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Table no: 1 The entire plant is configured as 5 electrical load blocks (LBSS 1-5) and step-down substations are provided in each block with 220kv transformers to step-down to 33/11/6.6Kv for further distribution.
There is another effect, not necessarily dangerous to the system, but important from the consumers' viewpoint, namely, a risk of synchronous motors in large industrial premises falling
out of step and tripping out; with the serious consequences that entails loss of production and interruption of vital processes. It is the function of the protective equipment, in association with the circuit breakers, to avert these effects. This is wholly true of large H.V. networks, or transmission systems. In the lower-voltage distribution systems, the primary function of protection is to maintain continuity of supply. This, in effect, is achieved incidentally transmission systems if the protection operates correctly to avert the effects mentioned above; indeed it must be so, because the ultimate aim is to provide 100percent continuity of supply. Obviously this aim cannot be achieved by the protection alone. In addition the power system and the distribution networks must be so designed that there are duplicate or multiple outlets from power sources to load centers (adequate generation may be taken for granted), and at least two sources of supply (feeders) to each distributing station. There are certain conventional ways of ensuring alternative supplies, as we shall see, but if full advantage is to be taken of their provision (always a costly matter) the protection must be highly selective in its functioning. For this it must possess the quality known as discrimination, by virtue of which it is able to select and to disconnect only the faulty element in the power system, leaving all others in normal operation so far as that may be possible. With a few exceptions the detection and tripping of a faulty circuit is a very simple matter; the art and skill lie in selecting the faulty one, bearing in mind that many circuits generators, transformers, feeders are usually affected, and in much the same way by a given fault, this accounts for the multiplicity of relay types and systems in use.
These requirements are necessary, firstly for early detection and localization of faults, and Secondly for prompt removal of faulty equipment from service.
In order to carry out the above duties, protection must have the following qualities: Speed Selectivity Sensitivity Reliability Simplicity Economy
2.3.1 Speed:
Protective relaying should disconnect a faulty element as quickly as possible. This is desirable for many reasons. Improves power system stability. Decreases the amount of damage incurred. Reduces annoyance to electric power consumers and decreases total outage time for severe type. Permits use of rapid reclosure of circuit breakers to restore service to customers. power consumers. Decreases the likelihood of development of one type of fault into other more
To decrease the time taken to disconnect the faulty element of the system, high speed protection should be operated in conjunction with high speed circuit breakers. The time interval within which a faulty system is disconnected from the system is called clearing time which is the sum of operating time of the protective relaying and breaker interrupting time.
Modern high-speed protective relaying has operating time 0.02 to 0.04 sec. and CBS have interrupting time 0.05 to 0.06 sec. Hence clearing time may be about 0.07 to 0.10 sec.
2.3.2 Selectivity:
It is ability of the protective systems to determine the point at which the fault occurs and select the nearest of circuit breaker tripping of which will lead to clearing of fault with minimum or no damage to the system. In fact, opening of any other breaker to clear the fault will lead to greater part of the system being isolated. Therefore every time a fault occurs, only those breakers which are nearest to the fault should be opened. This gives us an idea about dividing the power system into protective zones which can be adequately protected with minimum part of the system isolated. Any failure occurring within a given zone will cause the opening of all breakers within that zone. The system can be divided into the following protective zones. Generator or generator transformer units. Transformers Bus bars Transmission lines Distribution circuits
2.3.3 Sensivity:
It is the capability of the relaying to operate reliably under the actual conditions that produce the least operating tendency. It is desirable to have the protection as sensitive as possible in order that it shall operate for low values of actuating quantity.
2.3.4 Reliability:
The protection relaying must be ready to function reliable and correct in operation at all times under any kind of fault and abnormal conditions of the power system for which it has been designed.
2.3.5 Simplicity:
Simplicity of construction and good quality of the relay, correctness of design and installation qualified maintenance and supervision etc. are the main factors which influence protective reliability. As a rule, the simple the protective scheme and the lesser the no. of relays, circuits and contacts it contains, the greater will be its reliability.
