INVASIVE SPECIES IN ECOLOGICAL HABITATS OF NATIONAL

PARKS IN BHUTAN

UGYEN DORJI

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

M.SC. FORESTRY (2012-2014)

Under the guidance of

Dr. NAWA BAHAR

Scientist C, Silviculture Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. Forest Research Institute (Deemed) University University, , Dehradun
INDIAN COUNCIL OF FORESTRY RESEARCH AND EDUCATION

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 1 BHUTAN ........................................................................................................................................................... 2 1. THE GREAT HIMALAYA................................................................................................................................... 3 2. THE INNER HIMALAYA .................................................................................................................................... 3 DRAINAGE/RIVER SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................. 3 METEOROLOGY ................................................................................................................................................... 4 BIODIVERSITY OF BHUTAN ............................................................................................................................... 5 IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY .......................................................................................................................... 5 FORESTRY IN BHUTAN ..................................................................................................................................... 7 THREATS AND CHALLENGES................................................................................................................................ 8 INVASIVE SPECIES ............................................................................................................................................ 9 PHASE OF BIOLOGICAL INVASION IN BHUTAN ..................................................................................................... 9 INVASIVE SPECIES FOUND IN BHUTAN AND THEIR COMMON NAMES.................................................................. 10 PROTECTED AREAS IN BHUTAN...................................................................................................................... 19 INVASIVE SPECIES IN PROTECTED AREAS .......................................................................................................... 20 COMMON INVASIVE SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ECOLOGICAL HABITATS OF PROTECTED AREAS ..................................................... 21 COMMON INVASIVE SPECIES IN ECOLOGICAL HABITATS OF NATIONAL PARKS .............................................. 30 JIGME DORJI NATIONAL PARK.................................................................................................................................. 30 JIGME SINGYE WANGCHUCK NATIONAL PARK ............................................................................................................. 32 ROYAL MANAS NATIONAL PARK............................................................................................................................... 34 WANGCHUCK CENTENNIAL PARK.............................................................................................................................. 38 COMMON INVASIVE SPECIES IN ECOLOGICAL HABITATS OF SANCTUARIES ................................................... 40 BOMDELING WILDLIFE SANCTUARY........................................................................................................................... 40 KHALING NEOLI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY ...................................................................................................................... 42 PHIPSOO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY ............................................................................................................................... 43 SAKTENG WILDLIFE SANCTUARY ............................................................................................................................... 45 TORSA STRICT NATURE RESERVE .............................................................................................................................. 46 FACTORS LEADING TO INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF INVASIVE SPECIES .................................................. 47 IMPACTS OF INVASIVE SPECIES ...................................................................................................................... 49 STATUS OF STUDY AND IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMS IN BHUTAN ............................................................. 49 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................. 50 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................... 51

Introduction
The Kingdom of Bhutan is a small southern Asian country. It is a landlocked country, bounded by India in South, East and South-West and Tibetan autonomous region of China in the North and NorthWest subsequently. It is about 300 km long and 150 km wide encompassing an area of 46,500 square kilometres. Virtually, the entire country is almost mountainous, and ranges in elevation as low as 97m along the Indian border to as high as 7,554m peak on the Tibetan border. These two extremes frame a landscape which stretches from sub-tropical to arctic like alpine conditions and making the country distinctively divisible into three lateral zones from South to North: Subtropical zone (100m-1200m), Temperate zone (1200m-4000m) and Alpine zone (above 4000m). One of Bhutan's significant natural resources in the late twentieth century is its rich forests and natural vegetation. Bhutan straddles two major biogeographic realms, the Indo-Malayan and Palearctic and is part of the eastern Himalayan region which contains parts of three global biodiversity hotspots, 60 ecoregions, 330 important bird areas, 53 important plant areas, and a large number of wetlands and 29 Ramsar sites. Today, the country has 70.46 percent of the total area under forest cover and 51.32 percent, secured as protected areas and biological corridors. The protected area system of Bhutan is regarded as one of the most comprehensive in the world. It encompasses a continuum of representational samples of all major ecosystems found in the country, ranging from the sub-tropical grasslands and forests in the southern foothills through temperate forests in the central mountains and valleys to alpine meadows in the northern mountains. Protected areas of Bhutan is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna including 5603 species of vascular plants, 400 lichens, 200 mammals and about 700 birds. In addition to the currently known 105 endemic plant species, Bhutan also hosts a number of globally threatened species including 27 mammals and 18 birds. Today, however, the rich biodiversity of the country is in the verge of decreasing in number. In Bhutan, loss of biodiversity is caused by several factors such as changes in land use, over exploitation of natural resources, destruction of natural habitats, urbanization, human wildlife conflict, forest fires, hydropower development, industrial development and one of the important factor includes introduction of invasive alien species in the country. The introduction of invasive species has also caused decline to economic status, environmental harm and harm to human health. Accordingly, the governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations in the country are working hard to alleviate these factors and come to proper solutions. The study of invasive species, finding approximate number and their effect are under process. There are over 200 invasive species including both plants and animals in the country, belonging mostly to Compostae and Graminae families. However, the knowledge of invasive are new to Bhutan due to which, currently a very few numbers of works are done to study it and essential mitigation activities against it. If such trends, where people are less aware and have limited knowledge, and again if detailed studies on invasive species are not soon being carried out, consequently, invasive species can bring greater harm to the biodiversity, the local communities and the country as a whole. Thus the present work is an attempt to reveal the countrys biodiversity and vegetational zones and study the invasive species found in the country with particular focus on those invasive species found in the ecological habitats of national parks of Bhutan.

Bhutan
The Kingdom of Bhutan is located in Southern Asia. It is a landlocked country, sandwiched between China to the north and India to the south. It is about 300 km long and 150 km wide encompassing an area of 46,500 square kilometres. Located between longitude 880 45' and 92010' East and latitudes 260 40' and 280 15' North in the Eastern Himalayas, it is bounded by India in South, East and South-West and Tibetan autonomous region of China in the North and North-West respectively ("Geography of Bhutan,"2012). Virtually, the entire country is almost mountainous, and ranges in elevation from 97m Drangme chhu1 along the Indian border to the 7,554m Kula Gangri 2peak on the Tibetan border. These two extremes frame a landscape which stretches from sub-tropical to arctic like alpine conditions. The maximum East-West stretch of the country is approximately 300 km and north-South about 150 km (Rosenberg, 2005).

Figure 1. Location of Bhutan, showing Chinese and Indian borders to north and south respectively ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012).

Physiography
Bhutan is distinctively divisible into three lateral zones from South to North. Incidentally, this zonation is more or less applicable to meteorological, ethnographical and geographical divisions of the country. Thus, the climatic zones are also divisible into three lateral zones, Subtropical zone (100m-1200m), Temperate zone (1200m-4000m) and Alpine zone (above 4000m).

1
2

Drangme Chhu is one of the rivers in Bhutan, considered as lowest point of elevation. Kula Kangri is claimed by many authorities to be the highest mountain in Bhutan but this is disputed by others, who claim that Kula Kangri is wholly in Tibet.

Talking in geomorphologic terms, Bhutan is distinctively divisible into three lateral zones from South to North, as addressed below:

1. The Great Himalaya

Extending from Mt. Jhomolhari (7,314m) in the West to Kulha Gangri (7,554m) near the center point of the northern border between Tibet and Bhutan, this region is virtually a snow-wilderness zone where almost 20% of the land is under perpetual snow. This region consists of an arc of glaciated mountain peaks with an arctic climate at the highest elevations. Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide pasture for livestock of a sparse population of migratory shepherds (Congress, 2011). This zone is represented by alpine meadows and perpetually snow bound high summit of the Great Himalayan range.

2. The Inner Himalaya

This is the largest physiographic region of Bhutan and lies among broad valleys and forested hillsides from 1,100m to 3,000m in elevation. All the major towns of Bhutan are situated in this zone such as Paro, Thimphu, Punakha, in western Bhutan, Trongsa and Bumthang in central Bhutan and Mongar, Trashigang in eastern Bhutan ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012). The Inner Himalayas are southward spurs of the Great Himalayan Range. The Black Mountains, in central Bhutan, form a watershed between two major river systems, the Mo Chhu 3and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 1,500 meters and 2,700 meters above sea level, and the fast-flowing rivers have carved out spectacular gorges in the lower mountain areas. The woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan's valuable forest production. Eastern Bhutan is divided by another southward spur, the Donga Range. Western Bhutan has fertile, cultivated valleys and terraced river basins (Congress, 2011).

3. The Southern foothills

Also called as Himalayan foothills, this zone occupies the southernmost part of the country. The plains in the south of the country are part of the region known as Terai, which extends from Kashmir, through Nepal, to Bhutan. The average annual rainfall in this region generally reaches up to 200 inches resulting to luxuriant vegetation particularly tropical forests rich in wildlife, while at times hot, steamy and unhealthy tracts are other features of this zone ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012).

Drainage/River system
Rivers play an important role in Bhutan's physical, economic, social and cultural geography. Their enormous potential for hydroelectric power has helped in shaping the national economy. Since the central Himalayas of Bhutan receives the full brunt of the monsoon so the rivers are larger and have created much broader valleys than rivers further to the west in Nepal and India. In their upper reaches, most Bhutanese rivers have created large fertile valleys. As the rivers pass through the centre of Bhutan, the valleys become steeper and narrower, and roads have to climb high on the hillside ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012).The principal rivers of the country are; Amo chhu, Paro Chhu, Wang Chhu, Punatsang Chhu, Mangde Chhu, Pho Chhu, Mo Chhu, Dangme Chhu, Manas Chhu and Chamkhar Chhu.

One of the important rivers of Bhutan, Chhu means river.

Meteorology
Bhutan's climate varies widely depending upon elevation. In the southern region it is tropical, with a monsoon season and eastern part is warmer than the west. The central valley, which includes districts like Wangdue Phodrang and Punakha enjoys a semi-tropical climate with cool winters, whereas Paro, Thimphu, Trongsa and Bumthang have relatively harsher climate including snowfall in winter (Rosenberg, 2005).

Figure 2. Map showing central valleys and major river systems of Bhutan("Map of Bhutan," 2011).

