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CHAPTER 12-SLABS FOR BUILDINGS

Concrete slabs demand close attention to all applicable factors of concrete inspection and construction in order to produce a high quality finished product. Because of their large unformed surfaces, slabs require much more time and effort than most other concrete items. Depending on the location and intended use, some aspects of inspection and construction may be more important than others, but conformation to contract document requirements, finished design elevation and surface tolerances, serviceability, durability, and appearance are always prime objectives. Before becoming involved with slab construction, become completely familiar with ACI 302.lR. Many slabs on grade are designed with reinforcement; usually welded-wire fabric is specified. The precise placement of this reinforcement is important, yet is often ignored, with the result that it is frequently found either at the very bottom of the slab or so near the top surface that cover is inadequate ( Fig. 12.1). Concrete slabs on grade constructed with expansive cement normally require reinforcement in the top half of the slab. Structural slabs often contain two layers of reinforcement; one placed near the top and one near the bottom. In this case, precision of placement is even more important. Pay special attention to placing the reinforcing around corners of slab openings, where cracking frequently occurs. Reinforcement must be rigidly supported at its designed elevation before concreting commences. Never place reinforcement, particularly welded-wire fabric, on th e subgrade and then later attempt to pull it into place in the center of the slab after concrete is placed.
POSITIONING REINFORCEMENT

good finishability, and for this reason they should meet the requirements of ACI 302.1R. If not otherwise specified, use a water content producing slumps conforming to the provisions of Section 3.5 of Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings (ACI 301). The concrete must have satisfactory plasticity and finishing qualities and must be sufficiently cohesive to minimize segregation. The use of water-reducing admixtures may help to overcome problems of placement in large, flat structures. Concrete for exterior slabs must be air entrained where required by the exposure conditions. Normal weight concrete for many other exposures may have a small amount of entrained air to increase the workability of the concrete and to reduce bleeding. Concrete made with lightweight aggregate may require air entrainment to improve workability. See page 45 for comments on how temperature, slump, and water reducers may affect air entrainment. If excess bleeding (presence of free water on the slab surface) occurs, the sand may contain insufficient fines passing the No. 50, No. 100, and No. 200 sieves. This can sometimes be corrected by the use of appropriate admixtures, blending sand to improve the gradation, pozzolan, or increased cement content, with an appropriat e reproportioning of the mix. If the mix causes difficulties in workability and finishing, adjust the mix. Plasticizing admixtures may help to overcome this problem. However, obtain the designers approval before changing the mix proportions. Mixes should contain the maximum amount of coarse aggregate that can be used without causing difficulty in placing and finishing. Nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should not exceed one-third the depth of the slab and should generally not exceed 1 l/2 in. Heavy-duty topping mixes must have low slump and less fines in the mix. Prior to placing slabs on grade, prepare and compact the subgrade in accordance with the contract documents. Drain the bottom of granular base courses. Otherwise the bottom must not be lower than the adjacent finished grade. Undrained base courses become reservoirs for water. In many cases, particularly for floors of enclosed buildings, impervious sheeting or similar material is specified to be placed over the subgrade as a vapor barrier to prevent migration through the concrete of capillary water that rises to the surface of fine-grained subgrade soils. If such impervious material is used, it should have full coverage, and each sheet should adequately lap adjoining sheets. Take precautions during installation and concreting to prevent puncturing of the vapor barrier. This vapor barrier does not constitute waterproofing. Section 2.4.1 of ACI 302.lR points out that the usual drying shrinkage cracking of slabs on vapor barrier is much less if 3 in. of wet sand is first placed on the vapor barrier. If there is no vapor barrier specified, dampen the
SLABS ON GRADE

Fig. 12.1 -Wire mesh taken from a roll may tend to be wavy, as shown here. Make sure that mesh is reasonably flat and at specified height

General job mix requirements are usually satisfactory for slabs (see Chapter 6). However, mixes need

