APC NOTES: Unit 9 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

A Quick

Review So far this year, we have talked about many chemical processes that involve only electrons: o Chemical reactions o Bond polarity and Molecular polarity o Molecular geometry o Bonding In this unit, we will focus on the spontaneous changes that occur inside the nuclei of some atoms o Some spontaneous changes inside the nucleus result in the emission of particles from the nucleus. These atoms are said to be radioactive Some Important Terms Nucleons - general term for particles in the nucleus (protons and neutrons) Atomic Number - the number of protons in an atom o All atoms of the same element have the same atomic number Mass Number - number of protons + neutrons Isotopes - atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons o So their atomic numbers are the same, but their mass numbers are different! Radionuclides - nuclei that are radioactive Radioisotopes - atoms containing radioactive nuclei Radioactive decay - process whereby unstable nuclei (due to too many protons and neutrons) emits particles spontaneously from the nucleus in order to become more stable o Goes from a high energy particle to a lower energy particle 2

Types of Radioactive Decay 1. ALPHA EMISSION - nucleus emits an alpha () particle o An alpha particle is a particle composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons In AXZ notation, an alpha particle would be 42 So it is the same as a Helium atom 4He2 o Alpha particles are large, slow moving, and easy to stop They cannot penetrate through a single sheet of paper o Example
238U92 4He2

+ 234Th90

o Example What product is formed when Ra-226 undergoes decay? 2. BETA EMISSION - nucleus emits a beta (-) particle o A beta particle is a high speed electron!!! In AXZ notation, a beta particle would be 0-1 Since it is the same as an electron, it could also be 0e-1 o Beta particles are almost massless, negatively charged, fast moving, and about 100x more penetrating than particles They cannot penetrate more than 3mm of aluminum o Beta particles are formed in the nucleus when a neutron is converted into a proton and an electronthen the electron is emitted from the nucleus 1n0 1p1 + 0e-1
Charge doesnt change because it makes a proton and an electron
226Ra88 4He2

222Rn86

o Example
227Ac89 0e-1

+ 227Th90

Atomic # increases by 1 Remember: ne + p (then the e is emitted) 3

3. POSITRON EMISSION - nucleus emits a beta (+) particle o There are 2 kinds of beta particles: - which is called a beta particle; 0-1 or 0e-1 + which is called a positron; 01 or 0e1 o Positrons are almost massless, positively charged particles o Positron particles are formed in the nucleus when a proton is converted into a neutron and a positronthen the positron is emitted from the nucleus 1p1 1n0 + 0e1 Positrons are short lived because when they leave the nucleus, they quickly collide with electrons in the electron cloud to produce gamma rays 0e1 + 0e-1 2 00 Therefore, positrons dont really penetrate matter because they dont get a chance
If you lose a proton, why doesnt the charge become negative? Because when the 0e1 leaves the nucleus, it hits 0e-1
0e1 + 0e-1 2 00

So you lose a proton and an electron

o Example
11C6 11B5

+ 0 e1

Atomic # decreased by 1 Remember: p n + e (then e is emitted) 4

4. ELECTRON CAPTURE - nucleus "absorbs" an electron o During electron capture, an inner shell electron is pulled into the nucleus where it combines with a proton to form a neutron 0e-1 + 1p1 1n0 So you lose an electron and a proton o An x-ray is emitted as an electron moves from a higher energy level to a lower energy level to fill the vacancy left by the captured electron o Example
87Rb37

+ 0e-1 87Kr36

Electron written as a reactant Atomic # decreases by 1 No change in mass

5. GAMMA RADIATION - nucleus emits high energy photons (energy!!!) o Since it is just an emission of energy, there is no change in mass or atomic number o Gamma emission accompanies almost every other radioactive emission o Gamma emission is the most penetrating radiation....10,000X more penetrating than alpha particles What Should I Do Now? 1. Read about it more in The Chang 5

