GENERATORS..

TRANSFORMERS

SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY AT HOME

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL/ BATTERY
k a device that generates a potential difference between electrodes using chemical reactions. k Convenient but cell electrodes and electrolytes are expensive k Can not be used for large consumption of electrical energy

 Generators
k device for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy by electromagnetic induction k Produce large amounts of electricity for longer period of time k WORKING PRINCIPLE: k )DUDGD\V ODZ RI HOHFWURPDJQHWLF LQGXFWLRQ. o ALL GENERATORS WORK UNDER THIS PRINCIPLE o when a conductor moves inamagnetic fieldit cuts magnetic lines force, due to which an emfis inducedin the conductor. The magnitude of this induced emf depends uponthe rate of changeof flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor.. This emfwill cause a current to flowif the conductor circuit is closed.

o Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the conductor.

AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on

(1) the strength of the magnetic field, (2) the angleat which the conductor cutsthe magnetic field, (3) the speedat which the conductor is moved, (4) the length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

POLARITY of the voltage depends on

1. the directionof the magneticlinesof flux 2. the directionof movement of the conductor.

LEFT-HAND RULE FOR GENERATORS

To determine the direction of current
1. Extend the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger ofyour left hand at right angles to one another. 2. Point your thumb inthe directionthe conductor is beingmoved. 3. Point your forefingerin the directionof magnetic flux (fromnorth to south). 4. Your middle finger will thenpoint inthe direction ofcurrent flow in anexternal circuit to which the voltage is applied.

TYPESOF GENERATOR AC GENERATOR/ ALTERNATOR SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

k Analternatorissuchamachinewhichproducesalternationelectricity. k It is a kind of generators which converts mechanical energy into alternating electricalenergy. k Itisalsoknownassynchronousgenerator.
HistoryofAlternator Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii gave the very first concept of alternator.

Michael Faraday designed a rotating rectangular turn of conductor inside amagneticfieldtoproducealternatingcurrentintheexternalstaticcircuit. 1886 J.E.H. Gordon, designed and produced first prototype of useful model. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti designed a model of 100 to 300 Hz synchronousgenerator. Nikola Tesla in 1891, designed a commercially useful 15 KHz generator. After this year, poly phase alternators were come into picture which can delivercurrentsofmultiplephases.

Use of Alternator
The power forelectrical systemof modernvehiclesproducesfromalternator Anotheruse ofalternatorisin Diesel electriclocomotive. Also used in marine similar to Diesel electriclocomotive.

Types of Alternator According to application these machines areclassifiedas 1) Automotivetype used inmodernautomobile 2) Diesel electric locomotivetypeused inDieselElectric MultipleUnit 3) Marinetype used inmarine 4) Brushless type used inelectricalpower generationplant as main source ofpower 5) Radioalternators used for low brand radio frequency transmission

according to their design

1) Salient poletype
Itisused aslowandmediumspeed alternator. Ithasa large numberof projecting poleshaving theircoresbolted or dovetailed onto a heavymagnetic wheel of castiron or steel. characterized bytheirlarge diametersandshortaxial lengths looklikebig wheel. mainlyused forlowspeed turbinesuch asin hydropowerplant.

2) Smooth Cylindricaltype
used forsteamturbinedriven alternator itsrotorrotatesin veryhighspeed. The rotorconsistsof asmooth solid forgedsteel cylinderhaving a number of slots milled out at intervalsalong the outerperipheryfor accommodation of field coils.

PARTS OF ALTERNATOR

Powerful field magnet with concave poles. Armature: It is a rectangular coil of large number of turns of wire wound on laminated soft-iron core of high permeability and low hysteresis loss. Slip rings: The ends of the coil are joined to two separate copper rings fixed on the axle Carbon brushes: Two carbon brushes remain pressed against each of the rings which form the terminals of the external circuit.

HOW IT WORKS
When the Coil is rotated between the Poles of the Magnet by cranking the handle, an AC Voltage Waveform is produced. Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in the magnetic field or by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.

DC GENERATOR/ COMMUTATOR produces direct power a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two opposite poles of magnet.
Types of Commutator

according to their field excitation systems. 1. Separately excitedgenerator: thefieldcoil of theDC generatorisexcitedfrom a external direct current source. 2. Self-excitedgenerator: Herethefield coil is energizedby the current producedbythe generatoritself.Thereare subcategories of self-excitedgenerators according to the arrangementof armature & field:

A DC Generator has the following parts 1. Yoke

(i) Itholdsthe magnetic pole cores of the generator and acts ascover of the generator (ii) Itcarriesthe magnetic field flux.

