Mathematical Reasoning

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MATHEMATICAL REASONING

By:- Nishant Gupta
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Nishant Gupta, D-122, Prashant vihar, Rohini, Delhi-85
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KEY CONCEPTS
1. A mathematically acceptable statement is a sentence which is either true or false.
2. Negation of a statement p: If p denotes a statement, then the negation of p is denoted by ~p.
3. A statement is a compound statement if it is made up of two or more smaller statements. The smaller
statements are called component statements of the compound statement.
4. The role of And, Or, There exists and For every in compound statements.
5. Conjunction: The compound statement, obtained by connecting two simple statements by the connective
and, is called the conjunction of these simple statements. The conjunction of p and q is denoted by p ^ q
(read: p and q). Sometimes, the use of and in language may not be in the role of a connective. The truthtable
for p ^ q is as follows:

p q p ^ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
6. Disjunction: The compound statement obtained by connecting two simple statements by the connective or
is called the disjunction of these simple statements. The disjunction of p and q is denoted by p q (read: p
or q). p q has truth value F.

p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

7. Negation: A statement whose truthvalue is always opposite to that of a given statement, and is also the
opposite in its contents, is called its negation. The negation of p is denoted by ~p. Truth table

p ~p
T F

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F T
8. The meaning of implications If, only if, if and only if.
9. A sentence with if p, then q can be written in the following ways. p implies q (denoted by p q), p is a
sufficient condition for q, q is a necessary condition for p p only if q. ~q implies ~p
10. The contrapositive of a statement p q is the statement ~q ~p. The converse of a statement p q is
the statement q p.
11. p q together with its converse, gives p if and only if q.
12. The following methods are used to check the validity of statements:
(a) direct method
(b) contrapositive method
(c) method of contradiction
(d) using a counter example.
13. Laws of logical connectives and truthtables:
If two statements S1 (p, q, r.......) and S2 (p, q, r,.......) have the same truthvalue for all possible truthvalues of
the component statements, they are said to the logically equivalent statements. We write this as
S1 (p, q, r.......) = S2 (p, q, r, ....)
(a) Commutative laws:
p q = q p and p ^ q = q ^ p

(1) (2)
p q p ^ q p q
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F F

From columns (1) and (2) we see that for all possible truthvalues of p and q, p q and q p have the same
truthvalues. Hence, p q = q p.
Similarly, from columns (3) and (4), we can say that p ^ q = q ^ p.

(3) (4)
p q p ^ q p ^ q
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F

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(b) Associative law:
(p q) r = p (q r) and (p ^ q) ^ r = p ^ (q ^ r)
Here, since each of p, q and r has two possibilities for truthvalues, T and F, we have, in all, 2
3
= 8 possible
cases.
They are shown below in a tabular form

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
p q r p
q
(p q) r q
r
p (q r)
T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T
T F T T T T T
T F F T T F T
F T T T T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F T T T
F F F F F F F

Columns (5) and (7) are identical. So we can say that, (p q) r = p (q r) Similarly, we have

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
p q R p ^ q (p ^ q) ^ r q ^ r p ^ (q ^ r)
T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F
T F T F F F F
T F F F F F F
F T T F F T F
F T F F F F F
F F T F F F F
F F F F F F F

Here also, from identical columns (5) and (7), we see that (p ^ q) ^ r = p ^ (q ^ r)

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(c) De Morgan's laws:
~ (p q) = (~p) ^ (~q) and ~ (p ^ q) = (~p) (~q).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
p q p q ~ (p q) ~p ~q (~p)
^(~q)
T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T
Thus, from the identical columns (4) and (7), we can say that ~(p q) = (~p) ^ (~q)
Similarly, it can be prove that ~ (p ^ q) = (~p) (~q)
(d) Distriutive laws:
p ^ (q r) = (p ^ q) (p ^ r) and p (q ^ r) = (p q) ^ (p r)
(e) Law for the Negation of a Negation (Involution law): ~ (~p) = p
p ~p ~(~p)
T F T
F T F
From the first and last columns, we can say that ~ (~p) = p
(1) Laws of Absorption:
p ^ (p q) = p p (p ^ q) = p
1 2 3 4
p q p q p ^ (q p)
T T T T
T F T T
F T T F
F F F F
From identical columns (1) and (4), it is proved that p ^ (p q) = p
Similarly, using a truthtable, we can easily show that p (p ^ q) = p
14. Tautology and contradiction: If a statement always has the truth value T, it is called a tautology and is
denoted by t (t for tautology)
The sun rises in the east and Man is mortal are both tautologies.
If a statement always has the truthvalue F, it is called a contradiction and is denoted by c (c for
contradiction)
There are 31 days in February is a contradiction.

