Introduction

What is the processor? The processor does exactly what the name
implies it does: it processes instructions. Well in the simplest of terms,
it’s your computer’s brain. The processor tells your computer what to
do and when to do it, it decides which tasks are more important and
prioritizes them to your computers needs.

It processes instructions and manipulates data after fetching them

from the PC's RAM (random access memory), and the PC could not
function without it

Modern processors can only handle one instruction from one program
at any given point in time. Each instruction that is sent to the
processor is called a thread. Even though it looks like you're
multitasking with your computer (running more then one program at a
time) you're really not.

The CPU will divide it's time and power evenly between all the
programs by switching back and forth. This little charade of switching
back and forth tricks the end user and gives us the sense of
multitasking.

The primary disadvantage was processor didn’t utilize the complete

efficiency of the CPU. In order to overcome this, a new technology
enable processor was introduced , Hyper-Threading & Dual Core.

Hyper-Threading

Hyper-Threading Technology is a groundbreaking innovation from

Intel® Corporation that enables multi-threaded software applications
to execute threads in parallel This level of threading technology has
never been seen before in a general-purpose microprocessor. Internet,
e-Business, and enterprise software applications continue to put higher
demands on processors.

To improve performance in the past, threading was enabled in the

software by splitting instructions into multiple streams so that multiple
processors could act upon them. Today with Hyper-Threading
Technology, processor-level threading can be utilized which offers more
efficient use of processor resources for greater parallelism and
improved performance on today’s multi-threaded software. Hyper-
Threading Technology provides thread-level-parallelism (TLP) on each
processor resulting in increased utilization of processor execution
resources. As a result, resource utilization yields higher processing
throughput. Hyper-Threading Technology is a form of simultaneous
multi-threading technology (SMT) where multiple threads of software
applications can be run simultaneously on one processor.

This technology is largely invisible to the platform. In fact, many

applications are already multi-threaded and will automatically benefit
from this technology. Today’s multi-processing aware software is also
compatible with Hyper-Threading Technology enabled platforms, but
further performance gains can be realized by specifically tuning
software for Hyper-Threading Technology. This technology
complements traditional multi-processing by providing additional
headroom for future software optimizations and business growth.

Basics
1. When you run multiple programs at once, the operating system
is also involved. To the end user, it appears as if the processor is
“running” more than one program at the same time, and indeed,
there actually are multiple programs loaded into memory.
2. But the CPU can execute only one of these programs at a time.
The OS maintains the illusion of concurrency by rapidly switching
between running programs at a fixed interval, called a time slice.

The time slice has to be small enough that the user doesn’t notice any
degradation in the usability and performance of the running programs,
and it has to be large enough that each program has a sufficient
amount of CPU time in which to get useful work done.
Dual Core Processor

A dual core processor is a CPU with two separate cores on the same
die, each with its own cache. It's the equivalent of getting two
microprocessors in one.

In a single-core or traditional processor the CPU is fed strings of

instructions it must order, execute, then selectively store in its cache
for quick retrieval. When data outside the cache is required, it is
retrieved through the system bus from random access memory (RAM)
or from storage devices. Accessing these slows down performance to
the maximum speed the bus, RAM or storage device will allow, which is
far slower than the speed of the CPU. The situation is compounded
when multi-tasking. In this case the processor must switch back and
forth between two or more sets of data streams and programs. CPU
resources are depleted and performance suffers.
In a dual core processor each core handles incoming data strings
simultaneously to improve efficiency. Just as two heads are better than
one, so are two hands. Now when one is executing the other can be
accessing the system bus or executing its own code. Adding to this
favorable scenario, both AMD and Intel's dual-core flagships are 64-bit.