2. Pole of Generator
i. Solid pole core-made of a solid single piece of cast ironorcast steel. ii. Laminated pole core-made of numbers of thin,limitationsof annealed steel which are riveted together. The pole coreis fixed to the innerperiphery of the yokebymeansof bolts through the yokeand into the pole body. The pole shoes are so typically shaped, that, they spread out the magnetic flux in the air gap and reduce the reluctanceof the magnetic path. The field coils or pole coils are wound aroundthe pole core. These are a simple coil ofinsulated copperwireorstrip, whichplaced on the pole

3. ArmatureCoreof DC Generator The purpose of armature core is to hold thearmaturewindingand provide low reluctance path forthe fluxthrough the armature from N pole to S pole. 4. ArmatureWindingof DC Generator
a) Armature winding generally formed wound. b) Various conductors of the coils are insulated fromeach other. c) The conductors are placed in the armature slots, which are lined with toughinsulating material. d) This slot insulation is foldedover above the armature conductors placedinit and secured inplace by special hard wooden or fiberwedges.

5. Commutatorof DC Generator
a) plays a vital role in dc generator. b) It collectscurrent fromarmature and sendsit to the load asdirect current. c) It actually takesalternating currentfromarmature and convertsit to direct current and then sendit to external load.

6. Brushes of DC Generator
a) The brushesare made of carbon. b) These are rectangularblockshaped. c) The onlyfunction of thesecarbon brushesof dcgenerator is to collect current fromcommutatorsegments.

7. Bearing of DC Generator
a) For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty dcgenerator, roller bearing is used. b) The bearing must alwaysbe lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of generator.

A transformer is a device for increasing or decreasing an a.c. voltage.

Structure of Transformer

Circuit Symbol for Transformer

How Transformer works

Laminated soft iron core Input voltage (a.c.) Primary coil Output voltage )

(a.c.

Secondary coil

All transformers have three parts:

1. Primary coil the incoming voltage Vp (voltage across primary coil) is connected across this coil. 2. Secondary coil this provides the output voltage Vs(voltage across the secondary coil) to the external circuit. 3. Laminated iron core this links the two coils magnetically.
Notice that there is no electrical connection between the two coils, which are constructed using insulated wire.

Two Types of Transformer

A step-up transformer increases the voltage - there are more turns on the secondary than on the primary. A step-down transformer decreases the voltage - there are fewer turns on the secondary than on the primary. To step up the voltage by a factor of 10, there must be 10 times as many turns on the secondary coil as on the primary. The turns ratiotellsus thefactorbywhich the voltage will be changed.

GENERATING ELECTRICITY

Industrial Revolution
PHULRG ZKHUH KXPDQ VRFLHW\V QHHG IRU HQHUJ\ GUDPDWLFDOO\ LQFUHDVHV Coal was the main energy source that fuelled the engines and factories during this period

Electric current generation - whether from fossil fuels, nuclear, renewable fuels, or other sources is usually based on the:

In September of 1831, Michael Faraday made the discovery of Electromagnetic Induction.

Faraday attached two wires to a disc and rotated the disc between the opposing poles of a horseshoe magnet creating an electric current.

If you place a magnet and a conductor (copper wire), in a room together there will be no electric current generated. This is because motion, from our equation for electricity, is missing! An electric current is not generated unless the magnetic field is moving relative to the copper wire, or the copper wire is moving relative to the magnetic field.

Sources of Energy
All forms of energy are stored in different ways, in the energy sources we use every day. These sources are divided into 2 groups.

Sources of Energy
Renewable Non p Renewable
k An energy sourceAn k be that energy can source that we cannot

replenished in a short period replace. of time.

RENEWABLE SOURCES

1. Solar Energy
Originates with the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in the sun. Represents the entire electromagnetic radiation (visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves).

k k

Solar Cells really called photovoltaic" or "photoelectric" cells) convert light directly into electricity.

In a sunny climate, you can get enough power to run a 100W light bulb from just one square meter of solar panel.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of the thermonuclear reactionsremain behindon thesun, while onlypure radiant energyreachestheEarth. Energy reaching the earth is incredible. By one calculation,30daysof sunshinestrikingtheEarthhave WKHHQHUJ\HTXLYDOHQW RI WKHWRWDO RI DOOWKHSODQHWV fossilfuels, both usedandunused!

