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Frontiers of Microeconomics
This is the final microeconomics chapter. It introduces students to three relatively new areas of research in microeconomics: asymmetric information, political economy, and behavioral economics. If these topics have anything in common, it is this: Each shows that things are not always as ideal as the traditional economic models assume. Consumers do not always behave rationally. Government solutions do not always improve things. And market outcomes may suffer when market participants dont all have access to the same information.
PRINCIPLES OF
MICROECONOMICS
F OURT H E DITIO N
N. G R E G O R Y M A N K I W
PowerPoint Slides by Ron Cronovich
2007 Thomson South-Western, all rights reserved
In this chapter, look for the answers to these questions: How does asymmetric information affect market
outcomes? How can market participants reduce the resulting problems?
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Introduction Microeconomics continues to evolve. This chapter introduces three active areas of
research:
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Asymmetric Information
Information asymmetry: a difference in two or
more parties access to relevant knowledge
Two types:
Hidden actions one person knows more than another about an action he or she is taking. Hidden characteristics one person knows more than another about the attributes of good he or she is selling.
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Regarding the first two examples: An office worker may spend use the computer in his office to surf the web or send personal emails while on the clock. A person with fire insurance may not bother to test the smoke detectors or replace the batteries in them.
Workers sometimes shirk their responsibilities because their employer cannot continually monitor their effort and performance. Someone whose property is insured may not try as hard to protect it from theft/damage. While the parents are out, the babysitter may spend more time watching videos than watching the children.
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Corporate Management
The separation of ownership and control of
corporations creates a principal-agent problem:
This slide corresponds to a case study in the chapter. This is a case of hidden actions and moral hazard: Managers know the firm much more intimately than shareholders, and have control of the firms resources. A manager may be tempted to use corporate resources for personal gain, or may use insider information to make illegal stock trades.
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principals: the shareholders, pay managers to maximize the firms profits agents: the managers, may pursue their own objectives
To align managers interests with the firms goals, the Board of Directors designs compensation packages with incentives such as bonuses based on the firms performance, or shares of stock. Please encourage your students to read the In The News box entitled The Fruits of Moral Hazard, which contains a 2005 Wall Street Journal article taking stock of the punishments being dished out to executives involved in the famous corporate scandals of the early 2000s. The authorities hope that such punishments will provide a deterrent against future corporate malfeasance. In other words, this is an attempt by public policy to address the problem of moral hazard.
The seller knows more than the buyer about the quality of the car being sold. Owners of lemons more likely to put their vehicles up for sale. So buyers are more likely to avoid used cars. Owners of good used cars less likely to get a fair price, so may not bother trying to sell.
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The classic paper on this example is George Akerlofs The Market for Lemons: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism. Akerlof was awarded a Nobel Prize in 2001 for his contributions to research on aymmetric information.
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Buyers of health insurance know more about their health than health insurance companies. People with hidden health problems have more incentive to buy insurance policies. So, prices of policies reflect the costs of a sicker-than-average person. These prices discourage healthy people from buying insurance.
In both examples, the information asymmetry prevents some mutually beneficial trades.
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Individual selling a good used car provides all receipts for work done on car. Dealership provides warranties on used cars. Firms spend huge sums on advertising to signal product quality to buyers. Highly competent workers get college degree to signal their quality to employers.
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Health insurance company requires physical exam before selling policy. Buyer of a used car requires inspection by a mechanic. Auto insurance company charges lower premiums to drivers willing to accept a larger deductible they are most likely the safer drivers.
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ACTIVE LEARNING
1: Asymmetric information
For each situation below,
identify whether the problem is moral hazard or adverse selection explain how the problem has been reduced
A. Aperion Audio sells home theater sound systems over the Internet and offers to refund the purchase price and shipping both ways if the buyer is not satisfied. B. Landlords require tenants to pay security deposits.
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ACTIVE LEARNING
Answers
1A:
Aperion Audio sells home theater sound systems over the Internet and offers to refund the purchase price and shipping both ways if the buyer is not satisfied.
Adverse selection:
Buyers may fear that systems purchased on the Internet will not sound good, since the sellers know that buyers cannot hear them first. So, firms with good systems are less likely to be successful selling them on the Internet.
