You are on page 1of 13

COMPUTATIONALFLUID DYNAMICSMETHODSOF CALCULATING GAS DISPERSION IN A BUILDING OR OUTSIDEAS A RESULTOF GAS LEAKS

Ron Pape,Ph.D. Inc. EngineeringSystems Avenue 3851 Exchange Aurora, IL 60504 And Kim R. Mniszewski, F'X Engineering,lnc. 244 Ogden Avenue, Suite I l4 Hinsdale.IL 60521

ABSTRACT NIS'| Fire DynamicsSimulator(FDS) computerprogramhas beenusedto predictthe dispersionof gases insidebuildingsand outdoorslbr a variety of scenarios. 'l'hc of gascs. present ol-Ir[)S tbr dispcrsion ol-applications l'he authclrs examplcs spill in a room,a naturalgasleak in of vaporfiom a gasoline includedispersion examples gasplumesfrom underground lcakage, comparisonof a naturalgas apizza restaurant, of area,and a simple assessment leak to a propanetank rupturein a shipping/receiving odoranttransportin naturalgasdispersion. 'l'he

INTRODUCTION The Fire DynamicsSimulator(FDS) computer model hasbeendeveloped by the National Instituteof Standards and Technology(NIS'f). Although FDS was developed primarily for simulation of fire phenomena(l), (2), (3), (4), and (5), it is a more general computationalfluid dynamics computer code suitable for application in a much wider range of fluid dynamicsproblems. The FDS model is unique in that it is liee to the public.and it enjoyscontinualfundingsupportand technical evolutionthroughthe ef-forts of NIST and other researchers. In recent years the FDS model has increasedour understanding of complex fire phenomena and has even beenusedto model the early fire (6). development in the 911 incident Although F'DSwas developedfor predictingfire dynamics,it has wider applicability. Of specific importancewith respectto this paper,FDS has been usedto model dispersionof gases insideand outsideof buildings. Mniszewskiand Pape(7) have usedFDS fbr pure without combustionand comparedpredictedresultsto experiments dispersion analyses and analyticalpredictions. FDS has also been used for indoor air quality calculationsby Musser, et al. (8) In the area of ComputationalWind lrngineering,Rehm, McGrattan, and Baum,havetested FDS (9) ( l0). The authors use the l.'DS model extensively lor applicationssuch as these. I'he F'DS model has been testedagainstexperimentaldata fbr a variety of situations,however the preponderance with the prcdictionclf firc of such validationtestshave becn conccrned with predictionof gas dispersion effects. This paperis concerned using FDS. Several examplesof dispersionmodeling using FDS are presented. With proper validation, this modeling technique should be of value in many gas industry applications,particularly thoseinvolvingpublic salbtystudies. As FDS is free to the public, continually being improved and updatedand user-lriendly, and powerful computationalfluid dynamicsmodeling tool is available this sophisticated to other CIFDmodelswhich may be fbr anyonewho takesthe time to leam it. in contrast more costlyto learnand use. DESCRIPTION OF THE FDS MODEL at the NationalInstitute fluid dynamics(CFD) model developed FDS is a computational (NIST). is the mathematical Computational f'luiddynamics and Technology of Standards solution of the equationsthat describe fluid motion. [rDS stands for Fire Dynamics Simulator. Although the FDS code has beendevelopedfor predictionof fire behavior,it is applicable for general fluid dynamics computations.such as wind f'low around solverfbr low Mach numbers.The equation The FDS code is a Navier-Stokes obstacles. FDS equationsdescribethe motion of a fluid, such as air, and include conservationof mass, momentum, and energy relations. Analyses presented in this paper were usingVersionsI .0 through4.0 of the code. accomplished

The FDS computercode is describedin detail in a number of references (l), (2), (3), (4) and (5). As describedin thesedocuments,FDS solvesthe fluid dynamicsequationsfor low Mach number flows. The governingequationsare the equationsfor conservation of mass,momentum,and energy.where energyconservation is included in the equationfor flow divergence.The simplified equations that are solvednumericallyare given below: Mass:
)o :c *
r1 |

