2.

a) ATM ADAPTATION LAYER SERVICE CLASSES Rather than define a different AAL protocol for every possible higher layer service, the ITU-T has defined different categories of service classes based on the three characteristics outlined below.

Timing relationship between source and destination: Required (time sensitive) or not required (time insensitive). In other words, does the service require a low and stable delay over the time of the connection to function properly (e.g., a voice conversation)?

Bit rate: Constant or variable Connection mode: Connection-oriented or connectionless

The ITU-T has defined four AAL service classes based on combinations of these three characteristics. Class A is a constant bit rate (CBR), delay-sensitive, connection-oriented serviceor a circuit emulation service. Class B is a variable bit rate (VBR) service requiring time synchronization between sender and receiver (e.g., real-time compressed audio and video). Classes C and D are delay-insensitive VBR services. Four AAL protocol types were defined to support the four service classes. Each type describes the format of the SAR-PDU (or the cell Payload field) and related operational procedures. The visual shows the relationship between the AAL types and the service classes. Normally the user, not the network, chooses the AAL. But the network, not the user, provides the guarantee for service classes. The ATM Forum recognized this problem and separated service classes from AAL types. They follow the alignments recommended by the ITU-T, but any AAL can be assigned any service class. 2. b) ATM TRAFFIC PARAMETERS 0 Traffic parameters describe traffic characteristics of a connection 0 For a given connection, traffic parameters are grouped into a source traffic descriptor 0 Traffic parameters specified in ATM Forum UNI

Peak Cell Rate (PCR) = An upper bound on the rate that traffic can be submit on a connection = Measured in cells/second

Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR) = An upper bound on the average cell rate of a burst traffic of an ATM connection = Measured in cells/second = Calculated over the duration of the connection

Maximum Burst Size (MBS) = The maximum number of cells that can be sent at the peak cell rate

Minimum Cell Rate (MCR) = The minimum number of cells that the user considers acceptable

3. ATM PROTOCOL REFERENCE MODEL The asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) protocol architecture is designed to support the transfer of data with a range of guarantees for quality of service. The user data is divided into small, fixed-length packets, called cells, and transported over virtual connections. ATM operates over high data rate physical circuits, and the simple structure of ATM cells allows switching to be performed in hardware, which improves the speed and efficiency of ATM switches. Figure 23 shows the reference model for ATM. The first thing to notice is that, as well as layers, the model has planes. The functions for transferring user data are located in the user plane; the functions associated with the control of connections are located in the control plane; and the coordination functions associated with the layers and planes are located in the management planes.

Figure : ATM Reference Model The three-dimensional representation of the ATM protocol architecture is intended to portray the relationship between the different types of protocol. The horizontal layers indicate the encapsulation of protocols through levels of abstraction as one layer is built on top of another, whereas the vertical planes indicate the functions that require co-ordination of the actions taken by different layers. An advantage of dividing the functions into control and user planes is that it introduces a degree of independence in the definition of the functions: the protocols for transferring user data (user plane) are separated from the protocols for controlling connections (control plane). ATM ADAPTATION LAYER The ATM adaption layer lies between the ATM layer and the higher layers which use the ATM service. Its main purpose is to resolve any disparity between a service required by the user and services available at the ATM layer. The ATM adaptation layer maps user information into ATM cells and accounts for transmission errors. It also may transport timing information so the destination can regenerate time dependent signals. The information transported by the ATM adaption layer is divided into four classes according to the following properties-

1) The information being transported is time dependent/independent: It may be necessary to regenerate the time dependency of a signal at the destination. eg a 64kbps PCM voice. 2) Variable/Constant bit rate. 3) Connection/Connectionless mode information transfer. These properties define eight possible classes, four of which are defined as B-ISDN service classes . Four ATM adaption layer services are defined to match up with the four B-ISDN information classes:

AAL-1 AAL-2 AAL-3 AAL-4

The ATM adaption layer is divided into two sub layers: 1) Convergence Sub layer: This layer wraps the user-service data units in a header and trailer which contain information used to provide the services required. The information in the header and trailer depends on the class of information to be transported but will usually contain error handling and data priority preservation information. 2) Segmentation and reassembly sub layer: This layer receives the convergence sub layer protocol data unit and divides it up into pieces which it can place in an ATM cell. It adds to each piece a header which contains information used to reassemble the pieces at the destination.

SONET Network Architecture

SONET is not a simple replacement for asynchronous digital hierarchy. It is a network in its own right (i.e., reconfigurable, with embedded switches and centralized management that allow automated processes). See Figure 10

Figure 10. SONET Network Architecture

SONET benefits are delivered through functionality. A transport network is hierarchical as a road network, comprised of small roads, medium-sized roads, and highways for long distance: Collector rings provide the network interface for all access applications, including local offices, private automatic branch exchange (PABX), access multiplexers, wireless base stations, and ATM terminals. In some instances, a SONET multiplexer is located in the customer premises and provides direct service (T1 leased line, for instance) The bandwidth-management function routes, grooms, and consolidates traffic between the collectors and backbone networks. It ensures that backbone synchronous transport signal (STS 1) switch processing element (SPE) are filled to the maximum. The high-speed backbone transport function provides reliable and economical long-distance transport.

SONET Features
Network management Protection Bandwidth management

 Network simplification Mid-fiber meet

SONET Benefits Increased revenues Improved services Differentiated services Survivable network Reduced operating cost Centralized management Reduced capital investment