Article A review of some theories and teaching methods with suggestions for putting theory into practice

Theories change and whilst some remain well respected and relevant over time, others are superseded by new ideas. Some of the following theories have influenced our knowledge of child development, first language development and second language acquisition. They are significant theories in the fields of educational research and second language acquisition with pedagogical implications for the ways teachers can create opportunities to encourage children to learn. Multiple Intelligences Dr. Howard Gardner's (1983, 1993a, 1995) theory of 'multiple intelligences' suggests that there are several different distinct and autonomous intelligence capacities that each of us possesses in varying degrees. It proposes that there are several different ways to be intelligent and that learners have diverse learning styles. This represents a radical shift from the traditional concept of intelligence as a single static construct. He defines intelligence as pluralistic and currently defines eight different intelligences: Linguistic, Musical, Logical, Spatial, Kinaesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal and Naturalist. This number is subject to change as he suggests there may be other intelligences that we have not yet been able to test ( Gardner, 1995). Whilst Gardner did not design a model for use in schools, his theory has been applied to a wide range of issues in education generally, including curriculum design and planning and has had a major impact in TEFL (Christison, 1998). Implications for the classroom

Teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each child. Consider analysing your personal teaching style and methods to see how they accommodate the different learning styles of the children. Individual children should be allowed/encouraged to make use of their preferred learning style. Teachers should plan a variety of activities to include something for everyone during the lesson so that each child has the opportunity to get involved and show what they are good at. Consider multiple forms of assessment that allow for different intelligences and not always pencil and paper tests.

Some specific examples

Asking the children to point to a picture in a book and tell you who is in the picture and re-tell what happened in the story is using the visual and auditory intelligences.

Creating a small book to write in will be making use of the kinaesthetic and visual. When you ask them to write their name at top right-hand side of the page and draw a line down the centre they are using visual, spatial and auditory intelligences. Asking them to feel the shapes of letters and say which letter they can feel is making use of tactile and interpersonal skills.

Further reading: Christison, M.A. (1998). Applying Multiple Intelligences Theory in Pre-service andInservice TEFL Education Programs.Forum.36 No 2, April June 1998 p 2 Available online at: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol36/no2/p2.htm This article sets out the implications of Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory for EFL teachers and teacher trainers. There are practical ideas for applying the MI theory in the classroom. Christison also explains how an audit of your teaching style using the MI inventory can inform your planning to ensure that you are facilitating each child's intelligence type. There is copy of the inventory attached to the article. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1993a). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. NY: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21 stCentury. New York: Basic Books Total Physical Response (TPR) It was developed by James Asher in the 1970's and is regularly revised. It is based on the premise that the left and right sides of the human brain can be accessed in different ways to assist learning. In practical terms with young learners it could mean for example, using what language the child already knows to access the left side through a dialogue or story whilst at the same time, accessing the right side with physical responses. It is believed that in this way the child will understand and learn the target language (Asher, 2003). Central to this theory is that we learn best when all five senses are challenged at the same time as the brain. The method seeks to teach new language as the body responds to the commands of the teacher. The basis of TPR is that it encourages careful listening and thoughtful responses. The children are not always required to speak in English but to indicate their understanding by carrying out the desired action. Critics say that it is limited to the imperative but Asher counters this saying that children can make a smooth transition to all other grammatical features through TPR. He also claims that it is a stress-free way to create a lighthearted atmosphere in the classroom. Implications for the classroom:

Children need to be actively engaged in tasks that require movement in response to commands.

Space is required as it is difficult to practise large motor skills in a crowded classroom. It is useful for drilling classroom procedures like standing up and moving children around the room in preparation for an activity.

Further reading: James Asher's website on http://www.tpr-world.com/ Asher, J. (1993). Learning Languages Through Actions: The Complete Teachers'Guidebook. (4 th Ed.) Los Gratos, CA: Sky Oaks Publications. Cognitive constructivism Piaget's (1896 1980) cognitive theory has two major areas: the first concerns the different ages at which children can and cannot do certain things at cognitive, physical and emotional level. The second area is his theory of the four stages of cognitive development (or learning). Piaget's four main stages of cognitive development are: Sensorimotor age 0 2 When the child is preoccupied with self (egocentric) and motor Preoperational age 3 7 Intelligence is intuitive at this stage; thinks and speaks egocentrically even when in social situation. Concrete operational age 8 11 The child is able to think logically but mostly in concrete, not yet in abstract ways . Can take into account the views of others Formal operations age 12 15 Only at this age does Piaget think the child is capable of abstract thoughts. Cognitive structures (developmental stages) are central to his theory. Cognitive structures are patterns of physical and intellectual activity and correspond to the different stages of child development. He believed that children are born with 'schemas' (concepts) of how to interact with the world. The 'schemas' develop as children explore their environment and are enhanced by two complementary processes assimilation and accommodation. This is known as cognitive constructivism. He maintained that a child learns through experience, from taking a concept apart and from getting to the core of things, actually 'constructing' his/her own knowledge. We speak of the child's cognitive Level:, meaning what they can be expected to understand at their particular stage of development and we speak of cognitive development, when referring to the child's growing knowledge which allows them to understand more and more about the world around them. Whilst highly regarded by many, Piaget's ideas have been fiercely criticised by peers and others (Donaldson 1978), for underestimating children's capabilities. Nevertheless his ideas about development of knowledge have influenced our understanding of child development and influenced aspects of teaching in primary schools and primary curriculum design and there are implications of his theory for the teaching of a second language.

Considerations for the EFL/ESL classroom:

Piaget maintained that children think, behave and learn in a different manner from adults. Piaget sees development as an independent process and the teacher's role as creating the right conditions for that to take place. He stated that what children learn is determined by what they already know. When presented with something new they either assimilate the new knowledge without making changes or they accommodate the new knowledge by making adjustments of some kind using their existing knowledge to create something new. Any application of Piaget's theory would need to take into account the given stage of the children. For example, children at the sensorimotor stage work best alone as they find it very difficult to work collaboratively. As they become less egocentric, children can work well in pairs and groups.

The Jean Piaget Society website on: http://www.piaget.org/ Time: Newsweek magazine's 100 most famous people of 20th century as selected by the editors on: http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/piaget.html Scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development Lev Vygotsky (1896 1934), a contemporary of Piaget, also developed a number of theories of cognitive development which placed great emphasis on the importance of language and play in children's learning. He agreed with Piaget that children go through stages of cognitive development and like Piaget he felt that a child's thought processes are different from an adult's way of thinking. Where Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget was over the importance of language and the role of play in children's learning. He saw the child as developing new concepts by interacting with adults who assist the child with understanding the problem. The child observes and internalises the strategies until s/he can complete the task alone. How the teacher sets up the learning activity is crucial. The teacher tries to guide the child through the stages of development to a higher Level: of understanding. This is Vygotsky's 'Zone of Proximal Development' (ZPD) and it is the difference between what the child can do alone and what s/he can do with help. The teacher teaches at a Level: designed to extend the child's learning by building upon what the child knows already and providing appropriate challenging tasks to lead the child along a line of progression. Implications for the classroom:

The job of the teacher in this model is to provide resources and act as guide. Plan activities based on the interests and ability of the children, Design tasks for the children's 'proximal zone' for optimum learning and development. Provide plenty of materials to encourage children to write in a variety of ways. Have accessible reference resources like picture dictionaries, dictionaries and word banks for the children to be independent.