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Laws of tautology and contradiction:
(l) p t = t (2) p ^ t = p (3) p c = p
(4) p ^ c = c (5) p (~p) = t (6) p (~p) = c

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
p ~
p
t c p(~p) p ^ (~p) p
t
p ^ t p c p ^ c
T F T F T F T T T F
F T T F T F T F F F

From identical columns (3) and (7), p t = t
From identical columns (1) and (8), p ^ t = p
From identical columns (1) and (9), p c = p
From identical columns (4) and (10), p ^ c = c
From identical columns (3) and (5), p(~p) = t
From identical columns (4) and (6), p ^ (~p) = c
Indempotent laws: p p = p and p ^ p = p

1 2 3 4
p q p q p ^ q
T T T T
F F F F
15. Quantifiers: Quantifiers are phrases like, There exists and For all. Another phrase which appears in
mathematical statements is there exists. For example, consider the statement, p: There exists a rectangle
whose all sides are equal. This means that there is atleast one rectangle whose all sides are equal. A word
closely connected with there exists is for every (or for all). Consider a statement. p: For every prime
number p, p is an irrational number. This means that if S denotes the set of all prime numbers, then for
all the members p of the set S, p is an irrational number. In general, a mathematical statement that says
for every can be interpreted as saying that all the members of the given set S where the property applies
must satisfy that property.
16. Implication and double implication: If p and q are statements, a statement of the form if p then q is
called an implication and is written p q. Here p is called antecedent and q consequent.
If it rains, then the roads will be wet. In this statement, taking p ; it rains and q : the roads will be wet, the
given statement can be written in the above notation as p q. In the implication p q, p is called a
sufficient condition for q and q is called a necessary condition for p.
For the truthvalues T of p, and F of q, the truthvalue of p q is F.

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In other possibilities, for the truthvalues of p and q, the truthvalue of p q is T. The truthtable for an
implication is:

p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Thus, if cos = 2 then sec = 1/4 is a true statement. Since the truthvalue of cos = 2 is F. so the truthvalue
of the implication is T irrespective of the truthvalue of sec = 1/4.
Disjunction equivalent to an implication:
p q and (~p) v q are the logically equivalent statements.

1 2 3 4 5
p q p q ~p (~p) q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
From identical columns (3) and (5), p q = (~p) q.
Implication equivalent to an implication (Contrapositive of an implication):
p q and ~q ~p are logically equivalent statements.

1 2 3 4 5 6
p q p q ~q ~p ~q ~p
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

From identical columns (3) and (6), we see that (p q) = [(~q) (~p)]
Hence, the logically equivalent implication of if ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0 is if a 0 and b 0 then ab 0.
(Note the use of De Morgans law in ~q.)
Alternate proof for equivalent implication: using the result p q = ~p q, we can write,
(~q) (~p) = ~ (~q) (~p) = q (~p) = (~p) q = p q
p q = [(~q) (~p)]

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Negation of an implication: ~ (p q) = p ^ (~q)

1 2 3 4 5 6
p q p q ~(pq) ~q p ^ (~q)
T T T F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F F F
F F T T T F
From columns (4) and (6), we see that ~ (p q) = p ^ (~q)
Alternate proof for the Negation of an implication:
~ (p q) = ~ [(~p)] q]
= [~ (~p)] ^ (-q) [From De Morgans law)
= p ^ (~q)
Double implication: Statements of the form p if, and only if, q are called double implications and are
written as p q,
p q is a conjunction of p q and q p.
Two triangles are equilateral if, and only if, they are equiangular, is an example of double implication. ab = 0
if, and only if, a = 0 or b = 0 is also a double implication.
Truthtable for a double implication:

1 2 3 4 5
p q p q q p p q
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

Thus, p q is true if and only if p and q have the same truthvalues, that is, p and q are equivalent
statements.
Hence, we may say that (p q) = (p = q)
Statements of the form if p then q can also be written as p only if q.
17. Contropositive: Contrapositive is a statement which can be formed from a given statement with if.........
then.
Contrapositive of the statement if p, then q is If ~q, then ~p
18. Converse: The converse of a given statement If p then q is If q then p.
IMPORTANT RESULTS
1. While forming the negation of a statement, phrases like, It is not the case or It is false that are also used.
2. The compound statement with And is true if all its component statements are true.