. p u

(1)

Momentum:

+ v ,++(u'V)u

V - ( p - p , ) g = f + V

(2)

[)iversence Constraint:
t / / y.t! , r o ' l *t: V.u=-1.t v . k v T ' * v .lIc n , d T ' o D,yy,

p',r\

- L l \+
P,,)tlr

)\r*',T

(3)

p, is the ambient wherep is massdensity, density, t is time. u is velocity(bold indicates vector quantities), I is the perturbationpressure.p,, is the backgroundpressure,cn is k is thermalconductivity. D; is diffusivity for speciel, Y1 specificheat.T is temperature. is the mass fraction for specie I, g is gravitational acceleration,f is the body force (excludinggravity),and r is the shearstress.["orthe low Mach Numbcr fbrm. prcssure is pressure pressure and a written as the averagebackground added to the hydrodynamic flow-induced perturbationpressure,V. The cquation of state in the model is the ideal gaslaw. The FDS model has two solution options for capturing turbulence. These are direct presented numericalsimulation(DNS) and largeeddy simulation(LES). All simulations in this report used the LIJS approach.l,argc cddy simulationallows direct numerical solution of the larger scale lluid motion (including large turbulenteddies)but greatly reducesthe requiredcomputationaltime by calculatingthe sub-grid scaleviscosity using viscositymodel. (ll) (12) The an eddy viscositybased(in FDS) on the Smagorinsky ability to use larger grid elementsand account fbr the sub-grid mixing using the problems in Smagorinskyviscosity allows solution of complex three-dimensional Large eddy simulation is now practical computationaltimes and memory requirements. an option in many CFD codes,as well as FDS. in the model.wherediffusioncoefficients similarlyfbr all gasspecies Diflusion is treated put question of the model in quiescent the usefulness into arethe same. This tendsto the mass that in most fuel-gasleakagescenarios, applications. However,it is reassuring gas from the movement gas by the bulk tends to be dominated the subject transferof that in not diffusion. Thus.it is expected eff'ects, release, turbulentmixing and buoyancy well. the realworld reasonably of the modelwill approximate the physics most cases.

The primary limitation of the code is its validity for low Mach numbers. This requires that the maximum flow velocitiesbe well below the speedof soundin the medium being analyzed.When considering the fact that the speedof soundin air at ambientconditions is about340 m/s (1100 fils). this is not reallya practical restriction for a wide varietyof problems,particularlyinvolving lire development, dispersionof gases and wind flow aroundstructures.For dispersionanalyses, the low Mach numberrestrictionmay be significantif it is necessary to modelthe detailsof a high velocitygasjet very ncara leak,but generally the detailed leak flow right at the source is not importantas long as the overall leak flow rate is accounted for. geometries ol-structures in IrDS simulations must bc represented as composites made of rectangular solidblocks.This is sometimes listedas a linritation of the FDS code because curved surfaces are approximated by a stair-step arrangement.However,when this restrictionis balanced againstthe simplificationsand consequent efficiencythat results. the block structure is well worth it. F'igures I md 2 are examplesof resultsfrom IiDS analyses o1'lire (what FDS was original designedfor). Figure I is the simple burning of an itcm undera hood, showing thc flow of hot gases usingtraccrparticlcs and hcatingof a ncarbysurface.Figurc2 showsa kitchenrangefrre in a townhouse.Flameplumesare shownspreading through the rooms. Many optionsare availableto allow for displayingquite a numberof parameters, gasconcentrations, including temperature, smokedensity,heatrelease, etc. FDS VALIDATION A greatdeal of effort has beenexpended by NIST in the last severalyearsin the validation of the FDS model involving fire phenomena.The currcntedition of the FDS 'l'cchnical a long list ref'ercnccs liom many sourccs citing Rel-crencc Guidc (4) provides Much of the validationwork hasbeen validationcases and application techniques. concemedwith fire phenomena.Mniszewski and Pape(7) have testedF'DSfor pure without combustionand comparedpredictedresultsto experiments dispersionanalyses predictions. Musser. et al. (8) haveusedFDS tbr indoorair quality and analltical FDS (9) ( l0) lbr prediction of Rehm,McGrattan, and Baum,havetested calculations. wind flow aroundbuildings. (iuidc (13) states that"AlthoughfrDSwasdesigned 4 lJser's The FDS version that do not it can be usedfor otherfluid flow simulations fbr frre simulations. specifically an exampleof a kind". This guide also presents include fire or heataddition of aury filled with air. Dr. McGrattenof NIST is the main release of helium into a compartment thc authors in the useof thc modelfor architect of the FDS software.IIe hasencouraged guidance how to implementit on and hasprovideduseful applications, dispersion properly. 'l'he

