Amhara Livelihood Zone Reports

Yilmana Densa Woreda

West Gojam Administrative Zone
South East Woina Dega Teff (SWT) LZ
This is a surplus producing area. Own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual food requirement. Middle and better-off wealth groups rely heavily upon livestock and crop sales to generate cash income. whilst the poor and very poor rely on labor. Road access is good.

Abay Beshilo Basin (ABB) LZ

This zone suffers from chronic food insecurity due to erratic rains, small landholdings, degraded farmlands, infertile soil, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria. Trade across the river valleys is impossible in the rainy season. The poor /very poor are dependent on local labor, PSNP and firewood sales to meet their food needs.

Central Highland Barley & Potato (CBP) LZ

A dega zone. Poor market access and the significant contribution of food purchases to household consumption increases household vulnerability to food market shocks. The better-off are the only wealth group who get more than half their income from their own production. Agricultural labor is an important source of income for the very poor, poor and middle households.

South West Maize, Finger Millet & Teff (SWM) LZ

A food secure area with no history of relief assistance. Surplus crop production ensures food self sufficiency and generates relatively higher cash income specifically for the betteroff and middle households. Physical infrastructure is one of the best in the Amhara Region and facilitates dynamic trade.

Contents
Map & livelihood zone description Population by livelihood zone Key parameters for monitoring Livelihood zone profiles

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Amhara Livelihood Profile

Population by Livelihood Zone and Kebele (2005)
Woreda: Zone:
Woreda population Livelihood Zone: Abay Beshilo River Basin LZ Population: Population by Kebele: Angare Debay Fechi Gebish Shebele Wegila Weleke Yemoget Garginbit Zeganesa Livelihood Zone: South East Woyna Dega Teff 186,775 Population by Kebele: Abika Adet Zuria Agetta Ambattina Anbessit Deber Mawi Deme Dinga Dewarro Engada Fittlo Kus Genbe Geragerra Gonji Gube Kellit Kollela Ku Konch Goshiye Koshare Menta Debi Misbo Sekilla Senkgna Shiba Tenkerri Tsion Weyzazrt Yinach 7,313 10,771 9,248 6,503 8,234 10,345 5,472 5,983 6,748 5,954 3,618 5,404 8,280 6,055 9,184 5,785 11,384 5,030 5,753 4,225 5,552 8,453 4,673 4,447 7,321 5,636 9,408

Yilmana Densa W.Gojam

322,373 Livelihood Zone: Central Highland Barley & Potato 41,473 LZ Population: Population by Kebele: 6,639 Abeyot Fir 6,712 Ayebar 3,108 Chinkulit 4,386 Deball 2,107 Marega 2,746 Yegebeta S 3,602 Yezora 6,324 5,850 52,274 7,619 6,242 8,336 7,309 10,490 5,126 7,153 Livelihood Zone: South West Maize, Finger Millet and Teff productive 41,850 Population by Kebele: Amesalo 5,050 Dinbash 6,336 Kokerr 6,059 Kotti 5,956 Kudad 5,750 Sifatira 4,930 Waleka 7,769

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Content of the Woreda Profiles The Woreda Profiles are a compilation of the livelihood information directly relevant to a single woreda. They provide a map of the woreda showing the livelihood zones within the woreda, population data by kebele and livelihood zone within the woreda, the relevant livelihood zone profiles and the key parameters (indicators) for monitoring within the woreda. Please note that sources of food and income, whilst typical of the livelihood zone, might not be found in all woredas within the livelihood zone. Urban Populations Urban HEAs have not been completed for Ethiopia. Large urban centres are not included in the livelihood baselines. Source of Population Data Note: The 2005 woreda population is that estimated by the Central Statistical Authority. The list of kebeles in the woreda was taken from the 1994 census and each kebele's 2005 population calculated by multiplying the 1994 census figure by the increase in total woreda population since 1994. Information from the 1994 census was used in preference to other sources of information since this represents the main official source of population data for the woreda. Difficulties were encountered due to changes in woreda and kebele boundaries since 1994. Many kebeles have been combined since 1994. Where kebeles have been renamed or combined since 1994, woreda officials were asked to assign the old 1994 kebele to one or other new kebele in the woreda. It was sometimes not possible to locate a kebele (e.g. because woreda officials did not recognize the name or did not include the kebele in their list). In these cases an 'unknown' category has been included in the population analysis. A 'not assigned' category has also been included for livelihood zones. Kebeles included in the 'not assigned' category could not be assigned to any of the livelihood zones in the woreda.

Key Parameters Abay Beshilo River Basin (ABB) - Key Parameters

Item Crops Key Parameter - Quantity Key Parameter Price

Livestock production Other food and cash income

Meher Sorghum Meher Teff Meher Other Pulses Meher Maize Honey Cattle Goats Firewood Labour weeding/ploughing

Meher Maize (staple) Meher Sorghum Meher Teff Meher Other Pulses Honey Cattle Goats Labour weeding/ploughing Firewood

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Central Highland Barley & Potato (CBP) - Key Parameters

Item Crops Key Parameter - Quantity Key Parameter Price

Livestock production Other food and cash income

Meher Teff Meher Barley Meher Irish Potatoes Trees Cattle Sheep Labour Migration Labour: Construction/Urban Firewood

Meher Maize (staple) Meher Barley Meher Irish Potatoes Trees Cattle Sheep Labour Migration Labour: Construction/Urban Firewood

South West Maize, Finger Millet and Teff Productive (SWM) - Key Parameters
Item Crops Key Parameter - Quantity Key Parameter Price

Livestock production

Other food and cash income

Meher Maize Meher Teff Meher Millet Meher Nug Seed Trees Other Cash Crops Meher Lentils Cattle Goats Cows milk Chickens Egg sales Labour Migration Labour: Weeding/Ploughing Labour: Harvesting

Meher Maize (staple) Meher Teff Meher Millet Meher Nug Seed Trees Other Cash Crops Cattle Goats Butter sales Chicken sales Egg sales Labour Migration Labour: Weeding/Ploughing Labour: Harvesting

South East Woyna Dega Teff (SWT) - Key Parameters

Item Crops Key Parameter - Quantity Key Parameter Price

Livestock production

Other food and cash income

Meher Maize Meher Teff Meher Other Pulses Meher Wheat Trees Honey Cattle Goats Cows milk Labour: Weeding/Ploughing Labour: Harvesting

Meher Maize (staple) Meher Teff Meher Other Pulses Meher Wheat Trees Honey Cattle Goats Labour: Weeding/Ploughing Labour: Harvesting

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Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia

Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone (ABB)
Zone Description
The Abay Beshilo Livelihood Zone is a food insecure area with a very long history of relief assistance. The woredas with kebeles within the LZ are located in various administrative zones of the Amhara region: East Gojam (Aneded, Awabel, Baso Liben, Dejen, Enarj Enawga, Enbise Sar Midr, Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Guzamn, Hulet Ej Enese, Shebel Bereta), West Gojam, (Yilmana Densa); South Gonder (Dera, E & W Esite, Simada, Tach Gayint); and South Wollo (Debrasina, Mehal Sayint, Tenta, Wegde). The Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone is a narrow, elongated area comprising the lowland (kola) parts of the woredas listed above. The LZ runs beside the River Abay, and beside its tributary the Beshilo River and is a long distance from major roads and towns. The population is relatively scattered. The vegetation is bush and shrubs. Natural resources in this zone include gypsum and gum arabic acacias. It is a mixed production system with both crops and livestock. The dominant crops include sorghum, teff, maize and haricot beans. Crop production is entirely rain fed, except in small number of localities where small-scale water harvesting practices have been recently introduced by the Office of Agriculture and Rural Development. There is only one rainy season kremt - and it is important for the cultivation of both long and short cycle crops. The area is characterized by high temperatures, erratic rainfall and sandy soils. These factors contribute to the high rate of evapo-transpiration and poor water holding capacity. The combination of moisture stress and poor soil fertility is the limiting factor for agricultural production. There is a high prevalence of crop pests and disease, and no utilization of treatments or chemical fertilizers - so yields per hectare are very low. One of the most important determinants of wealth is the ownership of livestock in general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. Ownership of a pair of oxen allows better off households to prepare their land on time and rent-in the land of poor and very poor households on a contractual basis. The most common livestock diseases include pasteurellosis (all livestock), black leg (cattle and equines) and liver fluke (sheep and cattle). Regarding livestock production, goats are dominant. There is a high prevalence of livestock disease in the area and intervention in this regard is minimal. However, the area has uncultivated land that can be used as grazing to enhance livestock production. Poor physical infrastructure and complete obstruction of transportation during the rainy seasons also increase the problem of access to food and cash income. A substantial part of the livelihood zone, particularly areas along the river bank, are completely inaccessible even during the dry season. In a typical year, better-off and middle households rely upon livestock and crop sales as a means of generating cash income. For the poor and the very poor the productive safety net program (PSNP) is the major source of cash income even in a typical year in many woredas in the LZ. The Safety Net programme is implemented (particularly in the eastern parts of the LZ) for six months in a year and beneficiaries are paid mainly cash.

October 20071

Markets
Market access is bad in this livelihood zone. Trade interaction across the river valley is minimal during the dry season and totally impossible during the kremt (rainy) season. Poor physical infrastructure and the remote location of the livelihood zone are the major limiting factors that restrict trade with external markets as well as between different markets within the livelihood zone.

Fieldwork for the current profile was undertaken in October 2007. The information presented refers to September 2005-August 2006 (EC Meskerem 1998 to Nehase 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). ). The exchange rate January 2006 1USD = 8.767 ETB.

Abay Bashilo Basin Livelihood Zone

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As crop production is very small, almost all agricultural products are consumed locally and whatever is supplied to the local market does not exceed the local demand. Haricot beans are the only crop supplied to external markets in urban areas (Dejen, Mota and Debre Tabor) as well as Dessie and Addis Ababa. When grain is unavailable in the local market during the hunger season, maize is supplied to the livelihood zone from surplus producing areas in Gojam and other regions. Livestock and livestock products are sold in the major towns within the livelihood zone. The only opportunity in terms of employment is the local agricultural labor.

Seasonal Calendar
M ay Rainy Seasons Legend Dry June July Krem t cons. green shoats Sorghum Teff Haricot bean Maize Livestock sales Cattle in heat Milk production Crop sales Aug. Sep. O ct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. M ar. Belg w eeding land prep planting cattle Apr. Bega (dry season) harvest cattle/shoats

O ther Local labor Hunger season Malaria Rainfall Pattern

M ay

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

O ct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

M ar

Apr

Of all agricultural activities, land preparation (March-June) and weeding (July-September) are the most laborious and time-consuming activities. Agriculture is entirely dependent on kremt rains that last from June to September. Maize is harvested green from September to October and the main food crops, sorghum and teff, are harvested in November. Except in December and January when both cattle and goats are sold, different types of livestock are sold at different times of the year. Goats are sold around the major Christian Festivals (New Year, Christmas and Easter); cattle are sold in the months when there is no need for oxen for agricultural activities. Whilst migratory labor is not common, some people travel to Tapi, Metema, Wollega, Nazareth, Bale Goba and Humera for work in December and January. Local employment opportunities are available for a relatively longer period of time starting with weeding in July to harvesting in November. The hunger season and the period of highest dependence on market for food purchase lasts for about two months in September and October.

Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone

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Wealth Breakdown
Wealth Groups Characteristics Land area HH size cultivated Very Poor 3-5 0-1 timad Livestock/asset holding 1-3 chicken Other assets none

Poor

4-6

0-2 timad

3-5 goats,0-2 cattle, 1-3 chicken 6-8 goats, 1-3 oxen, 2-4 cattle, 0-2 donkey, 1-3 chicken
12-14 goats, 2-4 oxen, 5-7 cattle, 1-3 donkey, 1-3 chicken

none

Middle

5-7

4-7 timad

0-2 beehives

Betteroff 0% 20% % of households 40%

6-8

8-10 timad

2-4 beehives

4 timads=1 hectare

Wealth is determined by land owned and cultivated, livestock possession (plough oxen, cattle and goats) There is a big difference in the ownership of land, with the better-off owning three times more land than the very poor. Differences in land cultivated are even greater ranging from 0-1 timad for the very poor to 8-10 timads for the better-off. This reflects the fact that the poor and very poor do not have oxen and so are unable to cultivate all their own land, and so rent out part of their land to the middle and better-off with an equal (half) crop sharing arrangement.

Sources of Food A good year (2005-06)

The contribution of own crop production to the 120% annual food requirement of the different households positively correlates with the 100% economic status of the wealth groups, 80% consistently increasing from the very poor to Payment in kind the better-off. In a typical year, while the Safety net 60% middle and better-off households cover more Purchase than 75% of their annual food needs, the poor livestock prod. 40% and very poor can only afford to cover slightly crops more than 40% and 30% of their requirement 20% respectively. 0% All wealth groups, though to a different extent, V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off partially rely on the purchase of food to make up their annual food deficit. The contribution purchase food ranges from 5% to the better-off to more than 50% for the very poor. In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum Consumption of livestock products is only food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 relevant to the better-off and middle. However, kcals per person per day. the better-off consume more as a result of owning a larger number of livestock. The poor and the very poor receive food from the PSNP program.

Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone

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Sources of Cash a good year (2005-06)

100% other 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% V.Poor Poor M iddle Better-off safety nets agr.labour self-em ploym ent livestock sales l/stock prod. sales crop sales

The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source. Annual income (ETB) 900-1200 1300-1500 1400-1800 2250-2650

Incomes in this livelihood zone are generally low. There are differences in the composition and relative importance of income options available to the different wealth groups. The middle and the better-off get most of their income from livestock and crops sales, whilst the poor and the very poor are dependent on self-employment (firewood and charcoal sales), local agricultural labor, a little labor migration and the safety net program. In all except the very poor wealth group, livestock provide more income than crops.

Expenditure Patterns a good year (2005-06)

Annual expenses are divided into eight different categories. All wealth groups purchase vetch, the very poor, poor and middle also purchase staple food (sorghum) in addition the very poor also purchase maize. With the exception of the very poor, all wealth groups invest in animal drugs and tools. The middle and better off also hire local labor. The poor and the very poor have limited resources to invest in production of either crops or livestock.
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off other gifts tax clothes social sev. inputs water HH items non-staple food staple food

The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure by category of expenditure.

The amount of cash spent on each category as well as the quantity and quality of items purchased varies depending on the economic status of each socio-economic group. All wealth groups except the better-off purchase staple food. Non-staple food purchase by the very poor is higher as they purchase more pulses than the other wealth groups whose own production is marginally more diverse. While expenditure on staple food decreases with increasing wealth, expenditure on clothing and social services follow the reverse trend.

Hazards
In this Livelihood Zone, erratic rains, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria are the recurring problems affecting agricultural productivity and human wellbeing. Erratic rains. Drought, which can include both insufficient rainfall and uneven distribution over the rainy season, is the single most important cause of acute food insecurity in the livelihood zone. Crop pests are a chronic problem in the livelihood zone, of which the most hazardous are stalk borer (sorghum and maize), Wollo bush crickets (teff), aphids (all crops), and cut worm. Root rot is also a problem. Livestock disease. Anthrax (cattle and goat), goat pox, black leg, and internal and external parasites (cattle and goats) Malaria. Endemic and highly prevalent especially in September and October - the months immediately after the rainy seasons. In years of high incidence, food security can be affected because farmers may not be able to work during the critical seasons of agricultural activity and labor migration. Weed. Striga (sorghum and maize)

Coping Strategies
Coping strategies employed by different wealth groups vary depending upon various factors including phase and frequency of the hazard and the asset base of households. Sale of labor and labor migration. This strategy is particularly employed by the poor and the very poor. Compared to the other wealth groups, poor and very poor households have fewer options that they can use in bad years. Their main Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone
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option is to increase the number of people working and the duration (both locally and outside of the zone). Increased sale of livestock. This is an important strategy for better-off and middle households. These wealth groups try to maintain the productive assets until all efforts to protect asset depletion are no more applicable. Sale of livestock is less of an option for the poor and very poor who may only be able to sell a small number of additional goats (poor) and poultry (poor and very poor). Switching of expenditure from non-food to staple food items. This is a common strategy for expanding purchases in a bad year. In a bad year, households report reducing expenditure on a range of non-food items and purchase staple food. Some of these strategies have very negative effect in the case of reduced minimum non-staple items such as expenditure on schooling basic inputs. Reduced expenditure on non-food items can be purchasing either lower quality or small quantity. Firewood and charcoal sales. This is specifically employed by poor and very poor households only.

Summary
Communities residing within the Abay-Beshilo Livelihood zone suffer from chronic food insecurity due to a combination of various factors including erratic rains, small landholdings, highly degraded farmlands, infertile soil, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria. Poor physical infrastructure is also a serious problem in the livelihood zone. Trade interaction across the rivers valley is very minimal during the dry season and totally impossible during the kremt season. The middle and better-off can barely produce much more than their annual food needs, whilst the poor/very poor are dependant on food purchases. The main food crops cultivated are sorghum, teff and maize. Livestock are an important source of income for the middle and better-off households with over half of their income coming from livestock sales and livestock product sales. The very poor one-fifth of the population cultivate very small amounts of land - less than they have available, because they do not have oxen to provide draught power for land preparation. They are forced to purchase a significant portion of annual food needs, and their major income sources are precarious: local labor, PSNP and firewood sales.

Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone

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Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia

Central Highland Barley and Potato Livelihood Zone (CBP) August 20071
Zone Description
The Central Highland Barley and Potato livelihood zone (CBP) spreads across Bure, Dega Damot, Dembecha, Jabi Tehnan, Mecha, Quarit, Sekela, and Yilmana Densa woredas in West Gojam; Ankasha, Banja, Fagta Lakoma,, Guagusa Shikudad, and Guangua woredas in Agew; and Awabel, Bibugn, Debay Telatgen, Enarj Enawga, Enbise Sar Midir, Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Gonje, Hulet Ej Enese, Michakel and Senan woredas in East Gojam. The majestic Choke and Lake mountains are prominent features of the terrain in this predominantly dega area. Temperatures average a temperate 5 to 15 degrees Celsius. The source of the Blue Nile is located in this zone, reliably fed by the substantial 1200 to 1400 mm of rainfall that falls on the zone yearly. Vegetation is moderately dense, comprised mostly of eucalyptus and juniper trees. Bamboo is grown around the homestead for construction of household furniture and equipment. The population is very dense, at 210 to 220 people per km.2 In most cases humans and livestock share water from the same source (rivers and streams); when they dont humans use wells and springs. There is no payment for water for humans except in woreda towns. The zone is well connected to surrounding areas via the Debre Markos-Enjibara highway which runs through it. Mixed production of crops and livestock are the cornerstone of this zones economy. Agriculture activities are dependent on the kremt rains which fall from May to October. Some households use irrigation, particularly for potato production. The main crops cultivated are barley and potato, the bulk of it produced for household consumption. Extensive degradation and high soil acidity have reduced the agricultural potential of the region. Manure from cattle is an important productive input in this zone. Draught power is provided mainly by horses, which are cheaper to maintain than oxen. Land preparation is done by men. Women assist with weeding and harvesting activities. Hiring labour is untypical for any wealth group. The main hazards to crop production are late blight which affects potatoes, and smut and rust which affect barley. Traditional disease and pest control measures are used to prevent the spread of disease. This zone suffers from a food deficit every year. Raising sheep, cattle and horses is a key economic strategy. Sheep are the more commonly sold livestock, usually between the ages of 4 to 12 months. The demand for sheep peaks during religious festivals. Cattle are valuable possessions mostly owned by wealthier households, and serve as longer term investments. Few cattle are sold. Mature cows are sometimes sold after 7 or 8 years of age, and thereafter replaced from within the herd. Livestock free-graze and feed on crop residues and/or collected grass. Children are responsible for herding livestock. The main hazards to livestock production are pasteurellosis, internal parasites, black leg, and anthrax. Internal parasites affect all livestock, pasteurellosis in sheep and cattle, and black leg in cattle. Treatments for these diseases, including vaccinations, are available from both the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) and the market for cash. The same applies to inputs for livestock production. Other important economic activities are wage labour and the sale of eucalyptus trees. Migratory labour opportunities are available in Shindi, Humera, Wollega, and Metemma for maize and sesame weeding and harvest. Migration is a male activity, undertaken from June to August and from November to December.

