Preface

Gratitude belongs only to Almighty God, who has given his affection to the writer for taking the time to complete the manuscript subject of Plant Physiology titled "Phosphorylation and Factors that in influence rate of respiration". In the completion of this manuscript, writer received support from Dr. Azwir Anhar, M. Si. as a lecturer Subjects of Plant Physiology , and my parents who have given encouragement and my friends that have shared knowledge and those who have assisted in the completion of this manuscript, so I can finish this paper. The writer is aware that this manuscript is still far from perfect. Therefore, the authors expect criticism and suggestions either in writing or orally for perfection. Hopefully, this paper can be useful for particular writers and readers in general.

Padang, 12 September 2013

Writer

Content List

Preface ........................................................................................................................... i Content List ................................................................................................................. ii Picture List .................................................................................................................. iii Chapter I. Introduction 1. Background ....................................................................................................... 1 2. Problem Identification ....................................................................................... 1 3. Limitation Problem............................................................................................1 4. Problem Formulation ........................................................................................ 1 5. Writing Purposes ............................................................................................... 1 Chapter II. Basic Theory A. Phosphorylation ................................................................................................ 2 1. Photophosphorylation ................................................................................. 2 2. Oxidative Phosphorylation .......................................................................... 2 3. Substrate-level Phosphorylation ................................................................. 4 B. Phosphorylation of sugar .................................................................................. 4 C. Factors that influence the rate of respiration ..................................................... 6 1. Availability of respiratory fuels .................................................................. 6 2. Hydration .................................................................................................... 6 3. Kind of Plant Material ................................................................................. 7 4. Wounding .................................................................................................... 7 5. CO2 Concentration ...................................................................................... 7 6. Light ............................................................................................................ 7 7. Age .............................................................................................................. 8 8. Inhibitors ..................................................................................................... 9 Chapter III. Closing A. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 10 B. Suggestion ....................................................................................................... 10 Refferences

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Picture List

Fig. 1. The Reaction Form of Photophosphorylation ................................................... 2 Fig. 2. The Chemistry Reaction of Oxidative Phosphorylation .................................... 2 Fig. 3. Reaction Pattern of Oxidative Phosphorylation................................................ 3 Fig. 4. Scheme Process Inhibitor of Oxidative Phosphorylation .................................. 3 Fig. 5. Chemistry Reaction of Substrate-level phosphorylation ................................... 4 Fig. 6. Graphic Between Age and the rate of Respiration ............................................ 9

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background Respiration, the most important process in all living beings, is the oxidation of food to produce energy. Continuous production of energy is necessary for ccurrence of various physiological processes, such as growth, transport, movements, activation and synthetic pathways. B. Problem Identification Based on the background, we know that there are some problem that we would discussed there is : 1. Respiration process of plants 2. Factors that influence the rate of respiration in plants C. Limitation Problem Based on the problem identification we can limiting the problem for process respiration we just discuss about phosphorylation process and explaining the factors that influence the rate of respiration. D. Problem Formulation As we know, there are some problem that we could discuss intensively such as : 1. What is phosphorylation ? 2. What the factors that influence the rate of respiration ? E. Writing Purposes 1. For Writer This manuscript have benefits to complete the task of Plant Physiology and could improve the knowledge and understanding about Plant Physiology. 2. For Reader We hope, this manuscript could make an understanding and generally concept about Phosphorylation and Factors that influence the rate of respiration.

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CHAPTER II BASIC THEORY

A. PHOSPHORYLATION Before we talk about phosphorylation, we should know about ATP synthesis. As we know, there are three ways of ATP synthesis 1. Photophosphorylation Synthesis of ATP in the photochemical reaction of photosynthesis when electrons are transported from H2O to NADP+ via several electron carriers, is called photophosphorylation.

Fig. 1. The Reaction Form of Photophosphorylation

2. Oxidative phosphorylation Synthesis of ATP during oxidation of NADH/FADH2 in the presence of oxygen is called oxidative phosphorylation. Here, electrons are transported from NADH/FADH2 to oxygen, resulting in the synthesis of ATP.

Fig. 2. The Chemistry Reaction of Oxidative Phosphorylation

Synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) during the oxidation of NADH or FADH2 is called oxidative phosphorylation. This process is accompanied with electron transport from NADH/FADH2 to oxygen. NADH/FADH2 is the source of protons plus electrons and oxygen is the ultimate acceptor.