Figure l. IdealizedFire Experiment Simulation.

ffiffir

,Y.f*{ffi

wry*R
Analysis. Figure2. Exampleof FDS for Fire Development SuggestedAdditional Experimental Validations. Although therehas beensome testingof the FDS computercode for dispersionanalysis,for gas industryapplicationsit validations experimental to conducta numberof highly instrumented would be desirable might approach One suggested gas leak scenarios. natural involving sometypical include: home/2 storywith basement leak single-family l. Indoor/typicalresidential at the kitchenrange involving a failed flexibleconnector scenario

2. Indoor commercialfacility - leak scenarioinvolving a rupturedI %" gaspipe pipe ruptureat involving underground 3. Outdoor Scenario - leak scenarios variousflow rates While thereare safetyconcerns in using undilutednaturalgasfor suchtesting,the useof diluted gastestingor useof an appropriate simulantgasmay help qualm public concem gassource in With natural concentrations kept below and allow testing real buildings. shouldbe the LEL at perhaps50% LEL for safety,the masstransferphenomena reasonably similar to sources at undilutedconcentrations.If a simulantgaswere used, would have to be considered and proper molecularweight and diffusion characteristics would be neccssary A reasonable arrayof gassensors scalingof results evaluated. in indoor throughout eachtestingvolume. Infiltrationwould needto be considered validationanalyses testingto somedegree. Suchadditionaltesting,with corresponding using FDS, would increase in the predictionsof FDS for suchcases. conf.idence Propane leak scenarios similarly. can be considered

EXAMPLES OF DISPERSIONANALYSES USING FDS previously werediscussed by Mniszewski simulations Several examples ol gasdispersion 'I'he here)includethe discussed at that time (not repeated and Papein (7). cases following: o Mixing Theory with One Room Model Perl-ect Comparison

Perfbctmixing theory predictionswere comparedto FDS simulationresultslbr lbr dispersion werecompleted dispersion of gasinsidea singleroom. Calculations perl-cct mixing within thc room with and without room fbrcedventilation.Whcreas predicts gradual FDS a more two distinct layers. on formationof theoryis based within the upperspaces of the room and the lower transitionfrom the concentrations spaces. o in a Wind fbr VaporDispersion with'l'heory Comparison

leaking fiom a componentin Predictions of dispersionin an imposedwind o1'vapors (e.g. plant a valve or pump) were comparedto concentration a chemicalprocess point source for which therewas an of vapors. profilesproduced fiom an idealized geometry effbctare significant. where analyticsolution. Exceptnearto the source, the FDS resultscomparedquite good to the ideal point sourcesolution. o Migrationin a Room fbr Propane with Experiment Comparison

FDS was usedto simulate an experiment fbr which there appearedto be a good descriptionof the setupand resultsin a paperin the literature. The experiment and carbondioxidein a room with of a 50:50mixtureof propane involveddispersion

gasconcentrations, air infiltration. FDS over-predicted the experimental which may haveresultedfrom an oversimplificationof the distributionof air infiltration. Dispersion of Vaporsfiom a Gasoline Spill in a Room Severalexperiments were performedinsidean enclosure simulatinga closedgaragewith a water heaterin a corner. In the centerof the floor, therewas a gasolinespill or a release of a simulant(carbon dioxide). Initially.the enclosure was kept closed. eitherwith or without room forcedventilation. At six minutesinto the experiment, fbrcedventilation was introducedthrough a slot at f'loor level at the oppositeend of the enclosure, simulatingcrackingopen a garagedoor with outsidewind. Figure3 showsthe concentrations vaporsbeforeand afterthe outsidewind was introduced of gasoline throughthe slot. The FDS predictions of time lbr flammable concentrations to reachthe water heatercombustionchambermatchedthe time to explosionin the gasolinetests reasonably well.