MIX REQUIREMENTS

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subgrade by spraying with water before concreting. Never place concrete for slabs on grade on frozen ground. Placing and consolidation of concrete Place concrete carefully to attain the designed slab thickness, within the specified tolerances, after finishing. This can be done by using a sufficient number of suitable rigid screeds and checking of the depth to grade at sufficient points. The bulkheads or forms may serve as screeds. They must be set at proper elevation, and must have no projections so that the concrete may be uniformly struck off. Another method for obtaining proper elevation of the concrete is with the use of a concrete screed, sometimes called a we t screed. Low slump concrete is cast between grade stakes and struck off at the proper level. The grade stakes are then removed and the remainder of the slab placed and finished using these strips of concrete as screeds. Use of wet screeds for placing concrete in slabs is difficult to control properly. Immediately discontinue the use of concrete screeds if there is doubt about consolidation of the concrete in the screeds or in the slab concrete along the sides of the concrete screeds. Place concrete for slabs by crane and buckets, pumps, conveyors, or by hand or power buggies. Take care to maintain proper location of reinforcement. Deposit the concrete as close to final location as possible without building up piles. Avoid excessive horizontal movement and segregation. As concrete is delivered, the drop onto the slab must be vertical and as low as possible. Distribute horizontally with squarepointed shovels and not with vibration. Internal vibrators provide the best means of consolidation of thicker concrete slabs. They should be inserted and removed in the vertical position and moved at short spacing over the entire area. Pay particular attention to vibration along bulkheads and at corners. If vibrators are not available, thorough spading will be required as the concrete is placed. To prevent bringing an excess of fine material and water to the surface, 51 carefully avoid overvibration, which is easy to produce in thin slabs. Concrete in thinner slabs may be consolidated by the sawing motion used with rigid strikeoffs, by vibratory screeds (strikeoffs), and by rollers. Pan-type surface vibrators can be used but care must be taken to prevent working too much paste to the surface. Grate tampers (jitterbugs) can be used with low slump concrete but should be used with great care. Do not use them with the higher slump mixes or with lightweight aggregate concrete. Never use vibratory grate tampers because of probable overvibration and resulting segregation with excessive paste worked to the surface.
Finishing

idated and screeded to grade, remove surface irregularities using a bull float or a darby. This must be done before any water appears at the surface. Suspend all working of the surface until time for floating. Never work the surface while water is present. The next operation, after strikeoff and initial leveling, is floating. Floating may be done by hand or with power floats (Fig. 12.2). Do not begin floating until all of the bleed water sheen has disappeared and the concrete has stiffened sufficiently to allow walking on the surface without leaving heel prints more than about l/4 in. deep. If the concrete is air entrained, use a magnesium or aluminum tool to prevent tearing of the surface. An experienced finisher will use the proper amount of pressure to provide the best results. Premature finishing will bring excessive fines to the surface, which will tend to dust in service. Avoid overfloating or any overfinishing. Float only to the extent necessary to assure that a layer of mortar will cover the coarse aggregate. Observe this precaution in particular when power floats are used. Floating may be used as the final finishing operation or may be followed by troweling.

Fig.12.2-Finishing machines float and trowel surface of concrete slab

Immediately after the concrete has bee n consol-

Perform edging only where required by the contract documents. If edging is required, be careful not to overwork the concrete. Edgers must have a radius no greater than permitted by the contract documents; if not specified, the radius should not exceed 3/16 in. Instead of edging, the edges of the surface at construction joints may be lightly stoned after the forms are stripped and before placing the adjacent slab. Additional water must not be applied to the surface by dashing with a brush, sprinkling, or spraying during finishing or edging operations. With proper scheduling of the finishing operations to meet prevailing conditions, no additional water should be necessary. Never use finishing machines with water attachments to wet the slab. Many slabs require a troweled surface. Troweling is