ACTIVE LEARNING
Answers
1B:
Moral hazard:
The landlord (principal) does not know how well the tenant (agent) treats the apartment. Tenants may not be careful if they can get away without paying for damage they cause.
Political Economy
Political economy applies the methods of
economics to study how govt works.
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35% A B C
45% B C A
20% C A B
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First, B runs against C. What is the outcome? Type 1 and Type 2 voters prefer B over C, so B wins. Second, A runs against B. Type 1 and Type 3 voters prefer A over B, so A wins. However, in a race between A and C, C would win: Type 2 and Type 3 voters prefer C to A.
35% A B C
45% B C A
20% C A B
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Arrows Impossibility Theorem Arrow proved that no voting system can satisfy
all four properties.
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The Median Voter Theorem Suppose society is deciding the level of the
government budget.
The median voter theorem is due to Duncan Black in a 1948 article entitled On the Rationale of Group Decision-Making. A precursor is the research of Harold Hotelling. Hotellings law says that firms will make their products very similar (e.g., two competing ice cream stands locating next to each other in the middle of the beach).
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% of voters
30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% $20 $30 $40 $50 $60 $70 $80
Why $50 is the median choice: At least 50% of voters want a budget no larger than $50 billion, and at least 50% of voters want a budget no smaller than $50 billion. Why $40 would win a two-way race between $40 and $70: Each voter chooses the option that is closest to his or her own preferred budget. $40 would be chosen by voters that prefer anything between $20 and $50, and such voters comprise 60% of the electorate. $70 would be chosen by voters who prefer $60, $70, or $80, and such voters comprise only 40% of the electorate.
The The median median voter voter prefers prefers a a budget budget of of $50 billion. billion.
The choice closest to $50 will win any two-way race. Suppose the choices are $40 and $70. $40 will win, even though more voters prefer $70!
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Here we see the Principal-Agent problem again: Principal = citizens. Agent = elected officials. The textbook contains an In The News box with a column by humorist Dave Barry on the role of the politicians self-interest in shaping farm policy. You and your students will enjoy this article.
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ACTIVE LEARNING
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ACTIVE LEARNING
Answers
2:
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Behavioral Economics
Behavioral economics: a new field in which
economists apply basic insights from psychology
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The book cites some interesting research and examples on each of these findings. Heres an additional example of giving too much weight to vivid observations: After a rock star is killed in a plane crash, people start taking the train more and flying less.
People are overconfident. People give too much weight to a small number of vivid observations. People are reluctant to change their minds.
Even though people are not always rational, the assumption that they are is usually a good approximation for economic modeling.
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Two players who do not know each other have a chance to share a prize of $100. Player A decides what portion of the prize to give to player B. B must accept the split or both get nothing.
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A would propose a 99-1 split and B would accept, because $1 is better than nothing.
B usually rejects lopsided splits like 99-1 as wildly unfair. Expecting this, A usually proposes giving $30 or $40 to B. B views this as unfair, but not so much as to abandon his self-interest, so B accepts.
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People Care About Fairness The results of the ultimatum game apply in other
situations.
Example:
A firm may pay above-equilibrium wages during profitable years to be fair, or to avoid appearing unfair and risking retaliation from workers.
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Another example of time inconsistency: A worker plans to start saving 20% of her income 3 months from now, because she must first pay off some overdue bills. After 3 months pass, the worker savings nothing and instead spends all her monthly income. Here is the classic textbook example of time inconsistency (from Mankiws intermediate macro text, and other textbooks): The government announces a policy of not negotiating with terrorists who take hostages. The policy is intended to deter terrorists, make them believe they would gain nothing by taking hostages. But terrorists know that once they have hostages, the government will be tempted to try to negotiate for the hostages lives.
e.g., worker has money taken out of paycheck before he ever sees it
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CONCLUSION
Recall two of the Ten Principles: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity. Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes. Research at the frontiers of microeconomics illustrates some caveats that go with these principles: Consumers arent always rational. Market outcomes may not be best when information is asymmetric. Government solutions are not always ideal.
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