Disadvantages
Sun does not shine consistently. Solar energy is a diffuse source. To harness it, we must concentrateitinto anamount and form that wecanuse, suchasheat andelectricity. Addressed by approaching the problem through: 1) collection,2) conversion, 3) storage.

How much solar energy?

The surface receives about 47% of the total solar energy that reaches the Earth. Only this amount is usable.

Solar-Thermal Electricity: Power Towers

General idea is to collect the light from many reflectors spread overa large areaat one central point to achieve high temperature. Example is the 10-MW solar power plant in Barstow, CA.
1900 heliostats, each 20 ft by 20 ft a central 295 ft tower

An energy storage system allows it to generate 7 MW of electric powerwithoutsunlight. Capital cost is greater than coal fired power plant, despite the no cost for fuel,ash disposal,and stackemissions. Capital costs are expected to decline as more and more power towers are built with greatertechnological advances. One way to reduce cost is to use the waste steam from the turbine for space heating or other industrial processes.

Power Towers

Power tower in Barstow, California.

Solar-Thermal Electricity: Parabolic Dishes and Troughs

Focus sunlight on a smaller receiver for each device; the heated liquid drivesa steam engine to generate electricity. The first of these Solar Electric Generating Stations (SEGS) wasinstalled inCAby an Israeli company, Luz International. Output was 13.8 MW; cost was $6,000/peak kW and overall efficiency was25%. Through federal and state tax credits, Luz was able to buildmoreSEGS, andimproved reduced costs to $3,000/peak kW andthe cost of electricityfrom 25 cents to 8 cents per kWh, barelymorethan the cost of nuclear or coal-fired facilities. The more recent facilities converted a remarkable 22%of sunlight into electricity.

Parabolic Dishes and Troughs

Collectors in southern CA. Because they work best under direct sunlight, parabolic dishes and troughs must be steered throughout the day in the direction of the sun.

Direct Conversion into Electricity

Photovoltaic cells are capable of directly converting sunlight into electricity. A simple wafer of silicon with wires attached to the layers. Current is produced based on typesof silicon (nand p-types) used for the layers. Each cell=0.5 volts. Battery needed as storage No moving parts k donot wear out, but because they are exposed to the weather, their lifespan is about 20 years.

Solar Panels in Use

Because of their current costs, only rural and other customers far away from power lines use solar panels because it is more cost effective than extending power lines. Note that utility companies are already purchasing, installing, and maintaining PV-home systems (Idaho Power Co.). Largest solar plant in US, sponsoredby the DOE, served the Sacramento area, producing 2195 MWhof electric energy, making it cost competitive withfossil fuel plants.

Efficiency and Disadvantages

Efficiencyis far lassthan the 77%of solar spectrumwithusable wavelengths. 43%of photonenergyis used to warm the crystal. Efficiencydrops astemperature increases(from24%at 0C to14%at 100C.) Light is reflected off the front faceand internal electrical resistanceare other factors. Overall,the efficiencyis about 10-14%.
Cost of electricityfrom coal-burningplantsis anywhere b/w 8 -20 cents/kWh, while photovoltaic power generationisanywhere b/w$0.50-1/kWh. Does not reflect thetruecostsof burning coal and itsemissionsto thenonpolluting methodof the latter. Underlyingproblem isweighingefficiency against cost. k Crystalline silicon-more efficient, more expensive to manufacture k Amorphous silicon-half as efficient, less expensive to produce.

2.WIND POWER- What is it?

All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power), ultimately comes from the sun The earth receives 1.74 x 10 17 watts of power (per hour) from the sun About one or 2 percent of this energy is converted to wind energy (which is about 50-100 times more than the energy converted to biomass by all plants on earth DLIIHUHQWLDO KHDWLQJ RI WKH HDUWKV VXUIDFH and atmosphere induces vertical and horizontal DLU FXUUHQWV WKDW DUH DIIHFWHG E\ WKH HDUWKV rotation and contours of the land k WIND. ~ e.g.: Land Sea Breeze Cycle

 Winds

are influenced by the ground surface at altitudes up to 100 meters. Wind is slowed by the surface roughness and obstacles. When dealing with wind energy, we are concerned with surface winds. A wind turbine obtains its power input by converting the force of the wind into a torque (turning force) acting on the rotor blades. The amount of energy which the wind transfers to the rotor depends on the density of the air, the rotor area, and the wind speed. The kinetic energy of a moving body is proportional to its mass (or weight). The kinetic energy in the wind thus depends on the density of the air, i.e. its mass per unit of volume. In other words, the "heavier" the air, the more energy is received by the turbine. at 15 Celsius air weighs about 1.225 kg per cubic meter, but the density decreases slightly with increasing humidity.