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done after floating and should be delayed as long as possible to prevent working exces s fines and water to the surface, certainly until the surface moisture film and shine remaining after floating has disappeared. However, do not delay so long that the surface becomes too hard to permit compacting the fines at the surface. Do not trowel any surface that has not first been floated. In most modern operations power troweling is performed first, followed by finish troweling by hand. Trowels are made of spring steel, and for second and succeeding trowelings they are tilted slightly to increase the pressure of the contact area, thus producing a dense, hard surface. Hand troweling requires a high degree of skill to produce a uniformly dense surface, free of chatter marks or other imperfections. Where a hard troweled or burnished surface is required, finish troweling is continued until a ringing sound is created. For some walks or ramps, particularly exterior walks, it is more desirable to use only a wood-float finish, without troweling, to improve traction, since it provides a rougher surface. This condition can also be attained by first applying a steel-troweled finish and then, just before the concrete sets, lightly brooming the surface with a fine hair pushbroom or similar device. Industrial floors, particularly those for warehouses, are at times designed to receive a hardened surface produced by use of a shake of metallic aggregate. A manufactured aggregate, usually mixed with dry cement by the manufacturer, is evenly distributed over the surface after floating the surface once. (Do not confuse this with using added cement to blot up excessive bleed water prior to finishing, which is never permitted.) Two-thirds of the dry shake is first applied in one direction and then floated into the surface, without addition of water. The remaining third is then applied at right angles to the first and again floated to assure uniform application. Finishing operations are then conducted as described above. Abrasive aggregate is often added to slab surfaces in much the same way to produce a nonslip surface. Caution. Bonding of two-course floors is a highly critical operation requiring the most meticulous attention to the procedure described. Even so, experience with such bonding has not always been successful. As a result, some organizations no longer use regular bonded two-course floors, preferring instead to make the second course thick enough to be serviceable of itself in cases where the second course must come later. In such cases, no particular effort is made to bond the thick second course to the base course. Two-course floors can be constructed by applying a thin topping to base course concrete that has not completely hardened (integral topping), or to base
Two-course construction and special toppings Hardened surface slabs

course concrete that is hardened and has appreciable age (bonded topping). Construct the base course slab using single-course methods, but use only bull float or darby finishing because it produces a surface to which the topping will bond well. Apply integral toppings when the base course concrete has hardened sufficiently that footprints of the workers are barely perceptible. Before applying a bonded topping course to hardened base slabs, thoroughly clean the base slab of all loose material, laitance, scale, or other material such as oil, paint, or dirt. These can be removed by sandblasting or ultrahigh-pressure water jet. However, these methods may not be acceptable for inside building work. Indoors it may be necessary to use cleaning agents that will not leave a residue, or to treat with a 10 percent solution of muriatic acid scrubbed over the contaminated area, followed by thorough flushing. Store and handle the acid carefully. Before placing the top course, thoroughly moisten the bottom course. Never allow pools of free water to remain. A neat cement grout mixed to the consistency of thick paint or a specified bonding agent is sometimes applied to the surface, just prior to concrete placement. These should not be allowed to dry or set before the top course is applied. The mix proportions of the topping course (minimum thickness of 3/4 in.) are important. With crushed stone or pea gravel, No. 4 to 3/8 or l/2 inch in size as the coarse aggregate, the mix should be 1:l:l l/2 by weight with no more than 42 lb (5 gal.) of water per 100 lb of cement. Water content should be carefully controlled and specified as the minimum that will permit placing, consolidating, and screeding to be accomplished without undue difficulty. Usually this is a slump less than 1 in. A better quality of finished surface will result if these instructions are followed without exception. The finishing methods for two-course slabs are the same as for single course slabs. Heavy-duty toppings should be constructed with a mix having no more than 31 lb (3.75 gal.) of water per 100 lb of cement and a slump not to exceed 2 in. unless a high range water reducing admixture is used to increase slump. Consolidate and finish these toppings with disc-type power floats equipped with an integral impact mechanism.
Curing and protection Curing is one of the most important factors in attaining

durable concrete. This phase of slab construction cannot be overemphasized. It is important to begin curing immediately after the finishing phase is completed. Currently, use of membrane-forming curing compounds is the most common method of curing concrete slabs. Usually the acceptable types and brands are listed in the contract documents, along with approved methods and rates of application. They are ordinarily sprayed on. If manufacturers directions are followed, reasonably good results can be expected, since the curing compounds retard loss of water by evaporation. They should be applied immediately after striking off and initial leveling or after completion of