2.3.6 Economy:
As with all good engineering design economics play a major role. Too much protection is as bad as to little and the relay engineer must strike a sensible with due regard to practical situation considered
2.4.1 Relays:
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A relay is a device which makes a measurement or receives a controlling signal in consequence of which it makes sudden pre-determined changes in one or more electrical circuits. A protective relay is a relay which responds to abnormal conditions in an electrical power system, to control a circuit-breaker so as to isolate the faulty section of the system, with the minimum interruption to service.
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Electromagnetic:
An Electromagnetic relay has one or more coils, movable elements, contact system etc. The operation of such relay on whether operating torque / force are greater than the restraining torque / force. When the actuating quantity exceeds a certain predetermined value, an operating torque is developed which is applied on the moving part. This causes the moving part to travel and to finally close a contact to energize the trip coil of the circuit breaker. Electromagnetic relays include attracted armature, moving coil, and induction disc and cup type relays.
Static Relays:
Static relays contain electronic circuitry, which may include transistor, ICs, Diodes, and Logic Gates etc. There is compactor circuit in the relay, which compares two or more currents or voltages and gives an output, which is applied to either a slave relay or a thyristor circuit. The slave relay is an electromagnetic relay, which finally closes a contact. A static relay containing a slave relay is a semi static relay. The electromagnetic relay used as a slave relay provides a number of output contacts at low cost. A relay using a thyristor circuit is a wholly a static relay. Static relay possess the advantage of having low burden on the CT and PT fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact trouble, long life and less maintenance.
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Microprocessor based relays are the latest development. With the developments in VLSI technology, sophisticated and fast microprocessors are coming up. The main features, which have encouraged the design and development of microprocessor based, protective relays, are their economy, compactness, reliability, flexibility and improved performance over conventional relays. A number of relaying characteristics such as over current, directional, impedance, reactance, mho, quadrilateral, elliptical etc. can be obtained using the same interface. Using a multiplexer, a microprocessor can get the desired signals to obtain particular relaying characteristics. Different programs are used to obtain different relaying characteristics using the same interfacing circuitry, Microprocessor based protective schemes have attractive compactness in addition to flexibility.
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To insulate the relays, metering and instruments from the primary high-voltage system To provide possibilities of standardizing the relays and instruments, etc. to a few rated currents and voltages.
Instrument transformers are special versions of transformers in respect of measurement of current and voltages. The theories for instrument transformers are the same as those for transformers in general.
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the relay coil to get the equivalent measure of the main system current. The standard currents are invariably 1 A and 5 A universally.
Voltage transformers
There are basically, two types of voltage transformers used for protection equipment. Electromagnetic type (commonly referred to as a VT) Capacitor type (referred to as a CVT).
Electromagnetic type
The electromagnetic type is a step down transformer whose primary (HV) and secondary (LV) windings are connected as below.
The number of turns in a winding is directly proportional to the open-circuit voltage being measured or produced across it. The above diagram is a single-phase VT. In the three-phase system it is necessary to use three VTs at one per phase and they being connected in star or delta depending on the method of connection of the main power source being monitored. This type of electromagnetic transformers are used in voltage
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circuits up to 110/132 kV. For still higher voltages, it is common to adopt the second type namely the capacitor voltage transformer (CVT).
Fig 2: Capacitor Voltage Transformer The capacitor VT is more commonly used on extra high-voltage (EHV) networks. The capacitors also allow the injection of a high-frequency signals onto the power line conductors to provide end-to-end communications between substations for distance relays, telemetry/supervisory and voice communications. Hence, in EHV national grid networks of utilities, the CVTs are commonly used for both protection and communication purposes
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Current Transformers:
All current transformers used in protection are basically similar in construction to Standard transformers in that they consist of magnetically coupled primary and secondary windings, wound on a common iron core, the primary winding being connected in series with the network unlike voltage transformers. They must therefore withstand the networks shortcircuit current. There are two types of current transformers: 1 2 Wound primary type Bar primary type.