A typical 600 kW wind turbine has a rotor diameter of 43-44 meters, i.e. a rotor area of some 1,500 square meters.
k

k The rotor area determines how much energy a wind turbine is able to harvest from the wind. k Since the rotor area increases with the square of the rotor diameter, a turbine which is twice as large will receive 22= 2 x 2 = four times as much energy. To be considered a good location for wind energy, an area needs to have average annual wind speeds of at least 12 miles per hour.
k

WINDMILL DESIGN
A Windmill captures wind energy and then uses a generator to convert it to electrical energy. The design of a windmill is an integral part of how efficient it will be. When designing a windmill, one must decide on the size of the turbine, and the size of the generator.

LARGETURBINES: Able to deliver electricity at lower cost than smaller turbines, because foundation costs, planning costs, etc. are independent of size. Well-suited for offshore wind plants. In areas where it is difficult to find sites, one large turbine on a tall tower uses the wind extremely efficiently.

SMALL TURBINES: k Local electrical grids may not be able to handle the large electrical output from a large turbine, so smaller turbines may be more suitable. k High costs for foundations for large turbines may not be economical in some areas. k Landscape considerations

 Wind power generators convert wind energy (mechanical energy) to electrical energy. The generator is attached at one end to the wind turbine, which provides the mechanical energy. At the other end, the generator is connected to the electrical grid. The generator needs to have a cooling system to make sure there is no overheating.

Advantages of Wind Power

The wind blows day and night, which allows windmills to produce electricity throughout the day. (Faster during the day) Energy output from a wind turbine will vary as the wind varies, although the most rapid variations will to some extent be compensated for by the inertia of the wind turbine rotor. Wind energy is a domestic, renewable source of energy that generates no pollution and has little environmental impact. Up to 95 percent of land used for wind farms can also be used for other profitable activities including ranching, farming and forestry. The decreasing cost of wind power and the growing interest in renewable energy sources should ensure that wind power will become a viable energy source in the United States and worldwide.

-Wind variability must be overcome by system design - Basic energy Storage - Differences in pressure gradients around wind turbines affect birds -Noise from the turbines affects people and animals -Eyesore, the appearance of mile after mile of wind machines with transmission lines is of concern to the public

MINDORO WIND FARM- since September 2012, the windfarm is now producing 16 MW of wind energy, after its completion it can produce 48 MW wind energy

3. Biomass a new source of energy

Biomass is a renewable energy source that is derived from living or recently living organisms. Biomass includes biological material, not organic material like coal. Energy derived from biomass is mostly used to generate electricity or to produce heat. Thermal energy is extracted by means of combustion, torrefaction, pyrolysis, and gasification. Biomass can be chemically and biochemically treated to convert it to a energy-rich fuel.

What is the use of biomass energy? For producing heat energy Anything from the nature which can burn to heat. E.g. charcoal, wood, Mustard oil For producing electricity Using method is same as oil. Burn it and get energy either for a state or a house. E.g. wood, crop residues, Mustard oil

The various and famous examples for biomass

Crop residues : burn it in incinerator to produce energy. Burning woods : burning woods in order to produce electricity or heat energy. Mustard oil : used like oil for electricity or diesel

The advantages for biomass energy

Most of them are renewable, e.g., wood, mustard oil and crop residues. Solve energy crisis in the future. Some of them are re-using the waste, e.g.,crop residues, sewage. High energy efficiency. Generally it does not polluted the atmosphere as much as oil and coal.

The disadvantages ofthe using of biomass energy

More serious air pollution was found when burning plants matters, e.g., CO2, CO, solid particulate matter. Emission more carcinogens into the air. Emission some toxic gases and ash. It takes too much energy to collect, dry and transport the residues to power plants. Reduce soil nutrient replenishment. The source of biomass can use fertilize soil, e.g., crop residues and animal manure. Cutting too many woods is a kind of deforestation can cause, soil erosion and natural disasters

 Raising the price of food, wood and wood products indirectly. May cause accident. It uses large area to grow biomass.