Field work for the current profile was undertaken from 4/17/2007 to 5/2/2007. The information presented refers to October 2005September 2006 (EC Tekemt 1998 to Meskerem 1999), a relatively good year by local standards (i.e. a year of above average production and rural food security, when judged in the context of recent years). Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2011). The reference year exchange rate: 1USD=8.82 ETB.

CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc

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Casual urban labour opportunities, predominantly for men, are available in neighbouring towns, peaking from June to August, though they are available throughout the year. The poor and very poor groups buy eucalyptus trees from the middle and better-off groups; older trees tend to be split and sold mainly for firewood, and younger trees are sold as poles for home construction. This happens throughout the year. There are no specific credit programmes in this zone, though some households take credit from the Amhara Credit and Savings Institution.

Markets
Potatoes are the main crop traded. They are transported from local markets to markets in Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, and Gondar. There is demand all year round, though the peak trading period is from July to September. Maize and finger millet are imported into the zone when local food supplies have been exhausted, from June to December. They are brought in from surrounding areas in Birsheleko, Bure and Shinde. Sheep and cattle are the popular livestock in the market. Sheep sales increase during the religious festival season in April (Fasika/Easter), September (EnkutatashNew Year) and January (Genna/Christmas). Cattle demand peaks in March and April, though both types of animals are sold throughout the year. Poorly maintained roads winding through the mountains are the biggest barrier to the inflow of traders and commodities into the zone. Residents of the zone usually walk up to 6 hours to visit the market. In this chronically food insecure zone, in normal times 75% of households have at least one member who migrates to Metema, Humera, Wollega, Shindi, and Birsheleko in search of agricultural work. The first wave of migrants leaves between June and September for weeding labour, and a second wave leaves for harvesting labour in November and December. A minority of some 25% seek opportunities within the towns in surrounding areas.

Seasonal Calendar
Mar Mar Seasons Legend Apr Apr Bega harvest
Land Preparation

May May

Jun Jun

Jul Jul Kiremt Weeding

Aug Aug

Sep

Oct
Tibi

Nov Nov

Dec Dec

Jan Feb Jan Feb Meher

planting

Barley Potato
Livestock sales

Cattle (in-heat) Livestock births Milk production Other

Urban labour Labour migration Food purchase Hunger season Eucalyptus sales

Rainfall Pattern

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

There are four main seasons in the zone, namely bega (dry) from March to May, kremt (rains) from June to August (main rainy season), tibi from September to November, and meher from December to February (harvest season). Agricultural activities are planned around the kremt rainy season. Land preparation for short-cycle potato cultivation begins in January, whilst for long-cycle barley it begins in June. Eucalyptus sales peak in April, May and June. Urban labor is most common from June to August, whilst milk output peaks from July to November. The food purchase season is relatively lengthy, peaking for 6 months from July to December. The livestock season begins in July soon after the rains commence. An increase in cattle sales is seen between March and May as households seek to purchase draught power for the upcoming land preparation period, whilst sheep sales peak during festival months (April, September and January). CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
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Wealth Breakdown
Wealth Groups Characteristics HH size Very Poor 4-6
Land area cultivated

Crops cultivated barley, potato

Livestock Holding 2-5 sheep, 0-3 hens

Other 0-40 eucalyptus trees

70-200 eucalyptus trees

0-2 timad

Poor

5-7

0-3 timad

barley, potato

4-8 sheep, 0-1 horse, 1-3 hens 1-3 cattle, 6-12 sheep, 1 horse, 2-4 hens 3-4 cattle, 0-1 oxen, 8-14 sheep, 2 horses, 2-4 hens

Middle

5-7

3-5 timad

barley, potato

100-300 eucalyptus trees, 0-125 bamboo 250-750 eucalyptus trees, 0-200 bamboo

Betteroff 0% 20% % of households 40%

6-7

5-7.5 timad

barley, potato, teff

The main determinants of wealth are the amount of land owned, the ownership of cattle and sheep, and the ownership of horses for draught power. Land holdings in the zone are generally small, ranging from 0-2 timads, 2-4 timads, 3-5 timads and 3.5-5 timads for the very poor, poor, middle and better-off respectively.2 Ownership of horses is important for productivity because access to draught power determines household capacity to utilise available land holdings. The poor who havent the capital to obtain their own draught power, or who lack family labour, are compelled to rent-out land to the better-off, who have the capacity to cultivate more than they own. Land rental arrangements usually divide the harvest from the rented land equally between the two parties. The biggest barrier to poor household ownership of draught power is the lack of capital; the main constraints on crop production among the poor are land degradation; shortage of farmland and crop diseases affecting barley and potato. Livestock ownership is also important for building household capacity to cope with livelihood shocks. The interest in generating new stock favours the ownership of mature female animals. Sheep provide most of the regular income from livestock. Cattle are more valuable assets, and they are owned only by the middle and better-off households. They are longer term investments. Beyond a lack of money, the biggest barrier to ownership of livestock is lack of feed: livestock production in the zone is limited by diminishing availability of grazing land. The better off at times grow pasture on a portion of their land to feed their cattle. The search for work is the main livelihood strategy for poor households, and so they depend on the availability of workers in the family for a significant portion of their income.

Sources of Food A good year (2005-06)

Crop production accounts for 60% to 70% of the better-off households food, and around half of the middle groups. The poor and very poor obtain one-third and one-fifth of their food from own crop production. The main crops consumed by all wealth groups are purchased maize and finger millet, and home-grown potatoes and barley. Food purchase increases in importance as wealth decreases. Vetch is also purchased, the middle and better-off groups purchasing more than the poor. The zone is not in the Safety Net programme and received no food aid during the reference year, even though there is a chronic food gap for all apart from the better-off.
2

120% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off purchase payment in kind livestock prod. crops

In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.