The wound primary is used for the smaller currents, but it can only be applied on low fault level installations due to thermal limitations as well as structural requirements due to high magnetic forces for currents greater than 100 A.
Fig 3: Wound primary type CT The bar primary type is used as. If the secondary winding is evenly distributed around the complete iron core, its leakage reactance is eliminated Protection CTs are most frequently of the bar primary, toroidal core with evenly distributed secondary winding type construction.
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circuit breaker is by hard wiring. From the protection point of view, the important parts of the circuit breaker are the trip coil, latching mechanism, main contacts and auxiliary contacts. The roles played by these components in the tripping process and the following step by step procedure take place while isolating a fault (the time intervals between each event will be in the order of a few electrical cycles i.e. milliseconds):
The relay receives information, which it analyzes, and determines that the circuit breaker is unlatched and opens its main contacts under the control of the tripping spring. The trip coil is deenergized by opening of the circuit breaker auxiliary contacts. Circuit breakers are normally fitted with a number of auxiliary contacts, which are used in a variety of ways in control and protection circuits (e.g. to energize lamps on a remote panel to indicate whether the breaker is open or closed) circuit should be opened.
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Relay closes its contacts energizing the trip coil of the circuit breaker.
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function properly. The failure of the main protection may be due to any of the following reasons: The dc supply to tripping circuit fails. The current or voltage supply to relay fails. The circuit breaker fails to operate. The main protective relay fails
Back-up protection may be provided either on same circuit breakers which would be normally opened by main protection or, still better, if the second line of protection makes use of different circuit breakers. Back-up protection usually for economic reasons not as fast as discriminative as the main protection.
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In modern power system it is necessary to eliminate faults to a large degree by careful system design. Careful insulation coordination, correct operation and maintenance, it is not obviously possible to ensure cent percent reliability and therefore the possibility of faults must be accepted.
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elsewhere in the excitation system. Loss of excitation in a generator connected to a large interconnected power system results in a loss of synchronism and slightly increased generator speed, since the power input to the machine is unchanged. The machine behaves as an induction generator drawing its exciting current from the remainder of the system in the form of wattless current whose magnitude approximates to that of the full load rating of the machine. This may cause overheating of the stator winding and increased rotor losses due to the currents induced in the rotor body and damper winding. This condition should not be allowed to persist indefinitely and corrective action either to restore the field, or to off-load and shut down the machine should be taken. With generator outputs above half rated load, pole-slipping caused by weak field condition, would cause severe voltage variations which may, in turn, cause operation of the under voltage protection on the boiler auxiliaries. The resultant operation of 'loss of boiler protection would then shut down the generator unit. Other generators connected to the same bus bar may also be caused to 'swing' and system instability would result. Pole slipping may also result from insufficiently fast clearance of a system fault and require the tripping of the unit.
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Turbo alternators must be protected against the effects ofsustained external faults, for ex ample faults on lines or bus bars which are notcleared by the appropriate protection. The main condition of interest is that of an unsymmetrical fault producing negative phase sequence currents in the stator winding. The effect of these currents is to produce a field rotating in opposite sense to the d.c field system producing a flux which cuts the rotor at twice the rotational frequency thereby inducing double frequency currents in the field system and the rotor body. These currents produce severe rotor heating and modern machines have a limited negative phase sequence current capability. Automatic tripping is therefore required for the higher negative phase sequence current conditions. This capability limit applies to all modem hydrogen-cooled machines and many air-cooled machines, but some of the older air-cooled machines are designed to withstand full negative sequence currents continuously. In large modern alternators, particularly those employing direct cooling of the stator and rotor conductors, the temperature rise caused by abnormally high stator currents is more rapid than in the less highly rated machines and the capability limit is therefore lower. In the event of fault the circulating relay contact is closed and the trip coils TC1, TC2 and TC3 are energized. The trip coil TC1 opens the main C.B while the trip coil TC3 opens the neutral circuit breaker. The trip coil TC2 opens the upper contacts, shorts the lower contacts so as to short circuit the field winding through resistor R. Thus the energy of the generator is dissipated in the resistor R.