The limitations for using biomass energy

Either high technological level or catalytic combustion is needed. Large area is needed to grow plants for biomass energy use. When producing biomass fuel, large amount of waste will also produced.

The environmental problemscaused by biomassenergy

The source of biomass can use fertilize soil, e.g., crop residues and animal manure. Cutting too many woods is a kind of deforestation can cause, soil erosion and natural disasters It will intensify air pollution

4. Geothermal Energy
Geo (Greek for earth) Thermal (heat)
k Temp. of Shallow Crust (upper 10 ft.) Constant 55-75F (1324C) k Up to 14,400F (8,000C) at Molten Core (approx. 4,000 mi. to center of core)

Energy from the heat of the earth

Types of Geothermal Resources

Geothermal Sources are Classified Based on:
k Temperature, k PhysicalState ofH 0 2 (i.e. water or steam) k Type of Energy Usage

Primary Classification is Resource Temperature:

k LowTemperature Reservoir: 50-200 F (10-94 C) k High Temperature Reservoir: >200 F

Brief Historyof Geothermal Energy

Paleo-Indians Usage Dates Back 10,000 Years Use by Romans Hot Spas; Hot Running Water, Etc. Early 1800s Yellowstone Hot Springs and Hot Springs Arkansas k 1830 1st Commercial Use;
AsaThompson sold Bath in Wooden Tub for $1

Historyof Geothermal Energy

In 1852, the Geysers Resort Hotel in San Fran. CA opened 108 Years later, 1 st Geothermal Electricity Plant Opened at the Same Location TKH Gysers

What Makes a Good Geothermal Reservoir for Generating Electricity?

Hot Geothermal Fluids Near Surface (<1-2 mi.)

k Preferably in Excess of 300F, but Electrical Generation ,V 2FFXUULQJ DW 7HPSV. ,Q WKH /RZ200VF.

Proximity to Population Base Low Mineral and Gas Content Location on Private Land Proximity to Transmission Lines

TYPES OF GEOTHERMALPOWER PLANTS

Different Types of Plants are Required to Take Advantage of the Particular Characteristics of Each Specific Geothermal Site Main Types of Geothermal Power Plants:
k Dry Steam k Flash Steam k Binary Cycle

HOW IT WORKS

Benefits of Geothermal Power Generation

Little to No Pollution
k FlashPlants Emit Only Excess Steam k Binary Plants Have NoAir or Liquid Emissions!

Expected to Be Dominant Type in Future

k LakeCounty +RPH RI 7KH *H\VHUV *HRWKHUPDO Plants LV 2QH RI WKH 2QO\ CRXQWLHV WR 0HHW CAV Stringent Air Quality Standards.

 Emission of Low Quantities of Greenhouse Gasses Homegrown

k Decreases Dependency On Foreign Energy

 As Opposed to Burning Fossil Fuels, Current Geothermal Use

Prevents the Yearly Emission of:

k 22 M tons of CO2 k 200k tons of SO2 k 80k tons of NOx k 110k tons of Particulates

 Some Plants Produce Scale Which Is High in Minerals (Zinc and S) But, The Minerals are Now Recyclable and Can be Sold For a Profit!
No Fuel Usage (storage, transfer, disposal, mining)

 Reliability:
k Plants Have Very Little Down Time -Avg. Availability is 90% or greater k 60-70%for Coal and Nuclear Plants

'LVDGYDQWDJHV RI *HRWKHUPDO (QHUJ\ &RQWG

Start-up Costs Are High
k GeothermalPlants Require Significant Capital Expenditures, But the FuelIs Free k Cost -$1,500-$5,000 / Installed kW Depending on Plant Size, Resource Temp. And Chemistry 1

Cost Of Power to Consumer

k Currently, $0.05 to $0.08 / Kwh 2 k Needs to Be $0.03 to Be Competitive

 Water can be corrosive to plant pipes, equipment

k Ifwater not replaced back into reservoir, subsidence can occur k How Much Water is Needed? Ea. MWrequires 500gpm@ 300F; 1400 gpm@ 200F.