Spring lasts from mid-March to the beginning of June, with temperatures warming gradually to 27-29 degree centigrade by day and about 18 degree centigrade at night ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012). However, cold spells are possible up until the end of April, with a chance of new snow on the mountains above the valleys. Strong, gusty winds start blowing almost every day from noon to early evening. The first storms break, and they become more and more frequent with the approach of the monsoon which arrives in mid-June (Rosenberg, 2005). The country receives abundant rain especially in the south, as it gets full face of monsoon coming from the Bay of Bengal. To which its mountains form a barrier. At the end of September, after the last of the big rains, autumn suddenly arrives and sky gets clear, a brisk breeze picks up and temperature starts falling towards freezing at night although bright sunshine continues to keep the days warm. Autumn is the magnificent season that lasts until mid-November ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012).

Biodiversity of Bhutan
Importance of Biodiversity
Biological diversity plays a paramount role in every sphere of human existence and provides us with a vast range of products and services. These are pivotal services such as food, water, timber, fibre, genetic resources, and medicines; regulating services such as regulation of climate and, water and soil quality, and pollination; cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling (Carlson et al., 2010). Biodiversity also plays a significant role in mitigating and adapting the impacts of climate change. Intact ecosystems such as forests and peat lands sequester carbon in their vegetation and soil thus supporting climate-regulating functions worldwide (Amend & Eibing, 2010). Bhutan straddles two major biogeographic realms, the Indo-Malayan and Palearctic and is part of the Eastern Himalayan region which contains parts of three global biodiversity hotspots, 60 ecoregions, 330 important bird areas, 53 important plant areas, and a large number of wetlands and 29 Ramsar sites(ICIMOD, 2010). Bhutan is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna including 5603 species of vascular plants, 400 lichens, 200 mammals and about 700 birds. In addition to the currently known 105 endemic plant species, Bhutan also hosts a number of globally threatened species including 27 mammals and 18 birds (Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas, 2011). Table 1.Different forest types and Characteristic Flora and Fauna in Bhutan (some species are subject to change).
Zones Dry Alpine Scrub Altitude (m) 4,000-4,600 Precipitation No information Characteristic Flora Ephedra Meconopsis Chesneya Tanacetum Saussurea Rheum nobile gerardiana, simplicifolia, nubigena, gossypinum, gossypiphora, Characteristic Fauna Mammals: Marmots, Snow leopard, Blue sheep, Pika, red fox, musk deer Birds: Tibetan snow cock, Snow partridge, Grandala, Lammergeier Himalayan monal pheasant Himalayan griffon, Alpine accentor, Oriental skylark, Blood Pheasant Mammals: Wild dog, Barking deer, Serow, Musk deer, Takin. Birds: white browed rose finch, Snow pigeon, White browed bush robin Golden bush robin, Blood Pheasant Fire tailed Sunbird. Mammals: Sambhar, Serow, Black Bear, Barking deer. Birds: Black throated tit, Black throated fulvetta, Greentailed sunbird, Rustyflanked tree creeper, Lesser cuckoo. Mammals: Sambhar, Birds: Black throated tit, Rusty flanked tree creeper, and Black throated fulvetta. Mammals: Leopard, Sambhar, and Goral. Birds: Green backed tit,

Juniper/Rhododendron scrub

3,700-4,200

No information

Juniperus recurva, J. squamata, Rhododendron lepidotum, Morina,nepalensis,Thalictrum, chelidonfi,Pedicularis megalalantha. or Tsuga dumosa,Larix griffithiana,Gaultheria fragrantissima, Panax puseudo-ginseng, Daphne bholua, Arundinaria griffithiana Picea brachytyla, Rosa macrophylla,Taxus baccata,Picea spinulosa Acer cappadocicum,Larix girffithiana,Hydrangea sp. Pinus wallichiana, Berberis asiatica, Cotoneaster griffithii,Lyonia ovalifolia,

Fir forest

3,100-3,300 (-3,800)

130 cm more

Spruce Forest

(2,500-) 2,700-3,100 (-3,200)

50-100

Blue pine

2,1003,00(3,100)

70-120

Rhododendron arboreum, Ansaema consanguineum.

Everygreen oak forest

1,8002,000(;2,600)

200-300

Acer campbelli, Castanopsis hystrix, C. tribuloides, Elatostema hookerianum, Quescus lamellose, Skimmia arborescens Acercampbelli, alnoides, populnea. pulcherrima, clarkeana, dryophila Betula Exbuclandia Lindera Persea Symplocos

Cool broad forest

leaved

2,000-2,900

250-500

Chir pine forest

900-1,800 (- 2,00)

100-130

Pinus roxburghii, Cycas pectinata, Cymbopogon flexousus, Euphorbia royleana, Woodfordia fructicosa, Grewia sapida, Buddleja bhutanica, Rhododendron arboreum,

Yellow billed blue magpie, Grey backed shrike, Red billed cough, common kestrel, Collared blackbird, White throated laughing thrush. Mammals: Tiger, barking deer, sambhar, wild dog. Birds: Kaleejs pheasant, leaf warbler, Grey winged black bird, Green backed tit, chestnut breasted, wood snipe. Mammals: leopard, black bear, barking deer, red panda. Birds: white throated laughing thrush, rufous necked hornbill, chestnut, rowned laughing thrush, snowy browed fly catcher, mountain hawk eagle, tawny owl, ward's trogon Pygmy wren babbler, great babbler. Mammals: Goral, Yellow throated martin, Barking deer. Birds: Black bulbul, Mountain bulbul, Grey-tree pie, Rufous woodpecker, Red-vented bulbul, Bar-winged flycatcher shrike Saphire flycatcher, and Himalayan bulbul

Warm broad fores

leaved

1,0002,000(2,300)

230-400

Altingia excelsa, Bischofia javanica, Castanopsis indica, Engelhardia spicata, Macaranga postulata, Schima wallichii, Alnus nepalensis. Michelia exelsa, Morus sp., Amoora rhortica,

Mammals: Red panda, Barking deer, Sambhar, Tiger, Capped langur, Serow, Leopard. Birds: Rufous necked hornbill, Palla's fish eagle, Common Iora, white breasted kingfisher, Oriental turtle dove, Leaf warbler, Hodgson's hawk cuckoo, and Chestnut breasted partridges. Mammals: Golden langur, Capped langur, Pygmy hog, Marbled cat, Asiatic golden cat, Fishing cat, Tiger, Elephant, Clouded leopard. Birds: Large billed crow, Blue whistling thrush, Pin-tailed green pigeon, Orange breasted green pigeon, Spotted dove, Great coucal, Rose-ringed parakeet, Asian emerald , cuckoo, Blue bearded beeeater, Blue bearded barber, Large hawk cuckoo, Rufousnecked hornbill, Pallas's fish eagle.

Subtropical forest

200-1,000(1,200)

250-500

Acrocarpua fraxinifolius Ailanthus grandis, Bombax ceiba, Duabanga grandiflora, Shorea robusta, Pteroapermum acerifolium, Aquilaria agaloocha, Gmelia arborea, Terminalia sp., Michelia champaca, Acacia catechu, Chukrasia tabularis, Toona ciliata, Lagestroemia sp., Phoebe sp., Artocarpus sp.

Source: (Grierson & Long, 1999).

Forestry in Bhutan
One of Bhutan's significant natural resources in the late twentieth century is its rich forests and natural vegetation. Bhutan's location in the eastern Himalayas, with its subtropical plains and alpine terrain, gives it more rainfall than its neighbours to the west, a factor greatly facilitating forest growth. The forests contain numerous deciduous and evergreen species, ranging from tropical hardwoods to predominantly oak and pine forests (Wangda & Oshawa, 2006). The small population and the general absence of overdevelopment in Bhutan contribute to forest preservation. Because of the terrain, the more accessible forests had been overcut whereas remote forests remain largely in their natural state. A progressive government-sponsored forestry conservation policy strives to balance revenue needs with ecological considerations, water management, and soil preservation. The Department of Forestry was established in 1952 to oversee conservation and exploitation of the country's significant forestry resources. After an initial decade of development, forestry resource exploitation increased with the start of the First Development Plan in 1961. Uncontrolled felling of trees in the 1970s by private companies in logging areas and by rural populations along roads and in main valleys stripped hillsides and caused serious erosion (BAP, 2009). In 1971 the Forestry School was established at Kalikhola in southern Bhutan. It was moved to Taba in the northern Thimphu Valley in 1977. The school provided basic instruction in forestry and forest management and trained foresters and Forest Guards. In 1981 some 3.3 million hectares, or between 70 and 74 percent of the land, were forested, but in 1991 foreign estimates indicated a shrinking forest of only 60 to 64 percent of the land. Even more conservative estimates indicated that closer to 50 percent of Bhutan's territory still was forested in the late 1980s, and about 15 percent of GDP was produced through the nation's important forest industry. Recognizing the potential value of its forestry resource, Bhutan became increasingly conscientious about forestry management in the 1970s. Starting in 1977, the World Wildlife Fund began supporting Bhutan's forest management through organizing forest ranger training programs, supplying funds for forest boundary demarcation, building guard posts, and constructing a patrol road for what was later to be designated the Royal Manas National Park. In the face of increasing denuded hillsides, private logging was banned, and strict standards for public-sector logging operations were established in 1979. Farmers were warned against burning off forests to clear land for tsheri4 cultivation, and forest guards were trained in increasing numbers to help preserve the valuable resources. Surveying, demarcation, conservation, and management plans for harvesting forest products were part of the Fifth Development Plan's focus on forestry preservation. Wildlife sanctuaries also were developed. One of the immediate results of forestry sector regulation, however, was a sharp decrease in revenues since the late 1970s. In 1991 the government, with assistance from UNDP and the World Wildlife Fund, established a trust fund for environmental conservation. Initially in the amount of US$20 million, the UNDP-administered fund was aimed at producing up to US$1 million per year for training in forestry and ecology, surveying forests, reviewing and implementing management plans for protected areas, and supporting government environmental offices, public awareness programs, and integrated conservation and development programs (BAP, 2009).
4

Tsheri means shifting cultivation in Bhutan.