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596 50 HZ 3 Air
Amps
Class B Star
3.5 THE FOLLOWING ARE THE MAIN PROTECTION SCHEMES ADOPTED FOR GENERATOR
1. Generator Differential Protection 2. Stator Inter Turn Protection 3. Reverse Power Protection 4. Automatic Field suppression 5. Local Breaker Backup Protection 6. Stator Earth fault Protection 7. Negative Sequence Protection 8. Rotor earth Fault Protection 9. Over Flux Protection 10. Over Voltage Protection 11. Stator Frame Over Heating Protection 12. Abnormal Frequency Protection 13. Loss of Field Protection 14. Pole Slipping Protection 15. Over Speed Protection
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16. Protection Against Vibrations 17. Bearing Over Heating Protection 18. Protection Against Motoring
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The schematic arrangement of differential protection scheme is shown in fig: There are two sets of identical CTs each set is mounted on either side of stator phase windings. The secondaries of these CTs are connected in star, the neutral point being connected to current transformer common neutral and the outer ends of each of the three pilot wires. The fault setting required from the differential protection is determined by the value of the neutral earthing resistor and also by the amount of winding to be protected. Under normal healthy conditions, the currents at both ends of each winding will be equal, emfs induced in secondaries of CTs will be equal and so no current will flow through the operating coils of relays. When an earth fault or phase to phase fault occurs, this condition no longer holds good and the differential current flowing through the relay operating coil makes the circuit breaker to trip.
4.2 STATOR INTERTURN FAULT PROTECTION: The differential current protection described in Section 4.1 cannot detect interturn faults which remain clear of earth, since there is a balance of the currents entering and leaving the winding despite the presence of a large current circulating the shorted turns. Interturn faults are not normally protected against because of the technical difficulty of so doing. If interturn faults
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occur in the stator slots, they quickly develop into faults to earth and are cleared by the stator earth fault protection. There is, however, the possibility that they may occur at the winding ends and so cause extensive damage to the generator before the fault evolves to one detectable by other protection. The primaries of CTs are inserted in these parallel paths and secondaries are cross connected. When there is no fault currents flowing through the two parallel paths of the stator winding will be equal and therefore no current will flow through the relay operating coil. But during inter-turn fault in the phase winding, the currents flowing through the two parallel paths will be different and a current proportional to the difference of two currents will flow through the relay operating coil which will close the trip circuit and isolate the machine from the power system. This kind of protection is extremely sensitive.
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Motoring of a generator will occur when turbine output is reduced such that it develops less than no-load losses while the generator is still on-line, the generator will operate as a synchronous motor and driving the turbine. The generator will not be harmed by synchronous motoring and a steam turbine can be harmed through overheating during synchronous motoring if continued long enough. The motoring of the turbine output can be detected by reverse power protection relay which is powered by both C.T and P.Ts. To avoid false tripping due to power swings a time delay is incorporated before tripping signal is generated. If the unit trips on reverse power protection, the input power to the turbine is increased as quickly as possible. Even after two to three attempts, if the machine trips on the same protection; probably the governor of turbine is faulty. The condition is informed to maintenance staff for rectification.
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disk type overvoltage relay is used. It is also to be noted that the relay is connected across the secondary winding of the transformer and the relay shall be suitably rated for the higher continuous operating voltage. Further, the relay is to be insensitive for third harmonic current. The generator neutral, the overvoltage element will not pick up because the voltage level will be below the voltage element pickup level. In order to cover 100% of the stator windings, two over lapping zones to detect stator ground faults in a high impedance grounded generator system, the two zones are put together cover 100% stator winding for earth faults. A fundamental frequency neutral over voltage relay covers about 0-95% of the stator zonal winding for all faults except those near the neutral.