1 timad equals 0.25 ha CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc

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Payment in kind provides on between 5% and 10% of food for the very poor, poor, and middle households, mainly for work done outside the zone. The participation of the middle households in work migration, unusual elsewhere, reflects the high levels of poverty and food insecurity in the livelihood zone. The consumption of eggs, butter, and milk is general indicator of well being. The limited contribution of livestock products, between 1% and 2% for the middle and better-off, confirms that households cannot afford to consume luxury items. The significant contribution of purchases demonstrates low self- reliance arising from low productivity and small land holdings. Poor market access (due to absence of road access, mountainous topography and distance from the market) and the significant contribution of food purchases to household consumption, accentuate household vulnerability to food market shocks.

Sources of Cash a good year (2005-06)

100%

80%
firewood and tree sales labour sales livestock sales l/stock prod. sales crop sales

60%

40%

The majority of households earn most of their income from agricultural wage labor. Most of this is earned from labour migration, whilst a smaller contribution comes from casual labour, mostly construction, in local towns. Paid work provides three-quarters of income for the very poor and poor households, and half of the middle. Livestock sales give between onethird and one-half of better-off income, one-quarter for the middle, one tenth for the poor and 5% for the very poor all mostly from sheep Chickens Are also sold by everybody.

20%

0% V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off

The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source. Annual 1850175019502250income 2350 2250 2350 2750 (ETB)

Livestock product sales contribute 2% to the very poor and poor incomes, and between 5% and 10% to the middle and better off households respectively. The poor households sell mainly eggs, while the better-off also sell butter. The sale of potatoes is an important source of income for the better-off, and overall crop sales average one-quarter of their income, while the middle and poor earn a less distinguished 5%. Eucalyptus sales and firewood sales play an important role in income for all wealth groups.

Expenditure Patterns a good year (2005-06)

Purchasing staple food is the largest expense for all groups. Staple food expenditure increases as wealth and crop production decrease. There is limited cash left for income for non-staple food purchases, comprised mainly of pulses (for all groups) and potatoes (for the poor and very poor). This takes up 3% of very poor and poor expenditure and one-tenth of the middle and better-offs.
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
other tax clothes social serv. inputs HH items non-staple food staple food

The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of expenditure.

CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc

Page 13

Household items, namely kerosene, utensils, soap and milling fees comprise the second largest expenditure for all groups, taking up between 10% and 20% of very poor and poor expenditure income, and a quarter of the middle and better-offs. The bulk of the expenditure on this line is spent on milling. The better-off households invest one-fifth of expenditure on livestock restocking, credit repayment, and animal drugs. This reflects an effort to build and protect livestock holdings. The middle spends 10% of total expenditure on animal drugs, while the poor expend only 1%. Investment in education and access to health services is 3% for the very poor and poor, and 5% for the middle and better-off. Clothes expenditure comprises 7% of expenditure for the very poor, poor, and better off, and 8% for the middle.

Hazards
The major hazard in the zone is land degradation which not only undermines present productivity but also threatens future crop yields. Soils in the zone are infertile and acidic. The prevalence of potato blight is a chronic problem affecting potato yields. The shortage of pasture and forage diminishes livestock condition, and prevents ownership of larger livestock herds. Hailstorms and frost are further hazards occurring every year.

Coping Strategies
The poor households general lack of access to productive activities forces them to intensify the search for migrant work opportunities during bad years. People migrate to more distant areas, and additional household members join the search for work. The sale of firewood is an additional coping strategy for the poor. The extent to which firewood sales can be expanded is limited by availability of firewood and ability of the market to absorb the increased supply of firewood. The better-off respond to hardship through the increased sale of livestock. However, existing livestock herds are small in the zone and major or prolonged shocks can seriously deplete herds. Their secondary strategy is to increase the sale of eucalyptus.

Summary
Extensive degradation and high soil acidity severely undermine agricultural production in this dega zone. Crop production is particularly low for the poor and very poor who are constrained by poor availability of cultivable land and the lack of draught power. Low crop production increases household dependence on the market to access food. The commonly purchased crops are finger millet and maize, and modest amounts of potatoes and pulses. The participation of middle households in labor activities in exchange for food is indicative of the high levels of food insecurity in the zone. Poor market access and the significant contribution of food purchases to household consumption, accentuates household vulnerability to food market shocks. The better-off are distinguished as the only wealth group earning more than half their income from primary production activities with potatoes falling a long way behind livestock as a cash earner. The search for agricultural work opportunities is the main income earning strategy for the very poor, poor and middle households. Expenditure on social services and clothes is low for all wealth groups.

CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc

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Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia

South West Maize, Finger Millet & Teff Livelihood Zone (SWM)
Zone Description
The South West Maize livelihood zone is one of the historically food secure areas in Amhara Region. It spreads across: West Gojam (Achefer, Bahir Dar Zuria, Bure, Dega Damot, Dembecha, Jabi Tehnan, Mecha, Quarit, Sekela, Seme Achefer, Wemberma, Yilmana Densa woredas); Agew (Ankasha, Banja, Dangila, Fagta Lakoma, Guagusa Shikudad, Guangua); and East Gojam (Debre Elias, Michakel). It is predominantly located in woina dega agro-ecology with some parts kola. Vegetation consists of scattered indigenous tree species like Cordia africana, and wild fig as well as planted eucalyptus trees around homesteads and on communally owned land. Natural resources include fish in Lake Tana for the minority who live by the shore, sources of spring water, and sand deposited in the lake and rivers which can be used for construction purposes. The major rivers in the zone are Abay (the Blue Nile) as it leaves Lake Tana, Temecha, Birr, Bulla, Fetan, Ayehu, Zingini, Koga, Bicolo Abay and Andasa. The major towns are Bahir Dar, Merawi, Durbete, Adiskedam, Kosober, Chagni, Gimjabet, Bure, Finoteselam, Dembecha, Feresbet, Amanuel and Gebezemariam. The zone is traversed by the main Addis Ababa-Gonder tarmac road. The other roads which connect the livelihood zone with other regions are Bure-Wolega and Kosober-Metekel gravel roads. There are numerous natural and historical tourist attractions. Lake Tana, Lake Zengena and Tis Abay (Blue Nile falls) are the major natural attractions. Kibran Gebriel, Ura Kidana Mihret, Zeghe Giorgis and Sigade Mickael are historical religious sites also visited by foreign tourists. A mixed farming system in practiced in this zone (with a heavy accent on crop production). In terms of topography the zone is predominantly plain with some hills. The soils are mostly red and moderately fertile and agriculture is rainfed; this zone has a high production potential. The rainy season (kremt) is relatively long and lasts from May to October. Total annual rainfall is comparatively very high with along-term mean of 1366 mm per annum. In most years the amount of rainfall is highly favourable for different crops, the most important of which are maize, finger millet and teff. Chillie Peppers are also cultivated as a cash crop. Oxen-plowing is used to prepare the land whilst weeding an harvesting require the most labor and are activities for which the middle and better-off hire both local and migrant workers. The main hazards to crop production are an array of pests and diseases including African boll worm, grasshopper, maize stalk borer, aphids and root rot. These are treated both by traditional methods and chemicals available from the BoARD and the market for cash and credit. Agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, improved seed and pesticides can also be obtained from the BoARD and the market. This contributes to making the zone comparatively productive. The main types of livestock are cattle sheep and goats which free-graze and are fed grass/browse and, in the case of cattle, hay and crop residues as well. Their main water sources for animals are the rivers in the livelihood zone, which they share with humans. Sheep cattle, chickens and goats are all sold as well as livestock products such as butter, eggs, hides and skins. The main livestock diseases are anthrax, lumpy skin disease, black leg, pasteurellosis, trypanosomiasis and internal and external parasites. Treatments are available from the BoARD and the market for cash and credit, whilst some vaccinations are free.