. , i

Figure 3. GasolineSpill in Room With Water Heater. in a PizzaRestaurant NaturalGas Dispersion 'l'his naturalgas leak causedby extemal forces, exampleinvolves an underground adjacentto an old commercialbuilding with a graniteblock foundation. Iterative into the basemenl. usingthe known the rateof leakage modelingwas utilizedto establish ignition source andthc probable leak initiationand thc explosion. timing between (furnacepilot) locationas constraints.Figure4 is a vertical slice of gasconcentrations distributionof naturalgasthroughout for one leak rate scenarioshowingconcentration 'l'he of the outside gasconcentration is shownto be highestnearthe source the building. while openstairwaydoorsallow gasto riseand lill gradelevel leak in the basement, areas.

Figure 4. Gas Dispersionin a Pizza Restaurant. Gas Plumesfrom Undereround Leakage exampleinvolvesthe possible useof modelingto estimate the abovcgroundgas plumeavailable fiom a varietyol-undcrground leaksizesand wind conditions. Figure5 showsan exampleof resultsfrom a 1270CFtl naturalgas leak distributedover a square meter,with a wind speed of 2.24 mph (0.1 m/s). Suchresults may allow a field engineer to estimate leakage ratebelow by simply measuring somepointswithin the gasplume and wind conditions. Natural Gas VersusPropaneDispersionin a Shipping/Receiving Area An explosion areaof a fbod processing occurrcdinsidethe shipping/rcceiving facility. peaked The shipping/receiving arcawas covered roof, it was by a but otherwise opento the outdoorsand wind penetration.Figure6 showsthe facility with the white roofed at the middle coveringthe shipping/receiving area. Figure7 showsthe layout of the facility with the roof removed.T'heshipping/receiving areahad two lorklift trucksin the rearleft cornerand the propane tank on one was beingchanged.One possible cause scenario involved an overfilled propanetank rupturing. A secondcausescenariothat was involved a naturalgasleak emanatingfrom a floor crack at the right-handside evaluated of the shipping/receiving area,behinda plywoodpartition. Figure8 showsthe results for the naturalgascase,and Figure9 showsthe resultsfor thc propanctank rupturc. Clearly, the propanetank rupture was capableof producing a large flammable cloud whereasthe naturalgas leak producedconcentrations in the spacewell below the lower explosion limit. 'fhis

s m o t e v r e w 4 0 5 F e b 1 42 0 0 5

il

0r5

014

0 t2

0rl

009

008

!6

1$;,

005

003

,I
0 0"1 Frrne5i6 l L n ei J J

Figure 5. Dispersionof Gas From An Underground Leak.

Facility. Figure6. FoodProcessing

i l

r'-----J-,
.3..-

,,.,

q--

Figure 7. Facility Layout.

tLllllu i N"G"

NaturHff 'n@as &0


h f$r

,rVh

40

zu*
*:.

fl"t0)
o

Figure 8. Natural Gas Leak Scenario.

l0

\ t

qY.
!'l'

miflm LEL*
'I
l l

f,

ll"

'Pnolgam ilm-frn

Figure 9. PropaneTank Rupture Scenario. OdorantTransport final caseto be discusscd was done to evaluate the propensityfor odorantto separate from naturalgasduringdispersion in air. A simplecubicalenclosure was considered. A small sectit-rn of the f'loorwas given a100o/o concentration of methane, but no lbrcedflow into the enclosure. Odorantwas appliedto the methane at concentrations up to l% by volume. Irigure l0 showsthe result fbr this case,with the methane gasrising to the ceiling as a plume by naturalconvectiondue to its low dcnsity. When the methane source was at thc ceiling it.iustcollccted bcncath the cciling. Whenthc sourccwas on the sidewall, a wall plumeroscto the cciling. In all cases, odorantconccntration was 'l'he monitored. odorantconcentration remainedidenticallyat the fraction of the gas 'fhere concentration at which it was injected,without deviationin any case. was no separation of the odorantliom the carriergas. CONCLUSIONS Basedon the varietyof gasdispersion analyses that havebeenconducted. the following conclusions are reached:
o o