Threats and challenges

The country has 70.46 percent of the total area under forest cover (LCMP, 2010) and 51.32 percent, secured as protected areas and biological corridors. These serve not only as rich reservoirs of biodiversity but indirectly serve as long-term stores of carbon which mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change. The protected areas system of Bhutan is regarded as one of the most comprehensive in the world. It encompasses a continuum of representational samples of all major ecosystems found in the country, ranging from the tropical/sub-tropical grasslands and forests in the southern foothills through temperate forests in the central mountains and valleys to alpine meadows in the northern mountains (NEC, 2009). As addressed in above lines, Bhutan has an extensive network of rivers due to the high level of precipitation, numerous glaciers and glacial lakes and well preserved forests resulting in upstream and downstream benefits such as water and other ecosystem services (BAP, 2009). However, Bhutan at the crossroads of development and modernization faces many challenges towards the loss of its pristine natural biodiversity. According to United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, between 1990 and 2010, Bhutan lost an average of 10,700 ha or 0.35% per year. In total, between 1990 and 2010, Bhutan gained 7.1% of its forest cover or around 214,000 ha. Bhutan's forests contain 336 million metric tons of carbon in living forest biomass (FAO, 2011). As mentioned, Bhutan has 51.32 percent of its total area secured as protected areas and biological corridors, depicting that biodiversity in Bhutan are being mostly conserved by the protected areas. Protected areas of Bhutan have some 748 known species of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles according to figures from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Of these, 1.1% is endemic, meaning they exist in no other country, and 5.3% are threatened. Bhutan is home to at least 5468 species of vascular plants, of which 1.4% are endemic. 29.6% of Bhutan is protected under IUCN categories I-V. However, the biodiversity are in the verge of decreasing in number. In Bhutan, loss of biodiversity is caused by several factors such as changes in land use, over exploitation of natural resources, destruction of natural habitats, urbanization, human wildlife conflict, forest fires, hydropower development, industrial development and one of the important factor includes introduction of invasive alien species in the country (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). Accordingly, the governmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations in the country are working hard to alleviate these factors.

Figure 3. Forest cleared for construction of road.

However, the knowledge of invasive species and the effect of invasive species on biodiversity are new to Bhutan due to which, currently a very few numbers of works are done to study the invasive species and essential mitigation activities against it. Such a trend where people are less aware and have limited knowledge, and again if detailed studies on invasive species are not carried out, consequently, invasive species can bring greater harm to the biodiversity, the local communities and the country as a whole. 8

Invasive species
According to the National Invasive Species Council (NISC) and the Invasive Species Advisory Committee (ISAC), the United states (2006), invasive species is defined as, a species that is nonnative to the ecosystem under consideration and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. Today, all the nations around the globe are focusing on invasive species which are known to cause or likely to cause negative impacts and that do not provide an equivalent or greater benefit to society. In the technical sense, the term invasion simply denotes the uncontrolled or unintended spread of an organism outside its native range with no specific reference about the environmental or economic consequences of such spread or their relationships to possible societal benefits. For a non-native organism to be considered an invasive species, the negative effects that the organism causes or is likely to cause are deemed to outweigh any beneficial effects. Many non-native introductions provide benefits to society and even among species that technically meet the definition of invasive, societal benefits may greatly exceed any negative effects (for example crops and livestock raised for food). However, in some cases any positive effects are clearly overshadowed by negative effects, and this is the concept of invasive species, causing harm (NISC, 2006). The negative impact to a native species caused by an invasive species might trigger additional negative interactions for other associated native species; that is, there could be direct and indirect effects. For example, an invasive weed that is undesirable as a food source may outcompete and displace native grasses and broadleaf plants. These displaced native grasses and broadleaf plants may have been primary forage for animals, which subsequently would be displaced to a new location or have their populations reduced because the weed invasion decreased the availability of food in their native plant and animal community. However, negative effects are not always characterized by a cascade of impacts realized throughout the environment. For example, simple displacement of an endangered species by a non-native species might alone provide sufficient justification to consider the non-native organism an invasive (NISC, 2006).

Phase of biological invasion in Bhutan

Biological invasion depends on chances or routes of invasion on the one hand, and the presence or abundance of habitats where the introduced species can establish themselves on the other. Active foreign trade inevitably facilitates both intentional and unintentional introductions. On the other hand, human reformation of habitat conditions through development of roads, farmlands, plantations and cities prepares new habitats with ample void niches no native species have pre-empted (Washitani, 2004). An era demarcating the beginning of alien species invasions into Bhutan was the rapid economic growth period which started in the 1960s5 when the landscapes of Bhutan began to change greatly due to various types of development works according to a national plan to bring about the development. After that era, invasions have become more frequent than ever. The globalization of trade and enhanced habitat alterations can be considered the major reasons for accelerated invasions.

During this period Bhutan underwent an enormous development especially the closure of Tibetan borders and opening roads and links to India.

Two of the major families contributing to the invasive alien herbaceous flora of Bhutan are the Compositae and Graminae. The Compositae is being well characterized by highly dispersible aerochorous seeds and/or long-lived seeds that tend to be persistent in soil seed banks. Contemporary surface soils of various habitats of Bhutan, including wetlands, woodlands, plantations, floodplains and farmlands have more or less accumulated viable seeds of such alien plant species, even if the above-ground vegetation contains no or few alien plant species. List of known invasive species in Bhutan till date are listed in the following subheading, according to Global Invasive species Database6 (2012) and Invasive species compendium (2012), currently there are about 200 invasive species found in the country irrespective of both plants and animals in all ecological habitats. Studies are still under process to update and find out the actual number of invasive species found in the country. However, the following listed invasive species accounts for only plant invasive species found in the country, which are listed as follows:

Invasive species found in Bhutan and their common names

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) Common Names: acacia rouge, Australian blackwood, blackwood, blackwood acacia, Tasmanian blackwood. 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) Common Names: wavy bittercress, wavy-leaved bittercress, wood bittercress 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) Common Names: agonoi, bitter bush, chromolaena, hagonoy, jack in the bush, Siam weed, Siam-Kraut, triffid weed. 4. Anagallis arvensis Common name: scarlet pimpernel 5. Arceuthobium minutissimum Common name: Himalayan dwarf mistletoe 6. Argemone mexicana Common name: Mexican poppy 7. Arundo donax Common name: giant reed 8. Avena fatua Common name: wild oat
6

The Global Invasive Species Database is managed by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. It was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) and is supported through partnerships with the National Biological Information Infrastructure, Manaaki Whenua-Landcare Research and the University of Auckland.

10

9. Imperata cylindrica (grass) Common Names: cogon grass, satintail, speargrass. 10. Borreria latifolia Common name: broadleaf button weed 11. Brachypodium sylvaticum Common name: slender false brome 12. Bryophyllum pinnatum Common name: air plant 13. Calotropis procera Common name: apple of sodom 14. Albizia julibrissin (tree) Common Names: mimosa, powderpuff tree, silk tree, silky acacia 15. Alternanthera sessilis (herb) Common Names: common roadside weed, dwarf copperleaf 16. Chenopodium album Common name: fat hen 17. Commelina diffusa Common name: spreading dayflower 18. Bacopa monnieri (herb) Common Names: coastal water hyssop, gundala, herb of grace, Indian pennywort 19. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub) Common Names: cat's claw, Mauritius thorn, Mysore thorn, shoofly, wait-a-bit 20. Commelina benghalensis (herb) Common Names: Benghal dayflower, bias-bias, blue commelina, dayflower hairy 21. Convolvulus arvensis Common name: bindweed 22. Dalbergia sissoo (tree) Common Names: Bombay blackwood, dalbergia, Himalaya raintree, shisham, sisso 11

23. Dioscorea bulbifera (herb, vine, climber) Common Names: oi, aerial yam, air yam, air-potato, bitter yam, cheeky yam, rook, wild yam, yam 24. Ficus microcarpus (tree) Common Names: Chinese banyan, curtain fig, laurel fig, Malay banyan, rong shu 25. Conyza bonariensis Common name: hairy fleabane 26. Conyza canadensis Common name: Canadian fleabane 27. Houttuynia cordata (shrub) Common Names: chameleon-plant 28. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) Common Names: East Indian hygrophila, Indian swamp weed, Miramar weed 29. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub) Common Names: Chinese bush-clover, Chinese lespedeza, hairy lespedeza, Himalayan bushclover, perennial lespedeza, silky bush-clover 30. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb) Common Names: ambulia, Asian marshweed, limnophila, 31. Lotus corniculatus (herb) Common Names: birdfoot deervetch, bird's-foot trefoil, cat's clover, common lotus 32. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) Common Names: Japanese climbing fern 33. Conyza sumatrensis Common name: tall fleabane 34. Melilotus alba (herb) Common Names: honey clover, honey-lotus, hubam clover, melilot, Melilotos, tree clover, white melilot, white millet, white sweet clover 35. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass) Common Names: burma reed, cane grass, false reed, silk reed

12

36. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) Common Names: Chinese fever vine, skunk vine , stink vine 37. Crassocephalum crepidioides 38. Cuscuta campestris Common name: field dodder 39. Cuscuta europaea Common name: European dodder 40. Rubus niveus (shrub) Common Names: Ceylon raspberry, hill raspberry, Java bramble, Mahabaleshwar raspberry, Mysore raspberry, snowpeaks raspberry 41. Cuscuta reflexa Common name: dodder 42. Senegalia catechu (tree) Common Names: black catechu, black cutch, catechu, cutchtree, khair, khairtree 43. Cynodon dactylon Common name: Bermuda grass 44. Cyperus compressus Common name: annual sedge 45. Verbascum thapsus (herb) Common Names: Aaron's-rod, big taper , common mullein , flannel mullein , flannel plant , hag taper , mullein , torches , velvet dock , velvet plant , woolly mullein 46. Marsilea minuta Common name: pepperwort 47. Cyperus iria Common name: rice flatsedge 48. Pteridium aquilinum Common name: bracken

13

49. Acacia farnesiana Common name: huisache 50. Acanthospermum hispidum Common: bristly starbur 51. Achyranthes aspera Common name: devil's horsewhip 52. Ageratina adenophora Common name: Crofton weed 53. Ageratum conyzoides Common name: billy goat weed 54. Albizia lebbeck Common name: Indian siris 55. Amaranthus hybridus Common name: smooth pigweed 56. Amaranthus spinosus Common name: spiny amaranth

57. Cyperus rotundus Common name: purple nutsedge 58. Datura stramonium Common name: jimsonweed 59. Delonix regia Common name: flamboyant 60. Digitaria ciliaris Common name: southern crabgrass 61. Digitaria longiflora Common name: false couch grass