August 20071

Field work for the current profile was undertaken from September to October 2007. The information presented refers to November 2005-October 2006 (EC Meskerem 1998 to Nehase 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). The reference year exchange rate: 1USD = 8.56ETB.

South West Maize Livelihood Zone

Page 15

Fishing is another important economic activity for a minority, done from July-September by men and boys from all wealth groups. They use traditional methods such as fishing nets, Berbera poison, fishing hooks and hand-scooping during over-flooding. There are credit packages available in this zone for agricultural inputs, sheep rearing and petty trade; all groups take advantage of these. Own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual food requirement of all wealth groups and the zone produces a food surplus almost ever year. In a typical year, all wealth groups, except the very poor, have a high reliance upon crop sales as a means of generating cash income, and to lesser but important extent livestock and butter sales. For the very poor group, paid work is overwhelmingly the biggest source of cash.

Markets
A good road network facilitates trade within the livelihood zone and between the zone and external markets. Furthermore, most of the rural markets are close to a town market. The biggest market in the Livelihood Zone is Bahir Dar. Other major markets include Merawi, Kosober, Chagni, Gimja Bet, Bure, Finote Selam and Dembecha. All these markets serve as the centers of supply for local consumers and transit to other markets outside the zone. The main crops sold are teff (January to May), maize (January to March) and peppers (December to March). As a surplus producing area, this zone supplies a large amount of teff and maize to Tigray, North Wollo, South Wollo, Gonder and Metemma throughout the year. The main livestock sold on the market are cattle, small stock, chickens together with eggs. The military training centre in Bir Sheleko is a big market for small stock and cattle supplied from the zone. Cattle are also exported to Debre Markos, Addis Ababa, Metemma and Sudan from September to June. Most casual labor performed by people in the zone is done in the local rural area, especially at weeding and harvesting times. However, Bahir Dar and other urban centers within the livelihood zone offer some urban employment opportunities for laborers from their surroundings. There is also some work migration outside the zone to Metemma, Bir Sheleko and Welega (region 4) and Bullen (Region 6) between June and September.

Seasonal Calendar

Land preparation from February to June, weeding from June to September and harvesting from November to December are the most laborious agricultural activities. Since the rainfall duration is long there are no short cycle crops in this zone as in drought-prone areas. The major crops are mostly grown in single stands, but sometimes sorghum is intercropped with haricot or faba beans. In terms of cattle, farmers try to control breeding so that calves are born in the wet season. There is a regular pattern of seasonal migration in this zone; for example urban labour migration occurs during the off season (January to April). Employment opportunities are available in external labour markets from June to August in Benishangul and from October to December in Metemma. Bahir Dar and other urban centres in the zone also offer urban employment from June to August. Local agricultural employment is available for a relatively longer South West Maize Livelihood Zone
Page 16

period of time, from weeding from July to August to harvesting in November and December. Except in April when both cattle and small stock are sold, different types of livestock are sold at different times of the year. While small stock is sold in April (Easter), September (New Year) and January (Christmas), cattle are sold from February to June.

Wealth Breakdown
Wealth Groups Characteristics Land area HH size cultivated Very Poor 4-6 1-2 timads Crops Cultivated Green maize, Maize, Finger Millet Livestock 2-4 hens Other assets 15-25 eucalyptus tree 90-110 eucalyptus tree

Poor

5-7

2-4 timads

Green maize, Maize, 0-2 oxen, 0-2 cattle, 0Teff, Finger Millet, 4 sheep, 3-5 hens Noug

Middle

6-8

8-10 timads 10-14 timads

Green maize, Maize, 2-4 oxen, 4-6 cattle, 3400-600 eucalyptus Teff, Lentils, Finger 5 sheep, 0-2 donkeys, tree Millet, Noug 2-4 hens Green maize, Maize, 3-5 oxen, 8-10 cattle, 5Teff, Lentils, Finger 7 sheep, 0-2 donkeys, Millet, Noug, Pepper 2-4 hens 1000-2000 eucalyptus tree

Betteroff 0% 20% % of households 40%

7-9

4 timads=1 hectare

Wealth is determined by the size of land owned by households, by the number of eucalyptus trees owned and by herd size in general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. On the basis of these criteria, four distinct wealth groups (very poor, poor, middle and better-off) were identified. There is a big difference in the ownership of land between the different wealth groups. Land area owned (in contrast to land area cultivated) ranges from 2-4 timads for the very poor to 9-11 timads for the better-off. But because the poorer farmers lack oxen and also lack the money to pay for inputs, they lend land to wealthier farmers for a share of the harvest. The poor similarly lack money for animal purchase and animal feed (due to land shortage), and if they cannot afford to rent oxen and do not rent-out land they often exchange oxen usage for their labour. The wealthier are limited in numbers of livestock because of lack of grazing land, lack of crop residues and lack of labour to look after the animals. They tackle these constraints by purchasing animal feed from those without animals and by employing children from the poorer wealth groups. Lake and river fishing is not as common as might be expected: among poorer households this is due to lack of equipment, lack of money and lack of skilled labour, whilst the better-off it is also due to lack labour and equipment but also to limited awareness of the activity.

Sources of Food A good year (2005-06)

Own crop constitutes the highest source of annual food for all wealth groups, indicating the comparatively high productivity of the zone. The main crops consumed by the poor are maize, finger millet whilst the wealthier also consume teff rather than selling it all. Wealthier people are self-sufficient in grain, but choose to buy oil and extra pulses and some meat. Poorer people need to buy grain (especially maize) as well as some pulses. Consumption of milk and butter is for the wealthier only, from their own herds. Payment in kind for the very poor refers here to meals given by rural employers on work days.

In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.

South West Maize Livelihood Zone

Page 17

Sources of Cash a good year (2005-06)

100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% V.Poor Poor Middle Betteroff self-employment employment livestock sales l/stock prod. sales crop sales

The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source.