Patterns of Nuclear Stability The Neutron : Proton ratio o The nucleus contains all the positively charged protons that should repel each other, BUT neutrons act as a "glue" to hold them together o Neutrons exert a force of attraction known as the strong nuclear force (it is much stronger than the force of gravity) o Stable nuclei (up to atomic number 20) contain about equal numbers of protons and neutrons Above atomic number 20, more neutrons are required to keep the particles held together (so the ratio of neutrons to protons goes above 1:1) The optimum ratio of neutrons to protons is called the "belt of stability"...outside of this range, atoms are radioactive. Notice how the belt ends at 83 protons Above element #83 (bismuth), all nuclei are radioactive...there are so many protons in the nucleus that no number of neutrons can hold them together due to the strong positive-positive charge repulsion
*Atoms above the belt of stability (high neutron : proton ratio) emit - particles 1n0 1p1 + 0e-1 This will increase the number of protons while decreasing the number of neutrons. *Atoms below the belt of stability (low neutron : proton ratio) emit + particles or undergo electron capture 1p1 1n0 + 0e1 This will increase the number of neutrons while decreasing the number of protons. 6

Particle Collisions Some radioactivity is spontaneous, but some is induced by purposely striking a nucleus with another particle (ex. a neutron) and causing the nucleus to change identity....this is how new elements are made! Examples 14N7 + 4He2 17O8 + 1H1 27Al13 + 1n0 24Na11 + 4He2 Rate of Radioactive Decay Half Life = time required for 1/2 of a sample to decay o Half lives are unpredictable for individual atoms, but work for groups of atoms Radioactive Decay is a 1st Order kinetic process Example You have 64 grams of a sample with a half life = 10 years. How much remains after 40 years?
Method #1 Time Amount Left 10yrs 32g 20yrs 16g 30yrs 8g 40yrs 4g Method #3 t1/2 = .693/k But you have to know the rate constant k Method #2 Fraction remaining = (1/2)n Where n = # of half lives 7

Nuclear Fission The splitting of heavy nuclei into two lighter ones An exothermic process (this is an understatement!!!!) o A small amount of mass gets converted to a large amount of energy as described by Einsteins equation, E=mc2 Used for nuclear power and atomic bombs Generally accomplished by bombarding heavy nuclei with neutrons Example 1n0 + 235U92 139Xe54 + 95Sr38 + 21n0 ***It appears that all the mass is conserved, but remember that protons and neutrons are not exactly equal to 1.000000 amu. 235U = 234.9934 amu 139Xe = 138.8891 amu 95Sr = 94.8985 amu 1n = 1.0087amu Mass of reactants = 236.0021 amu Mass of products = 235.805 amu Mass lost = 0.1971 amu
It requires about 3 tons of coal to produce 8 x 107 kJ of energy. 1 gram of fission material can produce about 8 x 107 kJ of energy. 8

Example Another one of over 200 possible fission reactions of 142Ba56 + 91Kr36 + 31n0

235U92 1n0

235U92

NOTE: More neutrons are produced in each step. These additional neutrons can then strike other nuclei and cause a chain reaction of fission as long as there is enough mass of fissionable material present (the minimum mass needed to sustain a chain reaction is called the critical mass. http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/fission/fission.html

Example The atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima on 8/6/45.

What? Why is everybody looking at me like that? Two subcritical masses of U-235 were placed in the bomb. When explosives were detonated, the two masses become one mass large enough to sustain a chain reaction. Explosives Subcritical U-235 wedge Subcritical U-235 wedge 9

Nuclear Fusion The fusing together of lightweight nuclei Very exothermic o This process is used in hydrogen bombs Happens readily on stars (like our sun) Requires temperature of 40,000,000 Kelvins "Cold Fusion" is an attempt to fuse nuclei below this temperature o (It isn't necessarily at a "cold" temperature though!!) Examples of Fusion 1H1 + 1H1 2H1 + 0e1 *** 1H1 + 2H1 3He2 *** 3He2 + 3He2 4He2 + 21H1 3He2 + 1H1 4He2 + 0e1
Time for a sing-a-long... "The sun is a mass of incandescent gas A gigantic nuclear furnace Where hydrogen is turned into helium At a temperature of millions of degrees" A little side note: We'd like to use fusion as an energy source because... -lightweight isotopes are readily available -no radioactive byproducts are produced But it requires such high energy to overcome the like charge repulsions -so far we can only achieve this energy requirement on the large scale by initiating it with an atomic bomb, and I guess its obvious why that's not very practical