, G.,
Marimont,
320
R. B., A.,
Perfect, H., 192

Peterson,
Markov,A.
433,437
449 423, 424, 425,
G. R.,
355
431, 432,
Peterson, W. W., 355 Phillips, C. R., 415

Plisch,
Marshall,
Martin,
C. W., 457
D., 449)))
D. C.,
415
Pohl, I., 320)
478
SUBJECT
INDEX)
P (cont.:)
TaDan,R.
287,301,
454
319,321
P61ya, G., 238, 248,250, M., 320 Pratt, T. W., 319, 320 Prim, R. C., 62,65, 280 Prosser, R. T., 449)
Prabhaker,
Tate, F. A.,
257
Tiernan,
Tokad,
J. C., 288, 321
Y., 457
Torres, W. T.,
Town,
319
454
W. G.,
Trent, H. M., 457

Tucker,
A. C., 65
R)
Turner, J., 457 W. T., 36,108,110,225,234,341, Tutte,

M. 0.,
Rabin,
320
449
355)
Ramamoorthy, C. V.,
Reingold, E. M., 319, 320

Rinaldi,
Read, R. C., 192, 265, Reed, M. B., 9, 12, 381 W. C., 318 Reinboldt,
S., 439 J., 424
318,320
Unger,
u)
Uhlenbeck,
G. E., 265
S. H., 321)
Riordan, J., 65
Robert,
Roberts, S. M., 288, 320 L. P. A., 424 Robichaud,
v)
Robinson, R. W., 265 Rosenberg, A. L., 449

Rosenblatt,
Verhoff,
E. W.,
449)
D., 439 w)
Rota, G. C., 135 Rouse Ball, W., 12
Rovner, P. D., 320)

s) Saaty,
Wang, H.,
Warshall,
415
S., 297,
321 Watkins, R. P., 448 Weinberg, L., 110, 321

T. L., 11
G., 457 A., 415, S., 12,
Weinblatt,
H., 321
Sakarovitch,M., 415
Salton,
Welch, J.
Wells,
T. Jr., 321
Saltzer, C., 354, 355

Schurmann,
449
Sepp.aenen,J.
Seshu,
J., 320
381
M. B., 321 Welsh, D. J. A., 355 Whitney, H., 86, 98,106,110,304 V. K. M., 321 Whitney,
Shannon, C. E., 86,328

Shirey,
Wilkov, R.
Williams, Wing,
Wilcox,G. W., 36 S., 192

T. W., 0.,
R. W., 110
439
135
Smith, C. A. B., 36, 415 J. L., 439 Snell,
Sittler, R. W.,
234
M. S., 321)
Witzgall, C., 414

Wolfberg,
Steiglitz, K., 110

Steiner,
J., 313 y) G. L., 454)
Sussenguth, E. H. Jr., 321

Sutherland,
Yen, J.
Y., 321)
T)
Tabourier,
Talbot,
Y., 321
z)
A., 381)
Zykov, A. A.,
457)))

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in Publication Data to engineering and

Inc., Englewood Cliffs,

PRENTICE-HALL PRENTICE-HALL PRENTICE-HALL PRENTICE-HALL PRENTICE-HALL

realize his greatest ambitionson matriculate.)))

G rap h ? 1 3 of Graphs Infinite Graphs

Isolated Vertex, Pendant Vertex, of Graph Theory History

Paths, Gtaphs Euler

2-5 Connected Graphs,

Hamiltonian Paths and The Traveling Salesman 35 Summary

Rooted On Counting Trees

of Trees 41 in a Tree 43 in a Tree and Centers 48 and Trees Binary

Trees Circuits All

Trees of a Graph Weighted Graph

68 69 of a Cut-Set in a Graph 71 Ci rcuits and Cut-Sets 75 and Separability 79

Combinatorial Vs. GeometricGraphs Planar Graphs 90

Different Representations of a 99 of Planarity Detection

J 04 Combinatorial Dual More on Criteria of Planarity Thickness and Crossings Summary

6-1 6-2 6-3

Sets with Sets with

Submatrices of A(G) 142 Circuit Matrix

Chromatic Chromatic Matchings

Digraphs Directed Circuits A, B,

206 Edges in Digraphs

GRAPHS) 238 240

Types Counting Counting

Trees Trees Unlabeled

11-9 Performance 11-1 0 Graph-Theoretic

of Graph-Theoretic Computer 317

Algorithms 316 Languages

329 330 334

12-2 12-3 12-4

Networks Contact Networks

396 397 Problems

Activity on Comments 414

Activity Networks 409 Theory

last two theory,

has its own

the pen) the author

arises from the

digital computer high-speed in graph theory.

The material covered is appearing for the to spoil the

II and in many in Chapter first time in any textbook.

earlier books on graph theory. sections from other chapters

Yet the applied and

been allowed theory. Indeed,the

book has been made

for advanced undergraduate

Electrical Engineering: Chapters

I], 12, and and 12, parts of

friend and former

K. particularly indebted to Mr. David at the Jet colleague Propulsion Laboratory;

Technology, Kanpur; and Professor Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for

numerous suggestions for

Other friends, colleagues, and

are: Professor Harry

of the manuscript Lass and Mr. Marvin

Just as one does not

Hindu custom. For the coauthorship is tacitly

gratitude expressing is considered a

to one's wife in part of the husbook her husband

writes. There is little doubt that have been possible.)

this book would not