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Fig. 3. Reaction Pattern of Oxidative Phosphorylation

The process is too complicated as it involves a series of redox systems (electron carriers) through which electrons are transferred from NADH to oxygen. These redox systems are bound to inner membrane of mitochondria. The basis of transport of electrons from one substance to another is the difference between their redox potentials. It occurs from low reduction potential to higher i.e. more -ve to less -ve values. Some Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation Rotenone (an insecticide), several barbiturates such as amytal and pain-killers like demerol inhibit NADH-CoQ reductase to block electron transport. Cyanide, azide and carbon monoxide inhibit cytochrome c-oxidase and block electron transport. Oligomycin (an antibiotic) inhibits ATP synthesis by blocking the flow of protons through F0

Fig. 4. Scheme Process Inhibitor of Oxidative Phosphorylation

Some inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation such as 2,4-Dinitrophenol and dicumarol affect ATP synthesis but do not affect electron transport. Such inhibitors Page 3 of 10

are called uncouplers because they disrupt the tight coupling between electron transport and development of proton gradient. Uncouplers destroy proton gradient by allowing protons to diffuse through inner membrane. In the presence of uncouplers, since electron transport continues without ATP synthesis, lot of heat is generated. 3. Substrate-level phosphorylation Synthesis of ATP without involving electron transport is called substrate-level phosphorylation. In this case an energy rich phosphoryl group is shifted from a metabolite (substrate) to ADP to form ATP.

Fig. 5. Chemistry Reaction of Substrate-level phosphorylation

The average adult human produces / consumes about 65 kilogram ATP per day. However, the body weight does not increase because of ATP cycle. ATP is only transient energy carrier. The body has only about 50g ADP and ATP. Phosphorylation of Sugars This part is also known as activation of sugars since it involves utilization of ATP. This is comparable to ignition of fuels. Hexose is a respiratory fuel, so initially some energy is supplied to activate it. During this process glucose is converted into fructose-1,6-diphosphate, utilizing 2 ATP.

This is the first step of glycolysis and therefore, quite important. Hexokinase is an allosteric enzyme and is inhibited by a higher concentration of the product, Page 4 of 10

glucose-6-phosphate. Magnesium ions are needed by hexokinase and all other kinases to link ATP to the active site of the enzyme.

This reaction is considered to be the committed reaction of glycolysis as this conversion is irreversible. Conversion of fructose-1,6-diphosphate into fructose6-phosphate requires a different enzyme, phosphatase. Moreover, once fructose-1,6diphosphate is formed, it is destined to be used further in respiratory breakdown, whereas glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate may be used in synthetic pathways. The enzyme Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is also an allosteric enzyme, which is inhibited at a higher concentration of ATP. The enzyme is rightly referred to as pace maker of respiration as it acts as a valve controlling the rate of glycolysis. Thus, when the level of ATP increases, the process of glycolysis slows down. As ATP concentration decreases, the pace of the process increases. AMP (adenosine monophosphate) reverses the inhibition due to ATP. The enzyme adenylate kinase

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combines ATP and AMP to form two moles of ADP. Availability of ADP promotes glycolysis. During the formative phase of glycolysis (Reactions 1 to 3) there is no gain of ATP/energy; rather two moles ATP are utilized in phosphorylation of sugars. B. FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATION IN PLANTS Rate of respiration changes very often due to so many factors, some of these are briefly mentioned below with special reference to plants. 1. Availability of respiratory fuels Supply of monosaccharides such as glucose, increases rate of respiration. Glucose is referred to as instant energy food. Starvation certainly lowers respiration and even leads to protoplasmic respiration, where proteins and amino acids are used in respiration. 2. Temperature With increase in temperature from 5oC to 30oC, the rate of respiration rises exponentially with Q10value approximately equal to two. Q10 (Temperature coefficient) =
( )

Q10 is the measure the number of times the rate increases when the temperature is increased by 10oC. Generally, when temperature is increased from 15oC to 25oC, the rate of respiration doubles. Change in temperature basically affects the activity of enzymes. With increase in temperature kinetic energy of various metabolites increases but the stability of enzymes decreases. Also, with an increase in temperature, solubility of oxygen in the cell sap decreases.

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3. Oxygen Oxygen is the terminal acceptor of electrons in oxidative phosphorylation. Since cytochrome c oxidase has a high affinity for oxygen (with very low Km), it is rarely a limiting factor. Plants experience oxygen-deficit when flooded with water. With decrease in concentration of oxygen more fermentation occurs. At higher concentration of oxygen rate of fermentation decreases. In facultative anaerobes, anaerobic respiration is shifted to aerobic in the presence of oxygen (Pasteur effect). This spoils the process of wine or beer production. The concentration of oxygen at which respiration may not be observed is called extinction point. 4. Hydration Since enzymes form a colloidal system, the protoplasm must be well hydrated for respiration to take place. Rate of respiration decreases when there is water stress. In dry seeds, the rate of respiration is negligible. When seeds are stored in moist conditions, they may lose their viability. This is due to respiration by microbes, insects and seeds to generate enough heat to inactivate the seeds. 5. Kind of plant material Rate of respiration is high in growing systems but very low in storage organs and dormant systems. Rate of respiration is high in shoot apices, flowers, leaves and germinating seeds. In tubers, corms and tuberous roots rate of respiration is low due to poor penetration of oxygen. 6. Light Although, respiration is not affected by light, in green plants the rate of the process is more in light than in darkness. This effect in due to heat rays or due to production of sugars in photosynthesis. The light intensity at which the rate of photosynthesis is just equal to the rate of respiration is called light compensation point. Page 7 of 10