To utilize a dual core processor, the operating system must be able to

recognize multi-threading and the software must have simultaneous
multi-threading technology (SMT) written into its code. SMT enables
parallel multi-threading wherein the cores are served multi-threaded
instructions in parallel. Without SMT the software will only recognize
one core. Adobe Photoshop is an example of SMT-aware software. SMT
is also used with multi-processor systems common to servers.
Intel Core 2 processor family
Desktop Laptop
Original New
Code- Date Code- Date
logo * logo Core Core
named released named released
dual
(65 nm) dual
Conroe Aug 2006
dual Merom (65 nm) Jul 2006
Allendale Jan 2007
(65 nm) Penryn dual Jan 2008
Wolfdale Jan 2008
dual (45 nm)
(45 nm)
dual Merom dual
Conroe XE
(65 nm) XE (65 nm)
Kentsfield Jul 2006 Jul 2007
quad Penryn dual
XE Nov 2006 Jan 2008
(65 nm) XE (45 nm)
Yorkfield Nov 2007 Aug 2008
quad Penryn quad
XE
(45 nm) XE (45 nm)
quad
Kentsfield (65 nm) Jan 2007 quad
Penryn Aug 2008
Yorkfield quad Mar 2008 (45 nm)
(45 nm)

Single
Merom (65 nm) Sep 2007
Desktop version not available
Penryn Single May 2008
(45 nm)

* Sort by initial date released

List of Intel Core 2 microprocessors

A dual core processor is different from a multi-processor system. In

the latter there are two separate CPUs with their own resources. In the
former, resources are shared and the cores reside on the same chip. A
multi-processor system is faster than a system with a dual core
processor, while a dual core system is faster than a single-core
system, all else being equal.
An attractive value of dual core processors is that they do not require
a new motherboard, but can be used in existing boards that feature
the correct socket. For the average user the difference in performance
will be most noticeable in multi-tasking until more software is SMT
aware. Servers running multiple dual core processors will see an
appreciable increase in performance.

Multi-core processors are the goal and as technology shrinks, there is

more "real-estate" available on the die. In the fall of 2004 Bill Siu of
Intel predicted that current accommodating motherboards would be
here to stay until 4-core CPUs eventually force a changeover to
incorporate a new memory controller that will be required for handling
4 or more cores.

Multi Core Processor

A multi-core processor is a processing system composed of two or

more independent cores (or CPUs). The cores are typically integrated
onto a single integrated circuit die (known as a chip multiprocessor or
CMP), or they may be integrated onto multiple dies in a single chip
package. A many-core processor is one in which the number of cores is
large enough that traditional multi-processor techniques are no longer
efficient — this threshold is somewhere in the range of several tens of
cores — and likely requires a network on chip.
A dual-core processor contains two cores, and a quad-core processor
contains four cores. A multi-core processor implements
multiprocessing in a single physical package. Cores in a multi-core
device may be coupled together tightly or loosely. For example, cores
may or may not share caches, and they may implement message
passing or shared memory inter-core communication methods.
Common network topologies to interconnect cores include: bus, ring,
2-dimensional mesh, and crossbar. All cores are identical in
homogeneous multi-core systems and they are not identical in
heterogeneous multi-core systems. Just as with single-processor
systems, cores in multi-core systems may implement architectures
such as superscalar, VLIW, vector processing, SIMD, or
multithreading.

Multi-core processors are widely used across many application

domains including: general-purpose, embedded, network, digital signal
processing, and graphics.
The amount of performance gained by the use of a multi-core
processor is strongly dependent on the software algorithms and
implementation. In particular, the possible gains are limited by the
fraction of the software that can be "parallelized" to run on multiple
cores simultaneously; this effect is described by Amdahl's law. In the
best case, so-called embarrassingly parallel problems may realize
speedup factors near the number of cores. Many typical applications,
however, do not realize such large speedup factors and thus, the
parallelization of software is a significant on-going topic of research.
Development

While manufacturing technology continues to improve, reducing the

size of single gates, physical limits of semiconductor-based
microelectronics have become a major design concern. Some effects of
these physical limitations can cause significant heat dissipation and
data synchronization problems. The demand for more capable
microprocessors causes CPU designers to use various methods of
increasing performance. Some instruction-level parallelism (ILP)
methods like superscalar pipelining are suitable for many applications,
but are inefficient for others that tend to contain difficult-to-predict
code. Many applications are better suited to thread level parallelism
(TLP) methods, and multiple independent CPUs is one common method
used to increase a system's overall TLP. A combination of increased
available space due to refined manufacturing processes and the
demand for increased TLP is the logic behind the creation of multi-core
CPUs.