Some high mineral / metal wastewater and solid waste is produced Smelly gasses H2 S, Ammonia, Boron Release of steam and hot water can be noisy

 Limited # of High Temp. Resources Capable of Electric Generation Using Current Technology

GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Said to be a proven indigenous energy source

nd in the world in the development of Ranked 2 geothermal resources for power generation

As of 2003, the total installed capacity of geothermal power plant in the country is 1931 MW and an untapped potential of about 2600 MW.

Geothermal powerplant in Leyte

5. HYDOELECTRIC POWER Energy created by flowing water HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT/ HYDEL POWERPLANT k In hydroelectric power station potential and kinetic energy of stored water is converted into electric energy . k For hydro power station factors like rainfall,steam flow available head and storage facilities are studied. k 25% of electricity generation capacity in world is provided by hydel power plant.

PURPOSES OF MULTIPURPOSE HYDROPROJECT

k For irrigation of agricultural land. k For navigation. k For fisheries and tourism. k For flood control. k For civil water supply. k For generation of electricity.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF HYDEL POWER PLANT

Reservoir Dam Trace rack For bay Surge tank Penstock Spillway Turbine Powerhouse

Classification of Hydel Power Plants

According to availability of water:a) Run of river plant without pondage b) Run-off river plant with pondage c) Storage plant d) Pump storage plant

According to head :a) Low head plant b) Medium head plant c) High head plant According to load :a) Base load plant b) Peak load plant

 According to plant capacity:a) Microhydal plant (up to 5 MW ) b) Medium capacity plant ( 5-100 MW ) c) High capacity plant (100 MW )

According to place of power house:a) Surface power house plant b) Under ground power house plant According to turbine specific speed:a) High specific speed plant

d) super plant ( above 100 MW ) b) Medium specific speed plant c) Low specific speed plant

ADVANTAGESOF HYDEL POWER PLANT

This plant is free from pollution. Its operation and maintenance cost is less. It has no stand by losses. Unit cost of power is less. Hydraulic turbines can be started speedily. The plant has longer service life. No fuel is required. No change in efficiency with the age.

Disadvantages of hydel power plant

Initial cost of dam and plant is high. The availability of power from it is not much reliable. Loss of forest creates environmental problems. Due to evaporation , considerable water is lost. Time required for construction of hydroproject is more.

Lets see few of the International Hydel PRZeU POaQW aaP

Arch Dam Monticello Dam impounds Putah Creek west of Sacramento, California. The solid concrete structure stands 93 m (304 ft) WDOO. 7KH GDPV DUFKHG XSVWUHDP face transfers some of the pressure from its reservoir, Lake Berryessa, onto the walls of the canyon.

Kariba Arch Dam The Kariba Dam lies along the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. The facility controls flooding and supplies hydroelectric power to both countries. A public road traces the rim of the dam, between reservoir Lake Kariba and the drop to the Zambezi River. The distinct arch shape distributes pressure evenly on the overall structure of the dam.

G and P Corrigan/Robert Harding Picture Library Hoover Dam The Hoover Dam is an arch-gravity dam on the Colorado River. Its reservoir, Lake Mead, lies between the states of Arizona and Nevada. As an arch-gravity dam, it depends on its shape and its own weight for stability.

 Buttress dams fall into two basic categories: 1. Flat slab and 2. Multiple arch. Flat slab buttress dams have a flat upstream face. These dams are sometimes called Ambursen dams in recognition of Nils Ambursen, the Norwegian-born American engineer who popularized them in the early 20th century. An example of a flat slab buttress dam is the Stony Gorge Dam, which crosses Stony Creek near Orland, California. It stands 42 m (139 ft) tall, stretches 264 m (868 ft) long, and contains 33,000 cubic meters (43,100 cubic yards) of concrete.

Flat Slab Buttress Dam Lake Tahoe Dam impounds the Truckee River in northern California. Like all flat slab buttress dams, it has a flat slab upstream face supported by a series of buttresses on the downstream side. Lake Tahoe Dam measures 5.5 m (18 ft) tall and 33 m (109 ft) long. It was completed in 1913 to raise the water level in Lake Tahoe, a natural lake, to provide additional water for crop irrigation. .

Multiple Arch Dam Bartlett Dam impounds the Verde River northeast of Phoenix, Arizona. Like all multiple arch dams, Bartlett Dam makes use of a series of arches supported by buttresses to withstand the pressure of the water in its UHVHUYRLU, %DUWOHWW /DNH. (DFK RI WKH GDPV FRQFUHWH arches has a 7-m (24-ft) radius and measures 2 m (7 ft) at the base and just 0.6 m (2 ft) at the crest. The thick base provides additional strength at the bottom of the reservoir, where the water pressure is most intense.