14

62. Echinochloa colona Common name: junglerice 63. Echinochloa crus-galli Common name: barnyard grass 64. Eclipta prostrata Common name: eclipta 65. Eichhornia crassipes Common name: water hyacinth 66. Elaeagnus umbellata Common name: autumn olive 67. Eleusine indica Common name goose grass) 68. Euphorbia heterophylla Common name: wild poinsettia 69. Euphorbia hirta Common name: garden spurge 70. Galinsoga parviflora Common name: gallant soldier 71. Gliricidia sepium Common name: mother of cocoa 72. Hedychium gardnerianum Common name: kahili ginger 73. Jatropha curcas Common name: physic nut 74. Lemna perpusilla Common name: duckweed

15

75. Leucaena diversifolia 76. Leucaena leucocephala Common name: leucaena 77. Ludwigia hyssopifolia Common name: water primrose 78. Melia azedarach Common name: Chinaberr 79. Melinis minutiflora Common name: molasses grass 80. Mikania micrantha Common name: mile-a-minute 81. Mimosa pudica Common name:sensitive plant 82. Monochoria vaginalis Common name: pickerel weed 83. Murdannia nudiflora Common name: doveweed 84. Myriophyllum spicatum Common name: spiked watermilfoil 85. Oxalis latifolia Common name: sorrel 86. Parthenium hysterophorus Common name: parthenium weed 87. Paspalum conjugatum Common name: sour paspalum

16

88. Paspalum distichum Common name: knotgrass 89. Paspalum scrobiculatum Common name: rice grass paspalum 90. Pennisetum clandestinum Common name: kikuyu grass 91. Pennisetum pedicellatum Common name: deenanath grass 92. Phalaris minor Common name: Little seed canarygrass 93. Phyllanthus urinaria Common name: leaf flower 94. Pithecellobium dulce Common name: Manila tamarind 95. Plantago lanceolata Common name: ribwort plantain 96. Poa annua Common name: annual meadow grass 97. Polygonum aviculare Common name: prostrate knotweed 98. Polygonum barbatum Common name: knot grass 99. Polygonum hydropiper Common name: marsh pepper 100. Polygonum nepalense Common name: Nepal persicaria

17

101. Polygonum persicaria Common name: redshank 102. Pueraria montana var. lobata Common name: kudzu 103. Robinia pseudoacacia Common name: black locust 104. Rubus ellipticus Common name: yellow Himalayan raspberry 105. Samanea saman Common name: rain tree 106. Senna obtusifolia Common name: sicklepod 107. Senna occidentalis Common name: coffee senna 108. Solanum viarum Common name: tropical soda apple 109. Spergula arvensis Common name: corn spurry 110. Stellaria media Common name: common chickweed 111. Striga asiatica Common name: witch weed 112. Syzygium cumini Common name: black plum 113. Thlaspi arvense Common name: field pennycress

18

114. Urochloa panicoides Common name: liverseed grass 115. Xanthium strumarium Common name: common cocklebur

The above listed invasive species accounts for species belonging to kingdom Plantae found in Bhutan. However, the following subtopics will address plant invasive species particularly belonging to kingdom Plantae found in different ecological habitats of protected areas in the country. Bhutan has about 51.32% of total areas designated as protected areas, which encompasses national parks, sanctuaries, nature reserves and biological corridors. Most of the forests are under the protected areas, and one of the unique characteristics about the protected areas of Bhutan is the human inhabitants inside the protected areas. People have been sustaining their livelihoods simply depending on forest and natural resources from times immemorial. The establishment of protected areas few decades ago aims to protect the forest as well as the sustainably manage without any bane on the local inhabitants, which has been challenging. The local inhabitants have been cooperating with the concerned authorities and organizations in protecting and sustainable use of natural resources in the protected areas. However, it is again the people who play the part in destroying forest; causing factors like forest fire, illegal cutting down of trees for timbers, illegal poaching and one way or another introducing non native plant and animal species, which is now seriously causing havocs in the forests and the lives of people too, for instance, weeds in agricultural fields.

Protected Areas in Bhutan

Protected areas are special areas with rich natural and associated cultural diversity especially protected to conserve some of the most significant and important biological diversity in the country (Goriup, 1999). The protected areas system of Bhutan was initiated in the 1960s, and then covered almost the entire southern and northern regions of the country. In 1993, as a financing condition for the Bhutan Trust Fund, the parks system was revised for better ecological representation and realistic management. Bhutan today has 10 formally protected areas covering 16,396.43 square kilometers, which is more than a quarter of total area of the country (Sherpa & Norbu, 1993).

In Bhutan, the protected areas network covers some of the important and critical ecosystems in the country stretching from sub-tropical to mid temperate to alpine zones. Protected areas of Bhutan is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna including 5603 species of vascular plants, 400 lichens, 200 mammals and about 700 birds. In addition to the currently known 105 endemic plant species, Bhutan also hosts a number of globally threatened species including 27 mammals and 18 birds.

19

There are nine protected areas in the country covering 17 dzongkhags and consists of four national parks, four wildlife sanctuaries and one strict nature reserve.

Figure 4. Protected areas of Bhutan (source: Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). Out of these nine protected areas, currently only six are operational. They are Jigme Dorji National Park, Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Royal Manas National Park, Thrumshingla National Park, Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary and Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary. The remaining three areas of Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary and Toorsa Strict Nature Reserve are yet to be operational. The parks of Bhutan are described briefly below, focusing on key features and their underlying importance to our natural heritage and conservation efforts.

Invasive species in Protected areas

As addressed above that the role played by the protected areas in Bhutan are of paramount importance to the conservation of Biodiversity and the livelihood of local communities. Knowing the pivotal roles played by the protected areas in Bhutan, the Department of forest and park services, under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forest brings its best service towards protecting these areas. Out of many factors that cause the degradation of Biodiversity and bring bane in livelihoods of countrymen is the non native invasive species, which has lead to the vitality and productivity of native species. Lately, people have felt the importance of their focus on invasive species if they are protect the native species of plants and animals. Invasive plant species have caused havocs from times immemorial. Today, one of the major growing concerns of conservationists in Bhutan is about knowing invasive species present in the country and implementing successful strategies to mitigate or eradicate the invasive species and their effects. National parks and sanctuaries and their different ecological habitats are the places where studies are best suited to be carried out, because most of the forests are under protected areas in Bhutan.

20

Common invasive species in different ecological habitats of Protected areas

Out of about 200 invasive species found in the country, some invasive species are commonly found and focus of studies on these species is of paramount importance. Common invasive species found in the protected areas irrespective of all ecological habitats are listed as follows:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) Acacia melanoxylon is native in eastern Australia. This tree grows fast and tall, up to 45m height. It has a wide ecological tolerance, occurring over an extensive range of soils and climatic conditions, but develops better in colder climates. Control of its invasion of natural vegetation, commercial timber plantations and farmland incurs considerable costs, but its timber value and nursing of natural forest succession provides a positive contribution. Common Names: acacia rouge, blackwood, blackwood acacia. Australian blackwood,

Synonyms: Racosperma melanoxylon (R.Br.) C.Martius

Figure 5. Acacia melanoxylon, morphology

2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) Woodland bittercress, Cardamine flexuosa is a highly variable perrenial herb which flowers vigourously and forms dense root mats that can exclude other species. Seeds possibly remain viable in the seed bank for up to seven years requiring intensive management for control/eradication. Common Names: wavy bittercress, wavy-leaved bittercress, wood bittercress, woodland bittercress Synonyms: Cardamine hirsuta ssp. flexuosa (With.)

Figure 6. Morphology of Cardamine flexuosa.

21

3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) Chromolaena odorata is a fast-growing perennial shrub, native to South America and Central America. It has been introduced into the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and the Pacific, where it is an invasive weed. Also known as Siam weed, it forms dense stands that prevent the establishment of other plant species. It is an aggressive competitor and may have allelopathic effects. It is also a nuisance weed in agricultural land and commercial plantations. Common Names: agonoi, bitter bush, chromolaena, hagonoy, jack in the bush, Siam weed, Siam-Kraut, triffid weed. Synonyms: Eupatorium affine Hook & Arn., Eupatorium brachiatum Wikstrom, Eupatorium clematitis

Figure 7. Chromolaena odorata

4. Imperata cylindrica (grass) Native to Asia, cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica) is common in the humid tropics and has spread to the warmer temperate zones worldwide. Cogon grass is considered to be one of the top ten worst weeds in the world. Its extensive rhizome system, adaptation to poor soils, drought tolerance, genetic plasticity and fire adaptability make it a formidable invasive grass. Increases in cogon grass concern ecologists and conservationists because of the fact that this species displaces native plant and animal species and alters fire regimes. Common Names: cogon speargrass.Synonyms: Imperata cylindricus L. grass, satintail, arundinacea, Lagurus

Figure 8. Imperata cylindrica

5. Albizia julibrissin (tree) Albizia julibrissin is commonly used as an ornamental tree because of its appealing fragrance, showy flowers and low maintenance requirement. It has escaped from the urban landscape and competes with native plants in disturbed habitats and occasionally in forested areas. Typical disturbed habitat may include roadsides, vacant lots and riparian areas. Albizia julibrissin prefers full sunlight but is salt and drought tolerant and can thrive in a wide range of soil types. Common Names: mimosa, powderpuff tree

Figure 9. Albizia julibrissin

22

6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb) Alternanthera sessilis is a weed that inhabits many areas of the world. It occupies moist areas and can be found from sea level to over 2000m. Alternanthera sessilis is a pest of sugarcane, a weed of rice in tropical areas, and an agricultural weed that invades disturbed wet areas in tropical and subtropical regions. It has been used widely around the world for its medicinal uses, as well as for food. The plant has been readily used for food partly due to its abundance. Common Names: common roadside weed, dwarf copperleaf
Figure 10. Alternanthera sessilis