Advantages

The proximity of multiple CPU cores on the same die allows the cache
coherency circuitry to operate at a much higher clock rate than is
possible if the signals have to travel off-chip. Combining equivalent
CPUs on a single die significantly improves the performance of cache
snoop (alternative: Bus snooping) operations. Put simply, this means
that signals between different CPUs travel shorter distances, and
therefore those signals degrade less. These higher quality signals allow
more data to be sent in a given time period since individual signals can
be shorter and do not need to be repeated as often.

The largest boost in performance will likely be noticed in improved

response time while running CPU-intensive processes, like antivirus
scans, ripping/burning media (requiring file conversion), or searching
for folders. For example, if the automatic virus scan initiates while a
movie is being watched, the application running the movie is far less
likely to be starved of processor power, as the antivirus program will
be assigned to a different processor core than the one running the
movie playback.

Assuming that the die can fit into the package, physically, the multi-
core CPU designs require much less Printed Circuit Board (PCB) space
than multi-chip SMP designs. Also, a dual-core processor uses slightly
less power than two coupled single-core processors, principally
because of the decreased power required to drive signals external to
the chip. Furthermore, the cores share some circuitry, like the L2
cache and the interface to the front side bus (FSB). In terms of
competing technologies for the available silicon die area, multi-core
design can make use of proven CPU core library designs and produce a
product with lower risk of design error than devising a new wider core
design. Also, adding more cache suffers from diminishing returns.

Disadvantages

In addition to operating system (OS) support, adjustments to existing

software are required to maximize utilization of the computing
resources provided by multi-core processors. Also, the ability of multi-
core processors to increase application performance depends on the
use of multiple threads within applications. The situation is improving:
for example the Valve Corporation's Source engine, offers multi-core
support, and Crytek has developed similar technologies for CryEngine
2, which powers their game, Crysis. Emergent Game Technologies
Gamebryo engine includes their Floodgate technology[3] which
simplifies multicore development across game platforms. See Dynamic
Acceleration Technology for the Santa Rosa platform for an example of
a technique to improve single-thread performance on dual-core
processors.

Integration of a multi-core chip drives production yields down and they

are more difficult to manage thermally than lower-density single-chip
designs. Intel has partially countered this first problem by creating its
quad-core designs by combining two dual-core on a single die with a
unified cache, hence any two working dual-core dies can be used, as
opposed to producing four cores on a single die and requiring all four
to work to produce a quad-core. From an architectural point of view,
ultimately, single CPU designs may make better use of the silicon
surface area than multiprocessing cores, so a development
commitment to this architecture may carry the risk of obsolescence.
Finally, raw processing power is not the only constraint on system
performance. Two processing cores sharing the same system bus and
memory bandwidth limits the real-world performance advantage. If a
single core is close to being memory bandwidth limited, going to dual-
core might only give 30% to 70% improvement. If memory bandwidth
is not a problem, a 90% improvement can be expected[citation needed]. It
would be possible for an application that used two CPUs to end up
running faster on one dual-core if communication between the CPUs
was the limiting factor, which would count as more than 100%
improvement.
Examples of Multi-core processors

• Intel
o Celeron Dual-Core, the first dual-core processor for the
budget/entry-level market.
o Core Duo, a dual-core processor.
o Core 2 Duo, a dual-core processor.
o Core 2 Quad, a quad-core processor.
o Core i7, a quad-core processor, the successor of the Core 2
Duo and the Core 2 Quad.
o Itanium 2, a dual-core processor.
o Pentium D, 2 single-core dies packaged in a multi-chip
module.
o Pentium Dual-Core, a dual-core processor.
o Teraflops Research Chip (Polaris), a 3.16 GHz, 80-core
processor prototype, which the company says will be
released within the next five years[5].
o Xeon dual-, quad- and hexa-core processors.