Another third harmonic neutral under voltage relay covers remaining 96-100% of the stator zone 2 winding on neutral side. a small amount of third harmonic voltage will be produced by most generators at their neutral and terminals. Normally they would be higher at
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full load. If a fault develops near the neutral, the third harmonic neutral voltage will approach zero and the terminal voltage will increase. Use of a third harmonic under voltage at the neutral it will pick up for a fault at the neutral. `
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5.1 NEGATIVE SEQUENCE OR CURRENT UNBALANCE PROTECTION: When the machine delivering the equal currents in three phases, no unbalance are negative phase sequence current is produced as the vector sum of these currents is zero, when the generator is supplying an unbalanced load to a system, a negative phase sequence current is imposed on the generator. The system unbalance is due to opening of lines, breaker failures are system faults. The negative sequence current in the stator winding creates a magnetic flux wave in the air gap which rotates in the opposite direction to that of rotor synchronous speed. This flux induces currents in the rotor body, wedges, retaining rings at twice the line frequency. Heating occurs in these areas and the resulting temperatures depend upon the level and duration of the unbalanced currents. Under these conditions it is possible to reach temperatures at which the rotor material no longer contains the centrifugal forces imposed on them resulting in serious damage to the turbine generator set. Any machine as per design data will permit some level negative sequence currents for continuous period. An alarm will annunciate at annunciation panel it negative sequence currents exceed a normal level. Reduce the MVAR power on the machine if necessary load also and keep the machine for some time till the alarm vanishes at annunciation panel. If the machine trips on the negative sequence protection never take the machine into the service until the temperature on the rotor parts settle down its lower value. Resynchronize the machine to the grid after considerable time under grid and feeder parameters all within limits. If the unit trips again on
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the same protection the machine is stopped after consideration time so as to cool down the rotor parts and inform to the maintenance staff for through examination of the system. A specialized relay to detect the circulating currents called a negative sequence current relay (since the induced currents are called negative sequence currents) is used to detect the phase imbalance with the generator during the unbalancing fault conditions. A negative sequence relay provides protection to generators and rotors against unbalanced loading that may result from the phase to phase faults the equipment consists of network energized from three CTs and a single pole relay having an inverse time characteristic
Fig 10: Negative Sequence or Current Unbalance Protection The equipment consists of network energized from three C.Ts and an single pole relay having an inverse time characteristic connected across the network. The network consists of four impedances Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4 of equal magnitude connected in a bridge formation. Z1,
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Z2 are non inductive resistances while Z3, Z4 are composed of both resistance and reactance. The values of Z2, Z4 are so adjusted that the currents flowing in these lag behind those in impedances Z1, Z2 by 60degrees. Resolving Ir, Ib there components IZ1, IZ3 and IZ2, IZ4 we find that the actual current flowing in the relay is Iy. Thus the relay is operated under the influence of Iy.
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The field circuit of our generator comprises the rotor winding, the armature of the exciter, field circuit breaker and connecting cables. This total system is an isolated one and if an earth fault occurs, rotor winding turns will get short circuited which decreases the field circuit resistance and increases the current flowing through it. This current over heats the rotor winding and the exciter supplying it, causes further destruction at the points of faults and may lead to burning of the rotor insulation. The protection scheme consists of a high resistance connected across the rotor circuit and its mid point is grounded through a sensitive relay
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The over voltage protection is provided with an over voltage relay which has two units one instantaneous relay set for pick up at about 130-150% of rated voltage and the another IDMT relay set for pick up at about 110% of rated voltage . These relays are energised from a PT. If an over voltage persists the generator main circuit breaker and the exciter field breaker will be tripped. If the generator trips for over voltage then raise the generator voltage slowly with manual mode in AVR. And keep generator voltage within the limits of normal voltage. If it is unable to control the generator voltage, the field breakers are tripped and informed to the maintenance staff of the AVR.