Synonyms: Achyranthes linearifolia, 7. Verbascum thapsus (herb) Verbascum thapsus is an erect herb in the family Scrophulariaceae. It is found in neglected meadows and pasture lands, along fencerows and roadsides. It can produce 100,000-180,000 seeds per individual plant and seeds may remain viable for over 100 years. Verbascum thapsus threatens natural meadows and forest openings, where it adapts easily to a wide variety of site conditions and an established population can be extremely difficult to eradicate. Verbascum thapsus was once used as a herbal remedy for bronchitis, colds and congestion. Common Names: Aaron's-rod, big taper , common mullein , flannel mullein , flannel plant , hag taper, mullein , torches21. 8. Commelina benghalensis (herb) Believed to be native only to tropical Asia and Africa, Commelina benghalensis is a widely distributed herbaceous weed that commonly invades agricultural sites and disturbed areas. Though not commonly reported to invade natural areas, this rapidly reproducing plant is considered one of the most troublesome weeds for 25 crops in 29 different countries. Common Names: : Benghal dayflower, bias-bias, blue commelina, dayflower hairy honohono Synonyms: Commelina canescens Vahl
Figure 12. Commelina benghalensis

Figure 11. Verbascum thapsus

23

9. Bacopa monnieri (herb) Bacopa monnieri is a small sprawling herb common in fresh and brackish waters. It is found growing in freshwater wetlands, wet pastures and margins of ponds on Grand Cayman where it is listed as an invasive species. Common Names: coastal water hyssop, gundala, herb of grace, Indian pennywort Synonyms: Bramia monnieri (L.)
Figure 13. Bacopa monnieri

10. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub) Mysore thorn (Caesalpinia decapetala ) originates from tropical and eastern Asia but is now a serious weed in many locations such as South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Hawaii, Portugal, New Zealand and Norfolk Island. It has become a major invasive plant in South Africa and Hawaii, where it has the capability to take over large areas of agricultural land, limiting animal movement. This sprawling, thorny and noxious shrub also invades forest margins, smothering native vege tation. Common Names: cat's claw, Mauritius thorn, Mysore thorn, shoofly, wait-a-bit
Figure 14. Caesalpinia decapetala pods

Synonyms: Biancaea decapetala (Roth)

Figure 15.Caesalpinia decapetala

24

11. Dioscorea bulbifera (herb, vine, climber) Dioscorea bulbifera is a highly invasive plant and presents a management problem in many parts of the world. Despite some medicinal and agricultural uses, D. bulbifera is widely characterized as an organism that outcompetes and smothers native vegetation. Common Names: aerial yam, air yam, air-potato, bitter yam, cheeky yam, rook, wild yam, yam Synonyms: Dioscorea hoffa

Figure 16. Dioscorea bulbifera

12. Ficus microcarpus (tree) Ficus microcarpa is a woody plant species that is native to the Asia-Pacific region. Commonly known as Chinese banyan and the laurel fig, it is a popular ornamental tree that grows in tropical and temperate regions of the world. F. microcarpa has small, tiny seeds that are easily spread by birds, bats and rodents, and which are capable of germinating almost anywhere they land - even in cracks in concrete. F. microcarpa is considered to be a major invasive species in Hawaii, the Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands, Florida, Bermuda and Central down to South America. Common Names: Chinese banyan, curtain fig, laurel fig, Malay banyan, rong shu Synonyms: Ficus microcarpa 13. Dalbergia sissoo (tree) Dalbergia sissoo is a perennial tree that is economically important for its value in forestry, agroforestry, and horticulture. It provides timber, fuel wood, fodder, has medicinal value, used extensively as an ornamental tree as well as for shading, erosion control, and soil fertility. Native to the Indian sub-continent it is a member of the legume family and can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere through bacteria nodules on its root system. It has been introduced in various countries throughout the world, but has known to be invasive in Australia and in Florida (Congress). Common Names: Bombay blackwood, dalbergia, Indian dalbergia, shisham, sisso Synonyms: Amerimnon sissoo (Kuntze), Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo (Miq.)

Figure 17. Ficus microcarpus

25

14. Houttuynia cordata (shrub) Houttuynia cordata is a perennial plant that has been introduced as an ornamental for gardens. While the plant has apparently not escaped confinement, there is much fear that it will eventually present a huge risk to native habitats. It has a high reproductive and vegetative growth rate and quickly overtakes the gardens where it is planted. Control of this species is difficult as it will reproduce rhizomatically from fragments. Common Name: chameleon-plant Synonyms: Gymnotheca chinensis,
Figure 18. Houttuynia cordata

15. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) The herbaceous perennial Hygrophila polysperma, commonly known as the Indian swamp weed, is a freshwater amphibious herb that was most likely introduced through the aquarium trade. It is found in warmer climates and prefers flowing streams, but may also be found in slow-moving waters and in lakes. It is a fastgrowing and fast-spreading species that out-shades and outcompetes other submersed plants. Hygrophila polysperma interferes with navigation and has been known to compete with other aggressive non-native invasive plants. Hygrophila polysperma is difficult to control. Mechanical harvesting only fragments the plants and increases its distribution. Typical biological control agents for aquatic invasive species do not affect this species and most registered aquatic herbicides only provide marginal control. Common Names: East Indian hygrophila, hygro, Indian swamp weed, Miramar weed
Figure 19. Hygrophila polysperma

Synonyms: Hemidelphis polysperma (Roxb.)

16. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub) Lespedeza cuneata is a long-lived perennial that grows well in grasslands, pastures, along roadsides, drainage areas, fence rows and in other disturbed areas. It is often found as a weed in cultivated areas, fallow and abandoned fields, meadows and marshes. It is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions and is tolerant of drought. Lespedeza cuneata can survive freezing winter temperatures, but is often damaged by late spring freezes. Lespedeza cuneata grows best in deep soils, such as deep sands with organic matter or sandy loams with clay loam subsoil. It will also grow on strongly acidic to neutral soils. Dispersal is aided by animals that consume the fruits then pass the seeds; autumn dispersal is aided by the collection of hay in infested fields. Common Names: Chinese bush-clover, Chinese lespedeza, Himalayan bush clover Synonyms: Anthyllis cuneata, Aspalathus cuneata

26

17. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb) Limnophila sessiliflora is an aquatic perennial herb that can exist in a variety of aquatic habitats. It is fast growing and exhibits re-growth from fragments. Limnophila sessiliflora is also able to shade out and out compete other submersed species. 2-4, D reportedly kills this species. Common Names: ambulia, limnophila, shi long wei Asian marshweed,

Synonyms: Hottonia sessiliflora

Figure 20. Limnophila sessiliflora

18. Lotus corniculatus (herb) Lotus corniculatus (bird's foot trefoil) is a low growing perennial legume that has long been valued as an agricultural crop. Lotus corniculatus is native to much of Europe, Asia and parts of Africa, but now has a near global distribution. Over most of its range, Lotus corniculatus is not considered invasive, although in a few areas it has outcompeted native vegetation. Common Names: birdfoot deervetch, bird's-foot trefoil, cat's clover, common lotus, devil's fingers, Synonyms: Lotus ambiguous, Lotus ambiguus, Lotus japonicus
Figure 21. Lotus corniculatus

19. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) Lygodium japonicum is a vine-like fern with a highly developed ability to climb herbs, shrubs and trees. Its invasiveness arises from its ability to climb to heights of 30m and can smother vegetation by forming dense mats which displace native species, alters fire ecology and impacts rare, threatened and endangered species. Common Names: Japanese climbing fern Synonyms: Hydroglossum japonicum
Figure 22. Lotus corniculatus

Figure 23. Lygodium japonicum

27

20. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) Paederia foetida is an aggressive, competitive vine. It can grow high into the canopy of trees in a variety of habitats. The vines climb over shrubs and trees, weighing them down and impeding regeneration. It also invades pastureland and is troublesome along roads and on power lines. Chemicals are often used as an effective method of controlling Paederia foetida. The seeds may be dispersed by birds and are also spread by the transport of rooted fragments. Common Names: Chinese fever vine Synonyms: Paederia chinensis 21. Melilotus alba (herb) Native to Asia, Europe, and northern Africa, flowers Melilotus alba (commonly known as white sweet clover) was introduced to the United States and first recorded in 1739.
Figure 25. Paederia foetida, skunk vine showing its leaves and

Common Names: honey clover, honey-lotus, tree clover, white melilot, white millet Synonyms: Melilotus alba, Melilotus alba L., Melilotus albus

22. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass) Neyraudia reynaudiana presents a threat to ecosystems due to its ability to promote frequent fires and outcompete with native vegetation. Neyraudia reynaudiana thrives from sea level to altitudes of 1980 metres. It is remarkably tolerant with respect to edaphic and light regimes, although it seems to prefer open, high light areas. Most invasions of Neyraudia reynaudiana have been preceded by some form of disturbance. It has often been collected in marshy areas, or areas with brackish water, and is becoming increasingly common in dry pinelands. It spreads via rhizomes and reproduces by seeds, which are dispersed by wind. Common Names: Burma reed, cane grass, false reed, Synonyms: Arundo reynaudiana Kunth.
Figure 24. Neyraudia reynaudiana

28

23. Senegalia catechu (tree) Common Names: black catechu, black cutch, catechu, cutch tree, khair, khairtree Synonyms: Acacia catechu

Figure 26. Senegalia catechu

24. Rubus niveus (shrub) Rubus niveus is a shrub native to Asia that may form dense, impenetrable, thorny thickets that can displace native species. It produces sweet; palatable fruit enjoyed by birds, rodents, reptiles and humans and has been cultivated in many regions throughout the world for this reason. It is also used as a living fence. Mechanical management of the species is difficult due to its growth form and persistent seed bank, but chemical methods have been developed and biological means of management are being explored. Common Names: Ceylon raspberry, hill raspberry, Java bramble, Mysore raspberry, snow peaks raspberry Synonyms: Rubus albescens pedunculosus, Rubus
Figure 27. Hill raspberry

29

Common invasive species in ecological habitats of National parks

Jigme Dorji National Park
Sprawling across 4,349 sq km, Jigme Dorji National Park is Bhutan's largest sanctuary. The park was named after the third King of Bhutan, His majesty King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck who is often referred to as the Father of Modern Bhutan. The national park covers the entire district of Gasa and the western areas of Thimphu and Paro districts (Figure 4. Protected areas of Bhutan (source: Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012).). Goral, the primitive and rare mountain goat, is unique to it though. Gorals are solitary in nature and are monomorphic (males and females look alike). On the southern boundary of Jigme Dorji National Park, Cheri Monastery 7is situated at an altitude of 2600 m above sea level on a steep mountain slope (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012).