• AMD
o Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX and Athlon 64 X2 family, dual-core
desktop processors.
o Opteron, dual- and quad-core server/workstation
processors.
o Phenom, dual-, triple-, and quad-core desktop processors.
o Sempron X2, dual-core entry level processors.
o Turion 64 X2, dual-core laptop processors.
o Radeon and FireStream multi-core GPU/GPGPU (10 cores,
16 5-issue wide superscalar stream processors per core)

• IBM
o POWER4, the world's first non-embedded dual-core
processor, released in 2001.
o POWER5, a dual-core processor, released in 2004.
o POWER6, a dual-core processor, released in 2007.
 o PowerPC 970MP, a dual-core processor, used in the Apple
Power Mac G5.
o Xenon, a triple-core, SMT-capable, PowerPC
microprocessor used in the Microsoft Xbox 360 game
console.

• IBM, Sony, and Toshiba Cell processor, a nine-core

processor with one general purpose PowerPC core and eight
specialized SPUs (Synergystic Processing Unit) optimized for
vector operations used in the Sony PlayStation 3.

• Nvidia
o GeForce 9 multi-core GPU (8 cores, 16 scalar stream
processors per core)
o GeForce 200 multi-core GPU (10 cores, 24 scalar stream
processors per core)
o Tesla multi-core GPGPU (10 cores, 24 scalar stream
processors per core)

Intel Core 2

The Core 2 brand refers to a range of Intel's consumer 64-bit x86-64

single-, dual-, and quad-core CPUs based on the Intel Core
microarchitecture. The single- and dual-core models are single-die,
whereas the quad-core models comprise of two dies, each containing
two cores, packaged in a multi-chip module. The introduction of Core 2
relegated the Pentium brand to the mid-range market, and reunified
laptop and desktop CPU lines, which previously had been divided into
the Pentium 4, Pentium D, and Pentium M brands.

The Core microarchitecture returned to lower clock rates and improved

the usage of both available clock cycles and power when compared
with the preceding NetBurst microarchitectue of the Pentium 4/D-
branded CPUs. The Core microarchitecture provides more efficient
decoding stages, execution units, caches, and buses, reducing the
power consumption of Core 2-branded CPUs, while increasing their
processing capacity. Intel's CPUs have varied wildly in power
consumption according to clock rate, architecture, and semiconductor
process.

The Core 2 brand was introduced on July 27, 2006, comprising the
Solo (single-core), Duo (dual-core), Quad (quad-core), and in 2007,
the Extreme (dual- or quad-core CPUs for enthusiasts) version. Intel
Core 2 processors with vPro technology (designed for businesses)
include the dual-core and quad-core branches.

The Intel® Core™2 Quad processor for were designed to handle

massive compute and visualization workloads enabled by powerful
multi-core technology. Providing all the bandwidth you need for next-
generation highly-threaded applications, the latest four-core Intel Core
2 Quad processors are built on 45nm Intel® Core™ microarchitecture
enabling faster, cooler, and quieter desktop PC and workstation
experiences.

Duo, Quad, and Extreme

The Core 2-branded CPUs include:

"Conroe" (dual-core for higher- and lower-end desktops)

"Merom" (dual-core for laptops)

"Kentsfield" (quad-core for desktops), and their variants named:

"Penryn" (dual-core for laptops)

"Wolfdale" (dual-core for desktops, low-end dual-core for desktops)

"Yorkfield" (quad-core for desktops).

Features:
With four processing cores, up to 12MB of shared L2 cache and 1333
MHz Front Side Bus the Intel Core 2 Quad desktops processor delivers
amazing performance and power efficiency enabled by the all new
hafnium-based circuitry of 45nm Intel Core microarchitecture.

The Virtualization Technology (with some exceptions)

Execute Disable Bit and SSE3.

Their Core microarchitecture introduced also SSSE3, Trusted Execution

Technology, Enhanced SpeedStep, and Active Management Technology
(iAMT2).

Power your most demanding applications like encoding, rendering,

editing or streaming HD multimedia.

With a thermal design power (TDP) of up to only 65 W, the Core 2

dual-core Conroe consumed only half the power of less capable, but
also dual-core Pentium D-branded desktop chips with a TDP of up to
130 W (a high TDP requires additional cooling that can be noisy or
expensive).
The Past, Present & Future…