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3. The component statement with And is false if any of its component statements is false (this includes the
case that some of its component statements are false or all of its component statements are false).
4. A compound statement with an Or is true when one component statement is true or both the component
statements are true.
5. A compound statement with an Or is false when both the component statements are false.
6. In mathematics, counter examples are used to disprove the statement. However, generating examples in
favour of a statement do not provide validity of the statement.

Instruction Q.1-Q.10
Given the statements p : 1 is not a prime
number and q : 15 is a prime number.
1. 1 is not a prime or 15 is a prime, can be
expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) p (~p)
2. 1 is not a prime and 15 is a prime, can be
expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) p (~p)
3. 1 is a prime, can be expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) ~p
4. 15 is not a prime, can be expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) ~q (d) p (~p)
5. 1 is not a prime or 15 is not a prime, can be
expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) p (~p)
6. 1 is a prime or 15 is a prime, can be expressed
as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) p (~p)
7. 1 is not a prime or 1 is a prime, can be
expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) p (~p)
8. 15 is a prime and 15 is not a prime, can be
expressed as -
(a) (~p) (~q) (b) q ^ (-q)
(c) (~p) q (d) p (~p)
9. 1 is a prime or 15 is not a prime, can be
expressed as -
(a) (~p) (~q) (b) q ^ (-q)
(c) (~p) q (d) p (~p)
10. 1 is a prime and 15 is not a prime, can be
expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) (~p) ^ (~q)
ASSIGNMENT

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11. p : The sky is overcast; q : It is raining heavily.
The sky is overcast and It is raining heavily, can
be expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) (~p) (~q)
12. p : 10 is divisible by 5 ; q : 5 is divisible by 10.
10 is divisible by 5 or 5 is-divisible by 10,, can
be expressed as-
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) (~p) q (d) (~p) (~q)
13. The statement p (q p) is equivalent to
(a) p(p q) (b) p(p^q)
(c) p (p q) (d) p (p q)
14. p: Today is holiday, q: Tomorrow there is an
examination can be expressed as -
(a) p q (b) p^q
(c) (~p) q (d) p (~p)
15. p: The results will be declared today, q : We
have to apply for the admission tomorrow. Can
be expressed as -
(a) p q (b) (~p) q
(c) p ^ q (d) p (~p)

InstructionQ.16-Q.20
Let p be It is raining today and q be There
are twenty chairs in this room.
16. It is raining today or there are twenty chairs in
this room, can be expressed as
(a) p or q (b) p and q
(c) ~p (d) ~p or ~q
17. It is not rain today, can be expressed as -
(c) ~p (d) ~p or ~q
18. It is false that there 20 chairs in this room, can
be expressed as -
(c) ~p (d) ~q
19. It is not raining today or there are not twenty
chairs in this room, can be expressed as -
(c) ~p (d) ~p or ~q
20. It is raining today and there are twenty chairs
in this room, can be expressed as -
(c) ~p (d) ~p or ~q
21. p (p ^ q) is equivalent to
(a) q (b) p
(c) ~p (d) ~q
22. ~ (~p) q is equivalent to
(a) p q (b) p ^ q
(c) ( ~p) q (d) p ^ (~q)
23. If p q = p r and p ^ q = p ^ r then q =
(a) p (b) q
(c) r (d) ~p
24. S1 : p q, S2 : p r, then p
(a) p q (b) (q ^ r)
(c) (~p) q (d) p ^ (~q)
25. p : If x is an integer and x
2
is even, then x is also
even. Statement is -
(a) true (b) false .
(c) it is not a statement (d) none of these
26. p: If all the angles of a triangle are equal, then
the triangle is an obtuse angled triangle.
Statement is -
(a) true (b) false
27. p : The equation x
2
- 1 = 0 does not have a root
lying between 0 and 2.
(a) true (b) false
28. Implication of the product of two negative
numbers is positive is -
(a) if two numbers are negative, their product
is positive
(b) if two numbers are positive, their product is
negative
(c) if two numbers are negative, their product is
negative
(d) if two numbers are positive, their product is
positive

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ANSWER (MATHEMATICAL REASONING)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
a b d c d c d b a d b a a d d
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
a c d d b b d c b a b b a

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