On one side of the monastery, there are broad-leaved forests boasting of oak, rhododendron, maple and walnut trees and on the other side, there are conifer forests having spruce trees, fir, hemlock and the Himalayan yew. The River Thimphu Chhu that originates in the Jigme Dorji National Park is quite furious in summer, when it is fed by the melting snow, and its white torrential waters form emeraldgreen pools throughout the park. The blood-red flowers of rhododendron and other blooming flowers around the monastery present a colourful view in the spring season ("Jigme Dorji National Park," 2012). Several bird species are spotted in the park such as rare black-necked cranes, white-capped water redstarts, blue whistling thrushes, white-throated laughing thrushes, yellow-billed blue magpies, Himalayan monal and the spotted nutcracker. Cheri goral can easily climb the rock-face, which provides them the escape point from predators such as tigers, leopards and dogs. The altitudes vary widely throughout the park, from 1400 m to 7000 m, covering eight of the eleven vegetation zones found in Bhutan. Jigme Dorji National Park has more than 30 species of mammals, 300 species of birds, and 1400 species of plants. Black bears, markot, sambar, barking deer, takin and musk deer are also found in this preserved area. Semi-nomadic people living here are mostly yak herders; harvests medicinal and aromatic plants and subsist on marginal agriculture and forest products (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012).

It is the countrys most active geothermic region and Himalayan herbs found here are used in traditional Bhutanese medicines. Trekkers love this place and the hot springs of the park, known as Gasa Tsachhu, are famous for their therapeutic effects. One of the most biologically rich areas in the Eastern Himalayan region, Jigme Dorji National Park boasts of warm broad-leaved forests, permanent ice fields and even glaciers. Sacred peaks such as Jomolhari, Tsherimgang and Jichu Drakey are some of the most significant landmarks in the park and its glaciers and glacial lakes are source of some of the Bhutans main rivers. In the alpine region, one can see the rare blue poppy, edelweiss, orchids and rhododendrons and it is perhaps the only place in the world where one can find snow leopards and the Royal Bengal tiger existing together ("Jigme Dorji National Park," 2012).

It has the distinction of being the seat of the first monastic body in Bhutan. Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, a Tibetan holy man, built it in 1620.

30

However, the rich biodiversity of the park constantly faces many threats, of which one of threat is rapidly spreading invasive species. The common invasive species found in Jigme Dorji National Park are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb) 31 trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

32

H. Invasive species in scrub/shrub lands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 5. Psittacula krameri (bird), 6. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 7. Rubus niveus (shrub) I. Invasive species in ice: 1. Lotus corniculatus (herb)

Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park

Sprawling across 1723 sq km, Jigme Singye Wanchuck National Park is the second largest protected area of Bhutan. Formerly known as the Black Mountain National Park, it has now been renamed after the present and fourth monarch of Bhutan. The Park boasts of a variety of habitats, vast tracts of primary forests and altitudes ranging from 200 m to 5000 m above sea level. There are sub-tropical and broadleaf forests in its south, low conifer forests in its center and perennial snow on the high peaks in its north. Situated in central Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park is home to about 395 species of birds including the endangered rufous-necked hornbill, Ward's trogon, Satyr tragopan and white-bellied heron (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012).

Seven of the bird species that make this National Park their home are listed among the globally endangered species. Rainfall varies too in different areas of the National Park and thus, this wildlife sanctuary arbors wide diversity of climatic conditions, making it suitable for many different flora and fauna species. Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park has one of the highest coverage of mature fir, pine and other types of broadleaf forests that are considered to be the one of the few virgin and undisturbed tracks of forests in the Eastern Himalayas. The terrestrial fauna found here includes rare and endangered species such as musk deer, Himalayan black bear, golden langur endemic to Bhutan, clouded leopard, red panda and Royal Bengal tiger ("Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park," 2012) The eastern part of this National Park boasts of 20% of Bhutans tiger population and is said to be an important link between the northern and southern tiger population in Bhutan. Phobjikha valley, situated to the northwest of the park (which is considered to be the buffer zone of the park), is the winter habitat of the black-necked cranes. More than 260 cranes migrate to this place every year in winter. It is under the Royal Society for Protection of Nature. About 6000 people live inside the park whereas about 15000 people are estimated to find their homes within 5 km periphery of the Park. These people produce crops such as paddy, maize, wheat, buckwheat, millet and potato and raise livestock consisting of cattle, yaks, sheep, horses and goats ("Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park," 2012). The common invasive species found in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia 33

cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

34

Royal Manas National Park

Situated in the south central Bhutan, Royal Manas National Park lies to the north of Manas National Park in Assam, which is a World Heritage Site; and to the south of Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park. Royal Manas was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1966 and thus, has the status of being the oldest protected area in Bhutan. Later, it was upgraded to the status of being a National Park and it became the first national park of Bhutan. Royal Manas National Park is one of the worlds few sites that offer us stupendous variety of life forms and ecosystems. Royal Manas wildlife sanctuary harbors thousands of animals and plant species including several globally endangered species (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). Sprawled across 1,023 km2, Royal Manas National Park with its adjoining India's Manas Tiger Reserve and Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park constitute one of the largest landscape level protected areas in the eastern Himalayas. The Parks are full of tropical and sub tropical ecosystems and have evergreen tropical forests, sub-tropical forests and warm and cool broadleaf forests. There are about 45 species of mammals including gaur, extremely rare golden langur, Asian elephant, hispid hare, clouded leopard, Royal Bengal tiger, gangetic dolphin, pangolin, Himalayan black bear, clouded leopard, sloth bear and wild water buffalo in Royal Manas National Park ("Royal Manas National Park," 2012). About 366 species of birds have been recorded here including rare aerial fauna such as chestnutbreasted partridge; great white-bellied heron, Palas fish eagle, blue-headed rock thrush, rufous-necked hornbill and white-naped yuhina, spotted wren-babbler and emerald cuckoo. It is believed that about 200 species of other birds also make Royal Manas their home (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). Residents of Royal National Park are mostly farmers and in the past, tseri or slash-and-burn cultivation had been practiced in here. Crops that grow here include maize, paddy, buckwheat, millet, and foxtail millet while the cash crops include mustard, orange and cardamom. Bamboo and canes are also found here in abundance. Climatic variations in Royal Manas sanctuary are quite notable. There is about 5000 mm of rain during monsoon season that lasts from May to September while rainfall in winter is quite negligible and weather remains very pleasant from November till February. More than 900 types of plants are there in Royal Manas and many of them have commercial, medicinal, traditional and religious significance. WWF and Bhutans Nature Conservation Division are jointly running programs such as providing training and equipments to the park staff, improving park infrastructure and supporting biological and socio-economic surveys and park monitoring programmes ("Royal Manas National Park," 2012). The common invasive species found in Royal Manas National Park are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub),

35

15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird)

B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) E. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) F. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

36

Thrumshingla National Park

The newest national park of Bhutan, ThrumshingLa National Park gained this status in July 1998. Sprawling across 768 sq km, it is situated in central Bhutan. Like all protected areas of Bhutan, it presents diverse climatic conditions, habitats and altitudes that range from less than 1000 m to more than 4000 m. This unique protected area presents vast biodiversity that includes alpine forests, subtropical broadleaf forests and even rare plants. You may spot snow leopards, red pandas and tigers prowling around in this National Park. It was in this Park that an image of a tiger was captured at 3000 m by a WWF-supported survey team in 2000. This photograph was the first evidence proving that tigers do exist at such high altitudes too (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). Birdwatchers and ornithologists will find a lot of bird species to catch their attention and interest. There are about 341 species of birds here including the endangered rufous-necked hornbill, beautiful nuthatch, ward's trogon, white-naped yuhina and brown wood owl. Birdlife International has recognized Thrumshingla National Park as an important Bird Area in the Sino-Himalayan mountain forests. WWF supports the upkeep of the park to ensure that it has an effective management plan and dedicated Park staff that can keep the pristine ecosystem here intact for generations to come. The park has over 622 species thriving here quite well. Out of it, 21 species are endemic to this National park and region ("Thrumshingla National Park", 2012). Over 68 species of mammals have been recorded in this wildlife sanctuary including Bengal tiger, leopard, leopard cat, rare clouded leopard, Himalayan black bear, red panda, musk deer, capped langur and Malayan giant squirrel. Tourists and trekkers are attracted to Thrumshingla National Park for trekking, chiefly because of its picture perfect scenery and it being one of the few natural habitats of the world. Communities living within the confines of this Park earn their livelihood from the tourism here. It is estimated that there are about 2000 people living within the park while 11000 people are estimated to live in its buffer zone. Overgrazing and human interference have evolved as a serious threat to the forests of the Park in the present scenario ("Thrumshingla National Park", 2012). The common invasive species found in different ecological habitats in Thrumshingla National parks are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 37 trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant)

E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb)

H. Invasive species in scrub/shrub lands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 5. Psittacula krameri (bird), 6. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 7. Rubus niveus (shrub) I. Invasive species in ice: 1. Lotus corniculatus (herb)

38

Wangchuck Centennial Park

Wangchuck Centennial Park in northern Bhutan is the kingdom's largest national park, spanning 4,914 square kilometres (1,897 sq mi) over five districts, occupying significant portions of northern Bumthang, Lhuntse, and Wangdue Phodrang Districts. It borders Tibet to the north and is bound by tributaries of the Wong Chhu (Raidk) basin to the west. Wangchuck Centennial directly abuts Jigme Dorji National Park andBumdeling and Thrumshingla National Park in northern Bhutan, and is further connected to Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park in central Bhutan via "biological corridors." Thus, most of northern Bhutan is part of these protected areas (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). Wangchuck Centennial was established on December 12, 2008 in honor of the Wangchuck dynasty, founded in 1907. It contains headwaters of four major river systems: Punatsang Chhu, Mangde Chhu, Chamkhar Chhu, and Kuri Chhu. Wangchuck Centennial also contains the various middleHimalayan ecological biomes, ranging from blue pine forests to alpine meadows, at altitudes from 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) to 5,100 metres (16,700 ft). The park is home to over 200 species of vascular plants, 23 species of large mammals and over 100 bird species. Notable wildlife species inhabiting Wangchuck Centennial include the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), snow leopard (Uncia uncia), wolf, takin (Budorcas taxicolor) and Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). The common invasive species found in different ecological habitats in Wangchuck Centennial park are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