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For a generator connected to a system, abnormal frequency operation is a result of a severe system disturbance. The generator can tolerate moderate over frequency operation provided voltage is within an acceptable limits. The machine operated at higher speeds at which the rotor material no longer contain the centrifugal forces imposed on them resulting in serious damage to the turbine-generator set. The abnormal over frequency on the machine may be due to improper speed control adjustment or disoperation of the speed controller or severe grid disturbance or sudden load thrown off. If the unit trips due to abnormal frequency protection then change the governor speed until machine reaches full speed. Even after 2to3 attempts the machine is running at lower speed, probably the governor of the turbine is faulty. Inform to maintenance staff for rectification of the same.
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Many protection schemes are employed to protect the turbo generators from loss of field. The protection scheme used in TPP is the method generally adopted for the modern turbo generators. As modern large generators may be required to operate with very low values of excitation, when a generator loses synchronism, the quantity which changes most is its impedance as measured at the stator terminals. Loss of field will cause the terminal voltage of the generator to begin to fall, while the current begins to increase. The apparent impedance of the machine will therefore be seen to decrease and its power factor to change. The mho relay is placed which is designed to detect the change of impedance from the normal load value may therefore be used to provide protection against asynchronous operation resulting from the loss of excitation.
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oscillate.
machine bearings. Incase the angular displacement of rotor exceeds the stable limit; the rotor will slip a pole pitch. During this time machine should be isolated from the system. When a generator loses synchronism, the resulting high current peaks & off frequency operation may cause winding stresses, pulsation torques and mechanical resonances that have the potential danger to turbine generator.
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speed rise. In a typical scheme this is achieved by monitoring the electrical output of the generator using a watt metric relay. This relay will detect a sudden loss of output and operate instantaneously to close its contacts. A second relay monitors the steam input to the turbines at a chosen stage and the contacts are held dosed when the steam pressure is in the full load region. A sudden loss of load will give instantaneous operation of the output relay but the steam input relay does not operate immediately because steam is being admitted to and expanding in the turbine. Under this condition the emergency valve solenoids are energised giving instantaneous control of steam admission. The emergency valves remain closed until falling pressure or restoration of load restores the machines to normal control. The action of this equipment is clearly much faster than that obtainable from the governing system which requires an actual overspeed to produce a response and take corrective action. It is for this reason that overspeed limiting equipment of the type described is often installed where reheat turbines are used, because the long steam pipes of relatively large bore interconnecting each reheater and the reheat sections of the associated boiler plant present special problems due to the large volume of steam entrained. The overspeed limiting equipment then operates additionally into the interceptor emergency stop valves associated with each interceptor steam chest to give instantaneous control of the steam entering the turbine at all stages. In the ultimate, over speeding of the machine beyond the safe limit (10%) will cause operation of the overspeed bolts, and shut the stop valves.
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CONCLUSION
A generator is the most important and most costly equipmenent in a power system. It is subjected to more number of troubles than any other equipment. The basic function of protection applied to generators is therefore to reduce the outage period to a minimum by rapid discriminative clearance of faults. While selecting the scheme for generator protection, the protection of complete unit and the stability of the system due to disturbance, in a generator should be considered in addition to protection of the generator itself. In our industry oriented mini project we have learned the importance of generator protection and studied various protection schemes employed for a 60MW Turbo Generator installed in thermal power plant (captive power plant in Visakhapatnam steel plant).
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BIBLOGRAPHY
[1] A COURSE IN ELETRICAL POWER J.B.Gupta. [2] ELETRICAL POWERD.r. S.l.Uppal. [3] POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND SWITCH GEARBadri Ram and Vishwakarma. [4] PRINCIPLES OF POWER SYSTEMV.K.Mehta. [5]ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMAlexandra von Meir, IEEE Press. A CONCEPTUAL INTRODUCTION-
[6]PROTECTION OF GENERATORS, TRANSFORMERS, GENERATORTRANSFORMER UNITS AND TRANSFORMER FEEDERS- J.Rushton, revised by K.G.M.Mewes. [7] A TEXT BOOK OF POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING M.L.Soni, P.V.Gupta, U.S.Bhatnagar. [8] POWER SYSTEMS HAND BOOK- Leonard l.Grisbby. [9] INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEMS- Shoiab Khan.
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