1. Ion exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution and a complex.

In most cases the term is used to denote the processes of purification, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions with solid polymeric or mineralic'ion exchangers'. Typical ion exchangers are ion exchange resins (functionalized porous or gel polymer), zeolites, montmorillonite, clay, and soil humus. Ion exchangers are either cation exchangers that exchange positively charged ions (cations) or anion exchangers that exchange negatively charged ions (anions). There are also amphoteric exchangers that are able to exchange both cations and anions simultaneously. However, the simultaneous exchange of cations and anions can be more efficiently performed in mixed beds that contain a mixture of anion and cation exchange resins, or passing the treated solution through several different ion exchange materials.

2. The adsorption of the molecules to the solid support is driven by the ionic interaction between the oppositely charged ionic groups in the sample molecule and in the functional ligand on the support. The strength of the interaction is determined by the number and location of the charges on the molecule and on the functional group. By increasing the salt concentration (generally by using a linear salt gradient) the molecules with the weakest ionic interactions start to elute from the column first. Molecules that have a stronger ionic interaction require a higher salt concentration and elute later in the gradient. The binding capacities of ion exchange resins are generally quite high.

3. Ion exchangers are resins that are polymers with cross-linking ( connections between long carbon chains in a polymer ). The resin has active groups in the form of electrically charged sites. At these sites, ions of opposite charge are attracted but may be replaced by other ions depending on their relative concentrations and affinities for the sites. Two key factors determine the effectiveness of a given ion exchange resin: favorability of any given ion, and the number of active sites available for this exchange. To maximize the active sites, significant surface areas are generally desirable. The active sites are one of a few types of functional groups that can exchange ions with either plus or minus charge. Frequently, the resins are cast in the form of porous beads. Cross-linking, usually on the order of 0.5 to 15 percent, comes from adding divinyl benzene to the reaction mixture during production of the resin. The size of the particles also plays a role in the utility of the resin. Smaller particles usually are more effective because of increased surface area but cause large head losses that drive up pump equipment and energy costs. Temperature and pH also affect the effectiveness of ion exchange, since pH is inherently tied to the number of ions available for exchange, and temperature governs the kinetics of the process. The rate-limiting step is not always the same, and temperature's role is still not thoroughly understood.

Regeneration of the resin is also a feauture of ion exchange. The resin is flushed free of the newly-exchanged ions and contacted with a solution of the ions to replace them. Regeneration is initiated after most of the active sites have been used and the ion exchange is no longer effective. With regeneration, the same resin beads can be used over and over again, and the ions that we are looking to get out of the system can be concentrated in the backwash effluent, which is just a term for the spent fluid used to regenerate the ion exchanger. Summary:

APPLICATION IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES on exchange is widely used in the food & beverage, hydrometallurgical, metals finishing, chemical & petrochemical, pharmaceutical, sugar & sweeteners, ground & potable water, nuclear, softening & industrial water, semiconductor, power, and a host of other industries. Most typical example of application is preparation of high purity water for power engineering, electronic and nuclear industries; i.e.polymeric or mineralic insoluble ion exchangers are widely used for water softening, water purification, water decontamination, etc. Ion exchange is a method widely used in household (laundry detergents and water filters) to produce soft 2+ 2+ + water. This is accomplished by exchanging calcium Ca and magnesium Mg cations against Na or + H cations (see water softening). Another application for ion exchange in domestic water treatment is the removal of nitrateand natural organic matter. Industrial and analytical ion exchange chromatography is another area to be mentioned. Ion exchange chromatography is a chromatographical method that is widely used for chemical analysis and separation of ions. For example, in biochemistry it is widely used to separate charged molecules such as proteins. An important area of the application is extraction and purification of biologically produced substances such as proteins (amino acids) and DNA/RNA. Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify metals, including separating uranium from plutonium and other actinides, including thorium, and lanthanum, neodymium, ytterbium,samarium, lutetium, from each other and the other lanthanides. There are two series of rare earth metals, the lanthanides and the actinides, both of whose families all have very similar chemical and physical properties. Using methods developed by Frank Spedding in the 1940s, ion-exchange used to be the only practical way to separate them in large quantities, until the advent of solvent extraction techniques that can be scaled up enormously. A very important case is the PUREX process (plutonium-uranium extraction process), which is used to separate the plutonium and the uranium from the spent fuel products from a nuclear reactor, and to be able to dispose of the waste products. Then, the plutonium and uranium are available for making nuclearenergy materials, such as new reactor fuel and nuclear weapons.