39

E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb) H. Invasive species in scrub/shrub lands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 5. Psittacula krameri (bird), 6. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 7. Rubus niveus (shrub) I. Invasive species in ice: 1. Lotus corniculatus (herb)

40

Common invasive species in ecological habitats of Sanctuaries

Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary
Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Trashi Yangtse district that lies in northwestern region of Bhutan (Figure 4. Protected areas of Bhutan (source: Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012).). It covers an area of 1545 sq. km, out of which 420 sq. km is the buffer zone. It also covers parts of Lhuentshe and Mongar districts. The sanctuary touches Tibetan region of China in the north and India in the northeast. There are about 100 species of mammals that find sanctuary in this reserve including rare and globally endangered species such as Himalayan black bear, musk deer, blue sheep, snow leopard, Royal Bengal tiger and red panda. From mid-November to early March, it becomes a paradise for bird lovers as this nature reserve provides shelter to about rare 150 black-necked cranes in winter season every year (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). Children will love to spot a diverse variety of butterflies in Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary. About 130 species have already been recorded here and it is expected that 120 more species may be found here. Natural beauty and sheer biological diversity makes this wildlife sanctuary worth a visit. You can also see several important religious and cultural places such as Rigsum Gompa, the mystic Singye Dzong and Dechenphodrang Lhaghang, which is believed to be the most picturesque monastery in the whole country, situated inside this nature reserve. The Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary was established in 1995 with an aim to protect and preserve virgin Eastern Himalayan ecosystems ranging from warm broadleaved forests to alpine and sub alpine habitats ("Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary," 2012). It covers a part of what was previously Kulong Chhu National Park. In 1998, Bomdeling Nature Park had a park manager and staff of its own and its first management plan was approved in 2001. The altitudes vary throughout the sanctuary ranging from 1500 m above sea level in the south to over 6400 m above sea level in the north. Flat lands has been mostly cleared for villages and agricultural land while most of the southern and lower part of Bomdeling sanctuary is covered with broadleaved forests and has many ridges, valleys and river gorges. The central Bomdeling wildlife sanctuary region has ridges and valleys that are covered with scrubland, conifer forest and broadleaved forest and the northern part of the sanctuary is full of glacial lakes, valleys, scrubland, alpine pastures, glaciers, snow peaks and slopes ("Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary," 2012). The common invasive species found in different ecological habitats in Bumdeling Wildlife sanctuary are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird)

41

B. Invasive species in marine habitats:

1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb)

42

Khaling Neoli Wildlife Sanctuary

The smallest protected area in Bhutan, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary sprawls across 273 sq km. It is situated in the Samdrup Jongkhar dzongkhag of the country and is an extended modification of the former Neoli Wildlife Sanctuary. Thus, it is also referred to as Khaling Neoli Wildlife Sanctuary. Situated on the southeastern border of Bhutan, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary has Assam of India to its east and south, River Nyera Ama Chhu to its west, and Martshala and Shingkhar Lauri geogs to its north ("Khaling Neoli Wildlife Sanctuary," 2012). There have been no notable protected area surveys conducted here yet the sanctuary is famous for being a top-class habitat for the rare pygmy hog, Asian elephant and tiger. Other wild animals found here are guar and hispid hares along with other tropical animal species. The major human settlements in the sanctuary are Samrang and Daifam and human population is chiefly concentrated to the southwestern and southeastern parts of the sanctuary. The sub-tropical forests in this sanctuary are mainly divided into two forest reserves known as Khaling and Neoli and it is being planned to combine them without changing the size (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). The Khaling reserve on the Assam side of the Indo-Bhutan border forms the trans frontier reserve. The altitudes in Khaling Neoli wildlife sanctuary ranges from almost plain at 150 m to 1500 m and the forest cover here consists of broadleaf evergreen forests, semi-evergreen rain forests, hill evergreen subtropical forests and grasslands. The area has been marked by Birdlife International as one of the important bird areas and the site for bird conservation in Bhutan and you may spot rare avian fauna species such as chestnut-breasted partridge and rufous-necked hornbill ("Khaling Neoli Wildlife Sanctuary," 2012). The common invasive species found in different ecological habitats in Khaling Wildlife sanctuary are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

43

D. Invasive species in lakes:

1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal)

Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary

Sprawling across 278 sq km, Phipsoo or Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary is the only sanctuary in Bhutan that has natural sal forests and is a prime habitat of Chital deer or the spotted deer Axis Axis. It lies entirely inside Sarpang dzongkhag and touches the borders of Indian State of Assam in the south. River Sunkosh Chhu flows to its west while it has Beteni geog in Tsirang dzongkhag in the north and Hile geog in the east. Phipsoo wildlife sanctuary has mostly tropical and sub-tropical ecosystem and vegetation. The rare and endangered animals that find their homes in this sanctuary include tigers, Asian elephants, gaur and golden langurs (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). Phibsoo sanctuary is relatively uninhabited, though you can find some sparse human population settled to its southwestern edge. It is about 50 km east of Phuentsholing. You can spot the rare hornbill here. This wildlife sanctuary occupies an important position biogeographically and is fully functional. Preliminary surveys of the flora and fauna have already been completed here while some other surveys are still going on in the region. The World-wide Fund for Nature is providing support in the conservation management programme of Phipsoo wildlife sanctuary and to ensure that the basic conservation infrastructure is in place ("Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary," 2012). The common invasive species found in different ecological habitats in Phibsoo Wildlife sanctuary are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 44

12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird)

B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in wetlands: trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) E. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) F. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird)

45

Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary

Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary is an unusual one as it was created to preserve Yeti, the abominable Snowman known as Migoi by the locals. There are no scientific proofs confirming the presence of this mythical creature that walks on two feet like humans and is tall and shaggy. There are many folklores and urban legends about this creature in the local Bhutanese people who insist that there have been many sightings of Migoi in this region. Migoi is known for its phenomenal strength, magical powers such as the ability to become invisible and knowing how to walk backwards to fool any trackers. The luxuriant deciduous forests of Sakteng are believed to be the home of these creatures (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). These forests have not yet been explored fully because entry of foreigners in this region is restricted and locals do not venture too far into the jungles. Situated in the easternmost part of the Kingdom, Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary was declared a protected area in 2003, making it the newest protected area if Bhutan. It sprawls across 650 sq. km, covering amazing biodiversity and variety of intact Himalayan terrestrial ecosystems such as alpine meadows, temperate forests and warm broadleaf forests. Keep your camera handy in the sanctuary, so that you are ready to click, in case you spot a Yeti. Isolated nomadic tribes live in this sanctuary such as Brokpas. These indigenous tribal people are often reticent and unwilling to interact with the outsiders ("Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary," 2012). The isolation of the place has preserved several life forms in their original shapes and sizes and there are thick carpets of rhododendrons found here. You can spot snow leopards, red pandas, Himalayan black bear, barking deer and Himalayan red fox here. Aerial fauna and birds include the hoary-bellied Himalayan squirrel, Assamese macaw, blood pheasant, grey backed shrike, grey-headed woodpecker, common hoopoe, rufous-vented tit and dark breasted rose-finch. Besides the conifers, plant life and flora of Sakteng wildlife sanctuary includes rare blue poppies, Bhutans national flowers; primulas and gentiana that burst into riot of colors in spring. Many plants such as cordyceps are of medicinal value ("Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary," 2012). The common invasive species found in different ecological habitats in Sakteng Wildlife sanctuary are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats:

1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism)

46

C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

Torsa Strict Nature Reserve

The Torsa Strict Nature Reserve in Bhutan covers 609.51 square kilometres (235.33 sq mi) in Haa District, occupying most of its area. It borders Sikkim and Tibet to the west and is connected to Jigme Dorji National Park via a "biological corridor." Torsa contains the westernmost temperate forests of Bhutan, from broadleaf forests to alpine meadows and the small lakes of Sinchulungpa, at altitudes ranging from 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) to 4,800 metres (15,700 ft). Like Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, Torsa has no resident human population (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). The common invasive species found in different ecological habitats in Phibsoo Wildlife sanctuary are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:

1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird)

47

B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) E. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio

Factors leading to introduction and spread of invasive species

Activities of the forest sector can contribute to the introduction and spread of invasive species through forest utilization practices and the intentional introduction of species for commercial forestry, agroforestry and other purposes. Forest utilization, in particular practices such as timber harvesting, extraction of non-timber products, the construction of logging and transport roads and facilities for logging camps, and the conversion of natural forest to plantations, can have direct and indirect negative impacts on the ecological functions of forests and on forest biodiversity by promoting the invasion of alien species (Asao, 1998). Forest roads provide essential access for timber extraction, management and monitoring of forest resources and as such are an important requirement for sustainable forest management and use. However, when poorly designed and maintained, forest roads are often the cause of a variety of environmental problems associated with forest harvesting operations. Under some Figure 28. Construction of a forest road in Bhutan circumstances, forest roads may also initiate or accelerate the invasion of exotic species that ultimately displace native species. In addition, the increased levels of human activities in 48

previously inaccessible areas, as facilitated by forest roads, cause many environmental problems including the possible introduction of alien species (Kiritani & Moromoto, 2004). Forest sector activities can promote the emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases which degrade human health and that of other species. Clear-cutting and road building may increase exposure of workers to infectious diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Ebola hemorrhagic fever, and Marburg hemorrhagic fever, yellow fever, leishmaniasis, malaria and Ross River virus disease. Logging Figure 29. Forest workers in tropical forest. can change the abundance, extent and quality of aquatic larval habitats for the Anopheles mosquito vectors of malaria and by disturbing the forest floor, creating depressions that catch and hold water, thus creating new sites for the development of more mosquitoes (Kiritani, 2002). Deforestation can result in humans coming into closer contact with the vectors for such diseases as leishmaniasis, yellow fever, trypanosomiasis (both African sleeping sickness and Chagas disease), and Kyasanur forest disease. Similarly, some animal reservoir hosts increase in abundance near the edges between forests and human settlements thus increasing the risk of human exposure to pathogens. The destruction of forest habitat may result in the removal, replacement or eradication of dominant vector species and sometimes, the replacement species are more effective vectors of disease as observed with loa loa (tropical eyeworm) and onchocerciasis (river blindness). Deforestation and desertification may also be accompanied by changes in the distribution of vectors such as ticks, blackflies, tsetse flies and Anopheles mosquitoes (Asao, 1998). Forest workers, such as this worker in the tropical forests, can experience increased exposure to infectious diseases and their vectors Refforestation activities can also affect the population dynamics of vectors and reservoirs which can promote the emergence of infectious diseases. The forest sector itself is a major source of invasive species. Many of the tree species used in commercial forestry in many parts of the world are alien or non-indigenous to the area. Hundreds of species have also been widely and successfully planted for a variety of purposes including afforestation, desertification and erosion control, and for the supply of fuelwood and other forest products. Such intentional introductions however, can bring about many unintended and costly consequences when these species escape cultivation and invade natural ecosystems. Alien tree plantations can have negative effects on the biodiversity and water resources of afforested areas. Alien species that spread from plantations to natural and semi-natural areas, and also into areas set aside for conservation and water production, have considerable impacts on ecosystem properties and functions (Kiritani & Moromoto, 2004).