'fhe

o o

FDS is valid for conductingdispersionanalyses Someof the validations of FDS for dispersion and examples of dispersion in this paper. applications usingFDS havebeenpresented problems is needed. More validationof FDS fbr dispersion validation. Suggestions are provided fbr more detailedexperimental Benefitsto the Gas lndustry from theseefforts will includebetteranalysistools for public safetystudies.

1t

SmnkPViPw4n4 Nnv16 Tnnd

SlieP

'.{i
, l

nnq

nn4 0.04 nn? 0.03 nn2 nn2 0.01 q nF-3 4.5E-3 nnn iu
!

F r a m e9 :50
Timp 342 tl

Figurc 10. Methane PlumeWith OdorantInjected

REFERENCES

l . McGrattan, K.B, et al. "Fire Dynamics Simulator-TechnicalReference Guide",

NISTIR 6467,National Instituteof Standards and Technology,January 2000 "liire DynamicsSimulatorVersion 2) -'l'echnical[tefcrence 2. Mc(irattan, K.B, et al, November and Technology. Guide", NISTIR 6783. National Instituteof Standards 2001 J. McGrattan, K.B, et al, "Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 3) -Technical Reference and Technology, Guide", NIS'flR 6783 2002 Ed., National Instituteof Standards November2002. 4 . McGrattan, K.B, "fiire Dynamics Simulator (Version 4) -Technical Reference Guide", NIST Special Publication 1018, National Institute of Standardsand Technology. July 2004. 5 . McGrattan. K., "Computational Fluid Dynamics and Fire Modeling," Fall 2001. (ftp.nist.gov/pub/bfrl/mcgratta/fds3/MANUALS/class2002.pdf) "ProgressReport on the FederalBuilding and Fire Salbty Investigationof the World June2004. NIST Special Publication1000-5. TradeCenterDisaster."
1

t2

7. Mniszewski, K.R., and R. Pape, "The Use of FDS for Estimation of Flammable GasAy'apor Concentrations," 3'o Technical Symposiumon Computer Applications in Fire Protection Engineering, Societyof Fire Protection Engineers, 12-13September 2001. 8. Musser, A., K.B. McGrattan, and J. Palmer, "Evaluation of a F'ast, Simplified Computationalfluid DynamicsModel for Solving Room Airflow Problems,NISTIRn 6760. NationalInstituteof Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, Maryland,June 2001. 9. Rehm, R.G., K.8., McGrattan,and H.R. Baum, "An Efficient Large Eddy Simulation Algorithm for Computational Wind Engineering:Application to Surface Pressure Computations on a SingleBuilding."NISl'lR 6371. 10.Rehm, R.G., K.8.. McGrattan, and H.R. Baurn,"L.arge Irddy Simulationo1'Flow Over a wooded Building Complex," Wind and Structures, Vol. 5 no. 2-4 (2002) 291300. 1l. Smagorinsky.J.. "General Circulation Experimentswith Primative I,.quations," M o n t h l yW e u t h eR r e v i e w . 9 1N . umber . p.99-164. 3 , 1 9 6 3p 12.Smagorinsky, J., S. Manabe,and J.L. Holloway, "Numerical resultsfiom a NineLevef GeneralCirculation Model of the Atmosphere,"Monthly ll/eatherReview,93, N u m b e r1 2 .1 9 6 5 , pp.727-768. 13.McGrattan, K.B. et al "Fire DynamicsSimulator(version4) lJser'sGuide",NIST Special Publication 1019, National Institute of Standards and T'echnology, February 2005

1 a I J

You might also like