In C3 plants, the rate of overall respiration in light may be affected by photorespiration. In photorespiration, CO2 is evolved by chlorophyllous cells in the presence of light and oxygen. When CO2 level is low or oxygen level is high, the enzyme ribulose biphosphate carboxylase combines ribulose biphosphate with oxygen (instead of CO2) to form glycolate, which later releases CO2. Thus, rapid photorespiration apparently increases respiration in terms of consumption of O2. 7. CO2 concentration Normally CO2 does not affect respiration but a relatively higher level of CO2 depresses respiration. At higher concentration of CO2 stomata close in plants even in the presence of light. Sugars accumulate in potato tissue if stored at high concentration of CO2. This principle of retardation of respiration by increasing CO2 level has been utilized for prolonged storage of fruits. 8. Wounding / Injury Wounding of plant parts accelerates respiration. This so-called fever respiration has been remarkably observed in potato, carrot, beet, onion, radish and leaves of Liriodendron. The mechanism of stimulation of respiration by wounding is not well understood. This is attributed to hormonal production during injury and healing process that follows. The plant hormone, indole acetic acid, is known to accelerate rate of respiration. 9. Age Normally rate of respiration decreases with age. However, in ripening fruits rate of respiration increases tremendously. This high rate of respiration when it is at its peak is called respiratory climacteric. This rapid increase in rate of respiration during ripening is attributed to the production of ethylene.The respiratory climacteric of starch into simple may be due to ethylenerespiration.

stimulated hydrolysis

sugars which fuel

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Exogenously applied ethylene can enhance respiratory climacteric in Climacteric fruits - those fruits which experience respiratory climacteric during ripening, such as mango, banana and others. Ethylene can induce respiratory climacteric in Nonclimacteric fruits - those fruits which do not show respiratory climacteric, such as orange, grapes and some others.

Fig. 6. Graphic Between Age and the rate of Respiration

10. Inhibitors / Respiratory poisons There are numerous substances, which inhibit respiration. Enzyme inhibitors such as heavy metals (Ag, Hg and Pb) and acetoamide inhibit respiration. Cyanide, azides, carbon-monoxide, 2,4-dinitrophenol, rotenone, fluoroacetate and many others are potent inhibitors of respiratory oxidative phosphorylation. Several fungal toxins and antibiotics also inhibit respiration.

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CHAPTER III CLOSING

A. Conclusion Based on what we have discussed about phosphorylation and factors that influence the rate of respiration we can conclude, There are 3 kind of ATP synthesis, such as : 1. Photophosphorylation 2. Oxidative phosphorylation 3. Substrate-level phosphorylation Phosphorylation phosphorylation. we could explaining by studying about sugar

There are factors that influence the rate of respiration process in plants, such as : 1. Availability the respiratory fuels 2. Hydration 3. Oxygen 4. Age 5. CO2 Concentration 6. Inhibitors 7. Wounding 8. Light 9. Kind of Plants Material

B. Suggestion As writer know, in her manuscript still not perfect especially in rule of writing so in the next she must considered about that.

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Refferences

Anonymous. 2006. Plants Do It All - Photosynthesis,Respiration, and Transpiration. Chicago:University of Pennysylvania. Decoteau, D. 1998. Journal Environtment Factors and Photosynthesis. Plant Physiology , 6. Lakitan, B. 2000. Dasar-dasar Fisiologi Tumbuhan. Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada. Rawat, M. 2011. Journal Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. Respiration , 36. Salisburry, F. B. 1995. Fisiologi Tumbuhan. Bandung: ITB. Stern, K. R. 2000. Introduction Plant Biology. North America: Mc Graw-Hill Higher Education.

Manuscript Plant Physiology Phosphorylation and Factors that influence the rate of respiration

This manuscript was make for fulfill the task of subject Plant Physiology

Created by : WIDIA KEMALA SARI 1101296 Biology Education

Biology Departement Mathematics and Science Faculty University of Padang 2013