Hydel Power Plant in the Philippines

According to the Department of Energy Hydrel Power Plants contribute 3974 MW of Power Untapped Hydel Power potential of the country is 13097 MW

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES

1. Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is a way of creating heat through the fission process of atoms. Nuclear energy originates from the splitting of uranium atoms in a process calledfission

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into two nuclei with smaller masses. FLVVLRQ PHDQV WR GLYLGH Remember that fission has 2 VV, WKHUHIRUH LW VSOLWV LQWR TWO parts.

 Only large nuclei with atomic numbers above 90 can undergo fission. Products of fission reaction usually include two or three individual neutrons, the total mass of the product is somewhat less than the mass of Uranium-235.

Chain Reaction

A chain reaction is an ongoing series of fission reactions. Billions of reactions occur each second in a chain reaction.

 On earth, nuclear fission reactions take place in nuclear reactors, which use controlled chain reactions to generate electricity.

 Uncontrolled chain reactions take place during the explosion of an atomic bomb.

Fission Products

The products of nuclear fission reactions are radioactive, but the energy released from these reactions is less harmful to the environment than the use of fossil fuels. The products are intensely radioactive and must be treated and/or stored.

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two nuclei with low masses to form one nucleus of larger mass. Nuclear fusion reactions are also called thermonuclear reactions.

 Fusion reactions exist in stars. Our sun is a good example of a thermonuclear (fusion) reaction. It is almost impossible to create fusion reactions on earth since they need temperatures above one million degrees Celsius in order to take place.

 Nuclear fusion produces less nuclear waste than nuclear fission and the materials are easier to obtain.

Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is generated using Uranium, which is a metal mined in various parts of the world. Nuclear power produces around 11% of the world's energy needs, and produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel, without the pollution that you'd get from burning fossil fuels.

How Nuclear Power Works

Nuclear fission makes heat>heated water makes steam>steam turns turbines>turbines turn generators>electrical power is sent around the country

 The reactor uses Uranium rods as fuel, and the heat is generated by nuclear fission . Neutrons smash into the nucleus of the uranium atoms, which split roughly in half and release energy in the form of heat.

Advantages to Using Nuclear Power

Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it's not expensive to make. Does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. Produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel. Produces small amounts of waste. Nuclear power is reliable.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Although not much waste is produced, it is very, very dangerous. It must be sealed up and buried for many years to allow the radioactivity to die away.

 Once we've dug up all the Earth's uranium and used it,there isn't anymore.

2. Fossil Fuels Coal, Oil and Gas are called "fossil IXHOV EHFDXVH they have been formed from the fossilized remains of prehistoric plants and animals. They provide around 66% of the world's electrical power, and 95% of the world's total energy demands

How Fossil Fuels Work

Coal is crushed to a fine dust and burnt. Oil and gas can be burnt directly.

Burn fuel> heat water to make steam> steam turns turbine>turbine turns generator>electrical power sent aroundthe country

Coal provides around 28% of our energy, and oil provides 40%.

Crude oil (called "petroleum") is easier to get out of the ground than coal, as it can flow along pipes. This also makes it cheaper to transport.

 Natural gas provides around 20% of the world's consumption of energy

Advantages to Using Fossil Fuels

Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place using coal, fairly cheaply. Transporting oil and gas to the power stations is easy. Gas-fired power stations are very efficient. A fossil-fuelled power station can be built almost anywhere

Disadvantages of Using Fossil Fuels

Basically, the main drawback of fossil fuels is pollution. Burning any fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide, which contributes to the "greenhouse effect", warming the Earth. Burning coal produces sulphur dioxide, a gas that contributes to acid rain. With the United States importing 55% of its oil, oil spills are a serious problem Mining coal can be difficult and dangerous. Strip mining destroys large areas of the landscape.

 Some power stations are built on the coast, so they can use sea water to cool the steam instead. However, this warms the sea and can affect the environment, although the fish seem to like it.

Is it Renewable?

Fossil fuels are NOTa renewable energy resource

Once we've burned them all, there isn't any more, and our consumption of fossil fuels has nearly doubled every 20 years since 1900. This is a particular problem for Oil, because we also use it to make plastics and many other products.