Annual income (ETB)

V.Poor 1050-1550

Poor 1300-1800

Middle 3600-4100

Better-off 6150-6650

Crop sales are the main income sources for all wealth groups except for the very poor who earn most of their income from paid labour. The poor mostly sell maize whilst the better-off sell maize, teff and finger millet. Income sources of better-off and middle households are similar and only differ in the total amount earned from each option. Livestock sales are also significant for all wealth groups except for the very poor (who sell chickens and eggs). Since the poor sell sheep at an early age the price is low compared to the price fetched by the better-off who keep animals longer before selling. Self employment for the very poor may include making brewing katicala (local alcohol from finger millet and maize) and selling eucalyptus trees.

Expenditure Patterns a good year (2005-06)

The expenditure patterns of all wealth groups are similar except that the better-off and middle households do not purchase staple grain. The biggest expenditure items for middle and better of households are inputs (fertilizer, livestock drugs, pesticides and labour) and other (social contributions, transportation beverages, festivals...) Household items is a large expenditure category for poor and very poor households. Very poor households spend most on staple food purchases and least on tax and inputs.

The graph provides a breakdown of expenditure according to category of expenditure.

Hazards
The main chronic hazards in this zone are: Hailstorms Pest Infestation. Crop pests are a major and chronic problem in the zone, of which the most hazardous are African boll worm, grasshopper, stalk borer, aphids, army worm, root rot, rust, plusia worm, ut worm, weevils, owdery mildew, shoot fly and red teff worm. Livestock disease. Tryponosomiasis (cattle), anthrax (cattle), lump skin disease, pasteurellosis, black leg, internal and external parasites, CBPP and AHS. Periodic Hazards include flooding (1 year in 3) and landslides (1 year in 5).

South West Maize Livelihood Zone

Page 18

Coping Strategies
Crop pests are dealt with by chemical control and traditional controlling mechanisms such as clearing farm boundaries and flogging. Animal diseases are tackled with the use of veterinary drugs and traditional treatments such as garlic for black leg and chilies for leaches. Following hailstorms there is no response other than replanting.

Summary
The South West Maize livelihood zone is a food secure area with no history of relief assistance. Surplus crop production ensures food self sufficiency and generates relatively high cash incomes for the better-off and middle households. Road infrastructure is one of the best in Amhara Region and facilitates dynamic trade interaction within the zone and between the zone and external markets. Pest infestation and livestock diseases are the major hazards that have negative effects on the livelihoods of the communities. Improvement of veterinary services and improved provision of pesticides are the intervention that needs to be applied to alleviate these problems. This livelihood zones is one of the areas in the Region where rural based credit and saving services are provided by the Amhara Credit and Saving Institution (ACSI) and local cooperatives. Intensification of these services would further improve rural livelihoods. Fishing also has development potential in the zone. The existing fishing activity is a traditional practice that requires improvement through the introduction of advanced equipment.

South West Maize Livelihood Zone

Page 19

Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia

South West Woina Dega Teff Livelihood Zone
Zone Description
The South West Woina Dega Teff livelihood zone is one of the surplus producing areas in Amhara Region. It incorporates parts of woredas in West Gojam (Yilmana Densa), Agew (Ankasha, Guagusa Shikudad) and East Gojam (Aneded, Awabel, Baso Liden, Bibugn, Debay Telatgen, Dejen, Enarj Enawga, Enbise Sar Midir, Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Hulet, Ej Enese and Sebel Bereta). It is in a primarily woina dega agro-ecological zone and the topography is mostly plain. The zone is within the Abay (Blue Nile) Drainage Basin. Tindefeji, Yenjuit, Sihoa, Bogena and Chemoga are the major rivers crossing the zone. Widespread deforestation has resulted in a landscape almost devoid of natural vegetation apart from stands of eucalyptus trees around homesteads. The population density is moderate. Although there is a very high potential for irrigation, agriculture is totally rainfed. Total annual rainfall ranges approximately from 900-1200 mm per year. The zone has a long term mean annual rainfall of 1181 mm, and in most years precipitation is very favourable for the cultivation of different crops, the most important of which are teff, wheat and maize, grown for both consumption and sale. The zone usually produces a food surplus. Ox-plowing is used to prepare the land, whilst weeding and harvesting are the most labor intensive crop production activities, for which the middle and better-off groups pay for labor in cash. The main crop pests and diseases are Wollo bush cricket, African boll worm, stalk borer, aphids and red teff worm. Treatment is available from the market and in some cases from the BoARD for cash. Agricultural inputs (fertilizers and improved seed) are also available either from the market or BoARD for credit and cash. The main types of livestock are sheep, cattle and horses which free-graze and feed on crop residues and/or collected grass. Water is obtained from both major and minor rivers, hand-dug wells and sometimes springs. Humans in some cases share water from rivers with animals. The main diseases affecting animals are black leg, anthrax, sheep and goat pox and pasteurellosis. Treatment is available either from the market or the BoARD for cash, as are livestock inputs such as vaccines. In comparison to the neighbouring Blue Nile gorge area disease prevalence in SWT is lower and lactation length is longer. Apart from crop and livestock and butter sales (and honey sales by the wealthier) the other element of income concerns only the poorer households: paid work.

August 20071

Markets
Debre Markos and the woreda towns hold the major grain and livestock markets in the zone. There is good market access since the road network is relatively good and most kebeles (village areas) in the zone are reasonably close to the main road and to the main urban centres. All these markets serve as the centers of supply for local consumers and transit to other markets outside the Livelihood Zone. The main crops sold are teff, maize and wheat from January to June. Teff is the only item exported to other regions mainly Tigray and Addis Ababa. Livestock (sheep and cattle traded all year round) and the other crops are supplied to local consumers. Maize and wheat/sorghum are the main grains bought locally or from kebeles in the nearby Blue Nile gorge lowlands. Most paid work is found in the local rural area though some is performed in the local towns and less outside the zone.

Field work for the current profile was undertaken from September to October 2007. The information presented refers to September 2005-August 2006 (EC Meskerem 1998 to Nehase 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). The reference year exchange rate: 1USD = 8.59 ETB.

South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone

Page 20

Seasonal Calendar
M ay. Rainy S easons Legend June July Krem t cons. green
shoats

Aug.

S ep.

O ct.
Tibi

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.
M eher

Feb.

M ar.

Apr.

Bega planting cattle

harvest
cattle and shoats

W eeding

Teff M aize W heat Chickpea V etch B eans Livestock sales Cattle in heat B irths M ilk production Crop sales O ther Local labour Urban Labour Honey Hunger season Food P urchase

R ainfall Pattern

Land preparation from March to June, weeding from June to August and harvesting from October to January are the main agricultural activities. Teff and wheat are the main short cycle crops grown whilst maize is the main long-cycle crop. There is no intercropping. Local agricultural employment is available mainly from July to December. Debre Markos and other urban centres in the zone also offer employment from January to March. Poor and very poor households also migrate mainly to Humera (Tigray), Teppi (Benishangul Gumuz), Arsi Negelle and Wellega (Oromia) in different seasons every year looking for employment opportunities.