49

Impacts of Invasive Species Impacts on ecosystem and Biodiversity

Plants form the biological foundation of all terrestrial and aquatic communities. Therefore, mass invasions of alien plants more or less cause structural and functional changes in ecosystems, including alterations in nutrients and/or structural condition. These changes in dominant plant species may lead to the replacement of dominant plant consumers, followed by their predators, and further cause a chain of changes in species compositions at every trophic level, and thus disrupt food webs and other structural and functional features of the ecosystem(Washitani, 2004). Even if the invasive species are pioneers dominating only early phases of the vegetation succession sere, the effects of the invasion may last long through persistent soil seed banks. Invasive alien plant species, when once established in an ecosystem, may cause irreversible changes by producing large seed sources above and/or under the soil surface (Harper, 1977; Thompson & Grime, 1977; Thompson, 2000). Soil seed bank strategies, using long persistent seeds and physiological mechanisms to detect temporal safe sites for seedling establishment are common to most invasive alien species established in Japan(Washitani, 2004). Flourishing invasive alien plants furnished with strategies enhancing spatial and temporal dispersal of seeds inevitably lead alteration of the early stages of succession seres. This is likely to be one of the most conspicuous influences of plant invasions on ecosystem processes (Washitani, 2004).

Status of study and implementation programs in Bhutan

The Department of Forest and Park services, a department within the Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, are responsible for the overall protection and management of forests and wildlife resources of Bhutan. It is one of the largest government organizations in Bhutan and a network of field offices spread throughout the country. Within the department, the Nature Conservation Division is specifically responsible for coordinating and technically backstopping nature conservation and protected area management activities. The Nature Conservation Division has separate units for conservation management planning, wildlife inventory, protected area extension, and the geographic information system. A well-trained park manager administers each of national parks (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). The 1995 Forest and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan provides the main legal framework for establishment and management of protected areas(Sherpa & Norbu, 1993). National Biodiversity Centre (NBC), in April 2008 carried out a pilot project to study the invasive alien plant species for a period of one year. The main objective of the pilot project study was to study the potential threat to biodiversity by invasive alien plants. The studies are still continuing till present day to find out what are the invasive species found in the country (Gyeltshen, 2008). Bhutan is also one of the member nation to the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network (APFISN), a network, which has been established as a response to the immense costs and dangers posed by invasive species to the sustainable management of forests in the Asia-Pacific region. APFISN is a cooperative alliance of the 33 member countries in the Asia- Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) - a statutory body of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The network focuses on intercountry cooperation that helps to detect, prevent, monitor, eradicate and/or control forest invasive species in the Asia-Pacific region ("INVASIVES," 2007).

50

Conclusion
The ecosystems we manage as protected areas provide people with their most fundamental need. They ensure the flow of high quality water to cities and rural farmers and settlements, irrigation works, power plants, fisheries and navigation. Soil nutrients flow from them to adjacent food production areas. Their wild genetic resources are being explored as the basic for future foods and medicines. The sacred sites they contain harbour values critical to the spirituality of many individuals and societies. Their wild environments and historic landscapes are providing solace to millions of visitors, and helping to build personal character in our young people, and personal and cultural identity. These areas also serve to integrate peoples, their economies and their cultures. Today, these protected areas around the world are under many threats. The protected areas in Bhutan are also under the similar global threats. These threats include those activities which are caused mainly by human beings like forest fires, forest utilization, in particular practices such as timber harvesting, extraction of non-timber products, the construction of logging and transport roads and facilities for logging camps, and the conversion of natural forest to plantations, can have direct and indirect negative impacts on the ecological functions of forests and on forest biodiversity. Such kinds of activities lead to disturbaces and alterations of function in ecosystem. It leads to decline of biodiversity and subsequently total loss or extinction of species. One of such threat today in Bhutan like any other countries in around the globe, which has mainly resulted from human interventions in nature, is the introduction of invasive species. Invasive species invades niches which are away from its habitat and has ability to occupy other niches. It competes for food and spaces with the native species. Mass invasions more or less cause structural and functional changes in ecosystems, including alterations in nutrients and/or structural condition. These changes in dominant plant species may lead to the replacement of dominant plant consumers, followed by their predators, and further cause a chain of changes in species compositions at every trophic level, and thus disrupt food webs and other structural and functional features of the ecosystem. The introduction of invasive species has also caused decline to economic status, environmental harm and harm to human health. The study of invasive species, finding approximate number and their effect are under process. There are over 200 invasive species including both plants and animals in the country, belonging mostly to Compostae and Graminae families. However, the knowledge of invasive are new to Bhutan due to which, currently a very few numbers of works are done to study it and essential mitigation activities against it. Accordingly, the governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations in the country are working hard to alleviate these factors and come to proper solutions

51

References
Amend, T., & Eibing, S. (2010). Sustainability has many faces. Nature and Mankind Facing climate change. Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Gmbh. Asao, N. (1998) National seclusion. In: CD-ROM World Encyclopedia ver. 1.2, Hitachi Digital Heibonsha, Tokyo Bhutan Land Cover Assessment (LCMP), 2010, Technical Report, National Soil Service Centre & Policy and Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan. Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP), 2009. Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government of Bhutan. Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.himalaya2000.com/bhutan/wildlife-sanctuaries/bomdeling.doc.html

Carlson, M., Chen, J., Elgie, S., Henschel, C., Montenegro, A., Roulet, N., Well, J. (2010). Maintaining the role of Canada's forests and peatlands in climate regulation. The Forestry Chronicle, 86(4), 17. Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas. (2011). Congress. (2011). Geography Retrieved 4th October, 2012, from http://countrystudies.us/bhutan/14.htm FAO. 2011. Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture: Contributing to food security and sustainability in a changing world. Geography of Bhutan. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.visitbhutan.com/geography_of_bhutan.html Global Invasive Species Database.(2012). Retrieved on 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?sts=sss&st=sss&fr=1&x=47&y=8&sn=&r n=Bhutan&hci=-1&ei=-1&lang=EN

Goriup, P. (1999). Parks. The international journal for protected areas managers, 9(3), 60.

Grierson, A., & Long, D. (1999). Flora of Bhutan (Vol. 3). Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens.

Gyeltshen, N. (2008). The Conceptual paper on the study of Invasive Alien Plant Species. Thimphu. Harper, J.L. (1977). Population Biology of Plants. Academic Press, London.

52

ICIMOD. (2010). Biodiversity of Bhutan Retrieved 2nd October, http://www.icimod.org/search/?search=1&keyword=Bhutan+biodiversity

2012,

from

INVASIVES. (2007). Newsletter of the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network ( APFISN ), 13, 4. Invasive Species Compendium. (2012). Retrieved on 2nd October, 2012, From http://www.cabi.org/isc/default.aspx?site=144&page=4066 Jigme Dorji National Park. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.himalaya2000.com/bhutan/wildlife-sanctuaries/jigme-dorji.html Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.himalaya2000.com/bhutan/wildlife-sanctuaries/jigme-singye-wangchuck.html Khaling Neoli Wildlife Sanctuary. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.himalaya2000.com/bhutan/wildlife-sanctuaries/khaling-neoli.html Kiritani, K. (2002) Invasion routes of pests: conflicts between free trade and plant quarantine. In: The Ecological Society of Japan, ed., Handbook of Alien Species in Japan, Chijin-Shokan, Tokyo, pp.52-53. Kiritani, K. and N. Morimoto, (2004) Invasive insect and nematode pests from North America. Global Environmental Research, 8(1): 75-88 Map of Bhutan. (2011). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.ezilon.com/maps/asia/bhutanmaps.html

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Washington, DC.: World Resources Institute. National Environment Commission (NEC), Royal Government of Bhutan 2009, 4th National report to Convention on Biological Diversity.

NISC. (2006). Invasive Species Definition Clarification and Guidance White Paper. Retrieved from http://www.invasivespecies.gov/home_documents/Five-Year%20ReviewFINAL%20PRINT%20VERSION.pdf. Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.himalaya2000.com/bhutan/wildlife-sanctuaries/phipsoo.html Rosenberg, M. (2005). Bhutan Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://geography.about.com/library/cia/blcbhutan.htm 53

Royal Manas National Park. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.himalaya2000.com/bhutan/wildlife-sanctuaries/royal-manas.html Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.himalaya2000.com/bhutan/wildlife-sanctuaries/sakteng.html

Sherpa, M. N., & Norbu, U. P. (1993). Linking protected areas for ecosystem conservation: a case

Thompson, K. (2000) The functional ecology of soil seed banks. In: M. Fenner, ed., Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities. 2nd ed., CABI Publishing, London, pp.215235. Study from Bhutan. Parks, 9(3), 10. Thompson, K. and J. P. Grime (1979). Seasonal variation in the seed banks of herbaceous species in ten contrasted habitats. Journal of Ecology, 67:893-921. Thrumshingla National Park. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.himalaya2000.com/bhutan/wildlife-sanctuaries/thrumshingla.html Wangda, P., & Ohsawa, M. 2006b. Gradational forest change along the climatically dry valley slopes of Bhutan in the midst of humid eastern Himalaya. Plant Ecology. 186: 109128. Washitani, I. (2004). Invasive alien species problems in Japan an Introductory Ecological Essay. Global environmental research, 8(1), 11.

54