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finishing, depending on type of membrane used and the manufacturers instructions. Where practical, the best method of curing slabs is by ponding, which, as the name implies, is a method of maintaining a depth of water over the entire area after finishing has been completed and the concrete has achieved initial set. In most cases, however, it is impractical to use this method because of construction complexities and cost of retaining the water. Another very effective method is to cover the slab with burlap or similar material, whic h must be kept soaked during the entire curing period in order to be effective. It is best to wait until after initial set has taken place before covering with burlap. Otherwise, undesirable marks at joints or creases in the burlap will show on the concrete after removal. In drying weather, after the specified wet curing period has elapsed, cracking will be less likely to occur if the wet curing is discontinued in such manner that the concrete will dry slowly. One way to slow the drying process is to leave the burlap cover in place until the burlap has dried. Avoid the use of new burlap where staining of the concrete is objectionable unless trials have shown that there is no problem. Use clean burlap; do not use old produce sacks because they are often contaminated. Another way to cure slabs is by using curing paper or plastic sheeting. If discoloration or mottling of the surface must be prevented, some other means of curing may be preferred. When curing paper or plastic sheeting is used, it is possible to prevent discoloration or mottling only if complete, intimate, wrinkle-free contact can be achieved and maintained over the whole area. Mottling can be minimized (and curing improved) by keeping free water under the covering. Maintain the curing for the specified minimum period. Normally 7 days is recommended when Type 1 cement is used. Before concrete placements start, make sure all materials and equipment necessary to protect the concrete are in place. Also provide materials and procedures necessary to protect against sudden changes in weather (rain, snow, wind, drastic temperature change, etc.) Protection during cold weather-Properly cured concrete placed and cured at 50 F should provide excellent long term strength and durability. In moderately cold weather, for instance when the mean daily temperature at the job site falls below 40 F for more than 1 day, protect all concrete from freezing for at least the first 24 hr after it is placed. Make provisions for similar initial protection from freezing unless the mean daily temperature has been above 40 F for more than 3 consecutive days. Concrete so protected will be safe from damage by freezing at an early age and, if air entrained and subsequently properly cured, will be unimpaired in ultimate durability, provided the concrete is not permitted to freeze in a saturated condition . AC1 306R gives additional guidance on protection during cold weather.

Protection during hot weather-On hot, dry, windy days, slab surfaces may dry faster than bleed water rises to the surface. This can cause a layer of dry concrete at the surface over unhardened interior concrete. Plastic shrinkage cracking also occurs under these weather conditions. Protection should consist of shading, wind screens, or fog sprays, according to AC1 305R.

Satisfactory construction of structural slabs involves most of the same requirements as those described above for slabs on grade. Consequently, only additional requirements for structural slabs will be discussed below. The inspector of structural slabs should be thoroughly familiar with the necessary requirements for slabs on grade. Reference 40 gives additional guidance for structural slabs. Place screeds for reinforced structural slabs over the form-supporting members. In all cases, take into account the deflections of the supporting members caused by imposed concrete loads, and allow for such deflections in setting the screeds. This may require shoring of the support members. If shoring is used, trace the vertical loads and provide additional shoring at lower floors, if required, to prevent possible deflections of lower floor members that support the shoring. Check the final top-of-slab elevations around columns carefully since there is a tendency to overfill at these points. In addition to the curing and protection requirements discussed above for slabs on grade, protect the bottom surfaces of structural slabs as well as the top. Refer to Chapter 10 for details of protection of concrete, including hot and cold weather concreting.
JOINT CONSTRUCTION Protection Screeds

STRUCTURAL SLABS

Types and locations of joints for building slabs, either slabs on grade or structural slabs, are usually shown in the contract documents; allow no deviation. Joints should be carefully planned by the designer to serve the intended purpose, such as isolation of columns ( Fig. 12.3) or control of expansion or shrinkage (Fig. 12.4). Depending on the purpose of the joint, various types of fillers or armored protection may be specified. The inspector should verify that the filler, armor, or expansion joint material is as specified and is properly placed and treated. Plan the casting of concrete for the slab in conjunction with joint locations. If possible, have construction joints coincide with planned joints. Joints for control of drying shrinkage are often sawed. See Chapter 13 on pavements for the optimum conditions for successful joint sawing. In building slabs on grade, saw the joints at least one-fourth of the slab thickness . It is most important that no unspecified joints be placed in a structural slab without the prior approval of the designer.

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Filled around column after f l o o r

- Joint keyed or dowelled f o r construction purposes

Fig. 12.3a-Location of isolation and control joints for concrete floor slabs, from ACI 302.1R

Fig. 12.3b-Detail shows the isolation joints at columns

Fig. 12.4-In slabs on grade, the contraction joint formed by deeply tooling the fresh concrete provides a weakened plane that prevents random cracking caused by shrinkage or thermal effects