Wealth Breakdown
Wealth Groups Characteristics
Land area HH size cultivated

Crops Cultivated Green cons Maize, Maize, Wheat, Teff Green cons Maize, Maize Wheat, Teff, Vetch Green cons Maize, Maize Wheat, Teff, Vetch, Honey

Livestock 1-3 sheep, 1-3 hens

Other assets 20-40 eucalyptus trees

Very Poor

4-5

1-3 timads

Poor

4-6

3-5 timads

3-5 sheep, 0-2 oxen, 0-1 100-150 eucalyptus cattle, 1-3 hens trees 6-8 sheep, 1-3 oxen, 2-4 400-600 eucalyptus cattle, 0-2 donkeys, 3-5 trees, 1-3 beehives hens

Middle

5-7

6-9 timads

Betteroff 0% 20% % of households 40%

7-8

9-12 timads

Green cons Maize, 8-12 sheep, 2-4 oxen, 4700-800 eucalyptus Maize Wheat, Teff, 6 cattle, 1-3 donkeys, 3trees, 3-5 beehives Vetch, Beans, Honey 5 hens

1 hectare=4 timads

Wealth is determined by the size of land owned by households as well as by herd size in general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. On the basis of these criteria, four distinct wealth groups (very poor, poor, middle and betteroff) were identified. Households also differ in the ownership eucalyptus trees and beehives. While beehives are owned South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone
Page 21

by the better-off and middle households, eucalyptus trees are owned by all, but wealthier people have far more trees. The better-off also grow beans which the poor do not; this is because the former own enough land and plough-oxen and they commonly rent-in extra land from poorer farmers who have no oxen. These gain the advantage of half the harvest on that land a harvest gained from better cultivation than they could possibly have achieved, given the capacity of the renter to make sufficient and timely ploughing passes especially for the demanding teff, and also to buy fertilizers and other inputs although these are expensive in relation even to wealthier farmers budgets and are often used sparingly, below the recommended rate. They also bear the cost of employing local labour during weeding and harvesting months. In terms of livestock the poorer households lack money and access to credit to keep more whilst the wealthier lack grazing land, animal feed and improved animal breeds. There are few other sources of income generation, although there are some government attempts to help the landless rural youth benefit from non-agricultural activities in their locality.

Sources of Food A good year (2005-06)

Own crop production is the most important source of food for all wealth groups. Maize, wheat and teff are the main sources of food for all groups, even providing just above half the staple food of the very poor. Betteroff and middle households essentially and more than cover their staple food requirement from their own production, although the middle sell teff and buy the cheaper maize. For the poorer groups staples purchase is vital for survival. Consumption of livestock products is only enjoyed by the better-off and middle wealth groups, though its contribution in calorie terms is small. Overall this is a picture of a comparatively productive and food secure area.
120% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20%
livestock prod. gifts

food aid

purchase

payment in kind

0% V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off

In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.

Sources of Cash a good year (2005-06)

100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off

employment

l/stock prod. sales livestock sales crop sales

The proportion of crop sales in household earnings (including here eucalyptus sales) is higher here than in most other livelihood zones, and even the very poor make half their money from crops alone. Everybody sells teff and wheat, but the wealthier also sell some pulses. The real differentiation between wealthier and poorer households is in where they get the balance of their earnings. The wealthier can rely on livestock and product sales: cattle, goats, chickens, butter, eggs, skins and honey. The poor sell goats, chickens and eggs, but they must also undertake paid work particularly the very poor.
There is only a small amount of petty trade performed by villagers in the zone.

Annual 1300205037505550income 1800 2550 4250 6050 (ETB) The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source.

South West Woinadega Livelihood Zone

Page 22

Expenditure Patterns a good year (2005-06)

The expenditure categories of all wealth groups are similar except that the better-off do not purchase staple food. Staple food is the highest single expense for very poor households spend most in staple food purchases whilst they spend much less than wealthier families on nonstaple foods in absolute cash terms (their total expenditure, like their income, is onethird of wealthier families income, or less). The poorer purchase vetch whilst the wealthier buy sugar and oil. Again in absolute cash terms the expenditure by wealthier farmers on inputs is much higher than the poorer farmers, and they spend more too on social services (school and medical costs), although this expenditure is proportionately small across the board.
100%

80%

other gifts

60%

tax social serv.

40%

inputs

HH items The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to 20% of expenditure. The graph provides a breakdown of total category c non-staple food staple food

0% V.Poor Poor Middle of total BetterThe graph provides a breakdown cash expenditure off according
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of expenditure.

Hazards
Crop pests: Wollo bush cricket (teff), African boll worm (pulses), stalk borer (maize), aphids (pulses) and red teff worm. Livestock disease: Black leg (cattle), anthrax (cattle), sheep pox, pasteurellosis (cattle and sheep). Increased cost of inputs: Particularly fertilizer (& the low supply of improved seeds) may be seen as a man-made hazard to production.

Coping Strategies
Intensification of labour sales. This strategy is employed by the poor and the very poor, extending the duration of work migration and involving more members of the household in both local and migratory paid work. Minimize non-essential expenditures. This is strategy employed by all wealth groups. In a bad year, households report reducing expenditure on a range of non-food items in favour of purchasing staple food. The middle and better-off households also use up grain and pulses from their stock and reduce consumption. Increased sale of livestock. This is an important strategy for better-off and middle households. But they try to maintain fertile females until all efforts to protect assets are defeated by want.

Summary
The South West Woina Dega Teff livelihood zone is one of the surplus producing areas in Amhara Region. The most important determinants of wealth are the size of land owned by households and the ownership of livestock in general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. Own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual food requirement for all wealth groups. The main crops consumed are maize, wheat and teff, although teff and wheat are also the most sold crops. In a typical year, middle and better-off wealth groups rely on crop and livestock sales as the means of generating nearly all cash income, whilst poorer households must also engage in paid work, local and migratory. The main livestock are sheep, cattle and horses. Livestock sales contribute relatively more to the income of the middle and better-off than to that of the poor and very poor. Road access is good; this promotes relatively active trade interaction within the zone and between the zone and external markets. Expansion of the road network can further enhance the economic situation of communities. Crop pest, livestock disease and unaffordable input prices have been the major problems affecting rural communities in general and poor and very poor households in particular. Coping strategies include the intensification of labor sales, minimizing non-essential expenditure and increasing livestock sales.

South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone

Page 23