The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar chemical elements, such as zirconium and hafnium, which is also very important for the nuclear industry. Zirconium is practically transparent to free neutrons, used in building reactors, but hafnium is a very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor control rods. Ion exchangers are used in nuclear reprocessing and the treatment of radioactive waste. Ion exchange resins in the form of thin membranes are used in chloralkali process, fuel cells and vanadium redox batteries. Ion exchange can also be used to remove hardness from water by exchanging calcium and magnesium ions for sodium ions in an ion exchange column. Liquid (aqueous) phase ion exchange desalination has been demonstrated. In this technique anions and cations in salt water are exchanged for carbonate anions and calcium cations respectively using electrokinetic shockwaves. Calcium and carbonate ions then react to form calcium carbonate, which then precipitates leaving behind fresh water. The desalination occurs at ambient temperature and pressure and requires no membranes or solid ion exchangers. Theoretical energy efficiency of this method is on par with electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.
[1]

WATER SOFTENING PROCESS MECHANISM

as ion trade and this filters the onerous substances such as magnesium and calcium found within the water while changing it with an equal amount of salt. Thus the calcium salts are replaced with sodium salts with the assistance of a Water Softener Reviews and one should do not forget that an environment friendly Water Softening will leave behind much less salt. The change will be measured with the assistance of TDS meter. However, a Water Softener shouldnt be installed in case you are beneficial with a sodium restricted diet. But then, I would recommend installing a Water Softener if the necessity arrives for the appliance after which you may remove the salt and different adulterations by inserting a unit. Water Softening additionally removes tiny quantities of iron from the water but it increases the salt left behind and the salt used. When there may be a large amount of iron present in water its going to result in extreme salt use which eventually will smash the mattress of the Water Softener. So you should avoid utilizing Water Softening as the primary method for reducing iron in water.

For large-scale municipal operations, a process known as the "lime-soda process" is used to remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ from the water supply. Ion-exchange reactions, similar to those you performed in this experiment, which result in the formation of an

insoluble precipitate, are the basis of this process. The water is treated with a combination of slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, and soda ash, Na2CO3. Calcium precipitates as CaCO3, and magnesium precipitates as Mg(OH)2. These solids can be collected, thus removing the scale-forming cations from the water supply. To see this process in more detail, let us consider the reaction for the precipitation of Mg(OH)2. Consultation of the solubility guidelines in the experiment reveals that the Ca(OH)2 of slaked lime is moderately soluble in water. Hence, it can dissociate in water to give one Ca2+ ion and two OH- ions for each unit of Ca(OH)2 that dissolves. The OH- ions react with Mg2+ ions in the water to form the insoluble precipitate. The Ca2+ ions are unaffected by this reaction, and so we do not include them in the net ionic reaction (Equation 2). They are removed by the separate reaction with CO32- ions from the soda ash. (2) Household water softeners typically use a different process, known as ion exchange. Ion-exchange devices consist of a bed of plastic (polymer) beads covalently bound to anion groups, such as -COO-. The negative charge of these anions is balanced by Na+ cations attached to them. When water containing Ca2+ and Mg2+ is passed through the ion exchanger, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are more attracted to the anion groups than the Na+ ions. Hence, they replace the Na+ ions on the beads, and so the Na+ ions (which do not form scale) go into the water in their place.

Figure 1
When hard tapwater passes through the ion exchanger (left), the calcium ions from the tapwater replace the sodium ions in the ion exchanger. The softened water, containing sodium ions in place of calcium ions, can be collected for household use.

Unfortunately, many people with high blood pressure or other health problems must restrict their intake of sodium. Because water softened by this type of ion exchange contains many sodium ions, people with limited sodium intakes should avoid drinking water that has been softened this way. Several new techniques for softening water without introducing sodium ions are beginning to appear on the market.